HUMAN

ECOLOGICAL
ADAPTATIONS

by Tarun Goyal

Tarun Goyal 1
Ecology is the scientific study of the interrelationship between all the abiotic and
biotic components of environments.
All the plants and animals live their life according to their abiotic environment. In
other words, plants and animals live their life in accordance with the topographic,
edaphic, climate and hydrosphere.
Human ecology is an interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary study of the relationship
between humans and their natural, social and built environments.
In order to survive, all societies have to adapt to the opportunities and constraints
that their environment presents for them, given their current culture. Successful
adaptation can be said to have occurred when all important values of a society are
able to be achieved over the long term.
Because of the fact that humans live in a greater variety of habitats than any other
species, it‘s natural to ask how humans adapt to these varied environments. Human
adaption involves both biological and behavioral mechanisms.
Human behavioral ability to modify the environment is the major factor that has
allowed us to occupy the diverse ecosystems that we do. In fact, many of the
biological adaptations that we see in humans are adaptations to environmental
conditions we ourselves have produced.
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Human Ecological Adaptations
Adaptations
Human beings, like any other species on this planet, are exposed to changes in
environmental conditions many of which are natural and others man-made. Like other
animals, survival and success depend upon the ability of humans to tolerate and move
over to new conditions and change. Such ability of humans to tolerate and tide over
new conditions and to adjust to the shifting condition in their environment is called
adaptation.
Biological Adaptation
Human beings are different from the other species by the fact that they are spread over
most part of the land surface that is from equatorial to polar regions and they have also
learned to tolerate extreme conditions such as the high pressure of the deep sea and
the zero gravity of the space.
Surprisingly, humans are not the ideal species to study in order to understand the range
of biological adaptation despite their obvious success as dominant species of the earth.
This is attributed to their higher Intellectual capacity which enables them to adjust their
behavior over the environmental conditions. Thus, they tend to exhibit more cultural
adjustment than biological adaptation.
Nevertheless, there are instances of physical and biological variation in the human
population exposed to different climate conditions in various Geographic locations.
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Cultural Adoptions
Organisms encounter new events that provide new changes; survival of the population
may depend upon their ability to occupy new environments and humans have proved to
be very successful in it.
Any new environment brings in new stresses related to the environment to which the
organism is exposed. For instance, lack of oxygen is environmental stress at high
altitudes or similarly, a desert may produce water and heat stress.
Each of these environmental stresses in turn will produce physical strain in the
organism.
For example, environmental stress at high altitude will produce strain in the respiratory
and circulatory system of the organism.
Every strength prompts the body to adapt in multiple ways. Thus, adaption is brought
about by the strain on the organism, which in turn is caused by environmental stress.
A few organisms, including humans, use a strategy that minimizes the need for
adoption. The alternate for adoption is the creation of a microenvironment in which the
environmental stress itself is minimized or eliminated. Here, the organism creates
around itself a layer of protective microenvironment which may be community specific,
like the eskimo suit.
Creating a microenvironment is usually achieved by changing a microenvironment,
which is usually achieved by changing the natural behavior of the organism and is also
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referred to as Cultural Adoptions.
 Major Factors of Adaptations There are also less permanent types of adaptations.
The key elements that lead to many variations in the Acclimatizations are changes that come about
physical & chemical conditions of different habitats during the life time of the individual in response to
are : particular environmental stress.
 temperature, water, light, and soil (abiotic) Although the ability to undergo acclimatization has a
 pathogens, parasites, predators and competitors – genetic basis, the actual response does not occur
with which an organism interact constantly (biotic unless the individual experiences the environmental
components). stress. Tanning in response to ultraviolet radiation is
a good example of acclimatization.
Levels of Adaptations
Adaptations can occur at a variety of levels ranging
from Genetic to Cultural levels, i.e., –
1. Genetic level
2. Physiological level
3. Growth and development level
4. Cultural level
Genetic adaptations are the changes in the genetic
makeup of populations that come about over
generations as a result of natural selection. Genetic
adaptations are fairly permanent adaptations.
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Developmental Adaptations (or Developmental acclimatization) are changes that
occur in response to an environmental stress during the period of growth. Because the
developmental adaptations usually change the way that some part of the body grows or
develops, they are generally more permanent than acclimatization. Adaptation to high
latitude involves the developmental adaptation.
Humans exhibit a number of Biological Adaptations to the great variety of environments
they occupy. The best example of human genetic adaptation to climate is skin color, which
likely evolved as an adaptation to ultraviolet radiation. Variation among populations in body
size and shape also may at least partially relate to adaptation to climate.
One of the most important influences on human adaptation is our ability to modify the
environment. This modification both reduces our exposure to the physical environment
and creates a new environmental condition to which we must adapt. Human
modification of the environment has altered our diet and the diseases we get.
We see genetic adaptation to the changes, but also failure to adapt. Several of the
chronic diseases that are so frequent in industrialized countries may result from the fact
that we are consuming diets to which we are not biologically adapted. Our behavioral
flexibility and our ability to modify the environment lessen our need for biological
adaptations.
Many of the biological characteristics of living organisms evolved during time periods when
our technology was much less sophisticated than it is today. Biological characteristics that
were limitations under past conditions are frequently not limitations today. Conversely, traits
that were advantageous in past environments may be Tarundetrimental
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 Influence of Man on
Ecology and Environment

by Tarun Goyal

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Man’s relation with his natural environment is a
complex one. While he is subject to certain natural
controls and events, he also acts as the dominant
force in many of the Earth’s physical and biological
systems.
The relationship has changed with time. Increasingly,
man has become capable of altering his physical
environment to suit himself.
Although the scale of man’s impact on the
environment has accelerated rapidly since the
Industrial Revolution, man has been a factor in
environmental change for at least 40,000 years,
since the late stages of the Pleistocene ice age.
Although the objective of these alterations was to
improve his living conditions, in some cases they
have created major long-term problems, and in still
others, they have been catastrophic, both for the
natural environment and for him.
We shall consider some of the ways in which climate,
landforms, soils and ecosystems have been
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inadvertently altered by man.
Modification of Landforms
Mining and quarrying, deforestation, the introduction of
exotic plants and animals, the use of agricultural
machinery, the building and use of tracks and roads, and
the overgrazing of pastures, have all, singly and in
combination, profoundly altered landforms and caused
accelerated erosion and deposition to occur.
Where man excavates or piles up material himself, he
can be regarded as a direct agent of change; where he
causes natural landform processes, such as wind and
water action, to accelerate or diminish, he is acting in an
indirect manner.
Indirect effects are by far the most widespread. Much of
this influence occurs accidentally or secondarily to some
other purpose; conscious attempts to influence landform
processes — for example, by building coastal groynes or
by re-afforestation — are inevitably expensive and
limited in extent.
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Direct Alteration of Landforms
Man has a direct effect on the shape of landforms by excavating and piling up the
earth, reclaiming land from the sea, and causing subsidence through mining. These
activities have greatly increased since the Industrial Revolution with the
development of enormous machine power and explosives for moving material.
Land scarification is sometimes used as a general term for disturbances created
by the extraction of mineral resources; open-pit mines, quarries, sand, and gravel
pits are among the forms of scarification. Strip-mining is one of the most
devastating examples of landform alteration of this kind.
Equally obvious as man-created landforms are spoil tips / coal tips and other
waste heaps from mining and quarrying.
Many of these features are geomorphologically unstable, allowing various forms of
the mass movement to generate. When saturated by heavy rain, spoil tips are
frequently subject to sliding and flowage, supplying sediment that clogs stream
channels.

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Indirect Effects: Slopes and Rivers
By far, the most important of all man’s effects on landforms are
those connected with his interference with the natural vegetation, in
particular with the clearing of forest for agricultural purposes. There
is a close relationship between the amount of vegetation cover and
erosion rates on hill slopes, and hence with the amount of sediment
in streams.
A stable vegetation cover acts as an effective regulator of natural
erosion, protecting the ground from direct raindrop impact, Rills and Gullies
absorbing some of the run-offs, and making the slope more
cohesive.
With the removal of the vegetation, the surface loses its plant litter,
causing a loss of soil structure, cohesion and porosity. Multiple
shoe-string rills and gullies on hillsides are often a typical
manifestation of man’s indirect effect on slopes.
The alteration of infiltration and run-off on slopes by modifying the
vegetation inevitably has a profound effect on adjacent rivers in at
least two respects: by increasing both the discharge and also the
sediment supply. Tarun Goyal 12
Wind Deflation
The phenomenon of the dustbowl in the Great Plains region of
America in the 1930s is a well-known example of man-induced land
erosion. The area was former grassland underlain by rich brown and
chestnut soils, but both overgrazing and ploughing contributed to the
catastrophe which caused the widespread abandonment of farms.
A great expansion in wheat cultivation in the early years of the
decade was followed by a series of droughts; the soil, largely
exhausted of its natural fertility, was subject to deflation and particle
drifting of disastrous proportions.
The dustbowl situation is by no means unique. In the marginal areas
around today’s hot deserts, such as the Thar desert of India and
Pakistan, and the Egyptian desert, a great deal of deflation is initiated
by grazing animals.
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A dust storm approaches Texas in 1935
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Coastal Erosion and Deposition
Man can have relatively little impact on the forces that govern waves, tides and
currents, but he has had some effect on coastal erosion and deposition at the
shoreline by building various structures and by removing beach material for ballast
or construction.
Hence, various engineering structures such as groynes, breakwaters and seawalls
have had to be built to check marine erosion. However, these are not only
extremely expensive to build and maintain, but often defeat the object of the
exercise, since by checking erosion in one place they may lead to its increase
elsewhere.
Modification of the Atmosphere
The global heat balance has changed over the last few decades, and we might ask
ourselves how much of this a result of man polluting the atmosphere is. It is
certainly evident that pollution has marked local effects on the atmosphere.
Atmospheric changes induced by man may be grouped into three categories:
 introduction of solids and gases not normally found in the atmosphere
(pollutants);
 changes in proportions of the natural component gases of the atmosphere; and
 alterations of the Earth’s surface in such a way as to affect the atmosphere.
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(a) Pollutants in the Atmosphere
To city-dwellers, the most obvious way in which man has affected the atmosphere is
through pollution. Pollutants include Particulate Matter, both solid and liquid particles,
and gaseous substances such as sulphur dioxide (SO2), oxides of nitrogen (NO, NO2,
NO3), carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbon compounds.
But not all man-made pollution comes from cities. Isolated industrial activities frequently
create a footprint of atmospheric pollution in areas of countryside downwind from the
industrial site.
Mining and quarrying activities also send large amounts of mineral dust into the air.
Even man-induced forest and grass fires as well as bonfires, can greatly add to
particulate pollution at certain times of year.
Once in the atmosphere, the primary pollutants undergo a number of chemical
reactions, generating a secondary group of pollutants. For example, sulphur dioxide
combines with oxygen and suspended water droplets to produce sulphuric acid. This
acid is harmful to organic tissues and is also very corrosive.
Photochemical reactions are brought about by the action of sunlight: for example,
sunlight acting on nitrogen oxides and organic compounds produces ozone. Another
toxic chemical produced by photochemical action is ethylene.
The harmful effects of atmospheric pollution on plant and animal life are manifold. For
humans, many pollutants are dangerous to the respiratory system and irritant to the
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eyes.
(b) Changes in Atmospheric Gas Levels It has also been pointed out that man’s large-scale
Of the main natural constituent gases in the combustion of hydrocarbon fuels requires a large
atmosphere, carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxygen (O2) are quantity of oxygen to be withdrawn from the
the most critical from an environmental viewpoint, for atmosphere and converted into CO2 and water vapour.
both are inextricably involved in the biochemical cycles There is therefore the possibility of a lowering of the
between atmosphere and the surface of the Earth. oxygen content of the atmosphere to levels which might
have a detrimental effect on animal life.
Although nitrogen comprises four-fifths of the
atmosphere, its inert chemical nature relegates it to a Changes in water vapour levels brought about by man
minor role in this respect. Oxygen and CO2 are naturally through combustion and alterations to the vegetation
added to the atmosphere by ‘out gassing’ from the cover could in theory markedly affect global radiation
Earth’s interior. and heat balances in the same manner as changes in
CO2 levels. But water vapour content varies greatly
The work of plants has been essential in removing CO2
from place to place and it is difficult to measure global
from the atmosphere and storing it as coal and other
changes.
fossil organic substances.
Before the Industrial Revolution, CO2 levels appear to
have been about 290 parts per million in the
atmosphere. But in the last hundred years or so, this
amount has increased by about 40 per cent to 400 ppm,
largely because of man’s use of fossil fuels.
It has been suggested that, in contrast to the effect of
solid particles, an increased level in CO2 content will
increase the temperature of the atmosphere, since the
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gas is an absorber of long-wave radiation.
(c) Alterations to the Earth’s Surface
Meteorological processes close to the ground are extremely sensitive to
the character of the Earth’s surface and man’s alteration of this through
deforestation, agricultural practice and urbanization has had several
important effects.
One result of these activities is to alter the rate of evapotranspiration.
The complete removal of a forest cover will sharply reduce transpiration
and thus the amount of water returning to the atmosphere in vapour
form.
Another important consequence of surface change is to alter the
temperature characteristics of the atmosphere nearest the ground;
closely built urban areas develop their own heat island on calm nights in
summer.
A third climatic element that may be modified when man alters the
ground surface is the wind. Trees and hedges effectively break the wind,
causing a simultaneous diminution in evaporation and in the CO2
exchange close to the ground. Tarun Goyal 18
 Modification of Ecosystems
With the beginnings of agriculture, far-reaching effects,
both obvious and subtle, were introduced into
ecosystems.
Man gradually became more sophisticated in knowing
just how much to modify an ecosystem in order to
harvest the crop he wanted. In achieving this end, he
has inevitably simplified ecosystems, disrupted nutrient
cycling, introduced alien species and eliminated others,
and caused pollution.
Only in recent years has there been an awareness of
some of the consequences of ecosystem modification.
Simplification
The most general effect of man on ecosystems is that he
tends to simplify them. This comes about because man’s
prime concern is to direct energy and material cycling in
the system towards him so that he can easily crop them.
Species other than the ones he wants to crop are
regarded as weeds or pests, and he attempts to
eliminate them. Hence, reduction in species diversity,
often to a single species population, is a notable
characteristic of man’s impact on ecosystems. Tarun Goyal
The degree of simplification varies enormously. In
remote areas still only inhabited by hunters and
gatherers, man may in fact add another trophic level to
the rest of the food web.
Primitive shifting agriculture in tropical rainforests
represents only a temporary simplification and cropping
of the natural system as the plot is only cultivated for a
few years and then abandoned. On the other hand,
grazing economies exhibit a much greater degree of
ecosystem simplification.
Ecosystem simplification of this type often results in
disastrous side-effects. A single species population,
such as a field of wheat or a herd of cows, offers great
opportunity for the development and spread of disease,
pests and parasites.
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Eutrophication
When chemical fertilizers are applied to the land, many of the elements contained in them Harmful algal
are retained by the soil, adding to the clay humus complex. However, certain ions are not blooms (blue green
retained, and among them is a nitrate, an important constituent of most fertilizers. algae, e.g.,
Nitrate is being added to the soil from fertilizers and nitrogen-fixing plants at a much faster cyanobacteria),
rate than it can be broken down by denitrifying agents in the soil. Being soluble, it is dead zones, and
rapidly leached out into rivers and lakes. Here, the increased nitrogen input permits the fish kills are the
results of
accelerated growth of plants, algae, and other phytoplankton: this chemical enrichment
eutrophication.
resulting in increased productivity is called eutrophication.
Unfortunately, in an extreme form, the outcome is ultimately harmful, since the plants and
organisms die and decompose at such a rapid rate that oxygen levels fall until aquatic life
becomes impossible.
Role of Phosphorus : P is considered one of the primary limiting factors for the growth of
plant life in freshwater ecosystems.
Phosphates tend to stick to the soil and are transported along with it. Therefore, soil
erosion is a major contributor to the phosphorus enrichment of water bodies. Some other
phosphorus-rich sources that enrich water bodies with the nutrient include:
Fertilizers Untreated sewage
Detergents containing phosphorus Industrial discharge of waste.
Among these sources, the primary contributors to eutrophication include agriculture and
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 Frequently Asked Questions
What are the adverse effects of eutrophication?
The algal blooms in the water body can inhibit the
supply of sunlight at the lower depths. This can pose
a threat to the survival of many plants and animals.
The depletion of the oxygen levels in the water body
due to this phenomenon also has an adverse effect
on the local biosphere.
What is anthropogenic eutrophication?
It is a type of eutrophication that is a result of human
activity and is generally caused by the influx of
potassium-rich fertilizers into the aqueous body.
Another root cause of this is deforestation, which
causes the erosion and transportation of nutrient-
rich soil into the water body.
How can eutrophication occur naturally?
Many natural phenomena such as the flooding of
lakes or rivers can wash away the nutrient-rich soil
from the land surrounding the water bodies. This Tarun Goyal
nutrient-rich soil can promote the growth of algae in
the aqueous body. However, this is a rather slow
process.
What are the measures that can be taken to
prevent eutrophication?
This process can be controlled by preventing the
inflow of phosphorus-rich substances into the water
bodies. Avoiding the overuse of fertilizers and the
proper channelling of agricultural wastes also help in
the prevention of eutrophication.
What happens during eutrophication?
It is the mechanism by which the lakes obtain
nutrients (phosphorus and nitrogen) and sediments
from the surrounding watershed and become more
abundant and shallow. The additional nutrients are
foods for algae and fish, and the more eutrophic a
lake is, the more it sustains living organisms.
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 Effect on Individual Species altered, so that now signs of severe imbalance or a
The extinction or reduction in numbers of plant and declining efficiency are beginning to be observed in
animal populations is a well-known consequence of many of them.
man’s impact on the environment. This is shown, for example, by the progressive
Often, the species become endangered not so much devastation of formerly good fertile agricultural or
by hunting or conscious elimination, but by the grazing land through over-intensive use; in the
disruption and fragmentation of habitats. reduction of species when secondary forest replaces
primary forest; in a general loss of biological
Some species, particularly large predators, require
productivity; and in an increasing amount of pollution.
an extensive area of specialized habitat in which to
breed and hunt, and fragmentation of this by man’s
interference has frequently had disastrous effects.
The marsh harrier, a large raptorial bird of reed beds
and fens, is a prime example of this.
A contrary but equally far-reaching effect has been
the accidental or purposeful introduction of alien
species into ecosystems. Some animals and plants,
because of their greater genetic adaptability and high
reproductive rates have often made places for
themselves at the expense of native species.
Under natural conditions, ecosystems have been in a
state of ecological equilibrium. With the increasing
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impact of man, their essential characteristics are
Positive Effects of Human Activities many state and local communities have made laws
Not all the ways that humans affect the that require developers who build homes and
ecosystem are negative. Every time you recycle, commercial buildings to set aside green, open
you have a positive impact on the environment. spaces of land to protect them from development.
This includes bridges over highways and freeways
Recycling: Ecosystems are biological communities
that allow deer and other creatures to migrate across
and exist all around the globe. They serve as small,
the developed area without threat of death-by-
interconnected worlds that host multiple forms of
vehicle. These protected areas represent positive
plant and animal life. Nature recycles everything:
contributions to ecosystems.
Dead plant and animal matter return to the soil to
once again produce more trees and plants. Taking a Environmental Protection Laws : Environmental
cue from nature, many people understand that laws and management programs have a positive
recycling offers a positive contribution to the effect on the world's ecosystem when enforced. E.g.,
ecosystems of the world by reusing or remaking old these laws are in place to keep companies from
products into new ones without having to take destroying ecosystems by preventing them from
resources from nature. dumping industrial contaminants on the ground, into
rivers or streams or other waterways.
Wildlife Preserves : Wildlife preserves and national
parks protect scores of ecosystems around the
world. Within these zones, animals and plant life
thrive under laws that keep them from harm. These
zones protect specific ecosystems containing
threatened plant and animal life.
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Green and Open Spaces : In the last few decades, 24
Please Write Your

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