a b

d e

Courtesy of Ontario Power Generation, Canada

Figure 5-46 Detection and sizing principle for L-1 steeple: hook 1 (a) and (b); typical
display (c); inspection with multiple phased array systems: Tomoscan FOCUS (d),
OmniScan (e), and Tomoscan III (f).

5.6.10 Detection and Sizing of SCC in Disc Rim-Blade Attachment—

GE Style
a) NDT problem and challenges
• Detecting and sizing small SCC in low-pressure turbine rotor disc
rims (see Figure 5-47)
• Developing image recognition for SCC versus corrosion pits
• Inspecting 6 to 10 discs (one LP rotor) in 1 to 2 days
• Using phased array results as a reliable life-assessment tool

b) Phased array solution

• Single- or double-arm phased array probe

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 • High frequency: 6 MHz to 10 MHz, longitudinal waves
• Scanning pattern using volume-corrected S-scan with shadowing and
skip (see Figure 5-48)
• Amplitude-based analysis tool for assistance
• Use Tomoscan III with compression and high acquisition rate.
• Use an angular resolution of 0.3° to 0.5°.
• Scroll 3° to 4° upward/downward from the best detection and use
advanced imaging.

Figure 5-47 Phased array scanning pattern (left) and 10-MHz phased array probe of
32 elements on mock-up (right).

Defect Skip echoes

Shadow

Geometric

Figure 5-48 Skip crack signals (left) and shadowing effect on geometric signals (right).

5.6.11 Detection and Sizing of Fatigue Cracks in Blade Roots—Axial

Entry Style
a) NDT problem and challenges
• Detecting and sizing small fatigue/SCC cracks in blade roots

Applications 229
 • Complex geometry with limited access
• High reliability
• High productivity
• Adjusting the scanner to different curvatures and blade sizes

b) Phased array solution

• Use ray tracing to validate the focal laws and optimize the S-scan
approach.
• Use high frequency linear/matrix phased array probes (7 MHz to
10 MHz).
• Plot data onto 2-D blade specimen overlay (see Figure 5-49).
• Develop and commission a custom scanner.

Figure 5-49 Phased array inspection of blade root (axial entry): (a) ray tracing; (b) ultrasonic
techniques; and (c) ultrasonic data plotted on 2-D specimen overlay.

5.7 Pressure Vessel Construction Weld Inspection

This section describes some of the pressure vessel inspections that can be
performed using phased arrays, starting with relevant codes.

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5.7.1 Inspection Codes for Pressure Vessels
Typically, pressure vessels are inspected using the ASME or a related code.
The precise code depends on the application.

1. The ASME code family provides the basic scanning pattern for most
inspections. This approach uses one or two fixed angle transducers
scanned over the weld, the heat-affected zone, and the nearby parent
plate. Typically, two angles are used. One is often a 45° shear wave, which
is optimal for detecting surface-breaking defects through corner
reflections. The other angle must differ by at least 10°. The angles should
be selected as appropriate for the component and weld to be inspected.
The beams are “rastered” over the weld and adjacent area, and then
stepped along the weld to repeat. Beam coverage requirements are
dictated by codes.
2. ASME TOFD: ASME Code Case 2235 is a unique code that permits the
use of automated time-of-flight diffraction (and pulse echo) for welds
greater than 12.7 mm (½ in.). TOFD is a very useful technique that has
good detection capabilities in the mid-wall region and it offers the best
sizing readily available. However, TOFD is somewhat difficult to
interpret, and has significant dead zones on the OD and ID. There is
presently no North American code regulating the application of TOFD.
The European Union and United Kingdom have two codes (BS7706:1993
and ENV 583-6), and the ASME and ASTM are working on draft versions.
The ASME has made a “generic” acceptance criterion based on
information obtained from TOFD (Code Case 2235). ASME 2235 requires
a performance demonstration.
3. Line Scanning Codes: These include API 5L and similar codes for line
pipe. The most relevant linear scanning code is ASTM E-1961 for pipeline
girth welds. This is essentially the only ultrasonic code written for
automated ultrasonics, and uses a novel technique called “zone
discrimination” for narrow-gap pipeline welds. Zone discrimination
divides the weld into vertical zones, each inspected by a focused, angled
beam. The inspection head then runs round along the weld in a linear
path. Either phased arrays or conventional ultrasonics can be used.
ASTM E-1961 is compatible with ASME codes.
Phased array technology permits major changes in the inspection approach
for pressure vessels. Instead of back-and-forth raster scanning (which is slow
and restricted), phased arrays allow linear scanning at selected angles to
optimize PoD and minimize time. The linear scanning philosophy is shown in
Figure 5-50.

Applications 231
 Data collection Raster step -N
step data collection

Figure 5-50 Schematic showing conventional raster scanning (left), and phased array linear
scanning (right). The array on the right uses electronic scanning (or electronic rastering) and
linear scanning to give full weld coverage and code compliance.

The advantage of phased arrays is that multiple angle scans can be

performed, or tailored angles can be used as appropriate. Figure 5-51 shows a
phased array electronic scan using 45° and 60° ASME-type rasters from a
single linear phased array probe using a linear scan and electronic rastering.

Electronic scanning 45˚ SW

and
Electronic scanning 60˚ SW

Figure 5-51 Schematic showing two different angle inspections using phased arrays and
electronic scanning. The same array also performs TOFD.

There are many different approaches for inspecting pressure vessels to code
compliance. The inspection techniques and procedures will depend on the
component, costs, wall thickness and diameter of the part, expected duty
cycle, and particularly any fitness-for-service requirements.

The various approaches include:

• TOFD (in conjunction with pulse echo for the surfaces and near-surface
regions) [see section 5.7.2];
• ASME raster pulse-echo, also with TOFD (see section 5.7.3);
• Advanced inspection systems with multiple and redundant NDT systems
(see section 5.7.4);

232 Chapter 5