Borobudur at the Center of an Lotus

Dr Uday Dokras PhD Stockholm

The architecture of Borobudur itself suggests a lotus depiction, in which Buddha postures in
Borobudur symbolize the Lotus Sutra, mostly found in many Mahayana Buddhism (a school of
Buddhism widely spread in the east Asia region) texts. Three circular platforms on the top are
also thought to represent a lotus petals. The Borobudur monument combines the symbolic forms
of the stupa (a Buddhist commemorative mound usually containing holy relics), the temple
mountain (based on Mount Meru of Hindu mythology), and the mandala (a mystic Buddhist
symbol of the universe, combining the square as earth and the circle as heaven). Many believe
the aerial view of Borobudur takes the shape of a lotus, the Buddhist symbol. Researchers
believe Borobudur symbolically depicts the path of a Buddhist from samsara to nirvana. Also
known as the gigantic stone textbook of Buddhism, Borobudur illustrates the life of Buddha and
his teachings. It has ten floors; the first through the sixth floors are square and the seventh
through tenth floors are round. Each floor replicates the Buddhist’s universe divided into three
levels: Kamadhatu (desire), Ruphadatu (forms), and Arupadhatu (formlessness).

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  I
nterlocking honeycomb inspired at Borobudur Temple in the form of geometric and construction
of stone composition.

Aerial photography depicts real images and reality requirements of the real images on scientific
encoding, presenting objects clearly, accurately, without any manipulations. Accurate
consideration and exact flying direction coordinate will capture objects of miles away in minutes
for time is too precious too loose in the air. Aerial photography has flexibility. It can move on the
physical reality, abstract reality, as well as reality which deliver messages to public. By means of
aerial photography Borobudur temple can be seen as a whole to complete the familiar horizontal
perspective. Borobudur temple has plenty of geometrical forms on its whole parts, i.e. diagonal
lines, curves, upright lines, triangles, horizontal, cones, cubes, squares, and circles. These
geometrical forms symbolize Buddhist cultural and spiritual messages. This research attempts to
explicate the connections of symbols and messages on the Borobudur, its nature landscape and
cultural landscape using vertical approaches as recorded in aerial photography. The explication
applies semiotics theory of Roland Barthes, completed with photography theories. This
explication aims to enrich the former readings fulfilled from horizontal view, in order to reveal
more signs and messages carried by the physical shape of the temple.

____________________________________________________________________

Cultural Messages of the Borobudur Temple’s Symbols Seen from Aerial Photography Media, Ade
Dani Setiawan, Journal of Visual Art and Design 4(2):162-181, November 2013

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Relief at Borobudur Temple, Indonesia. Depicts women carrying lotus offerings

The Lotus, Nelumbo nucifera, is an aquatic plant that plays a central role in the art
of Indian religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism.
In Asian art a lotus throne is a stylized lotus flower used as the seat or base for a figure. It
is the normal pedestal for divine figures in Buddhist art and Hindu art, and often seen
in Jain art. Originating in Indian art, it followed Indian religions to East Asia in
particular. In the Aṅguttara Nikāya, the Buddha compares himself to a lotus
(in Pali, paduma), saying that the lotus flower raises from the muddy water unstained, as
he raises from this world, free from the defilements taught in the specific sutta.
In Buddhist symbolism, the lotus represents purity of the body, speech and mind, as if
floating above the murky waters of material attachment and physical desire. According to
legend, Gautama Buddha's first steps made lotus flowers appear everywhere he
stepped. In Tibet, Padmasambhava, the Lotus-Born, is considered the Second Buddha,
having brought Buddhism to that country by conquering or converting local deities; he is
normally depicted holding a flower. Lotus thrones are the normal pedestal for most
important figures in Buddhist art.
The Symbol of the Lotus in Buddhism: Origins and Developments, Barbara O'Brien,2018

The lotus has been a symbol of purity since before the time of the Buddha, and it blooms
profusely in Buddhist art and literature. Its roots are in muddy water, but the lotus flower rises
above the mud to bloom clean and fragrant.

In Buddhist art, a fully blooming lotus flower signifies enlightenment, while a closed bud
represents a time before enlightenment. Sometimes a flower is partly open, with its center
hidden, indicating that enlightenment is beyond ordinary sight.

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The mud nourishing the roots represents our messy human lives. It is in the midst of our human
experiences and our suffering that we seek to break free and bloom. But while the flower rises
above the mud, the roots and stem remain in the mud, where we live our lives. A Zen verse says,
"May we exist in muddy water with purity, like a lotus."
Rising above the mud to bloom requires great faith in oneself, in the practice, and in the
Buddha's teaching. So, along with purity and enlightenment, a lotus also represents faith.
The Lotus in the Pali Canon
The historical Buddha used the lotus symbolism in his sermons. For example, in the Dona Sutta
(Pali Tipitika, Anguttara Nikaya 4.36), the Buddha was asked if he was a god. He replied,
"Just like a red, blue, or white lotus—born in the water, grown in the water, rising up above the
water—stands unsmeared by the water, in the same way I—born in the world, grown in the
world, having overcome the world—live unsmeared by the world. Remember me, brahman, as
'awakened.'" [Thanissaro Bhikkhu translation]

In another section of the Tipitaka, the Theragatha ("verses of the elder monks"), there is a poem
attributed to the disciple Udayin:

As the flower of a lotus,

Arisen in water, blossoms,
Pure-scented and pleasing the mind,
Yet is not drenched by the water,
In the same way, born in the world,
The Buddha abides in the world;
And like the lotus by water,
He does not get drenched by the world. [Andrew Olendzki translation]
Other Uses of the Lotus as a Symbol
The lotus flower is one of the Eight Auspicious Symbols of Buddhism.
According to legend, before the Buddha was born, his mother, Queen Maya, dreamed of a white
bull elephant carrying a white lotus in its trunk.
Buddhas and bodhisattvas are often portrayed as either seated or standing on a lotus
pedestal. Amitabha Buddha is nearly always sitting or standing on a lotus, and he often holds a
lotus as well.
The Lotus Sutra is one of the most highly regarded Mahayana sutras.
The well-known mantra Om Mani Padme Hum roughly translates into "the jewel in the heart of
the lotus."

In meditation, the lotus position requires folding one's legs so that the right foot is resting on the
left thigh, and vice versa. According to a classic text attributed to Japanese Soto Zen Master
Keizan Jokin (1268–1325), "The Transmission of the Light (Denkoroku)," the Buddha once gave
a silent sermon in which he held up a gold lotus. The disciple Mahakasyapa smiled. The Buddha
approved Mahakasyapa's realization of enlightenment, saying, "I have the treasury of the eye of
truth, the ineffable mind of Nirvana. These I entrust to Kasyapa."

Significance of Color

In Buddhist iconography, the color of a lotus conveys a particular meaning.

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  A blue lotus usually represents the perfection of wisdom. It is associated with the
bodhisattva Manjusri. In some schools, the blue lotus is never in full bloom, and its center
cannot be seen. Dogen wrote of blue lotuses in the Kuge (Flowers of Space) fascicle
of Shobogenzo.

"For example, the time and place of the opening and blooming of the blue lotus are in the midst
of fire and at the time of flames. These sparks and flames are the place and time of the blue lotus
opening and blooming. All sparks and flames are within the place and time of the place and time
of the blue lotus opening and blooming. Know that in a single spark are hundreds of thousands of
blue lotuses, blooming in the sky, blooming on the earth, blooming in the past, blooming in the
present. Experiencing the actual time and place of this fire is the experience of the blue lotus. Do
not drift by this time and place of the blue lotus flower.
A gold lotus represents the realized enlightenment of all Buddhas.

 A pink lotus represents the Buddha and the history and succession of Buddhas.
 In esoteric Buddhism, a purple lotus is rare and mystical and might convey many things,
depending on the number of flowers clustered together.
 A red lotus is associated with Avalokiteshvara, the bodhisattva of compassion. It also is
associated with the heart and with our original, pure nature.
 The white lotus signifies a mental state purified of all poisons.

Conscious or not, if you consider the location of the Borobudur temple turned out to be in place
"unusual". It is located on a hill surrounded by two pairs of twin mountains, that Sindoro-
Sumbing and Merbabu-Merapi. In fact, other temples built on flat land just ordinary. Actually, in
1931, an artist and expert on Buddhist architecture named W.O.J. Nieuwnkamp had proposed a
theory that Kedu Mainland (which is the site of Borobudur in Java legend) is an ancient lake.
According to him, Borobudur was built based on the symbol of a lotus flower floating on the
surface of the lake. But the hypothesis is still a debate scientists at that time.

The lotus is  one of Buddhism’s most recognizable symbols of enlightenment and is important in
many Buddhist traditions.

According to legend, everywhere the baby Buddha stepped, a lotus flower bloomed. The famed
Lotus Sutra is one of the most important texts of Mahayana Buddhism and is the foundation of
the Pure Land schools.

Because the lotus grows in muddy water, it symbolizes the purity of enlightened mind arising
amidst the suffering of samsara. It also represents nonattachment, as it is rooted in mud
(attachment and desire) but its flowers blossom on long stalks unsullied by the mud below.

The famous Tibetan mantra OM MANI PADME HUM, meaning “OM the Jewel in the Lotus
HUM,” invokes Chenrezig (Avalokiteshvara), the bodhisattva of compassion. In this case, the
lotus represents wisdom and the jewel symbolizes skillful means.

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Different-colored lotuses have different meanings. The white lotus represents mental purity and
spiritual perfection. The red lotus is the symbol of love and compassion. The blue lotus
represents wisdom and intelligence and is always pictured partially opened. A gold lotus
represents the achievement of complete enlightenment.

In some Buddhist schools, the flower’s stage of growth represents different stages on the path to
enlightenment. A closed bud symbolizes the time before enlightenment, while a fully bloomed
lotus represents full enlightenment. Sometimes a flower is partly open, with its center hidden,
indicating that enlightenment is beyond ordinary sight.

Lotus in Buddhism
[Allan, Baillie] and [Suzanne, Ostro] 

Throughout early history, in Asia and much of the ancient Near East, the lotus was associated
with the sacred. The ancient Persians viewed the open lotus flower as a symbol of the sun, the
giver of life, and the Phoenicians depicted it being borne to heaven on wings, surrounded by the
moon and stars. In China the lotus was esteemed, not only for religious reasons, but for
medicinal use and as food. The profusion of gorgeous lotuses in the many lakes and waterways
of China have been the source of inspiration of Chinese poets for centuries. Robert Graves,
in The White Goddess, recounts a Greek myth of the half god, half mortal hero Hercules, who
borrows a lotus-shaped golden cup of the sun.

In the myths and legends of ancient Egypt, the lotus is a recurring theme. The king of the
Egyptian gods, Osiris, judge of the dead, wore a crown of lotus blossoms, and Isis, his queen,
was represented by the budding lotus. Another myth depicts the god Horus being reborn each
day from a blossoming lotus. The Egyptians also thought that stalks of the lotus plant supported
the heavens, emulating this by carving lotuses on the columns that supported the roofs of their
temples.

The lotus has been especially revered in India. One Hindu creation legend is an interesting
parallel to the Egyptian story. A golden lotus arises from the primal water, and as it opens
Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva emerge from the flower’s center. According to Hindu belief, the core
of the lotus is the center of great vitality and power. An early Indian literary work, the Rig Veda,

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tells of the ancient Indian mother goddess “Lotus Goddess Lakshmi,” alluding to her as “the
mother of created beings.” Another name for Lakshmi is Padma, or “lotus”, and she is called the
“lotus-born,” “lotus-eyed,” and “lotus-colored” and is often depicted standing above or seated
upon a lotus.

Flowers on BORO relief

The Buddha, in his enlightenment state, is often portrayed seated upon an open lotus flower, and
in all the forms of Buddhism the lotus is symbolic of the highest spiritual attainment. In Asian art
works, buddhas and bodhisattvas are frequently shown seated on lotus flowers. Kwan Yin, the
Chinese bodhisattva of mercy, is represented carrying a lotus in her arms. There is a legend about
the revered teacher, Padma Sambhava, also known as Guru Rinpoche, who introduced Buddhism
to Tibet in 762 AD. His name which means “Preacher of the Lotus” originated from the Sanskrit
word “Padma,” or lotus. Long ago in India, Padma meditated with his wife, a beautiful princess
named Mandarava. The king became so furious when he learned that Padma had converted his
daughter to the Buddhist faith that he had Padma seized and burned alive. But, when the king’s
soldiers returned to collect the charred remains of his body, they discovered that Padma
Sambhava was still very much alive and meditating on a magnificent lotus above a lake. From
that time forth, this very spot has been known as Tso (“lake”), Pema (“lotus”).

During the last eight years of his life, Shakyamuni Buddha preached the sutra Saddharma-
Pundarika which is Sanskrit for “The Lotus of the Wonderful Law.” At that time the Buddha sat
with his legs crossed in what is now known as the lotus position, and while meditating in this
position, he entered into a state where his mind and body never moved. Then, he announced to
his disciples that he had “not yet revealed the truth” and predicted that the lotus teaching would
be propagated in the distant future when the world is defiled by the poisons of stupidity, greed,
and anger and all other teachings have lost their capacity to save mankind. We do not know what
language the Lotus Sutra was originally preached, but it was translated into Chinese from
Sanskrit by the Central Asian scholar-monk Kumarajiva (344-413 AD) and later translated into

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Japanese and English. Today, the chanting of “Nam Myoho Renge Kyo” from the Lotus Sutra as
taught by the priest Nichiren is practiced worldwide. Renge literally translates as lotus but the
mystic meaning is hidden within the teaching. The text of the Lotus Sutra refers to thousands of
lotus blossoms, and it is said that the roots of goodness are planted deeply to save living beings, a
Mahayana Buddhist vow.

The Dalai Lama, leader of Tibetan Buddhists, is known as the “Lord of the White Lotus”
because the color white is made up of all other colors and is the symbol of spiritual perfection.
Many mandalas used in meditation are stylized lotus flowers representing the wheel of birth,
death, and rebirth. Shambhala, the pure land depicted in Tibetan Buddhism, is portrayed in the
shape of a lotus flower with eight petals, representing the eightfold path of the Buddhist. The
Tibetan Buddhist teaching of the sacredness of reality considers five styles of energy also called
five Buddha families. One is the padma lotus family which has both enlightened and negative
associations. The padma is symbolized by a beautiful delicate lotus which emerges from the
mud. It emits energy in the form of passion, its color is red, and the negative aspect is described
as clinging and grasping, the deluded side of passion. But, when the passion energy is freed of
fixation, it turns into discriminating awareness and has the wisdom of experience. The positive
enlightened state of the heat of padma passion is the warmth of genuine compassion.

What is this almost magical plant that has inspired so much reverence and so many legends over
the centuries? What is the reason for its great symbolic power? The botanical family of the lotus
is Nymphaeacea, the water-lily family, which is made up of nine genera and about fifty or sixty
species. These are aquatic plants which grow from rhizomes buried in mud at the bottom of lakes
and ponds; when the temperature is warm enough they send up petioles or stalks to the water’s
surface. From these grow large jade green leaves which repel drops of water on the surface, then
flowers rise up which often span ten to twelve inches, and leaves and flowers can tower higher
than the average person. The flowers open at dawn and close again at sunset.

__________________________________________________________________________

Allan Baillie was the photographer for The Art of Practice. This essay is adapted from his work in progress,
"The Lotus: A Spiritual Journey with Poetry," written in collaboration with
https://tricycle.org/magazine/the-lotus/

Also see Ward, W. E. (1952). The Lotus Symbol: Its Meaning in Buddhist Art and Philosophy. The Journal of Aesthetics
and Art Criticism, 11(2), 135–146. https://doi.org/10.2307/426039

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The name “lotus” causes a certain confusion, since it is used for plants within the family which
are not true lotuses. The “lotus” of ancient Egypt was actually a water lily, Nymphaea caerulea,
the blue lotus. There is still another blue lotus in India (N. stellata) which is probably the same
lotus that the Greeks used as an ornamental element in their architecture. “Lotus” is also a name
used commonly for the trefoil, which is grown in many parts of the world. In the United States,
we are most familiar with the pond lily, Nuphar, which grows throughout North America. But it
is the genus Nelumbo that contains the sacred lotus of Asia.

The American lotus Nelumbo is the Nelumbo lutea which grows in the eastern United States

from Minnesota to Florida and westward to eastern Texas. It has bluish green leaves that span
one to two feet across and deep yellow flowers that grow to about a foot in diameter. It grows to
a height of two and a half feet. Its seed pods are yellow when they are young, later turning to
green. The Indians used the rhizomes of the Nelumbo lutea for food, cooking them like potatoes
and boiling the seeds when they were green for eating.

Nelumbo nucifera—the well known “sacred lotus” or “Hindu lotus”—grows in tropical Asia. It
is this lotus that is shown holding the seated Buddha. Its leaves are three feet across and range
from a deep yellow green to a true green. When it is grown, a few of its leaves lie flat on the
surface of the water, like a water lily, and the rest stand anywhere from a foot to five feet above
the water. The leaves are coated with a waxy substance that makes them completely water
repellent.

The flowers of Nelumbo nucifera are larger than the American Nelumbo lutea, greater than a foot
across. They have a wonderful full fragrance, are usually white, rose, red, or various
combinations of these colors, and they can grow over six feet high.

The seed pod is one of the lotus’s most distinctive parts. It is a large, flat topped receptacle,
resembling as one writer pointed out, a small watering can! When the pods dry out, they are long
lasting and are often used in flower arrangements, or, with their empty seed containers, as a
purely decorative element, sometimes gilded. Almost all of the plant is used for food: the stalk is
sometimes served cold in salads; the root is cooked in many different ways; and the seeds can be
either cooked or eaten fresh like nuts. The leaves are used as wraps for steaming food. In Japan,
even the flower, which is bitter, is used in tempura.

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All lotuses bloom in the daytime, usually for three days, although several last a few days longer.
They open early in the morning and close towards the end of afternoon, closing earlier on the
first day, interestingly enough. With most Nelumbo, on the fourth day of bloom the flowers fall
off, leaving the seed pod standing. The pods stand until they dry out enough to become brittle,
then break off and flower on the water until they rot, at which point the seeds fall, sink, and
germinate in the mud at the bottom.

Researchers have found that one of the most striking attributes of the lotus is a remarkable ability
to adjust its temperature. As the sun sets and the air cools, the lotus produces enough energy to
raise its temperature. And when the sun rises, the lotus’s heat subsides. A single lotus flower can
produce one watt of energy and forty plants generate the equivalent energy of one light bulb! The
energy that was attributed to the lotus in early Vedic Hinduism actually exists. It is clear that the
manner in which the lotus grows is the main reason for the reverence in which it is held. It begins
in the mud, where its rhizome is buried; then the petiole makes its way up through murky water
toward the surface; once it has reached the air, high above the water in clear light, an unsullied
blossom opens among the leaves that themselves are untouched by the water. What better image
for the journey of the soul, born in ignorance and mired in the material world, seeking
enlightenment on its passage though life; what better display of tranquillity than the great green
leaves lying quietly on the water with the splendid blossom glowing in the air above them?

Poems

The moon’s the same old moon,

The flowers exactly as they were,
Yet I’ve become the thingness
of all the things I see!
Bunan (1602-1676)

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Whoever in this world overcomes his selfish cravings,
his sorrows fall away from him,
like drops of water from a lotus flower.
From the Dhammapada. Early Buddhist teachings.
When you contemplate the waters
at day break, you can hear
the lotus blossom.
Kyokusai (1816-1874)

He drifts on blue water

under a clear moon,
picking white lilies on South Lake.
Every lotus blossom speaks of love
until his heart will break.
Li Po (701-762)

I cook the lotus soup,

Slice fine the lotus roots
I await my husband’s return
to relieve the hunger.
If he should covet
pairs of chopsticks elsewhere
Just so he forgets not
The key in his heart.

1. The Hindu goddess Lakshmi holding and standing on a lotus, Raja Ravi Varma; modern///

2. The boy Buddha rising up from a lotus. Crimson and gilded wood, Trần-Hồ dynasty, Vietnam, 14th-15th
century///

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 3. From left-to-right, Mani, Zoroaster, Shakyamuni, and Jesus depicted seated atop lotus flowers.

Nieuwenkamp's propositionIn 1931, a Dutch artist and scholar of Hindu and Buddhist
architecture, W.O.J. Nieuwenkamp, developed a theory that Kedu Plain was once a lake and
Borobudur initially represented a lotus flower floating on the lake. Lotus flowers are found in
almost every Buddhist work of art, often serving as a throne for buddhas and base for stupas. The
architecture of Borobudur itself suggests a lotus depiction, in which Buddha postures in
Borobudur symbolize the Lotus Sutra, mostly found in many Mahayana Buddhism (a school of
Buddhism widely spread in the east Asia region) texts. Three circular platforms on the top are
also thought to represent a lotus petals.

Nieuwenkamp has suggested that the landscape near Borobudur included lakes, and that the
temples were arranged around these lakes in form of flowers and mathematical patterns
considered to be auspicious, and that the temples were connected by paved brick roads lined by
walls. These lakes and roads were later filled with metres of volcanic ash from the multiple
eruptions of Mount Merapi, which lies very closely to the east of the area.
Nieuwenkamp's theory, however, was contested by many archaeologists, such as Dumarçay and
Soekmono, arguing the natural environment surrounding the monument was dry land. This
theory is controversial, but recent geological evidence supports Nieuwenkamp proposal.

Purnomo (Director of Taman Wisata Candi (TWC) Brorobudur Prambanan Ratu Boko (Persero)
which has been mentioned in point 2) also gives his opinion on the alleged Borobudur was built
in the middle of this ancient lake. According to him around the temple there is a well salty. But
the salty wells are not located in all regions, only at certain points only. He also mentioned that
the question of the Van Bammelen attract the attention of foreign scientists so as to make them
arrive and undertake specific research to uncover the truth of the ancient lake that is still a
mystery. Usually they stay for one to two weeks there.

One way to uncover the mystery is by researching rivers located in the neighborhood of the
temple, including the Progo and Elo and the people living around the temple.
Curiously, like many other ancient structures around the globe, pyramids, for example, there are
no known records of construction or the intended purpose of Borobudur. Forgotten and
rediscovered.

It is commonly acknowledged that Borobudur was constructed between 750 and 850 by the
Shailendra dynasty’s rulers. The name is traced back to the Sanskrit Vihara Buddha Ur, which
translates as “the Buddhist temple on the mountain,” although its exact meaning is disputed.

The ninth-century world-heritage Buddhist monument of Borobudur (Java, Indonesia) stands

above the floor of a dried-out palaeolake, but it remains uncertain as to whether it was ever
constructed on a lake shore. Here we reveal through new chronological and palaeoenvironmental
data on the extant sediment record of the area that Borobudur intentionally stood by an existing
lake. For the first time, evidence of this conjunction validates quite literally the debated
cosmological interpretation of the edifice as an aquatic lotus symbol upon which Buddha is
seated. The fluctuating life history of the lake spanned at least 20 000 years.

The generally accepted belief regarding the 9th century world-heritage Buddhist temple of

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Borobudur (Java, Indonesia) is that it stands above the floor of a dried-out palaeolake but was
never constructed on a lake shore. Here we reveal through new chronological and
palaeoenvironmental data on the extant sediment record of the area that Borobudur intentionally
stood by an existing lake. Evidence of this conjunction validates the debated cosmological
interpretation of the edifice as an aquatic lotus symbol upon which Buddha is seated. The
fluctuating life history of the lake spanned at least 20,000 years. Borobudur temple stood by a
lake: chronostratigraphic evidence and historical implications.

The temple was eventually ‘forgotten’ as evidence points to the fact that Borobudur was
abandoned after the fourteenth century with the decline of the Buddhist and Hindu kingdoms
in Java and the conversion of the islanders to Islam. After its abandonment, the massive
pyramid temple remained hidden for centuries under layers of volcanic ash and jungle
growth, like many other pyramids across the planet. However, scholars have still not agreed
upon the exact cause of its abandonment.One theory suggests religion had something to do
with its abandonment. Theories argue that the temple was abandoned because much of the
population was converted to Islam during the 15th century. Another hypothesis suggests the
abandonment was due to a famine caused by a volcanic eruption (in the year 1006), which
forced the inhabitants to abandon their lands and the monument.

Borobudur was rediscovered in 1814 by Thomas Stamford Raffles, the British governor of
Java. When Raffles had heard about the ancient monument’s possible existence, he sent
Dutch engineer H.C. Cornellius to investigate the area.Cornellius and his men spotted the
ancient pyramid temple. Cornellius and his 200 men cut trees, burned vegetation, and dug to
clear the monument for the next two months. Due to the dangers of collapse, they could not
explore the galleries. Cornellius would eventually report his findings to Raffles, including
several drawings. Raffles is credited with focusing the world’s attention on the monument.It
wasn’t until 1835 that the temple was completely excavated. In his book entitled "The
Geology of Indonesia", a scientist named Van Bemmelen also mentioned that pyroclastics of

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 Merapi, which erupted on a large scale in 1006 has covered the lake Borobudur thus making
the lake dried up and disappeared in history.

Versak
pic

However researchers were unable to discover any pollen or spore samples that were
characteristic of any vegetation known to grow in an aquatic environment. The area
surrounding Borobudur appears to have been surrounded by agricultural land and palm
trees at the time of the monument’s construction, as is still the case today. Dumarçay
together with Professor Thanikaimoni had taken soil samples in 1974 and again in 1977
from trial trenches that had been dug into the hill, as well as from the plain immediately
to the south. These samples were later analysed by Professor Thanikaimoni, who
examined their pollen and spore content in order to identify the type of vegetation that
had grown in the area around the time of Borobudur’s construction.

Again to refute that in 2000s, geologists, on the other hand, support Nieuwenkamp's view,
pointing out clay sediments found near the site. A study of stratigraphy, sediment
and pollen samples conducted in 2000 supports the existence of a paleolake environment near
Borobudur,  which tends to confirm Nieuwenkamp's theory.
The lake area fluctuated with time and the study also proves that Borobudur was near the lake
shore c. 13th and 14th centuries. River flows and volcanic activities shape the surrounding
landscape, including the lake. One of the most active volcanoes in Indonesia, Mount Merapi's
has been very active since the Pleistocene. 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________

1. Urubshurow, V. (1988). Transformation of Religious Symbol in Indian Buddhism: Reflections on Method

from a Reading of Mus’s Barabuḍur. Numen, 35(2), 260–279. https://doi.org/10.2307/3269974

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