Engine

Performance
Measures
 Performance Parameters
 Fuel Use Efficiency;
 Specific Fuel Consumption;
 Mean Effective Pressure;
 Stability and Control;
 Steerability;
 P. T. O. Shaft & Hydraulic Power;
 Traction and Mobility;
 Safety & Health; and
 Environmental Impact.
 Fuel Equivalent Power

m f H g
Pfe 
3,600
 Pfe = fuel equivalent power (kW)

 .
mf = fuel mass flow rate (kg/h)

 Hg = gross heating value of fuel (kJ/kg) No. 2

Diesel – 45,000 kJ/kg
 Example

What is the Pfe of an engine consuming 30.0 kg/h of No. 2

diesel fuel?

 30.00kg  45,000kJ  1 
375kW     
 h  kg  3600 s 
 Alternate Fuel Equivalent Power

qf  f Hg
Pfe 
3,600

 qf = fuel consumption rate (L/h)

 f = fuel density (kg/L)

 Hg = gross heating value of fuel (kJ/kg) No. 2

Diesel – 45,000 kJ/kg
 Indicated Power

Burning fuel produces high pressure on the piston,

multiplied by the piston area produces a forces to drive
the piston downward; indicated power for four stroke
engine is given by the equation:
pime nLA2N e
Pi 
60 x 2
 Pi = Indicated power (kW)
 Pime = indicated mean effective pressure (kN/m2)
 n = number of cylinder
 L = piston displacement (m)
 A = Piston area (m2)
 Ne = crankshaft speed (rpm)
 Engine Displacement

The total swept volume of the engine in meter

cubed is calculated as,

Ap Ln
De  6
10
 Ap – area of piston (cm2)

 L – stroke length (cm)

 n – number of cylinders
 Example

Assume a four stroke six-cylinder engine having a

cylinder bore of 11.67 cm and a stroke of 12.00 cm. If
the engine is running at 2,200 rev/min, and pime is
190.00 kN per meter squared , what is the indicated
power?

pime nLA2N e
Pi 
60 x 2

190kN / m 60.12 0.1167  2  2200 rpm

 2 2
P  168.55kW
i
2  4  60
 Brake Engine Power

Early engine development utilized a “Prony brake”

for the determination of engine power at the
flywheel. Brake power is determined as,

2Tb N e
Pb 
60,000

 Pb – brake power (kW)

 Tb – torque at flywheel (N-m)

 Example

Continuing from the previous example, assume

the “brake torque” at the flywheel is 625 N-m
What is the “brake power” in kW?

Pb 
625 N  m2  2,200 rpm
 144.00kW
60,000
 Friction Power

The difference between “indicated power” and

“brake power” is termed “friction power.” This
loss is associated with the internal friction of the
engine, along with the power to drive the
injection pump, fuel pump, water pump, fan,
alternator and air conditioning compressor.

Pf  Pi  Pb

 Pf = friction power (kW)

 Example

From the previous example, what is the friction

power (kW)?

Pf  168.55kW  144.0kW  24.55kW

Engine P-V diagram with indicated mean
effective pressure.
 Brake Mean Effective Pressure

Brake mean effective pressure, for four stroke

engine can not be measured within the engine.
However it can be calculated as,

where
Pbme  brake mean effective pressure
120 Pb Pb  brakepower
pbme 
De 2N e n n  number of cylinders
d 2
De  swept volume  L
4
N e  engine speed , rpm
 Example

From the previous example, what is the brake

mean effective pressure in kN per meter
squared? 120 Pb
pbme 
De 2N e

pbme 
120144.0kW 
  0.1167 2 

 0.12    6  2  2,200rpm

 4 

Pbme  40.58kN / m 2
 Brake Toque

By combining the previous two equations, brake

torque can be approximated as,

De pbme 2Tb N e pbme 

120 Pb
Tb  Pb 
4 60 De N e

Tb – brake torque (KN-m)

Note: The above equation is only good for 4-

stroke engines. The denominator must be
changed to 2 for two-stroke engines.
 Friction Mean Effective Pressure

A variation on previous equations yields,

120  24.55kW
p fme  
 0.1167 2
 0.12 2  2200
4

pfme – friction mean effective pressure (kN/square

meter)
 Example

From the previous example, what is the friction

mean effective pressure (kN per meter squared)?

120 Pf
p fme 
De N e

p fme 
12025.4kW 
 0.1167 2 

 0.122  2,200

 4 
 Friction Mean Effective Pressure

For CI engines, friction mean effective pressure is

estimated as,

2
 Ne   Ne 
p fme  Ao  A1    A2  
 1000   1000 

 Ao, A1, and A2 are constants for a specific

engine.
Engine Efficiencies

Indicated thermal (eit), mechanical (em), and brake

thermal (ebt) efficiencies are determined as,

Pi
eit 
Pfe
Pb
em 
Pi
Pb
ebt 
Pfe
 Example

 What are the indicated, brake and thermal

efficiencies for the on-going example?

eit 
168.55kW 
 0.452
375.0kW 
em 
144.0kW 
 0.850
169.4kW 
ebt 
144.0kW 
 0.384
375.0kW 
 Specific Fuel Consumption

Fuel consumption of an engine reported in L/h or

kg/h because these values ignore engine load. A
better measure of fuel consumption is,
m f
SFC 
PX

 XSFC – specific fuel consumption (kg/kWh).

 X must always be specified when reporting

these values (i.e., I for indicated)
 Specific Fuel Consumption Variations

 ISFC – indicated specific fuel consumption

 BSFC - brake specific fuel consumption

 PSFC – PTO specific fuel consumption

 DSFC – drawbar specific fuel consumption

Specific Fuel Consumption (Alternate)

Alternately, specific fuel consumption can be

determined as,

3,600
XSFC 
H g eXt
 Example

What are the “indicated” and “brake” specific

fuel consumptions for the engine noted in the
previous examples?

ISFC 
35.7 L / h 
 0.211L / kWh
169.4kW 
BSFC 
35.7 L / h 
 0.248L / kWh
144.0kW 
 Engine Speed Control

 Most engines (CI and SI) are equipped with

some form of governor.

 Mechanical governors have been utilized since

the days of James Watt (steam engines).

 Much of the terminology is the same for both

mechanical and electronic governors.
 Engine Torque Notes
 Friction torque varies with pmef, which in turn varies with
engine speed.
 The governor controls the amount of fuel added to the
engine and therefore controls indicated torque (for the
control range of the governor).
 In the load control region, friction torque fall as engine
speed decreases, and therefore brake torque increases.
 Accessories that add to the friction torque at higher
engine speeds help to increase brake torque as the
engine is loaded.
 Fuel added per cycle in the load control range
(increased volumetric efficiency of injection system)
adds to the torque reserve of the engine.
Performance Map of Over-fueled Engine

Figure 2
 Optimizing Engine Performance

 Engines are most efficient at or near peak load.

 Efficiency drops with a reduction in torque load.

 At zero brake torque, all fuel energy is

expended in engine friction.

 Lower rated engine speeds provide lower

BSFC, and at the same time reduce torque
reserve – design compromise.
 Optimizing Engine Performance

 Partial load fuel economy can be improved by

shifting to higher gear to reduce engine speed.

 Engine initially operated at 20 kW and 2250

rpm results in BSFC of 0.400 kg/kWh.

 Shifting to a higher gear reduces engine

speed to 1850 rpm, at 20 kW, resulting in a
new BSFC of 0.325 kg/kWh.
Problems

1. An engine rotates at 2100 rpm and develops

a torque of 79 Nm; it uses 1.17 kg of fuel in
15 min. Calculate the power it develops, its
fuel consumption and specific fuel
consumption.
Using data from Figures 3, 4 and 5:

 What is the maximum power at 2000 rpm? Answer: 31.5

kW
 What is the power at maximum torque? Answer: 22.5 kW
 What are the FC and SFC at 25kW and maximum
governor setting? Answer: 6.8 kg/hr; 270 g/kW-hr
 What are the SFC and FC at 15kW and 1500 rpm?
Answers: SFC = 245 g/kW-hr (interpolated between
contours); FC = 245 x 15 = 3.7 kg/hr
 What is the best SFC for a no-load speed of 2040 rpm?
Answer: 250 g/kW-hr
 What is the FC and SFC when the PTO is operating at
540rpm and maximum power? Answers: SFC = 250 g/kW-
hr; FC = 250 x 28 =7 kg/hr
Using data for the Farmland tractor engine from
Figure 3:
(i) What is the speed of the PTO when the engine
is rotating at its maximum speed and power?
Answer: PTO speed = 540*(2250/1810) = 670
rpm
(ii) Estimate the maximum power available at the
PTO for maximum engine speed. Answer: 31.5
kW
(iii) At what speed should the engine rotate to
give a PTO speed of 600 rpm? Answer: PTO
speed = 1810*(600/540) = 2010 rpm
(iv) Estimate the efficiency of the PTO. Answer:
PTO efficiency = (28/30)*100% = 93%
A circular 1.05 m in diameter is to be driven from
the PTO of the Farmland tractor. The linear speed
of cutting tip of the saw is to be approximately
50m/s. the pulley on the PTO gear box and that on
the saw shaft are both 230 m in diameter. The belt
pulley runs at 1300 rpm when the engine speed is
2250 rpm. What engine speed should be used?
Using figure 4, estimate the maximum power
available at the saw. If the saw absorbs 20 kW for
20% of the time and 7.50 kW for the remainder,
estimate the average fuel consumption.
Tractor Performance

Input:
 Fuel Consumption – Drawbar Power

 Specific Fuel Consumption – Drawbar Power

SFCt = FCt/Qt

Ukuran Lainnya:
 Wheelslip, i = (mo – m)/mo

 Tractive efficiency, t = Qd/Qw

 Tractive coefficient,  = P/W

Problem
A tractor was tested on a firm surface and gave the
following data:
Rear wheel weight, Wr = 3900 kg;
Engine power, Qe = 62.1 kW;
Drawbar pull, P = 26.2 kN;
Fuel consumed, F = 176 g;
Distance at no-load, mo = 55.8 m;
Time, t = 25.8 s;
Distance with load, m = 46.2 m

Determine the wheelslip, travel speed, drawbar power,

tractive efficiency, fuel consumption and specific fuel
consumption.
For the Farmland tractor operating in 5th gear
at maximum governor setting, determine the
following using figures 3.6 and 3.7 :

(i) the travel speed, drawbar power and the

wheel slip if the drawbar pull is 10kN?

(i) what is the maximum drawbar pull in the

governed range and the wheelslip under
these conditions?
For the Farmland tractor operating at maximum
governor setting with a drawbar pull of 15 kN use
data from Figure 3.6 and 3.7 to determine, for
gears 1, 3 and 5, at what speeds it will travel, what
drawbar powers will be developed and what will
be the wheelslip?

For the Farmland tractor operating at maximum

governor setting, and developing 20 kW at the
drawbar, use data from Figure 3.6 and 3.7 to
determine, for gears 4, 5 and 6, what drawbar
pulls it will develop, at what speeds it will travel
and what will be the wheel slips?
For the Farmland tractor operating in 6th gear at
maximum governor setting, use data from Figure
3.6 and 3.7 to determine:
(i) what are the maximum drawbar power and the
corresponding engine power?
(ii) Te tractive efficiency:

For the Farmland tractor using the figures 3.6 and

3.7 determine:
i. The maximum drawbar pull and the maximum
tractive coefficient if the weight on the rear
wheel is 2570 kg.

ii.Theweight to be added to the rear wheel of

tractor for it to have a maximum pull of 24 kN.
Engine and Vehicle Testing
 Dynamometers

Four essential features

Means of controlling torque

Means of measuring torque

Means for measuring speed

Means for dissipating power

Prony Brake Dynamometer
 Eddy-Current Dynamometer Theory

 Eddy-current dynamometers are comprised of a

notched disc (rotor) and magnetic poles (stators)
around the periphery at a specified gap.
 The coil which excites the magnetic pole is wound in a
circumferential direction.
 When a current runs through exciting coil, a magnetic
flux loop is formed around the exciting coil through
stators and rotor.
 The rotation of rotor produces density difference
causing eddy-currents to flow to stator.
 The electromagnetic force is opposite the direction of
rotation creating a brake.
Eddy-Current Dynamometers
 Fuel Consumption Measurement

 Volume-Based Flow Measurement

 Mass-Based Flow Measurement
 Important Note: CI engines have a return line
from the injectors to the tank to handle leakage
– must account for the return flow.
 Return fuel is hot, and may cause problems
with supply fuel temperature control.
 Return fuel mass flow measurement is easy –
add a second container to the mass balance
for return fuel.
 Volumetric Flow Measurement

 Rotameter – variable area flow

meters with “float.”

 Rota meters must be calibrated

for fuel viscosity.

 Corrections for temperature are

possible.
 Mass Flow Measurement

 Mass balance with beaker and feed pump

– a bit cumbersome.

 Diesel supply of sufficient quantity for

test run is suspended on load cells. Load
cells signals are sampled and digitized
periodically to track fuel use.
 Air Consumption Measurement

 Air-consumption limits ability of engine to

produce power – important measurement!

 Orifice-style flow meters are used to assess air

flow rates.

 Pressure drops across a calibrated orifice is

used to specify air-flow rate.

 Caution -- pressure drop at orifice reduces air

flow to engine!
 Combustion Data Acquisition

 HDC – head dead center (same as Top Dead

Center)
 Crank rotation should be measured at a
o
resolution of 0.25 or better.
 Piezoelectric pressure transducers are
installed in the cylinder – require water cooling,
and high impedance.
 Pressure reading must be logged at 57.6 kHz
o
(0.25 increments) for an engine operating at
2400 rpm.
 P-V Diagrams

 From the recorded crank position readings,

cylinder volume is calculated as,

Vg  R 
2 

 c  1  cos    1  1   sin   
V L
RAp RAp R  L  
 

Where Vg is the gas volume (cm3), Vc is the

clearance volume (cm3), R is the crank throw
radius (cm), L is the connecting rod length (cm),
Ap is the area of the piston (cm2), and q is the
crankshaft angle measured from HDC.
 Rate of Energy Release from Fuel
Instantaneous energy release from fuel can be
approximated using the following relationship,
dp dV
V  p
dQ
 d d 
dQw
d  1 d

 Where dQ/dq is the rate of energy release (J/o), q is the

crankshaft angle measured from HDC, g is the ratio of
specific heats (1.4 for air), and dQw/dq is the rate of heat
transfer to the cylinder walls.
 This relationship has been found useful for reducing
NOx emission from diesel engines by timing the injection
rates.
Power Correction for Atmospheric Conditions

 Power output varies with local atmospheric conditions.

SAE Standard J1349 provides an method for correcting
engine power to standard conditions. This approach
begins with the ideal gas law. Because r, mass density,
is mass per unit volume,

M BP
 
V RT
Where r is the air mass density (kg/m3), M is mass (kg),
BP is the barometric pressure (kPa), V is volume (m3), R is
the universal gas constant, and T is absolute temperature
(K).
 Power Correction for Atmospheric Conditions

Rearranging the previous equation, the ratio of

densities becomes,
 s BPsTo

 o BPoTs
Where rs is the air mass density at standard conditions
(kg/m3), ro is the air mass density at observed conditions
(kg/m3), BPs is the barometric pressure at standard
conditions (kPa), BPo is the barometric pressure at observed
conditions (kPa), Ts is absolute temperature at standard
conditions (K), and To is absolute temperature at observed
conditions (K).
 Power Correction Continued

 Increased ambient air temperature reduces air density.

The engine also transfers heat to the air as it enters
thereby increasing the density, and therefore the density
change is not directly proportional to T-1. The power
correction factor for SI engines is,

n
BPs  To 
fa   
BPo  Ts 
 Where fa is the power correction factor, and n is an
exponent that takes on a value of 0.5 for naturally
aspirated SI engines.
 Power Correction Continued

 Theoretically, the correction factor is applied to

indicated power, and therefore,

Pbs  Pfs  f a Pbo  Pfo 

 However, because Pfs is equal to Pfo, the

previous equation can be rewritten as,

Pbs  f a Pbo  Pf  f a  1
 Power Correction Continued

 Because Pf is often much smaller than Pb, and because

fa is often close to 1, the last term of the previous
equation is dropped, and the correction is applied as,

Pbs  f a Pbo

 The choice of standard conditions is typically BPs=99

kPa and Ts = 298 K.
 Power Correction Continued

 The power correction for CI engines is somewhat more

complicated – for example,

Pbs  f a fm f f Pbo

 Where fa is defined as,

m
 99   To 
n

f a     
 BPo   298 
 Power Correction Continued

From the previous slide, ff is defined as,

  0.850  SG   0.142 

f f  1  0.7   0.945 
  SG    f 

Where SG is the specific gravity of the fuel, and nf is the

kinematic viscosity (mm2/s) of the fuel.

Special Note: For unit injectors, ff reduces to,

  0.850  SG  
f f  1  0.7  
  SG 
Values for m and n.
 Power Correction Continued

 The fm exponent is as follows,

 q
0 . 2 for  37.2
r

 0.036q q
fm   for 37.2   65
 r r
 q
1 .2 for  65
 r

 Where q is proportional to ISFC,

16,670 FX
q
De N e
 Power Correction Continued

 From the previous slide, F is fuel consumption

(kg/h), X is the stroke factor (1 for 2-cycle, 2 for
4-cycle).
 The value of r is,

 1.0 for natural

 p
r
1  boost for turbo

 BPo

 where pb is the turbocharger boost pressure.

 Tractor Preparation for Performance Runs

When a tractor is received from the

manufacturer, it is assigned a test number and
inspected. This is to ensure that it is a standard
model. Additional ballast may be added to the
tractor as specified by the manufacturer. The
static tire loads and inflation pressures must
conform to SAE tire standards. No modifications
that would void the warranty are allowed. The
fuel used and the maintenance operations must
all conform to the published information
delivered with the tractor.
The engine crankcase is drained and refilled with
a measured amount of new oil conforming to
specifications in the operator's manual. The
tractor is then limbered-up for three hours or
more on drawbar work in accordance with the
manufacturer's published recommendations. The
manufacturer's representative is present to make
appropriate decisions regarding mechanical
adjustments.
Power Take-Off Performance: Maximum Power and
Fuel Consumption

 The manufacturer's representative makes carburetor, fuel

pump, ignition and governor control settings which remain
unchanged throughout all subsequent runs. The governor
and the manually operated governor control lever are set to
provide the high-idle speed specified by the manufacturer for
maximum power. Maximum power is measured by
connecting the power take-off to a dynamometer. The
dynamometer load is then gradually increased until the
engine is operating at the rated speed specified by the
manufacturer for maximum power.

 This test lasts two hours. If rated engine speed does not
provide a standard PTO RPM (540 or 1000), an additional one
hour test is made at the standard PTO speed.
Power Take-Off Performance: Varying Power and Fuel
Consumption

 Six different power levels are used. They show

corresponding fuel consumption rates and how the
governor causes the engine to react to the following
changes in dynamometer load: 85 percent of the
dynamometer torque at maximum power; minimum
dynamometer torque 1/2 of the 85 percent torque;
maximum power, 1/4 and 3/4 of the 85 percent torque.

 This test also lasts two hours with a 20 minute test

time at each specified load. Since a tractor is generally
subjected to varying loads, the average of the result in
this test serve well for predicting the fuel consumption of
a tractor in general use.
 Drawbar Performance: Power and Fuel
Consumption

 The drawbar power runs are made to show the effects

of speed-control devices (engine, governor, automatic
transmission, etc.) on horsepower, speed and fuel
consumption. These runs are made around the entire
test course, which has two 180 degree turns with a
minimum radius of 50 feet. The drawbar pull is set at 4
different loads as follows: 1) as near to the pull at
maximum power as possible and still have the tractor
maintain rated engine speed on the straight sections of
the test course (2 hours); 2) 75 percent of the pull at
maximum power (10 hours); 3) 50 percent of the pull at
maximum power (2 hours); 4) maintaining the same load
and travel speed as in (3) by shifting to a higher gear
and reducing the engine RPM (2 hours).
 Drawbar Performance: Maximum Power in
Selected Gears

 Maximum power is measured on straight, level sections

of the test course. Some gears or travel speeds are
omitted because of high slippage of the drive wheels or
because travel speeds would exceed 10 MPH.

 Drawbar data are obtained for all gears at rated engine

speed that provide wheel slippage less than 15 percent
and a travel speed less than 8 MPH. One gear slower
than those above will be tested with the load reduced to
give approximately 15 percent slip. The engine speed for
this gear will be higher than the rated RPM. One gear
over 8 MPH but less than 10 MPH will also be tested.
 Drawbar Performance: Lugging Ability

 Travel speeds corresponding to drawbar pulls beyond

the maximum power range are obtained to show the
"lugging ability" of the tractor. The run starts with the
pull at maximum power; then additional drawbar pull is
applied to cause decreasing speeds. The run is ended
by one of three conditions: 1) maximum pull is
obtained, 2) the maximum slippage limit is reached, or
3) some other operating limit is reached.
 Sound Measurement

Sound is recorded during each of the drawbar power

and fuel consumption runs as the tractor travels on a
straight section of the test course.

The dB(A) sound level is obtained with the

microphone located near the right ear of the operator.

Bystander sound readings are taken with the

microphone placed 25 feet from the line of travel of
the tractor.

An increase of 10 dB(A) will approximately double the

loudness to the human ear.
 Additional Tests

 Tractors equipped with a front wheel drive that can be

engaged or disengaged from the driver's seat may
require additional drawbar tests. The usual drawbar
tests are first run with the front wheel drive disengaged.
Then, with the front wheel drive engaged, a maximum
power and fuel consumption test of two hours is made.
Several gears are selected for additional maximum
power runs, one of which will result in about 15 percent
slip. The power take-off of some of the large 4-wheel
drive tractors does not transmit full engine power. A
special test is run at full throttle and minimum throttle
setting that allows the power take-off control system to
maintain standard PTO speed. In addition, a varying
PTO drive and fuel consumption test is made
The End