TABLE OF CONTENTS

Thermal calculation ............................................... 7

Combustion calculation................................... 13
Engine thermal balance ................................... 24
P-V diagram .................................................... 26
Dynamic calculation............................................. 28
6
 THERMAL CALCULATION

Thermal calculation has as a goal the determination of the P-V

diagram that will be traced during engine operation and of the fundamental
dimensions of the engine together with the main efficiency parameters.
When designing a new engine, the performances that need to be
reached are firstly set, considering the destination of the engine and its
worldwide development state. Thus, it is rational that the thermal calculus is
to be started from the new engines power per unit displacement
Pe  kW 
Pl  (1)
Vs  i  dm3 
The guideline values for this parameter are shown in Table 1.
Table 1
ENGINE TYPE Pl [kW/dm3]
For utility and passenger cars 10…40
SIE For passenger cars 25…50
For performance cars 100…150
Tractor 10…20
Direct injection
Truck 10…30
CIE
Truck 10…30
Separate chambers
Passenger car 20…33

From relation (1), the engine displacement can be determined:

Vs  e  dm3 
P
(2)
i  Pl
The mean effective pressure can also be computed for the engine
operating regime on which the computations are made:
30    Pe
pe   MPa  (3)
i  Vs  n
Estimating beforehand the mechanical efficiency, using the
indications from table 2, the value of the mean indicated pressure can be
obtained:
1
pi   pe  MPa  (4)
m

7
 Table 2
ENGINE TYPE ηm
n = 1000…2000 rot/min 0.87…0.70
4 strokes n = 2000…4000 rot/min 0.78…0.66
SIE
n = 4000…8000 rot/min 0.75…0.60
2 strokes n = 3000…5000 rot/min 0.80…0.68
normal aspirated 0.82…0.75
4 strokes
supercharged 0.90…0.80
CIE
normal aspirated 0.80…0.70
2 strokes
supercharged 0.90…0.75

By choosing a convenient value for the ratio:

ψ = S /D (5)
SIE ψ = 0.57…1.2
CIE ψ = 1.05…1.35
CIE automotive ψ = 0.90…1.2
the fundamental dimensions of the engine can be computed:
4  Vs V
D 3  108.4  3 s  mm (6)
 
S = ψ D [mm] (7)
The mean piston speed is afterwards determined and it should be in
the limits given in table 3.
S  n 3
wp  10  m/s  (8)
30
Table 3

ENGINE TYPE wp [m/s]

passenger cars 12…15
SIE 4 strokes racing 15…23
trucks and automobiles 9…12
trucks and passenger cars 7…13
4 strokes tractors 5.5…10.5
railway traction 9…12
CIE
naval and medium speed 8…9
2 strokes semi fast railway traction 7…8
low speed naval traction 5…7

8
 The P-V diagram for a CIE and a SIE are shown in figure 1 and
respectively in figure 2.

Fig. 1 Fig. 2

The real diagrams have been inserted inside the corresponding

theoretical diagrams:
– mixt combustion (partial isochoric, partial isobar combustion) for
CIE
– constant volume combustion for SIE
Based on the computational relationship of the mean indicated
pressure for a theoretical cycle:
 mc   p      md 1  1  1 
p  pa  p    1  1      
'
 1  (9)
  1  md  1      mc  1   mc 1  
i

and considering the losses introduced from the mechanical work of the
pumping and the rounding of the theoretical diagram, the mean indicated
pressure of the real cycle is:
pi  d  pi'    pev  pa  (10)
The rounding parameters ηd and ηp have values within:
d  0,94  0,97
 (11)
 p  0, 75 0,85

9
 Guideline values for intake pressure (pa) and exhaust pressure (pev)
are shown in table.
Table 4
ENGINE TYPE pa [MPa] pev [MPa]
normally slow (0.90…0.95) p0 (1.03…1.10) p0
4 strokes aspirated fast (0.80…0.90) p0 (1.05…1.15) p0
supercharged (0.90…0.96) ps (0.80…0.90) ps
2 strokes (0.85…0.95) ps (0.80…0.90) ps
p0 – ambiant pressure p0 = 0.1 MPa
ps – supercharging pressure in the intake manifold.

For engines with forced intake in 2 strokes or supercharged, the

pressure and temperature from the engine’s intake are the pressure and
temperature from the compressor’s exit.
Depending on the type of supercharging, the pressure at the
compressor outlet is shown in table 5.

Table 5
SUPERCHARGING TYPE ps [bar]
Low pressure supercharging (1.2…1.5)
Medium supercharging (1.5…2.2)
High supercharging (2.2…3.5)
Very high supercharging (3.5…6.0)
For passenger cars and tractors: ps ≤ 2.5 · p0

ms 1
 p  ms
The temperature after the compressor is: Ts  T0   s  , where
 p0 
ms is the polytropic exponent of compression in the blower, ms = 1.4…1.6.
If Ts surpasses the value indicated in table 9 the using of intermediate
coolers of type air-air or air-water is needed.
On the basis of the mean indicated pressure determined with relation
(4) and on the appropriate choice of the parameters pa, pev, ηd and ηp, the
mean indicated pressure of the theoretic equivalent cycle can be obtained
starting from relation (10) as (12):
1
pi'   pi   p  pev  pa   (12)
d 

10
 In order to establish the characteristic elements of the P-V diagram,
the values of the following parameters must be specified in advance:
– compression ratio ε – as indicated in table 6;
– the mean polytropic index of compression mc – according to table
7;
– the mean polytropic index of expansion md – according to table 7;
– the degree of prior expansion ρ – according to table 8;
– gas temperature at the end of intake Ta – according to table 9.
Table 6
ENGINE TYPE Ε
Naturally aspirated engines 7.5…10.5
SIE Supercharged vehicles 6.5… 7.0
Motorcycles 8.0…11.5
Industrial 6.5…8.5
With normal induction:
– low speed 13…14
CIE – medium speed 14…15
– unitary combustion chamber 15…18
– divided combustion chamber 16…23
Supercharged 10.5…12

Table 7
ENGINE TYPE mc ↑ md ↓
SIE 1.32…1.38 1.28…1.32
CIE 1.31…1.37 1.28…1.32

Table 8
ENGINE TYPE ρ
SIE 1
CIE 1.2…1.7

Table 9
ENGINE TYPE Ta [K]
SIE 320…370
CIE 310…350
Supercharged engine 320…350

Thus, the state parameters at the end of compression will be:

11
 pc  pa   mc [MPa] (13)
Tc  Ta  mc 1 [K] (14)
and the ratio of pressure rise during combustion can be determined:
  1  pi  1  1 

mc  p  m  1 
1  m 1 
  a c   c 
p  (15)
m 1
   d 
 
  1  1    
md  1     

the maximum pressure of the theoretic cycle can now be computed
pz = λppc [MPa] (16)
In a SIE the maximum pressure of the real cycle will be:
pmax = (0.75...0.85) pz (17)
while in a CIE it can reach the theoretical maximum value:
pmax = pz (18)
The maximum values obtained through calculus are compared with
the data given in table 10.
Table 10
ENGINE TYPE pmax [MPa] ↑
SIE 3… 6.5
normally aspirated 8…12.0
CIE
supercharged 9…15.0

If this value exceeds the maximum pressure allowed, due to

mechanical stresses of the elements of the engine mechanism the
computation of λp (relation 15) is remade with an increased value of the
prior expansions degree ρ.
The computation is repeated through successive attempts until the
maximum pressure value is limited to the desired value. It should be noted
that the decrease of λp and increase of ρ, which is practically obtained
through the decrease of injection advance, determines the movement of
combustion into expansion with unfavorable consequences considering the
engine consumption.
Once the value couple λp and ρ is fixed, the combustion calculation
can be started.

12
13
 COMBUSTION CALCULATION

The fuel burning inside the engine cylinders is defined by the mass
fractions of its carbon (c), hydrogen (h) and oxygen (o) content. Thus, the
specific fuel for vehicle engines, gasoline (for SIE) and diesel (for CIE) is
characterized by the following mean compositions:

GASOLINE DIESEL
c = 0.854 (kgC/kg fuel) c = 0.857 (kgC/kg fuel)
h = 0.142 (kgH2/kg fuel) h = 0.133 (kgH2/kg fuel)
o = 0.004 (kgO2/kg fuel) o = 0.01 (kgO2/kg fuel)

The minimum air quantity for a complete combustion of 1 kg of fuel

is determined through the relationship:
1  c h o 
L0      [kmol air/kg fuel] (19)
0, 21  12 4 32 
Considering the above compositions, the following values for L0 are
obtained
GASOLINE L0 = 0.5073 (kmol air/kg fuel)
DIESEL L0 = 0.4969 (kmol air/kg fuel)

Fuel gas composition depends on the relative air-fuel ratio, λ.

In the case of CIE, combustion occurs always with an excess of air
(λ > 1), and the molar composition of combustion is given by the relations:
N CO2  c 12 (kmol CO2/kg fuel)
N H2O  h 2 (kmol H2O/kg fuel) (20)
N O2  0, 21   1 L0 (kmol O2/kg fuel)
N N2  0, 79L0 (kmol N2/kg fuel)

The values of the relative air-fuel ratio, λ, to be provided in order to

ensure the conditions necessary for a complete combustion of the fuel,
depend on the configuration of the engine’s combustion chamber. In table
11 the values of the λ coefficient, are given depending the combustion
chamber used.

14
 Tabelul 11
ENGINE TYPE λ
Liquid fuel (mixture formation through carburetion, 0.7…1.0
SIE single point or multipoint fuel injection)
Gas type fuel, naturally aspirated 1.0…1.4
Liquid fuel Direct injection in air 1.4…2.0
Direct injection on the wall 1.2…1.3
Naturally aspirated Divided mixing chamber or 1.2…1.4
pre-combustion
CIE
Gas type fuel Diesel process – gas with normal induction 1.4…1.6
Gas type fuel Diesel process – supercharged gas 1.8…2.2
Ignition with incandescent spark plug or with 1.6…1.8
incandescent head

The initial amount of fresh mixture is:

N1 = λL0 (kmol air/kg fuel) (21)
and the final burned gases:
N 2  N CO2  N H2O  N O2  N N2 (kmol b.g./kg fuel) (22)
In the SIE case, the mixture air fuel is characterized by values of the
relative air-fuel ratio λ, which varies around the stoichiometric value 0.85 <
λ < 1.05. Since the thermal calculus is done for the maximum power regime,
which is obtained when functioning with a rich mixture, the values of λ are
considered in the range 0.85…0.95. When λ < 1 the burned gases
composition is given by the relations:
c
N CO2  – 0.42 1 –   L0 (kmol CO2/kg fuel)
12
NCO = 0.42(1 – λ) L0 (kmol CO/kg fuel) (23)
h
N H2O  (kmol H2O/kg fuel)
2
N N2  0.79L0 (kmol N2/kg fuel)
The initial amount of fresh mixture is:
1
N1  L0  (kmol am./kg fuel) (24)
Mc
where, Mc represents the molar weight of the fuel. If gasoline is
approximated to the octane (C8H18), then Mc = 114 kg/kmol. The final
quantity of burned gases is:

15
 N 2  N CO2  N CO  N H2O  N N2 (kmol b.g./kg fuel) (25)
The chemical coefficient of molar variation is defined as the ratio
between the number of moles of burned gases and the number of moles of
fresh mixture:
N
0  2 (26)
N1
The values of μ0 are represented according to the value of relative
air-fuel ratio λ in figure 3 for CIE (diesel) and in figure 4 for SIE (gasoline).

Fig. 3 Fig. 4

The amount of fresh mixture that enters the engine cylinder mixes
with the burned gases from the previous cycle, thus forming the initial
mixture of the cylinders. The number of kilomoles of residual burned gases
can be computed with the help of the state equation of perfect gases:
p  Vc
N r  103  ev (kmol b.g./cycle) (27)
R  Tr
where: pev [MPa] represents exhaust pressure, Tr [K] – residual burned gases
temperature, Vc = Vs/(ε – 1) [dm3], the combustion chamber volume and
R = 8314 J/kmol K the universal constant of gases.

16
 Residual burned gases temperature is chosen between the limits:
Tr = 600… 900 (K) – CIE
Tr = 900…1100 (K) – SIE
The number of kmoles of initial mixture, is computed in a similar
manner:
pa Vc  Vs 
N a  103 (kmoles/cycle) (28)
RTa
and the number of kmoles of fresh mixture is given by the difference of the
two quantities:
Npr = (Na – Nr) (kmoles/cycle) (29)
With these data the computations can be made for:
– the residual burned gases coefficient
Nr
r  (30)
N pr
– filling coefficient
R  T0  N pr
v  – for naturally aspirated engines (31)
103 p0Vs
R  Ts  N pr
v  – for supercharged engines
103 psVs
Guideline values for the residual burned gases coefficient γr and for
the volumetric efficiency coefficient ηv are shown in table 12.
Table 12
ENGINE TYPE γr ηv
SIE with gases or carburetor 0.04…0.10 0.7…0.9
naturally aspirated 0.02…0.05 0.8…0.9
CIE
supercharged 0.01…0.03 0.8…0.9

– the total molar variation coefficient

N  Nr  
  ga  0 r (32)
N pr  N r 1 r
where Nga = μ0Npr, corresponding to the burned gases number of moles.
Results the temperature value of the burned gases at the end of
combustion:

17
 p
Tz   Tc [K] (33)

The energy balance during combustion inside the cylinder has the
following formulation:
Qu + Qp = Qciclu = Uz – Uc + pz · (Vz – Vc) (34)
The terms that express the internal energies of the gases at the
beginning of combustion (U0) and at its end (Uz) can be expressed regarding
their specific internal energies:
Uz = Nzuz = μ(1 + γr) Npruzg
Uc = Ncuc = Npr (ucpr + γrucg) (35)
Specific internal energies are determined from table 13 for CIE and
from table 14 for SIE based on the relative air-fuel ratio value λ, at the end
of combustion temperature Tz (Uzg [kJ/kmol] value) and respectively of
beginning of combustion Tc (ucg [kJ/kmol] value). The internal energy of the
fresh mixture (ucpr [kJ/kmol]) at the beginning of combustion temperature Tc
is determined for air (λ = ∞). Considering the molar participation of the fuel
1/Mc = 0.009 its presence is neglected in the fresh mixture in SIE.
The mechanical work exchanged with the outside during the
constant pressure combustion (only in CIE) is:
pz(Vz – Vc) = pmax Vc(ρ – 1) [kJ/cycle] (36)
where pmax [MPa] represents the maximum pressure of the cycle, Vc [dm3]
the combustion chamber volume and ρ the prior expansion degree.
Using relations (34), (35), (36) the energy balance relationship
becomes:
Qciclu = Npr [μ(1 + γr) uzg – ucpr – γrucg] + pmaxVc(ρ – 1) [kJ/cycle] (37)
Relation (37) permits the computation of the needed heat release per
cycle (Qciclu) in order for the engine to be capable to realize the
performances imposed by the project. In terms of ensuring the planned liter
power:
– the fuel quantity that can be burned completely inside the cylinder
during a cycle is:
N pr
G0 ciclu  103 [g] (38)
L0
and that which burns with the relative air-fuel ratio is:
G0 ciclu
Gciclu  [g] (39)


18
19
20
21
22
 – the heat quantity that can be theoretically released through the
burning of this fuel quantity is for CIE:
t
Qciclu 10 –3 Qi Gciclu [kJ] (40)
and
t
Qciclu  10 –3 Gciclu Qi – N CO  QCO  [kJ] (41)
for SIE, where due to incomplete combustion (λ < 1) the combustion gases
contain carbon oxide (CO) which incorporates a part of the chemical energy
of the fuel.
In relations (40), (41), Qi [kJ/kmol] represents the inferior calorific
power of the used fuel, QCO [kJ/kmol] – the molar calorific power of carbon
oxide, NCO [kmolCO/kg fuel] – the number of CO kmoles that form when
burning one kg of fuel. The value of NCO has been computed in relations
(23).
Qi = 43955 kJ/kg – gasoline
Qi = 41850 kJ/kg – diesel
QCO = 251100 KJ/kmol
Practical computation of the combustion process is performed as
shown:
– a value is chosen for the air-fuel coefficient λ from table 11;
– the necessary heat release per cycle is computed with relation (37);
– the necessary quantity of fuel needed per cycle inside each engine
cylinder is computed with relation (39) and the theoretical quantity
of heat released Q ciclu
t
 through burning this specific fuel amount
with relations (40), (41);
– the usage coefficient of the heat released through the fuel burning
in the cylinder is determined
Q
u  ciclu
t
(42)
Qciclu
– the computed value of ξu with relation (42) is compared with those
given in table 15.
Table 15
ENGINE TYPE ξu
with carburetor 0.8…0.95
SIE
with gases 0.8…0.85
with unitary combustion chamber 0.7…0.88
CIE
with separate combustion chamber 0.65…0.8

23
 The following cases can appear:
a) the computed value is inside the table given range; the computation
is considered correct;
b) the computed value is lower than the inferior limit given in the table;
thus in reality the combustion needs to occur with a bigger air
excess. The value of λ is increased and the computations are remade
until a value inside the table of ξu is obtained;
c) the computed value is higher than the upper limit given in the table;
thus the combustion needs to occur with a lower air-fuel coefficient
λ. If the reduction of λ until its lowest indicated value doesn’t permit
ξu to be in range, it means that the construction of a corresponding
cycle to that computed is not possible unless special measures for
improved mixing and combustion inside the engine are taken; under
these circumstances supercharging is necessary.
Once the combustion calculus is finished, drawing the complete
theoretical P-V diagram can be done as shown below through the
computation of the cylinder volume at the end of combustion z’
V z’= ρVc – for CIE (43)
Vz = Vc – for SIE
and the state parameters at the end of expansion

md

pd  pz    [MPa] (44)

md –1

Td  Tz   [K] (45)

Economy indices of the engine can be computed through the
relations:
– fuel consumption per hour
2n in
Ce  Gciclu  i  60 103  0,12  Gciclu  [kg/h] (46)
 
– brake specific fuel consumption
C
ce  e 103 [g/kwh] (47)
Pe
– brake fuel conversion efficiency
3, 6 106
e  . (48)
ce  Qi

24
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