Circuit Analysis by A Nagoor Kani - 9387572722 (FileCR)

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CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
About the Author
Prof. Nagoor Kani is a multifaceted personality with an efficient technical expertise and
management skills. He obtained his BE in EEE from Thiagarajar College of Engineering, Madurai,
and MS (Electronics and Control) through Distance Learning program of BITS, Pilani.
He started his career as a self-employed industrialist (1986–1989) and then moved to teaching in
1989. He has worked as lecturer in Dr MGR Engineering College (1989–1990) and as an Assistant
Professor in Sathyabama Engineering College (1990–1997). He started his own coaching centre for
BE students, named as Institute of Electrical Engineering and was renamed as RBA Tutorials in 2005.
He started his own companies in 1997 and his currently running companies are RBA Engineering
(manufacturing of lab equipment and microprocessor trainer kits), RBA Innovations (involved in
developing projects for engineering students and industries), RBA Tutorials (conducting coaching
classes for engineering and GATE students) and RBA Publications (publishing of engineering
books). His optimistic and innovative ideas brought up RBA GROUP successfully.
He is an eminent writer and till now he has authored thirteen engineering books which are popular
among engineering students. He is known by name through his books in all engineering colleges
in South India and in some colleges in North India.
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
A. Nagoor Kani
Founder, RBA Educational Group
Chennai
McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

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Circuit Analysis
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Dedicated to
Wife, Mrs. C. Gnanaparanjothi (B.Sc., M.L.)

Elder Son, N. Bharath Raj
Younger Son, N. Vikram Raj
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CONTENT
PREFACE.............................................................................................. xv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT............................................................................ xvii
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVATIONS................................................. xix
CHAPTER 1 - BASIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS AND NETWORK TOPOLOGY......... 1.1
1.1 Introduction to Circuits and Networks....................................................................... 1. 1

1.1.1 Basic Phenomena........................................................................................... 1. 1
1.1.2 Ideal Elements ................................................................................................ 1. 1
1.1.3 Electric Circuits .............................................................................................. 1. 1
1.1.4 Units ................................................................................................................ 1. 4
1.1.5 Definitions of Various Terms.......................................................................... 1. 5
1.1.6 Symbols used for Average, RMS and Maximum Values.............................. 1. 7
1.1.7 Steady State Analysis and Transient Analysis............................................. 1. 8
1.1.8 Assumptions in Circuit Theory...................................................................... 1. 8
1.2 Basic Concepts of Circuits and Networks ................................................................ 1. 9
1.2.1 Basic Elements of Circuits............................................................................. 1. 9
1.2.2 Nodes, Branches and Closed Path................................................................. 1. 10
1.2.3 Series, Parallel, Star and Delta Connections................................................. 1. 12
1.2.4 Open Circuit and Short Circuit....................................................................... 1. 15
1.2.5 Sign Conventions ............................................................................................ 1. 16
1.2.6 Voltage and Current Sources.......................................................................... 1. 17
1.2.7 Ideal and Practical Sources............................................................................ 1. 17
1.2.8 DC Source Transformation............................................................................. 1. 18
1.2.9 Power and Energy............................................................................................ 1. 19
1.3 Ohm’s and Kirchhoff’s Laws........................................................................................ 1. 20
1.3.1 Ohm’s Law........................................................................................................ 1. 20
1.3.2 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)........................................................................ 1. 20
1.3.3 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)........................................................................ 1. 20
1.4 Resistive Elements........................................................................................................ 1. 21
1.4.1 Resistance........................................................................................................ 1. 21
1.4.2 Resistance Connected to DC Source ............................................................. 1. 22
viii
1.4.3 Resistance in Series........................................................................................ 1. 22

1.4.4 Resistance in Parallel...................................................................................... 1. 23
1.4.5 Analysis of Resistors in Series-Parallel Circuits........................................... 1. 23
1.4.6 Single Loop Circuit.......................................................................................... 1. 26
1.4.7 Single Node Pair Circuit.................................................................................. 1. 26
1.4.8 Solved Problems.............................................................................................. 1. 27
1.5 Mesh Current Method of Analysis for DC and AC Circuits....................................... 1. 36
1.5.1 Mesh Analysis of Resistive Circuits Excited by DC Sources........................ 1. 36
1.5.2 Mesh Analysis of Circuits Excited by Both Voltage
and Current Sources........................................................................................ 1. 62
1.5.3 Supermesh Analysis........................................................................................ 1. 62
1.5.4 Mesh Analysis of Circuits Excited by AC Sources
(Mesh Analysis of Reactive Circuits)............................................................. 1. 68
1.5.5 Mesh Analysis of Circuits Excited by Independent
and Dependent Sources.................................................................................. 1. 75
1.6 Node Voltage Method of Analysis for DC and AC Circuits....................................... 1. 86
1.6.1 Node Analysis of Resistive Circuits Excited by DC Sources........................ 1. 87
1.6.2 Node Analysis of Circuits Excited by Both
Voltage and Current Sources.......................................................................... 1. 105
1.6.3 Supernode Analysis......................................................................................... 1.106
1.6.4 Node Analysis of Circuits Excited by AC Sources
(Node Analysis of Reactive Circuits).............................................................. 1. 120
1.6.5 Node Analysis of Circuits Excited by Independent
and Dependent Sources.................................................................................. 1. 124
1.7 Network Terminology................................................................................................... 1. 131
1.7.1 Graph of a Network ......................................................................................... 1. 131
1.7.2 Trees, Link, Twig and Cotree.......................................................................... 1. 132
1.7.3 Network Variables .......................................................................................... 1. 134
1.7.4 Solution of Network Variables........................................................................ 1. 134
1.7.5 Link Currents (Independent Current Variables)............................................ 1. 135
1.7.6 Twig Voltages (Independent Voltage Variables)........................................... 1. 135
1.8 Incidence and Reduced Incidence Matrices............................................................... 1. 135
1.8.1 Network Analysis using Incidence Matrix..................................................... 1. 138
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1.9 Cut-Sets........................................................................................................................ 1. 143

1.9.1 Fundamental Cut-Sets ................................................................................... 1. 143
1.9.2 Cut-Set Matrix and Cut-Set Schedule............................................................ 1. 148
1.9.3 Node Analysis Using Cut-Sets....................................................................... 1. 151
1.10 Tie-Set.......................................................................................................................... 1. 164
1.10.1 Tie-Set Matrix and Tie-Set Schedule............................................................. 1. 165
1.10.2 Mesh Analysis Using Tie-Sets....................................................................... 1. 168
1.11 Duality.......................................................................................................................... 1. 180
1.11.1 Dual Graphs.................................................................................................... 1. 181
1.11.2 Duality of Network.......................................................................................... 1. 184
1.12 Summary of Important Concepts................................................................................ 1. 194
1.13 Short-answer Questions.............................................................................................. 1. 200
1.14 Exercises....................................................................................................................... 1. 213
CHAPTER 2 - NETWORK THEOREMS FOR DC AND AC CIRCUITS

2.1 Network Reduction....................................................................................................... 2. 1
2.1.1 Resistances in Series and Parallel.................................................................. 2. 1
2.1.2 Voltage Sources in Series and Parallel .......................................................... 2. 3
2.1.3 Current Sources in Series and Parallel .......................................................... 2. 6
2.1.4 Inductances in Series and Parallel................................................................. 2. 8
2.1.5 Capacitances in Series and Parallel............................................................... 2. 11
2.1.6 Impedances in Series and Parallel ................................................................. 2. 14
2.1.7 Reactances in Series and Parallel .................................................................. 2. 16
2.1.8 Conductances in Series and Parallel ............................................................. 2. 17
2.1.9 Admittances in Series and Parallel ................................................................ 2. 19
2.1.10 Susceptances in Series and Parallel .............................................................. 2. 22
2.1.11 Generalised Concept of Reducing Series/Parallel-connected Parameters... 2. 22
2.2 Voltage and Current Division ...................................................................................... 2. 25
2.2.1 Voltage Division in Series-connected Resistances ....................................... 2. 25
2.2.2 Voltage Division in Series-connected Impedances ....................................... 2. 26
2.2.3 Current Division in Parallel-connected Resistances ..................................... 2. 26
2.2.4 Current Division in Parallel-connected Impedances..................................... 2. 27
2.3 Source Transformation ................................................................................................ 2. 28
2.4 Star-Delta Conversion.................................................................................................. 2. 29
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2.4.1 Resistances in Star and Delta ........................................................................ 2. 29

2.4.2 Impedances in Star and Delta ........................................................................ 2. 31
2.5 Solved Problems in Network Reduction .................................................................... 2. 32
2.6 Network Theorems....................................................................................................... 2. 49
2.6.1 Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorems................................................................ 2. 49
2.6.2 Superposition Theorem .................................................................................. 2. 76
2.6.3 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem .............................................................. 2. 99
2.6.4 Reciprocity Theorem ....................................................................................... 2. 126
2.6.5 Reciprocity Theorem Applied to Mesh Basis Circuit.................................... 2. 126
2.6.6 Reciprocity Theorem Applied to Node Basis Circuit .................................... 2. 127
2.6.7 Millman’s Theorem.......................................................................................... 2. 137
2.7 Summary of Important Concepts................................................................................ 2. 141
2.8 Short-answer Questions .............................................................................................. 2. 144
2.9 Exercises....................................................................................................................... 2. 159
CHAPTER 3 - AC CIRCUITS, RESONANCE AND COUPLED CIRCUITS

3.1 AC Circuits.................................................................................................................... 3. 1
3.2 Sinusoidal Voltage........................................................................................................ 3. 1
3.2.1 Average Value................................................................................................... 3. 2
3.2.2 RMS Value........................................................................................................ 3. 2
3.2.3 Form Factor and Peak Factor........................................................................... 3. 3
3.3 Sinusoidal Current........................................................................................................ 3. 3
3.4 Inductance..................................................................................................................... 3. 4
3.5 Capacitance................................................................................................................... 3. 4
3.6 Voltage-Current Relation of R, L and C in Various Domains..................................... 3. 5
3.6.1 Voltage-Current Relation of Resistance.......................................................... 3. 5
3.6.2 Voltage-Current Relation of Inductance......................................................... 3. 6
3.6.3 Voltage-Current Relation of Capacitance....................................................... 3. 7
3.7 Sinusoidal Voltage and Current in Frequency Domain.............................................. 3. 8
3.8 Power, Energy and Power Factor................................................................................. 3. 8
3.9 Impedance..................................................................................................................... 3. 11
3.10 Solved Problems in AC Circuits.................................................................................. 3. 12
3.11 Resonance .................................................................................................................... 3. 16
3.12 Series Resonance ......................................................................................................... 3. 16
3.12.1 Resonance Frequency of Series RLC Circuit ................................................. 3. 16
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3.12.2 Variation of Current and Impedance with Frequency in

Series RLC Circuit ........................................................................................... 3. 17
3.12.3 Q-Factor (Quality Factor) of RLC Series Circuit ........................................... 3. 18
3.12.4 Bandwidth of Series RLC Circuit ................................................................... 3. 21
3.12.5 Selectivity of Series RLC Circuit .................................................................... 3. 25
3.12.6 Variation of Voltage across L and C with Frequency..................................... 3. 26
3.12.7 Solved Problems in Series Resonance ........................................................... 3. 27
3.13 Parallel Resonance ...................................................................................................... 3. 32
3.13.1 Resonant Frequency of Parallel RLC Circuits ............................................... 3. 33
Parallel RLC Circuit ......................................................................................... 3. 41
3.13.3 Q-Factor (Quality Factor) of RLC Parallel Circuit .......................................... 3. 42
3.13.4 Bandwidth of RLC Parallel Circuit ................................................................. 3. 45
3.13.5 Selectivity of Prallel RLC Circuit .................................................................... 3. 51
3.13.6 Variation of Current through L and C with Frequency.................................. 3. 52
3.13.7 Solved Problems in Parallel Resonance.......................................................... 3. 53
3.14 Coupled Circuits ........................................................................................................... 3. 61
3.15 Self-Inductance and Mutual Inductance ..................................................................... 3. 62
3.15.1 Self-Inductance ................................................................................................ 3. 62
3.15.2 Mutual Inductance ........................................................................................... 3. 62
3.15.3 Coefficient of Coupling .................................................................................... 3. 64
3.16 Analysis of Coupled Coils ............................................................................................ 3. 65
3.16.1 Dot Rule ........................................................................................................... 3. 66
3.16.2 Expression for Self-and Mutual Induced EMFs in Various Domains .......... 3. 69
3.16.3 Writing Mesh Equations for Coupled Coils .................................................... 3. 70
3.16.4 Electrical Equivalent of Magnetic Coupling
(Electrical Equivalent of a Transformer or Linear Transformer) ................... 3. 71
3.16.5 Writing Mesh Equations in Circuits with Electrical Connection
and Magnetic Coupling ................................................................................... 3. 74
3.16.6 Analysis of Multiwinding Coupled Coils (Coupled Inductors) ................. 3. 75
3.17 Series and Parallel Connections of Coupled Coils (Coupled Inductors) .................. 3. 76
3.17.1 Series Aiding Connection of Coupled Coils ................................................... 3. 76
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3.17.2 Series Opposing Connection of Coupled Coils .............................................. 3. 77

3.17.3 Parallel Aiding Connection of Coupled Coils ................................................. 3. 78
3.17.4 Parallel Opposing Connection of Coupled Coils ............................................ 3. 80
3.18 Tuned Coupled Circuits ................................................................................................ 3. 82
3.18.1 Single Tuned Coupled Circuits....................................................................... 3. 82
3.18.2 Double Tuned Coupled Circuits ...................................................................... 3. 87
3.19 Solved Problems in Coupled Circuits .......................................................................... 3. 90
3.20 Summary of Important Concepts. ................................................................................ 3. 116
3.21 Short-answer Questions ............................................................................................... 3. 123
3.22 Exercises ........................................................................................................................ 3. 134
CHAPTER 4 - TRANSIENT ANALYSIS

4.1 Transient Response....................................................................................................... 4. 1
4.1.1 Natural and Forced Response .......................................................................... 4. 1
4.1.2 First and Second Order Circuits ...................................................................... 4. 2
4.2 Transient Analysis Using Laplace Transform............................................................. 4. 3
4.2.1 Some Standard Voltage Functions................................................................... 4. 3
4.2.2 s-Domain Representation of R, L, C Parameters............................................. 4. 5
4.2.3 Solving Initial and Final Conditions Using Laplace Transform.................... 4. 9
4.3 Transient Response of RL Circuit................................................................................ 4. 10
4.3.1 Natural or Source-Free Response of RL Circuit.............................................. 4. 10
4.3.2 Step Response of RL Circuit
(Response of RL Circuit Excited by DC Supply)............................................. 4. 11
4.3.3 Impulse Response of RL Circuit....................................................................... 4. 16
4.3.4 Response of RL Circuit Excited by Exponential Signal................................. 4. 18
4.3.5 RL Transient With Initial Current I0 ................................................................ 4. 19
4.4 Transient Response of RC Circuit ............................................................................... 4. 22
4.4.1 Natural or Source-Free Response of RC Circuit.............................................. 4. 22
4.4.2 Step Response of RC Circuit
(Response of RC Circuit Excited by DC Supply)............................................. 4. 24
4.4.3 Impulse Response of RC Circuit....................................................................... 4. 28
4.4.4 Response of RC Circuit Excited by Exponential Signal ................................. 4. 30
4.4.5 RC Transient With Initial Voltage V0 .............................................................. 4. 31
xiii
4.5 Transient Response of RLC Circuit............................................................................. 4. 35

4.5.1 Natural or Source-Free Response of RLC Circuit............................................ 4. 35
4.5.2 Step Response of RLC Circuit
(Response of RLC Circuit Excited by DC Supply)........................................... 4. 35
4.5.3 s-Domain Current and Voltage Equation of RLC Circuit................................ 4. 42
4.5.4 Initial Conditions in RLC Circuit ..................................................................... 4. 43
4.5.5 Final Conditions in RLC Circuit....................................................................... 4. 45
4.6 Complete Response of Circuits Excited by Sinusoidal Source................................... 4. 47
4.6.1 RL Circuit Excited by Sinusoidal Source......................................................... 4. 47
4.6.2 RC Circuit Excited by Sinusoidal Source......................................................... 4. 49
4.6.3 RLC Circuit Excited by Sinusoidal Source....................................................... 4. 51
4.7 Solved Problems in RL Transient ................................................................................. 4. 53
4.8 Solved Problems in RC Transient................................................................................. 4. 69
4.9 Solved Problems in RLC Transient .............................................................................. 4. 90
4.10 Summary of Important Concepts.................................................................................. 4. 100
4.11 Short-answer Questions................................................................................................ 4. 103
4.12 Exercises ........................................................................................................................ 4. 106
CHAPTER 5 - TWO-PORT NETWORKS

5.1 Two-Port Networks........................................................................................................ 5. 1
5.2 Parameters of a Two-Port Network............................................................................... 5. 2
5.3 Impedance Parameters (or Z-Parameters)..................................................................... 5. 6
5.4 Admittance Parameters (or Y-Parameters).................................................................... 5. 7
5.5 Transmission Parameters (or ABCD-Parameters)........................................................ 5. 8
5.6 Inverse Transmission Parameters (or A’B’C’D’-Parameters)........................................ 5. 9
5.7 Hybrid Parameters (or h-Parameters)............................................................................ 5. 10
5.8 Inverse Hybird Parameters (or g-Parameters) .............................................................. 5. 12
5.9 Relationship Between Parameter Sets.......................................................................... 5. 13
5.10 Properties of Two-Port Networks.................................................................................. 5. 19
5.11 Inter-Connection of Two-Port Networks....................................................................... 5. 19
5.12 T and P Networks.......................................................................................................... 5. 21
5.12.1 Symmetrical Properties of T and P Networks................................................. 5. 22
5.13 Solved Problems ............................................................................................................ 5. 24
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5.14 Summary of Important Concepts.................................................................................. 5. 59

5.15 Short-answer Questions................................................................................................ 5. 61
5.16 Exercises......................................................................................................................... 5. 65
APPENDIX 1 - USING CALCULATOR IN COMPLEX MODE .................................. A. 1

APPENDIX 2 - IMPORTANT MATHEMATICAL FORMULAE ................................. A. 3
APPENDIX 3 - LAPLACE TRANSFORM ............................................................ A. 5
APPENDIX 4 - CRAMER’S RULE ..................................................................... A. 8
APPENDIX 5 - EQUIVALENT OF SERIES/PARALLEL CONNECTED
PARAMETERS ......................................................................... A. 10
APPENDIX 6 - STAR-DELTA TRANSFORMATION .............................................. A. 12
APPENDIX 7 - SUMMARY OF THEOREMS ........................................................ A. 13
APPENDIX 8 - IMPORTANT EQUATIONS OF SERIES RESONANCE....................... A. 14
APPENDIX 9 - PARALLEL RESONANT CIRCUITS ............................................... A. 15
APPENDIX 10 - ELECTRICAL EQUIVALENT OF COUPLED COILS ........................... A. 16
APPENDIX 11 - EQUIVALENT OF SERIES AND PARALLEL CONNECTED
COUPLED COILS....................................................................... A. 17
APPENDIX 12 - INITIAL AND FINAL CONDITIONS IN RLC CIRCUITS EXCITED
BY DC SUPPLY......................................................................... A. 18
APPENDIX 13 - R,L,C PARAMETERS AND V-I RELATIONS IN
VARIOUS DOMAINS ................................................................. A. 19
APPENDIX 14 - SUMMARY OF PARAMETERS OF TWO-PORT NETWORK .............. A. 20
APPENDIX 15 - RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PARAMETER SETS .............................. A. 21
APPENDIX 16 - TWO-PORT NETWORK PARAMETERS OF T AND P-NETWORK....... A. 22
ANNA UNIVERSITY QUESTION PAPERS............................................................... Q. 1
INDEX.............................................................................................................. I. 1
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Preface
The main objective of this book is to explore the basic concepts of Circuit Analysis in a simple
and easy-to-understand manner.
This text on Circuit Analysis has been crafted and designed to meet students’ requirements.
Considering the highly mathematical nature of this subject, more emphasis has been given on
the problem-solving methodology. Considerable effort has been made to elucidate mathematical
derivations in a step-by-step manner. Exercise problems with varied difficulty levels are given in
the text to help students get an intuitive grasp on the subject.
This book, with its lucid writing style and germane pedagogical features, will prove to be a master
text for engineering students and practitioners.
Salient Features
The salient features of this book are:
- Proof of important concepts and theorems are clearly highlighted by shaded boxes
- Wherever required, problems are solved using multiple methods
- Additional explanations for solutions and proofs are provided in separate boxes
- Different types of fonts are used for text, proof and solved problems for better clarity
- Keywords are highlighted by bold and italic fonts
- Easy, concise and accurate study material
- Extremely precise edition where concepts are reinforced by pedagogy
- Demonstration of multiple techniques in problem solving-additional explanations and
proofs highlighted
- Ample figures and examples to enhance students’ understanding
- Practice through MCQ’s
- Pedagogy:
. Solved Numerical Examples: 232
. Short-answer Questions: 228
. Figures: 1517
. Practice Problems: 143
. Review Questions (T/F): 117
. MCQs: 139
. Fill in the blanks: 118
xvi
Organization of the Book

This text is designed for an undergraduate course in Circuit Analysis for engineering students. The
book is organized into five chapters. The fundamental concepts, steady state analysis and transient
state analysis are presented in a very easy and elaborative manner. Throughout the book, carefully
chosen examples are presented so that the reader will have a clear understanding of the concepts
discussed.
Chapter 1 starts with explanation of fundamental quantities involved in circuit analysis,
standard symbols and units used in circuit analysis. The basic concepts of circuits are also presented
in this chapter. The mesh and node analyses of circuits are discussed with special attention on
dependent sources.
The second half of Chapter 1 is devoted to basic concepts of network topology with detailed
explanation about formation of tie-sets and cut-sets, and development of mesh and node analyses
from tie-sets and cut-sets. The concepts of dual graph and dual circuits are presented at the end
of the chapter.
The concepts of series, parallel and star-delta network reduction are discussed in
Chapter 2. The analysis of circuits using theorems is also presented in this Chapter.
Chapter 3 starts with fundamental concepts of AC circuits which is a prerequisite for
understanding resonance and coupled circuits. The concepts of resonance are discussed in detail
in this chapter. The analysis of coupled circuits is also discussed.
The transient analysis of circuits is explained in Chapter 4 through Laplace transform.
Transient analysis of circuits excited by impulse, step and exponential signals is also presented in
the chapter.
The concept of two-port network parameters and its properties are presented in Chapter 5.
The relationship between various two-port parameters and symmetrical properties of T and
P network is also presented in this chapter.
The Laplace transform has been widely used in the analysis of electric circuits. Hence
an appendix on Laplace transform is included in this book. All the calculations in this book are
performed using calculator in complex mode. An appendix is also included to help the readers to
practice calculations in complex mode of calculator.
Online Learning Center
The OLC of the book can be accessed at http://www.mhhe.com/nagoorkani/ca/au
The author hopes that the teaching and student community will welcome the book. The readers
can feel free to convey their criticism and suggestions to kani@vsnl.com for further improvement
of the book.
A. Nagoor Kani
Publisher’s Note
McGraw Hill Education (India) invites suggestions and comments from you, all of which can be
sent to info.india@mheducation.com (kindly mention the title and author name in the subject line).
Piracy-related issues may also be reported.
xvii
acknowledgement
I express my heartfelt thanks to my wife, Mrs. C. Gnanaparanjothi Nagoor Kani, and
my sons, N. Bharath Raj alias Chandrakani Allaudeen and N. Vikram Raj, for the support,
encouragement and cooperation they have extended to me throughout my career. I thank
Ms. T. A. Benazir for the affection and care extended during my day-to-day activities.
I am grateful to Ms. C. Mohana Priya for her passion in book work and typesetting
of the manuscript and preparing the layout of the book. It is my pleasure to acknowledge
the contributions of our technical editors, Ms. E. R. Suhasini and Ms. R. Jenniefer Sherine,
for editing and proofreading of the book. I thank all my office staff for their cooperation in
carrying out my day-to-day activities.
My sincere thanks to all the reviewers for their valuable suggestions and comments
which helped me to explore the subject to a greater depth.
I am also grateful to Ms. Vibha Mahajan, Mr. Hemant K Jha, Ms. Vaishali Thapliyal,
Mr. Ganesh, Mr. Asarab, Mr. Satinder Singh and Ms. Taranpreet Kaur, of McGraw Hill
Education (India) for their concern and care in publishing this work.
Finally, a special note of appreciation is due to my sisters, brothers, relatives, friends,
students and the entire teaching community for their overwhelming support and encouragement
to my writing.
A. Nagoor Kani
xviii
xix
List of Symbols and Abbreviations

P - Active power
Y - Admittance
AC, ac - Alternating current
A - Ampere
ω - Angular frequency
ωr - Angular resonance frequency
S - Apparent Power
I ave - Average value of current
Vave - Average value of voltage
β - Bandwidth
B - Branch
C - Capacitance
XC - Capacitive reactance
BC - Capacitive susceptance
Q - Charge
k - Coefficient of coupling
j - Complex operator (j = - 1)
S - Complex Power
G - Conductance
C - Coulomb
kC - Critical coefficient of coupling
RC - Critical resistance
I - Current
i(0+) - Current at t = 0+
i(0−) - Current at t = 0–
i(∞) - Current at t = ∞
CC - Current Coil
I (jω), I - Current in frequency domain
I(s) - Current in Laplace domain
i(t) - Current in time domain
xx
ζ - Damping ratio
E - DC source voltage
D - Determinant of matrix
DC, dc - Direct current
Y - Driving point admittance
Z - Driving point impedance
hB - Efficiency of battery
W - Energy
Req - Equivalent resistance
F - Farad
φ - Flux
Ψ - Flux linkage
kf - Form factor
p - Half period
H - Henry
Hz - Hertz
ωh - Higher cut-off angular frequency
fh - Higher cut-off frequency
j - Imaginary part
Z - Impedance
θ - Impedance angle
L - Inductance
XL - Inductive reactance
BL - Inductive susceptance
e, e(t) - Instantaneous value of ac source voltage
q - Instantaneous value of charge
i, i(t) - Instantaneous value of current in time domain
iC - Instantaneous value of current through capacitor
iL - Instantaneous value of current through inductor
iR - Instantaneous value of current through resistor
w - Instantaneous value of energy
p - Instantaneous value of power
xxi
vC - Instantaneous value of voltage across capacitor

vL - Instantaneous value of voltage across inductor
vR - Instantaneous value of voltage across resistor
v, v(t) - Instantaneous value of voltage in time domain
J - Joule
K - Kelvin
kWh - kilowatt-hour
KCL - Kirchhoff’s Current Law
KVL - Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
L - Laplace operator
L - Links
IL - Load Current
VL - Load Voltage
RL - Load Resistance
ωl - Lower cut-off angular frequency
fl - Lower cut-off frequency
Z - Magnitude of impedance
Y - Magnitude of admittance
Im - Maximum value of current
Vm - Maximum value of voltage
m - Mesh
 - Mho
M - Mutual inductance
ωn - Natural frequency
IN - Neutral current
N - Neutral point
N - Nodes
Ω - Ohm
Ω-m - Ohm-metre
OC - Open circuit
kp - Peak factor
φ - Phase difference between voltage and current
xxii
pf - Power factor
φ - Power factor angle
P - Power or Active power
PC - Pressure Coil
Q - Quality factor
Qr - Quality factor at resonance
rad/s - Radians/second
X - Reactance
Q - Reactive Power
R - Resistance
ρ - Resistivity
fr - Resonance frequency
s - Second
SC - Short circuit
S - Siemen
SPDT - Single Pole Double Throw
RS - Source Resistance
B - Susceptance
T - Tesla
t - Time
τ - Time constant
V - Volt
VAR - Volt-Ampere-Reactive
V - Voltage
v(0 +) - Voltage at t = 0+
v(0−) - Voltage at t = 0−
v(∞) - Voltage at t = ∞
V ( jx ) , V - Voltage in frequency domain
V(s) - Voltage in Laplace domain
W - Watt
W-h - Watt-hour
W-s - Watt-second
Wb - Weber/Weber-turn
Chapter 1
BASIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS AND

NETWORK TOPOLGY
1.1 Introduction to Circuits and Networks
1.1.1 Basic Phenomena
The energy associated with flow of electrons is called electrical energy. The flow of electrons
is called current. The current can flow from one point to another point of an element only if there
is a potential difference between these two points. The potential difference is called voltage.
When electric current is passed through a device or element, three phenomena have been
observed. The three phenomena are,
(i) opposition to flow of current,
(ii) opposition to change in current or flux, and
(iii) opposition to change in voltage or charge.
The various effects of current like heating, arcing, induction, charging, etc., are due to the
above phenomena. Therefore, three fundamental elements have been proposed which exhibit only
one of the above phenomena when considered as an ideal element (of course, there is no ideal
element in nature). These elements are resistor, inductor and capacitor.
1.1.2 Ideal Elements
The ideal resistor offers opposition only to the flow of current. The property of opposition
to the flow of current is called resistance and it is denoted by R.
The ideal inductor offers opposition only to change in current (or flux). The property of
opposition to change in current is called inductance and it is denoted by L.
The ideal capacitor offers opposition only to change in voltage (or charge). The property
of opposition to change in voltage is called capacitance and it is denoted by C.
1.1.3 Electric Circuits
The behaviour of a device to electric current can be best understood if it is modelled using
the fundamental elements R, L and C. For example, an incandescent lamp and a water heater can
be modelled as ideal resistance. Transformers and motors can be modelled using resistance and
inductance.
Practically, an electric circuit is a model of a device operated by electrical energy. The
various concepts and methods used for analysing a circuit is called circuit theory. A typical circuit
consists of sources of electrical energy and ideal elements R, L and C. The practical energy sources
are batteries, generators (or alternators), rectifiers, transistors, op-amps, etc. The various elements
of electric circuits are shown in Figs 1.1 and 1.2.
1. 2 Circuit Analysis
Elements of Electric Circuits
Energy Sources Parameters or Loads

DC (Direct Current) Sources
DC Voltage Sources
E
Independent DC Voltage Source, +-
Dependent DC Voltage Source

mVx
Voltage Controlled DC Voltage Source, + -
RM Ix = Vx
Current Controlled DC Voltage Source, + -
DC Current Sources
I
Independent DC Current Source,
Dependent DC Current Source

GM Vx = Ix
Voltage Controlled DC Current Source,
AI Ix
Current Controlled DC Current Source,
AC (Alternating Current) Sources
AC Voltage Sources
o
- V
E+= EÐq
Independent AC Voltage Source, ~
Dependent AC Voltage Source
mVx
Voltage Controlled AC Voltage Source, + -
RM Ix = Vx
Current Controlled AC Voltage Source, + -
AC Current Sources
I = IÐq o A
Independent AC Current Source, ~
Dependent AC Current Source
GM Vx = Ix
Voltage Controlled AC Current Source,
AI I x
Current Controlled AC Current Source,
Fig. 1.1 : Elements of electric circuits - Energy source.

Chapter 1 - Basic Circuit Analysis and Network Topology 1. 3
Elements of Electric Circuits
Parameters or Loads Energy Sources
Fundamental Parameters
R
Resistance,
Inductance
L
Self-Inductance,
Mutual Inductance, M
C
Capacitance,
Derived Parameters
± jX
Reactance,
+jXL = +j2pfL
Inductive Reactance,
1
- jX C = - j
Capacitive Reactance, 2pfC
Z = R ± jX
Impedance,
Inverse Parameters
1
G=
R
Conductance,
1
m jB =
± jX
Susceptance,
1
- jB L = - j
Inductive Susceptance, 2pfL
+jBC = +j2pfC
Capacitive Susceptance,
Y = G m jB
Admittance,
1 1
Y= = = G m jB
Z R ± jX
Fig. 1.2 : Elements of electric circuits - Parameters or loads.

Elements which generate or amplify energy are called active elements. Therefore, energy
sources are active elements. Elements which dissipate or store energy are called passive elements.
Resistance dissipates energy in the form of heat, inductance stores energy in a magnetic field, and
capacitance stores energy in an electric field. Therefore, resistance, inductance and capacitance
are passive elements. If there is no active element in a circuit then the circuit is called a passive
circuit or network.
Sources can be classified into independent and dependent sources. Batteries, generators
and rectifiers are independent sources, which can directly generate electrical energy. Transistors
and op-amps are dependent sources whose output energy depends on another independent source.
Practically, the sources of electrical energy used to supply electrical energy to various devices
like lamps, fans, motors, etc., are called loads. The rate at which electrical energy is supplied is
called power. Power, in turn, is the product of voltage and current.
Circuit analysis relies on the concept of law of conservation of energy, which states that
energy can neither be created nor destroyed but can be converted from one form to other. Therefore,
the total energy/power in a circuit is zero.
1.1.4 Units
SI units are followed in this book. The SI units and their symbols for various quantities
encountered in circuit theory are presented in Table 1.1. In engineering applications, large values are
expressed with decimal multiples and small values are expressed with submultiples. The commonly
used multiples and submultiples are listed in Table 1.2.
Table 1.1 : Units and Symbols
Quantity Symbol Unit Unit Equivalent Equivalent

for quantity symbol unit unit symbol
Charge q, Q Coulomb C - -
Current i, I Ampere A Coulomb/second C/s
Flux linkages ψ Weber-turn Wb - -
Magnetic flux φ Weber Wb - -
Energy w, W Joule J Newton-meter N-m
Voltage v, V Volt V Joule/Coulomb J/C
Power p, P Watt W Joule/second J/s
Capacitance C Farad F Coulomb/Volt C/V
Inductance L, M Henry H Weber/Ampere Wb/A
Resistance R Ohm Ω Volt/Ampere V/A
Conductance G Siemens S Ampere/Volt A/V or M
or mho
Table 1.1: Continued...
Quantity Symbol Unit Unit Equivalent Equivalent

for quantity symbol unit unit symbol
Time t Second s - -
Frequency f Hertz Hz cycles/second -
Angular frequency ω Radians/second rad/s - -
Magnetic flux - Tesla T Weber/ meter Wb/m2

square
density
o
Temperature - Kelvin K - -
Table 1.2 : Multiple and Submultiple used for Units
Multiplying Prefix Symbol Multiplying Prefix Symbol

factor factor
1012 tera T 10 −1 deci d

9 −2
10 giga G 10 centi c
6 −3
10 mega M 10 milli m
103 kilo k 10 − 6 micro µ
2 −9
10 hecto h 10 nano n
101 deca da 10 −12 pico p
−15
10 femto f
10 −18 atto a
1.1.5 Definitions of Various Terms

The definitions of various terms that are associated with electrical energy like energy, power,
current, voltage, etc., are presented in this section.
Energy : Energy is defined as the capacity to do work. It can also be defined as stored work.
Energy may exist in many forms, such as electrical, mechanical, thermal, light,
chemical, etc. It is measured in joules, which is denoted by J (or the unit of energy
is joules).
In electrical engineering, one joule is defined as the energy required to transfer a power of
one watt in one second to a load (or Energy = Power ´ Time). Therefore, 1 J = 1 W-s.
In mechanical engineering, one joule is the energy required to move a mass of 1 kg
through a distance of 1 m with a uniform acceleration of 1 m/s2.
Therefore, 1 J = 1 N - m = 1 kg - m2 - m
s
In thermal engineering, one joule is equal to a heat of 4.1855 (or 4.186) calories, and one
calorie is the heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1o C.
Therefore, 1 J = 4.1855 calories
Power : Power is the rate at which work is done (or it is the rate of energy transfer). The unit of
power is watt and denoted by W. If energy is transferred at the rate of one joule per
second then one watt of power is generated.
An average value of power can be expressed as,
Energy
Power, P = = W .....(1.1)
Time t
A time varying power can be expressed as,
Instantaneous power, p = dw .....(1.2)
dt
dw dw dq
Also, p = = # = vi .....(1.3)
dt dq dt
Hence, power is also given by the product of voltage and current.
Charge : Charge is the characteristic property of elementary particles of matter. The
elementary particles are electrons, protons and neutrons. There are basically two
types of charges in nature: positive charge and negative charge. The charge of an
electron is called negative charge. The charge of a proton is called positive charge.
Normally, a particle is neutral because it has equal number of electrons and protons.
The particle is called charged if some electrons are either added or removed from it.
If electrons are added then the particle is called negatively charged. If electrons are
removed then the particle is called positively charged.The unit used for measurement
of charge is coulomb. One coulomb is defined as the charge which when placed
in vacuum from an equal and similar charge at a distance of one metre repels it
with a force of 9 × 10 9 N. The charge of an electron is 1.602 × 10 −19 C. Hence,
1/(1.602 × 10 −19) = 6.24 × 10 18 electrons make up a charge of one coulomb.
Current : Current is defined as the rate of flow of electrons. It is measured in amperes. One
ampere is the current flowing through a point if a charge of one coulomb crosses
that point in one second. In SI units, one ampere is defined as that constant current in
two infinite parallel conductors of negligible circular cross-section, one metre apart
in vacuum, which produces a force between the conductors of 2 × 10 − 7 newton per
metre length.
A steady current can be expressed as,
Charge Q
Current, I = = .....(1.4)
Time t
A time varying current can be expressed as,
dq
Instantaneous current, i = .....(1.5)
dt
where, Q = Charge flowing at a constant rate
t = Time
dq = Change in charge in a time of dt
dt = Time required to produce a change in charge dq
Voltage : Every charge will have potential energy. The difference in potential energy
between the charges is called potential difference. In electrical terminology, the
potential difference is called voltage. Potential difference indicates the amount of
work done to move a charge from one place to another. Voltage is expressed in volt.
One volt is the potential difference between two points, when one joule of energy
is utilised in transfering one coulomb of charge from one point to the other.
A steady voltage can be expressed as,
Energy
Voltage, V = = W .....(1.6)
Charge Q
A time varying voltage can be expressed as,
Instantaneous voltage, v = dw .....(1.7)
dq
Also, 1 V = 1 J = 1 J/s = 1 W .....(1.8)

1C 1 C/s 1A
` Voltage, V = Power = P .....(1.9)
Current I
One volt is also defined as the difference in electric potential between two points
along a conductor carrying a constant current of one ampere when the power
dissipated between the two points is one watt.
1.1.6 Symbols used for Average, RMS and Maximum Values
The quantities like voltage, current, power and energy may be constant or varying with
respect to time. For a time varying quantity we can define the value of the quantity as instantaneous,
average, rms and maximum value. The symbols used for these values are listed in Table 1.3.
Table 1.3 : Symbols of DC and AC Variables
AC or Time varying
Quantity DC Instantaneous Average Maximum RMS Phasors

value value value value or
Vectors
Current I i Iave Im or Ip I I
Voltage V v Vave Vm or Vp V V
Power P p P Pm - S
Energy W w W Wm - -
1.1.7 Steady State Analysis and Transient Analysis

Circuit analysis can be classified into steady state analysis and transient analysis. The analysis
of circuits during switching conditions is called transient analysis. During switching conditions,
the current and voltage change from one value to the other. In purely resistive circuits this may not
be a problem because the resistance will allow sudden change in voltage and current.
In inductive circuits, the current cannot change instantaneously. In capacitive circuits, the
voltage cannot change instantaneously. Hence, when the circuit is switched from one state to the
other, the voltage and current cannot attain a steady value instantaneously in inductive or capacitive
circuits. Therefore, during switching conditions there will be a small period during which the current
and voltage will change from an initial value to a final steady value. The time from the instant of
switching to the attainment of steady value is called transient period. Physically, the transient can
be realised in switching of tubelights, fans, motors, etc.
In certain circuits, the transient period is negligible and we may be interested only in steady
value of the response. Therefore, steady state analysis is sufficient. The analysis of circuits under
steady state (i.e., by neglecting the transient period) is called steady state analysis. Steady state
analysis of circuits is discussed in this book in all chapters except Chapter 4.
In certain circuits the transient period is critical and we may require the response of the circuit
during the transient period. Some practical examples where transient analysis is vital are starters,
circuit breakers, relays, etc. Transient analysis of circuits is discussed in Chapter 4.
1.1.8 Assumptions in Circuit Theory

In circuit analysis the elements of the circuit are assumed to be linear, bilateral and lumped
elements.
In linear elements, the voltage-current characteristics are linear and the circuit consisting of
linear elements is called linear circuit or network. The resistor, inductor and capacitor are linear
elements. Some elements exhibit non-linear characteristics. For example, diodes and transistors
have non-linear voltage-current characteristics, capacitance of a varactor diode is non-linear
and inductance of an inductor with hysteresis is non-linear. For analysis purpose, the non-linear
characteristics can be linearised over a certain range of operation.
In a bilateral element, the relationship between voltage and current will be the same for
two possible directions of current through the element. On the other hand, a unilateral element
will have different voltage-current characteristics for the two possible directions of current through
the element. The diode is an example of a unilateral element.
In practical devices like transmission lines, windings of motors, coils, etc., the parameters
(R, L and C) are distributed in nature. But for analysis purpose we assume that the parameters
are lumped (i.e., concentrated at one place). This approximation is valid only for low frequency
operations and it is not valid in the microwave frequency range. All analysis in this book is based
on the assumption that the elements are linear, bilateral and lumped elements.
1.2 Basic Concepts of Circuits and Networks

1.2.1 Basic Elements of Circuits
Circuits and Networks
An electric circuit consists of Resistors (R), Inductors (L), Capacitors (C), voltage sources
and/or current sources connected in a particular combination. When the sources are removed from
a circuit, it is called a network.
R1 R1
+
L R2 C L R2 C
E ~
E
Fig. a : Circuit. Fig. b : Network.

Fig. 1.3 : Example of circuit and network.
DC Circuits
The networks excited by dc sources are called dc circuits. In a dc source, the voltage and
current do not change with time. Hence, the property of capacitance and inductance will not arise
in steady state analysis of dc circuits.This chapter deals with steady state analysis of dc circuits.
Therefore, only resistive circuits are discussed in this chapter.
Active and Passive Elements
The elements of a circuit can be classified into active elements and passive elements. The
elements which can deliver energy are called active elements. The elements which consume energy
either by absorbing or storing are called passive elements.
The active elements are voltage and current sources. The sources can be of different nature.
The sources in which the current/voltage does not change with time are called direct current
sources or in short dc sources. (But in dc sources, the current/voltage changes with load). The
sources in which the current/voltage sinusoidally varies with time are called sinusoidal sources
or alternating current sources or in short ac sources.
The passive elements of a circuit are resistors, inductors and capacitors, which exhibit the
property of resistance, inductance and capacitance, respectively under ideal conditions. Resistance,
inductance and capacitance are called fundamental parameters of a circuit. Practically, these
parameters will be distributed in nature. For example, the resistance of a transmission line will exist
throughout its length. But for circuit analysis, the parameters are considered as lumped.
The resistor absorbs energy (and the absorbed energy is converted into heat). The inductor
and the capacitor store energy. When the power supply in the circuit is switched ON, the inductor
and the capacitor store energy, and when the supply is switched OFF, the stored energy leaks away
in the leakage path. (Hence, inductors and capacitors cannot be used as storage devices).
+ +
+ Is
E - E E = EÐq ~ Is = Is Ðq ~
- -
Fig. a : dc voltage Fig. b : dc current Fig. c : ac voltage Fig. d : ac current

source. source. source. source.
Vs + Is L
-
R C
Vs = RI or A vV Is = GV or A II
Fig. e : Dependent Fig. f : Dependent Fig. g : Fig. h : Fig. i :
voltage source. current source. Resistance. Inductance. Capacitance.
Fig. 1.4 : Symbols of active and passive elements of circuits.
Independent and Dependent Sources
Sources can be classified into independent and dependent sources. The electrical energy
supplied by an independent source does not depend on another electrical source. Independent
sources convert energy in some form into electrical energy. For example, a generator converts
mechanical energy into electrical energy, a battery converts chemical energy into electrical energy,
a solar cell converts light energy into electrical energy, a thermocouple converts heat energy into
electrical energy, etc.
The electrical energy supplied by a dependent source depends on another source of electrical
energy. For example, the output signal (energy) of a transistor or op-amp depends on the input
signal (energy), where the input signal is another source of electrical energy.
In the circuit sense, the voltage/current of an independent source does not depend on voltage/
current in any part of the circuit. But the voltage/current of a dependent source depends on the
voltage/current in some part of the same circuit.
1.2.2 Nodes, Branches and Closed Path
A typical circuit consists of lumped parameters, such as resistance, inductance, capacitance and
sources of electrical energy like voltage and current sources connected through resistance-less wires.
In a circuit, the meeting point of two or more elements is called a node. If more than two
elements meet at a node then it is called the principal node.
The path between any two nodes is called a branch. A branch may have one or more elements
connected in series.
A closed path is a path which starts at a node and travels through some part of the circuit
and arrives at the same node without crossing a node more than once.
The nodes, branches and closed paths of a typical circuit are shown in Fig. 1.5. The nodes
of the circuit are the meeting points of the elements denoted as A, B, C, D, E and F. The nodes A,
B, C and D are principal nodes because these nodes are meeting points of more than two elements.
E2 R3
+ E
F
E2 R3 A
+ C
E
A R2 B R4
F B C
R2 B R4 B
A C A C
R1 R1
R5 R6 R5 R6
E E
+ +
E1 E1
E E
D D D D
Fig. a : Typical circuit. Fig. b : Branches of the circuit in Fig. a.
E2 R3
+ E
R2 B R4 R1
R2 R4 R5 R6
E
A C + +
E1 E1
R1 R5 E E
R6 D
E2 R3
+ E
F
Fig. c : Nodes of the circuit in Fig. a.
E2 R3 E2 R3
+ E + E
F F
R2 B B R4 E2 R3
A C A C + E
F
R1 R2 R4
B
R5 R6 R5 A C
E
+
E1
E
E2 R3
D D + E
F
R2 B B R4
A C A C
R1 R1
R5 R5 R6 R6
E E
+ +
E1 E1
E E
D D D
Fig. d : Closed paths of the circuit in Fig. a.
Fig. 1.5 : A typical circuit and its branches, nodes and closed paths.
1.2.3 Series, Parallel, Star and Delta Connections

The various types of connections that we may encounter in electric circuits are series,
parallel, star and delta connections.
Series Connection
If two or more elements are connected such that the current through them is the same then
the connection is called a series connection. In a circuit if the current in a path is the same then
the elements in that path are said to be in series.
R1 R2 R3 I L1 L2 L3 C1 C2 C3
I I
Fig. a : Resistances in Fig. b : Inductances Fig. c : Capacitances

series. in series. in series.
V1 V2 V3 L C
I I R L I R C I R
E + E + E +
Fig. d : Voltage Fig. e : Resistance and Fig. f : Resistance and Fig. g : Resistance,
sources in series. inductance in series. capacitance in series. inductance and
capacitance in series.
Fig. 1.6 : Examples of series connected elements.
Ic
Ic
R3 L
R3 L
Ib R2 R4
B Id A C
A C A C
Ia Ie If Ia If
R1 R1
R5 R6 R6
+ +
~ E ~ E
E E
R7 D C R7 D D C
Fig. a : Typical circuit. Fig. b : Series paths in the circuit of Fig. a.

Fig. 1.7 : A typical circuit and its series paths.
Parallel Connection
If two or more elements are connected such that the voltage across them is the same then
the connection is called a parallel connection. In a circuit if the voltage across two or more paths
is the same then, they are said to be in parallel.
+ + + +
V R1 R2 R3 V L1 L2 L3 C1 C2 C3 V R L
V
E E E E
Fig. a : Resistances Fig. b : Inductances Fig. c : Capacitances Fig. d : R and L in parallel.

in parallel. in parallel. in parallel.
+ +
V R C V R L C I1 I2 I3
E E
Fig. e : R and C in parallel. Fig. f : R, L and C in parallel. Fig. g : Current sources in parallel.
Fig. 1.8 : Examples of parallel connected elements.
+ R1 R2 + R2 + R1
E ~ E ~ R1 E ~ R2
E E E
L C C L
Fig. a : The voltage source, series Fig. b : The voltage source, Resistance Fig. c : The voltage source,
combination of R1 and L and series R1 and series combination of R2 series combination of R1 and L
combination of R2 and C are in parallel. and C are in parallel. and resistance R2 are in parallel.
Fig. 1.9 : Simple circuits with parallel branches.
R6 G L
R2 R3 R3
B B B
A C C
R6 L +
G
R1
F R4 R5 R4 R5
V BD
+ VAC
E ~ + _
C A C C _
E
D A C D
E R2 B R3 E D
Fig. a : A typical circuit. Fig. b : The path AGC is parallel Fig. c : The path BCD is parallel
to the path ABC. to the path BED.
R2 R3
R2 A B B C
A B
A A C
+ _ B B _
+ VAB + VBC
R1 R1
F V AE R4 F R4 R4 R5
+ +
E ~ _ E
E E
~ C
E D
E E E
Fig. d : The path ABE is Fig. e : The path AFEB is parallel Fig. f : The path BEDC is parallel
parallel to the path AFE. to the resistance R2 . to the resistance R3 .
Fig. 1.10 : A typical circuit and its parallel paths.
R1 R3 R5 R5 D
A B C D CC
+
+
R4 VCE R6
E R2 R4 R6
E
_
E E E EE E
Fig. a : A typical circuit. Fig. b : R4 in parallel with series

combination of R5 and R6.
B B R3 C R1
A B B
+ +
+
R2 VBE R4 VBE
E R2
E
_ _
E E E E E
Fig. c : The path BCE is in parallel Fig. d : The path EAB is in parallel
to resistance R2 . to resistance R2 .
Fig. 1.11 : A typical circuit and its parallel paths.
Star-Delta Connection 1
R1 R2
N
R1 1 2
If three elements are connected
N
to meet at a node then the three R3 R2
R3
elements are said to be in a star 2
connection. If three elements with 3

3 3
a node in between any two elements Fig. a : Star connection. Fig. b : T-connection.
are connected to form a closed path 1 1
then they are said to be in a delta 1 2
R1 R2 R2
connection. The star connection
R1 R3
is also called T-connection and 3 2
R3 2
delta connection is also called 3 3
3
P-connection.
Fig. c : Delta connection. Fig. d : -connection.
Fig. 1.12 : Basic star and delta connections.
R5 R5
R1 B R3 R1 B R3 B R3
A C A C A C
+
E R2 R4 R2 R4
E
D D D
Fig. a : A typical circuit. Fig. b : Star connections in circuit of Fig. a.

R5 R3
B
C
R1 B R3 R2 R4
A C
D
Fig. c : Delta connections in circuit of Fig. a.
Fig. 1.13 : A typical circuit and its star and delta connections.
1.2.4 Open Circuit and Short Circuit

In a circuit if there is an open path or path of infinite resistance between two nodes then
that path is called an open circuit (OC). Since current can flow only in closed paths, the current
in the open circuit will be zero.
2 5
A A
A 1
Circuit OC 10 V +E 4 OC OC
N1
B 20 V +E
B B
1 3
Fig. 1.14 : Examples of open circuit (OC).
While applying KVL to closed paths, the open circuit can be included as an element of
infinite resistance in the path because a voltage exists across the two open nodes of a circuit.
In a circuit if there is a closed path of zero resistance between two nodes then it is called
short circuit (SC). Since the resistance of the short circuit is zero, the voltage across the short
circuit is zero.
2 5 A A
A
1
Circuit I SC 10 V +E 4 SC SC
N1
20 V +E
B
3 B B
1
Fig. 1.15 : Examples of short circuit (SC).
In a circuit if there are elements parallel to a short circuit then they will not carry any
current because the current will prefer the path of least resistance (or opposition) and so the entire
current will flow through the short circuit. Hence, the elements parallel to a short circuit need not
be considered for analysis as shown in the example circuit of Fig. 1.16.
1W 2W A 4W 2W 1W 2W A
10 V +- 2W SC 1W 1W Þ +
10 V - 2W SC
B B
2W A 2W A
5 V +- 3W 4W SC 5 V +- SC
Þ
6W
B B
6W
Fig. 1.16 : Examples of short circuit.
1.2.5 Sign Conventions

The elements of a circuit are two terminal elements. When a circuit is excited (i.e., power
supply is switched ON) a voltage is developed across the two terminals of the element such that
one end is positive and the other end is negative, and a current flows through the element. When
an element delivers energy, the current leaves the element from the positive terminal and when an
element absorbs energy, the current enters at the positive terminal.
In a circuit, normally the sources deliver energy and the passive elements−resistance,
inductance and capacitance absorb energy. Therefore, in a voltage/current source, when it delivers
energy, the current leaves from the positive terminal. In the parameters R, L and C, the current
enters at the positive terminal when they absorb energy.
I I I
+ + + +
+
E E I V R V L V C V
E E E E
Fig. a :Voltage Fig. b : Current Fig. c : Fig. d : Inductance Fig. e : Capacitance

source source Resistance absorbing absorbing energy.
delivering energy. delivering energy. absorbing energy. energy.
Fig. 1.17 : Sign conventions for sources when they deliver energy
and parameters when they absorb energy.
A chargeable battery is the best example I
for understanding the concept of energy delivery E +E

E
V
I
and absorption by sources. When the battery +
is connected to a load, it delivers energy. When

the battery is charged, it absorbs energy. When a Fig. a :Voltage source Fig. b : Current source
absorbing energy.
source absorbs energy, the current enters the source absorbing energy.
at the positive terminal, as shown in Fig. 1.18. Fig. 1.18 : Sign conventions for sources when
they absorb energy.
The resistance always absorbs energy but
the inductance and capacitance can deliver the stored energy temporarily. The inductance and
capacitance store energy when the supply is switched ON and when the supply is switched OFF
the stored energy is discharged in the available paths or leakage paths. When the inductance and
capacitance discharge energy, the current leaves from the positive terminal as shown in Fig. 1.19.
I I
+ +
L V C V
E E
Fig. a : Inductance discharging energy. Fig. b : Capacitance discharging energy.

Fig. 1.19 : Sign conventions for inductance and capacitance parameters when they discharge energy.
1.2.6 Voltage and Current Sources

Voltage and current are two quantities that decide the energy supplied by the sources of
electrical energy. Usually, the sources are operated by maintaining one of the two quantities as
constant and by allowing the other quantity to vary depending on the load.
When voltage is maintained constant and current is allowed to vary, the source is called a
voltage source. When current is maintained constant and voltage is allowed to vary, the source is
called a current source.
1.2.7 Ideal and Practical Sources
In ideal conditions the voltage across an ideal voltage source should be constant for
whatever current is delivered by the source. Similarly, the ideal current source should deliver a
constant current for whatever voltage across its terminals.
Is
E
I
+
+ V
E E Is
E
I V
Fig. a : Characteristics of an ideal voltage source. Fig. b : Characteristics of an ideal current source.
Fig. 1.20 : Characteristics of ideal sources.
In reality, ideal conditions never exist (but for analysis purpose, the sources can be
considered ideal). In a practical voltage source, the voltage across the source decreases with
increasing load current and the reduction in voltage is due to its internal resistance. In a practical
current source, the current delivered by the source decreases with increasing load voltage and
the reduction in current is due to its internal resistance.
E Is
I V
Fig. a : Characteristics of a practical Fig. b : Characteristics of a practical

voltage source. current source.
Fig. 1.21 : Characteristics of practical sources.
Let, Es = Voltage across ideal source (or internal voltage of the source)
Is = Current delivered by ideal source (or current generated by the source)
V = Voltage across the terminals of the source
I = Current delivered through the terminals of the source
Rs = Source resistance (or internal resistance).
A practical voltage source can be IRs I
V, E
+ E
considered as a series combination of an ideal +
Rs
voltage source and a source resistance, Rs. The E Vs I
E +E
}IRs
reduction in voltage across the terminals with V VV
sI
increasing load current is due to the voltage drop
E
in the source resistance. When the value of source I
resistance is zero, the ideal condition is achieved in V = E E IRs

voltage sources. Hence, “the source resistance for Fig. 1.22 : A practical dc voltage source.
an ideal voltage source is zero”.
Is, I
I
A practical current source can be +
Ish
considered as a parallel combination of an ideal Is Vs V
current source and a source resistance, Rs. The Is Rs I Vs

}Ish
V V
reduction in current delivered by the source is
due to the current drawn by the parallel source E V
resistance. When the value of source resistance is I = Is E Ish
infinite, the ideal condition is achieved in current Fig. 1.23 : A practical dc current source.
sources. Hence, “the source resistance for an ideal
current source is infinite”.
1.2.8 DC Source Transformation

A practical voltage source can be converted into an equivalent practical current source and
vice versa, with the same terminal behaviour. In these conversions the current and voltage at the
terminal of the equivalent source will be the same as that of the original source, so that the power
delivered to a load connected at the terminals of original and equivalent source is the same.
Rs
A A
+ + +
IRs - I Ish I
E +- V RL Þ Is Rs V RL
- -
B Is = E/Rs B
Fig. a : Voltage source. Fig. b : Equivalent current source of the

voltage source in Fig. a.
Fig. 1.24 : Conversion of voltage source to current source.
A voltage source with series resistance can be converted into an equivalent current source
with parallel resistance as shown in Fig. 1.24. Similarly, a current source with parallel resistance
can be converted into an equivalent voltage source with series resistance as shown in Fig. 1.25.
The proof for source conversions are presented in Chapter 2.
A Rs
A
+ + - +
V I IRs I
Rs
Is Rs V RL Þ E +- V RL
- -
B E = Is R s B
Fig. a : Current source. Fig. b : Equivalent voltage source of the

current source in Fig. a.
Fig. 1.25 : Conversion of current source to voltage source.
1.2.9 Power and Energy

Power is the rate at which work is done or it is the rate of energy transfer.
Let, w = Instantaneous value of energy
q = Instantaneous value of charge.
dq
Now, Instantaneous power, p = dw = dw #
dt dq dt Refer equations
dq (1.5) and (1.7).
We know that, dw = v and = i
dq dt
` p = vi
Therefore, power is the product of voltage and current. In circuits excited by dc sources,
the voltage and current are constant and so the power is constant. This constant power is called
average power or power and it is denoted by P.
\ In DC circuits,
Power, P = VI
Power is the rate of work done and Energy is the total work done. Hence, energy is given
by the product of power and time. When time is expressed in seconds, the unit of energy is watt-
second and when the time is expressed in hours, the unit of energy is watt-hour.
\ Energy, E = P t in W-s or W-h
The larger unit of electrical energy is kWh and commercially one kWh of electrical energy
is called one unit.
` Energy, E = Pt in kWh
1000 # 3600
1.3 Ohm’s and Kirchhoff’s Laws

The three fundamental laws that govern the electric circuit are Ohm’s law, Kirchhoff’s
Current Law (KCL) and Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL).
1.3.1 Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s law states that the potential difference (or voltage) across any two ends of a conductor is directly
proportional to the current flowing between the two ends provided the temperature of the conductor remains constant.
The constant of proportionality is the resistance R of the conductor.
\V a I ⇒ V = IR ..... (1.10)
From equation (1.10), we can say that when a current I flows through a resistance R, the
voltage V, across the resistance is given by the product of current and resistance.
1.3.2 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) (AU Dec’15, 2 Marks)
Kirchhoff’s Current Law states that the algebraic sum of currents at a node is zero.
∑I=0
I4
Hence, we can say that current cannot stay at a point. While
applying Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) to a node we have to R4
Node
assign polarity or sign (i.e., + or −) for the current entering and
leaving that node. Let us assume that the currents entering the I1 R1 R3 I3
node are negative and currents leaving the node are positive. R2
With reference to Fig. 1.26, we can say that currents I1 and

I2
I2 are entering the node and the currents I3 and I4 are leaving the
node.Therefore, by Kirchhoff’s Current Law we can write, Fig. 1.26 : Currents in a node.
−I1 − I2 + I3 + I4 = 0
∴ I1 + I2 = I3 + I4 ..... (1.11)
From equation (1.11), we can say “the sum of currents entering a node is equal to the sum
of currents leaving that node”. This concept is easier to apply while solving problems using KCL.
1.3.3 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

C R2 D R3 I E
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law states that the algebraic sum of + E + E
IR2 IR3
voltages in a closed path is zero. I
+
E
IR4 R4
∑V=0 R1 IR1
+ E
A closed path may have voltage rises and voltage falls B F

+ E
when it is traversed or traced in a particular direction.While E1 E2
IR5
+ +
applying KVL to a closed path we have to assign polarity E E
A I G
R5
or sign (i.e., + or -) to voltage fall and rise. Let us assume
Fig. 1.27 : A circuit with a single
voltage rise as positive and voltage fall as negative. closed path.
Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 1.27. Let us trace the circuit in the direction of
current I. In the closed path ABCDEFGA, the voltage rise are E1 and E2 and voltage fall are IR1,
IR2, IR3, IR4 and IR5.
Therefore, by KVL we can write,
E1 + E2 - IR1 - IR2 - IR3 - IR4 - IR5 = 0
∴ E1 + E2 = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 + IR4 + IR5 ..... (1.12)

From equation (1.12) we can say “the sum of voltage rise in a closed path is equal to the
sum of voltage fall in that closed path”. This concept is easier to apply while solving problems
using KVL.
1.4 Resistive Elements
The devices that can be operated by electrical energy can be modelled by fundamental
parameters R, L and C. In certain devices L and C are negligible and such devices can be
modelled by pure resistance and so can be called resistive elements. Examples of such devicces
are incandescent lamp, water heater, ironbox and copper and aluminium wires.
1.4.1 Resistance (AU May’15, 2 Marks)
Resistance is the property of an element (or matter) which opposes the flow of current
(or electrons). The current carrying element is called a conductor. The resistance of a conductor
(in the direction of current flow) is directly proportional to its length l and inversely proportional
to the area of cross section a.
` Resistance, R α l
a
The proportionality constant is the resistivity r of the material of the conductor.
ρl
` R =
a
The unit of resistivity is ohm-metre(Ω-m). The resistivity of a material at a given temperature
is constant. For example, the resistivity of copper is 1.72 ´ 10–8 W-m and that of aluminium is
2.69 ´ 10−8 Ω-m at 20o C.
The resistance of a conductor is distributed Lumped resistance
throughout the length of the conductor. For analysis R
purpose, the resistance is assumed to be concentrated

at one place, which is called lumped resistance. For
connecting the lumped resistance to the other part resistance-less wire
of the circuit, resistance-less wires are connected to Fig. 1.28 : A lumped resistance with
its ends as shown in Fig. 1.28. (Normally, the term resistance-less wires connected to its ends.
resistance in circuit theory refers only to lumped
resistance).
1.4.2 Resistance Connected to DC Source

Consider a resistance R connected to dc source of voltage V volts as shown in Fig. 1.29.
Since the resistance is connected across (or parallel to) the source, the voltage across the resistance
is also V volts.
By Ohm’s law, the current through the resistance is given by,
I = V ⇒ V = IR ..... (1.13)
R I
Power in the resistance, P = VI ..... (1.14)

+
Using equation (1.13), equation (1.14) can also be written as, V E
+ V R
2 E
P = VI = V # V = V and P = VI = IR ´ I = I2 R
R R
2 Fig. 1.29 : Resistance
` Power, P = VI or P = V or P = I2 R connected to a DC source.
R
1.4.3 Resistance in Series

R1 R2 Req = R1 + R2
Consider a circuit with + E + E
IR1 IR2
series combination of two
resistances R 1 and R 2 connected
to a dc source of voltage V as I
I
shown in Fig.1.30(a). Let the +
V
E + E
V
current through the circuit be I. Fig. a : Resistances in series. Fig. b : Equivalent circuit of Fig. a.
Fig. 1.30 : Resistances in series.
It can be proved that the
series-connected resistances R 1 and R 2 can be replaced by an equivalent resistance R eq given by
the sum of individual resistances R 1 and R 2 as shown in Fig. 1.30(b). The proof for resistance in
series is presented in Chapter 2.
Voltage Division in Series Connected Resistances

R1 R2
Equations (1.15) and (1.16) given below can be used I
+ +
to determine the voltages across series connected resistances V1
E
V2
E
shown in Fig. 1.31 in terms of total voltage across the series

combination and the values of individual resistances. Hence,
these equations are called voltage division rule. The proof for
+E
voltage division rule is presented in Chapter 2. V
Fig. 1.31 : Resistances in series.
V1 = V # R1 .....(1.15)
R1 + R2
V2 = V # R2 .....(1.16)
R1 + R2
The following equation will be helpful to remember the voltage division rule.
In two series connected resistances,
Total voltage across Value of the
#
series combination resistance
Voltage across one of the resistance =
Sum of the inidvidual resistances
1.4.4 Resistance in Parallel I

I1 I2
Consider a circuit with two resistances in parallel + +
V + V R1 V R2
and connected to a dc source of voltage V as shown in E
E E
Fig. 1.32(a). Let I be the current supplied by the source and
I 1 and I2 be the current through R1 and R2, respectively. Since
Fig. a : Resistances in parallel.
the resistances are parallel to the source, the voltage across I
them will be the same.
+
V +
eq V R
It can be proved that the inverse of the equivalent E
E 1 R R
Req a a 1 2
resistance of parallel connected resistances is equal to the 1
C
1 R1 C R2
R1 R2
sum of the inverse of individual resistances. The proof for Fig. b : Equivalent circuit of Fig. a.
resistance in parallel is presented in Chapter 2. Fig. 1.32 : Resistances in parallel.
Current Division in Parallel Connected Resistances
I
Equations (1.17) and (1.18) given below can be used to
I1 I2
determine the currents in parallel connected resistances shown in
Fig. 1.33 in terms of total current drawn by the parallel + +
+
V E V R1 V R2
combination and the values of individual resistances.
Hence, these equations are called current division rule.
E E
The proof for current division rule is presented in Chapter 2.

I1 = I # R2 .....(1.17) Fig. 1.33 : Resistances
R1 + R2 in parallel.
I2 = I # R1 .....(1.18)
R1 + R2
The following equation will be helpful to remember the current division rule.
In two parallel connected resistances,
Total current drawn by Value of the
#
parallel combination other resistance
Current through one of the resistance =
Sum of the inidvidual resistances
1.4.5 Analysis of Resistors in Series-Parallel Circuits

A typical circuit consists of a series-parallel connection of passive elements like resistance,
inductance and capacitance and excited by voltage/current sources. The sources circulate current
through all the elements of the circuit. Due to current flow, a voltage exists across each element
of the circuit.
Basically, circuit analysis involves the solution of currents and voltages in various elements
of a circuit. The currents and voltages can be solved using the three fundamental laws: Ohm’s law,
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) and Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL).
Now, the questions are: What will be the direction of current and polarity of voltage of an
element in a circuit and how to find them ?
In practical cases we may come across circuits with a single source or circuits with
multiple sources. In circuits excited by a single source, with some experience it is possible to
predict the direction of current because the current will leave from the positive end of the source
and flow through available paths and then return to the negative end of the source.
In circuits with multiple sources, it will be difficult to find the direction of current through
various elements. A common procedure to determine the current and voltage in various elements
of a circuit is presented in the following section.
Procedure for Analysis of Circuits Using Fundamental Laws
1. Mark the nodes of the given circuit as A, B, C, D, etc. We can mark all the nodes
including the meeting point of two elements.
2. Determine the number of branches in the given circuit. Attach a current to each branch
of the circuit and arbitarily assume a direction for each branch current. Let, the branch
currents be Ia, Ib, Ic, Id,etc.
3. Write Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) equations at each principal node of the circuit.
(Remember that a principal node is the meeting point of three or more elements.)
The KCL equation is obtained by equating the sum of currents leaving the node to the sum of
currents entering the node. Therefore, by KCL,
Sum of currents entering the node = Sum of currents leaving the node.
4. Any circuit will have some independent currents and the remaining currents will
depend on the independent currents. Hence, using the KCL equations, try to minimise
the number of unknown currents by expressing some branch currents in terms of other
branch currents. (The ultimate aim is to choose some independent currents and to
express other currents in terms of independent currents.)
5. Let, the number of independent currents in the given circuit be M. Now we have to
identify or choose M number of closed paths in the given circuit. For each closed path
write a Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) equation.
The KVL equation is formed by equating the sum of voltage fall in the closed path to
the sum of voltage rise in that closed path. Therefore, by KVL,
Sum of voltage fall in a closed path = Sum of voltage rise in a closed path.
6. The M number of KVL equations can be solved by any technique to find a unique
solution for M independent branch currents.
7. From the knowledge of independent branch currents, determine the dependent branch
currents.
8. Once the branch currents are known it is easy to find the voltage across the elements
by Ohm’s law. The voltage across an element is given by the product of resistance
and current, i.e., by Ohm’s law,
Voltage = Resistance ´ Current

9. If we are interested in calculating the power of an element then the power can be
calculated from the knowledge of voltage and current in the element.
In purely resistive circuits excited by dc sources,
Power = (Current)2 ´ Resistance
^Voltageh2
or Power = or Power = Voltage # Current
Resistance
Some Important Basic Concepts
1. When a source delivers energy, the current will leave from the positive end of the
source and return to the negative end.
2. In series connected elements, the same current will flow.
3. In parallel connected elements, the voltage across them will be the same.
I
4. When a current flows through a resistance, the polarity of voltage +
across the resistance will be such that the current entering point is V R
positive and the leaving point is negative as shown in Fig. 1.34. E
5. If the total voltage across two resistances R1 and R2 in series is V volts

and V1 and V2 are the voltage across R1 and R2, respectively then, Fig. 1.34.
V1 = V # R1 and V2 = V # R2
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
6. If the total current through two resistances R1 and R2 in parallel is I amperes and I1 and
I2 are the current through R1 and R2, respectively then,
I1 = I # R2 and I2 = I # R1
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
1.4.6 Single Loop Circuit E2

R1 R2
+ E
A single loop circuit is one which has only one closed path. + E + E
In a single loop circuit all the elements are connected in series and IR1 IR2
+
so current through all the elements will be the same. A single loop E1 I
circuit can be analysed using Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) E
and Ohm’s law. E

IR4
+ E
IR3
+
A single loop circuit is shown in Fig. 1.35. Let, I be the R4 R3

current through the circuit. By Ohm’s law, the voltage across a Fig. 1.35 : Single loop circuit.
resistance is given by the product of resistance and current through
the resistance.
Now, using KVL we can write,
IR1 + IR2 + E2 + IR3 + IR4 = E1 ⇒ I(R1 + R2 + R3 + R4) = E1 - E2
` I = E1 − E2
R1 + R2 + R3 + R4
From the above equation, the current through the single loop circuit of Fig. 1.35 can be
estimated. From the knowledge of current and resistance, the voltage across various elements can
be estimated. From the knowledge of voltage and current, the power can be estimated.
1.4.7 Single Node Pair Circuit
V Node-1
A single node pair circuit is one which has only one
V V V V
independent node and a reference node. In a single node R1 R2 R3 R4
pair circuit all the elements are connected in parallel and so I1 R1 R2 R3 I2 R4
voltage across all the elements will be the same. A single
node pair circuit can be analysed using Kirchhoff’s Current
Law (KCL) and Ohm’s law.
0V
A single node pair circuit is shown in Fig. 1.36. Let, V Reference node
be the voltage of the independent node (node-1) with respect Fig. 1.36 : Single node pair circuit.
to the reference node.The voltage of the reference node is always zero. By Ohm’s law, the current
through the resistance is given by the ratio of voltage and resistance.
Now, using KCL we can write,
V V V V 1 1 1 1
+ + + I2 + = I1 ⇒ V c + + + m = I1 − I2
R1 R2 R3 R4 R1 R2 R3 R4
` V = I1 − I2
1 + 1 + 1 + 1
R1 R2 R3 R4
From the above equation the voltage of the independent node (node-1) can be estimated.
This voltage is the voltage across all the elements in the single node pair circuit. From the
knowledge of voltage and resistance, the current through various resistances can be estimated.
From the knowledge of voltage and current, the power in various elements can be estimated.
1.4.8 Solved Problems I
EXAMPLE 1.1
2
A 9 V Battery with internal resistance of 2 Ω is connected to a 16 Ω
Battery
16
resistive load. Calculate a) power delivered to load, b) power loss in the battery
and c) efficiency of the battery. 9V +
E
SOLUTION
Fig. 1.
The battery connected to resistive load can be represented by the circuit
shown in Fig. 1.
Let, I = Current delivered by the battery.
Now, by Ohm’s law,
I = 9 = 0.5 A
2 + 16
Power delivered to load, PL = I2 ´ 16
= 0.52 ´ 16 = 4 W
Power loss in the battery, PLB = I2 ´ 2
= 0.52 ´ 2 = 0.5 W
Load power
% Efficiency of battery, ηB = # 100
Load power + Power loss
PL 4
= # 100 = # 100 = 88.9%
PL + PLB 4 + 0.5
EXAMPLE 1.2
An 8.4 A current generator with internal resistance of 200 Ω is connected to a 10 Ω resistive load.
Calculate a) power delivered to load, b) power loss in the current generator and c) efficiency of the current
generator.
SOLUTION
The current generator connected to resistive load can be represented by the circuit shown in Fig. 1.
Let, VL = Voltage across the load.
Now, by Kirchhoff’s current law,
VL V
+ L = 8.4 ⇒ VL c 1 + 1 m = 8.4 ⇒ 0.105 VL = 8.4
200 10 200 10
Current generator
` VL = 8.4 = 80 V VL
0.105
VL VL
V2 200 10
Power delivered to load, PL = L +
10 8.4 A 200 VL 10
2 E
= 80 = 640 W
10
VL2 2
Power loss in current generator, P LCG = = 80 = 32 W
200 200
Fig. 1.
Load power PL
% Efficiency of current generator, ηCG = # 100 = # 100
Load power + Power loss PL + PLCG
= 640 # 100 = 95.2%

640 + 32
EXAMPLE 1.3
IL = 160A
Two batteries A and B with internal emf EA and EB and with IA IB
+ +
internal resistance RA and RB are properly connected in parallel to
+
supply a current of 160 A to a load resistance RL. Given that, EA = EA, RA +E VA EB, RB +E VB VL RL
120 V, RA = 0.15 Ω, RB = 0.1 Ω and IB = 60 A. Calculate a) EB and E
b) load power.
E E
SOLUTION Fig. 1.
IL = 160 A
Let, EA, EB = Internal (or generated) voltage of sources
IA + IB = 60 A +
VA, VB = Terminal voltage of sources
E
+
RBIB
RAIA
RA = 0.15 RB = 0.1
IA, IB = Current supplied by the sources VA VB VL RL
+ +
E
IL = Load current EA = 120 V +E EB +E
E E
VL = Voltage across the load.
Fig. 2.
The sources are connected parallel to the load as shown in Fig. 1.
In Fig. 2, the sources are represented as ideal sources with source resistance connected in series
with ideal source.
By KCL, we can write,
IL = IA + IB
∴ IA = IL − IB
= 160 − 60 = 100 A
By KVL, we can write,
EA = RAIA + VA
∴ VA = EA − RAIA
= 120 − 0.15 ´ 100
= 105 V
Since the sources and load are in parallel,
VA = VB = VL = 105 V
By KVL, we can write, EB = RB IB + VB
= 0.1 ´ 60 + 105 = 111 V

Load power, PL = VL IL = 105 ´ 160 = 16800 W
= 16800 kW = 16.8 kW
1000
VL
Also load resistance, RL =
IL
= 105 = 0.65625 Ω
160
RESULT
EB = 111 V, PL = 16.8 kW, RL = 0.65625 Ω
EXAMPLE 1.4 (AU Dec’15, 8 Marks) E

4V
+
2
Determine the magnitude and direction of the current in the 2 V battery in

the circuit shown in Fig. 1.
2V 3
SOLUTION + E
Let us assume three branch currents Ia, Ib and Ic as shown in Fig. 2. The
currents are assumed such that they leave from the positive terminal of the sources. 3V 1.5
+ E
The nodes in the circuit are denoted as A, B, C, D and E.
By KCL at node-A we get, Fig. 1.
Current leaving node-A : Ia
Currents entering node-A : Ib, Ic
∴ Ia = Ib + Ic ..... (1)
4V 2
With reference to Fig. 2, in the closed path ACBDA we get, E +
C + E
Ia 2Ia
Voltage fall : 2Ia, 3Ib
2V 3
+ E
Voltage rise : 4 V, 2 V A B
Ib D E +
3Ib
∴ 2Ia + 3Ib = 4 + 2
3V 1.5
+ E
Put, Ia = Ib + Ic E +
Ic E
1.5Ic
∴ 2(Ib + Ic) + 3Ib = 6 ⇒ 5Ib + 2Ic = 6 ..... (2) Fig. 2.
With reference to Fig. 2, in the closed path ADBEA we get,
Voltage fall : 2 V, 1.5Ic
Voltage rise : 3Ib, 3 V
∴ 2 + 1.5Ic = 3Ib + 3
−3Ib + 1.5Ic = 3 − 2
−3Ib + 1.5Ic = 1 ..... (3)

Equation (2) ´ 1.5 ⇒ 7.5Ib + 3Ic = 9
Equation (3) ´ (-2) ⇒ 6Ib - 3Ic = -2
On adding 13.5Ib = 7
` Ib = 7 = 0.5185 A
13.5
Therefore, the current supplied by the 2 V battery is 0.5185 A in the direction B to A (Refer Fig. 2.).
The currents supplied by other sources can be estimated as shown below:
1 + 3Ib
From equation (3), Ic = = 1 + 3 # 0.5185 = 1.7037 A
1.5 1.5
From equation (1), Ia = Ib + Ic = 0.5185 + 1.7037 = 2.222 A
EXAMPLE 1.5
10
In the circuit shown in Fig. 1, the current in 5 Ω resistor is 5 A.
Calculate the power consumed by the 5 Ω resistor. Also determine the
5 20
current through 10 Ω resistance and the supply voltage E.
SOLUTION 30
5A
Power consumed by 5 Ω resistor = (Current)2 ´ Resistance
= 52 ´ 5 = 125 W + E
E Fig. 1.
The resistances 20 Ω and 30 Ω in parallel in Fig. 1, can be
replaced by a single equivalent resistance as shown in Fig. 2. [Refer Chapter 2 for calculating equivalent
resistance].
Let, Is = Current supplied by source
I1 = Current through 10 Ω
I2 = Current through 12 Ω
V1 = Voltage across 5 Ω
V2 = Voltage across 10 Ω and 12 Ω in parallel.
In Fig. 2, the current Is divides into I1 and I2 and flows through parallel resistances 10 Ω and 12 Ω. The
currents I1 and I2 can be calculated by current division rule. I1 10 W
By current division rule, + -

V2
5W Is
I1 = Is # 12 = 5 # 12 = 2.7273 A + -
10 + 12 10 + 12 V1
V2
By Ohm’s law, + -
Is = 5 A
I2
20 ´ 30
V1 = 5 ´ 5 = 25 V = 12 W
20 + 30
V2 = 10 ´ I1 = 10 ´ 2.7273 = 27.273 V + -
E Fig. 2.
E = V1 + V2 = 25 + 27.273 = 52.273 V
RESULT
Power consumed by 5 Ω resistor = 125 W
Current through 10 Ω resistor = 2.7273 A
Supply voltage, E = 52.273 V
EXAMPLE 1.6 8
In the circuit shown in Fig. 1, the voltage across 8 Ω resistor is 20 V. What +
20 V
E
is the current through 12 Ω resistor?. Also calculate the supply voltage.
E +E 18 12
SOLUTION
Let, Is be the current supplied by the source. The Is divides into I1 and I2
and flows through parallel connected 18 Ω and 12 Ω resistances as shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 1.
The current supplied by the source flows through 8 Ω resistance. Since
the voltage across 8 Ω is known, the current Is can be calculated by Ohm’s law. Is 8
By Ohm’s law, + E I2
V1 = 20 V
Is = 20 = 2.5 A
I1
8 + 12
+
E +E 18
V2 V2
By current division rule,
E
E
I2 = Is # 18
18 + 12
Fig. 2.
= 2.5 # 18 = 1.5 A
18 + 12
Let, V1 = Voltage across 8 Ω resistance.
V2 = Voltage across parallel combination of 18 Ω and 12 Ω.
Given that, V1 = 20 V
By Ohm’s law, V2 = 12 ´ I2 = 12 ´ 1.5 = 18 V

With reference to Fig. 2, by KVL we can write,
E = V1 + V2 = 20 + 18 = 38 V
RESULT
Current through 12 Ω resistor = 1.5 A
Supply voltage, E = 38 V
EXAMPLE 1.7
+
In the circuit of Fig. 1, show that the power supplied by the 10 V R 2A
current source is double of that supplied by the voltage source when E
R = (10/3) Ω.
SOLUTION
Fig. 1.
Since the voltage source, current source and R are in parallel,
the voltage across them will be the same, as shown in Fig. 2.
Let, I1 = Current supplied by voltage source I1 I I2 = 2 A

+ +
I2 = Current supplied by current source
10 V +E 10 V R 10 V 2A
I = Current through R. E E
By Ohm’s law,
Voltage across resistance Fig. 2.
I = = 10 = 3 A
Resistance 10/3
By KCL, we can write, I = I1 + I2
Given that, I2 = 2 A
∴ I1 = I − I2 = 3 − 2 = 1 A
Now, Power supplied by 10 V source = 10 ´ I1 = 10 ´ 1 = 10 W

Power supplied by 2 A source = 10 ´ I2 = 10 ´ 2 = 20 W
From the above results it is clear that the power supplied by the current source is 20 W, which is double
the power supplied by the voltage source.
C 10 A
EXAMPLE 1.8
Find the power dissipated in each resistor in the circuit of Fig. 1.
SOLUTION 2 1
The power dissipated in the resistors can be calculated from the

knowledge of current through the resistors. Let us denote the current 30 A 2 20 A
through the resistors as Ia, Ib and Ic as shown in Fig. 2. A B
In the closed path ACBA using KVL, we can write, Fig. 1.

I
2Ia + Ib = 2Ic ⇒ Ia + b = Ic
2
∴ Ic = Ia + 0.5Ib ..... (1)
At node-A, by KCL, we get, C 10 A
Ia + Ic = 30 ..... (2) Ib
On substituting for Ic from equation (1) in equation (2), we get,

E
2 + 1
Ib
Ia + Ia + 0.5Ib = 30 ⇒ 2Ia + 0.5Ib = 30 2Ia
E
+
..... (3) Ia
30 A 2 20 A
At node-C, by KCL, we get, E B
A Ic
+
2Ic
Ib + 10 = Ia ⇒ Ia − Ib = 10 ..... (4) Fig. 2.
Equation (3) ´ 1 ⇒ 2Ia + 0.5Ib = 30
Equation (4) ´ 0.5 ⇒ 0.5Ia − 0.5Ib = 5
On adding 2.5Ia = 35
` Ia = 35 = 14 A
2.5
From equation (4) we get, Ib = Ia − 10 = 14 − 10 = 4 A
From equation (1) we get, Ic = Ia + 0.5Ib = 14 + 0.5 ´ 4 = 16 A
We know , Power consumed by a resistor = ^Currenth 2 # Resistance
Power consumed by 2Ω resistor between nodes A and C = Ia2 # 2 = 142 # 2 = 392 W
Power consumed by 2Ω resistor between nodes A and B = Ic2 # 2 = 162 # 2 = 512 W
Power consumed by 1Ω resistor between nodes B and C = Ib2 # 1 = 4 2 # 1 = 16 W
EXAMPLE 1.9
2
In the circuit shown in Fig. 1, find a) the total current drawn from 1
the battery, b) voltage across 2 W resistor and c) current passing through 7 5
the 5 W resistor. +
10 V
E
SOLUTION
Let, IT be the total current supplied by the source. This current Fig. 1.
flows through 1 W and 2 W in series and then it divides into I1 and I2 and
2 IT I1 I2
flows through the parallel combination of 7 W and 5 W as shown in Fig. 2. 1
The parallel combination of 7 W and 5 W can be reduced to a single IT 7 5

+
equivalent resistance as shown in Fig. 3. (Refer Chapter 2 for calculating 10 V
equivalent resistance.) E
By Ohm’s law, we can write, Fig. 2.
IT = 10 = 1.6901 A
1 + 2 + 2.9167
∴ Voltage across 2 Ω resistor = IT ´ 2 = 1.6901 ´ 2

2W IT
1W
= 3.3802 V
5´7
IT 5+7
+ = 2.9167 W
10 V
Current through 5 Ω resistor, I 2 = I T # 7 -
5 + 7
Fig. 3.
= 1.6901 # 7 = 0.9859 A
5 + 7
RESULT
a) Total current supplied by the source, IT = 1.6901 A
b) Voltage across 2 Ω resistor = 3.3802 V
c) Current through 5 Ω resistor = 0.9859 A

EXAMPLE 1.10
Calculate the current in all the elements of the circuit shown in Fig. 1. 2 6
+
E 10 V
SOLUTION
Since the circuit has only one source. The direction of current through the 4
elements can be found as shown in Fig. 2. 3 8
By applying KCL at node-A we get, Fig. 1.

A
Currents leaving node-A : Ib, Ic Ib
Ic
Ia
Current entering node-A : Ia 2 6
+
E 10 V
\ Ib + Ic = Ia
D B
\ Ic = Ia - Ib ..... (1) 4
3 8
From equation (1) we can say that current Ic can be expressed in terms
Fig. 2.
of Ia and Ib. Hence, the circuit has only two independent currents, Ia and Ib and C
they can be solved by writing two KVL equations in the closed paths ABCA and
ADCA.
A
Ib
With reference to Fig. 3, in the closed path ADCA we get,
Ia
2Ib +
+ 10 V
Voltage fall : 2Ib, 3Ib, 4Ia
E
E
D
E
Voltage rise : 10 V
+ 4Ia
3Ib +
\ 2Ib + 3Ib + 4Ia = 10
E
C
4Ia + 5Ib = 10 ..... (2)
Fig. 3.
A
With reference to Fig. 4, in the closed path ABCA we get,
I c = I a E Ib
Ia +
Voltage fall : 6(Ia - Ib), 8(Ia - Ib), 4Ia 6(Ia E Ib)
+
E
E 10 V
Voltage rise : 10 V
B
\ 6(Ia - Ib) + 8(Ia - Ib) + 4Ia = 10 E
4Ia
+
14(Ia - Ib) + 4Ia = 10 + 8(Ia E Ib)

E
14Ia - 14Ib + 4Ia = 10

C
18Ia - 14Ib = 10 ..... (3)
Fig. 4.
Equation (2) ´ 14 ⇒ 56Ia + 70Ib = 140
Equation (3) ´ 5 ⇒ 90Ia - 70Ib = 50

On adding 146Ia = 190
` Ia = 190 = 1.3014 A
146
10 − 4Ia
From equation (2), we get, Ib =
5
= 10 − 4 # 1.3014 = 0.9589 A
5
From equation (1), we get, Ic = Ia - Ib = 1.3014 – 0.9589 = 0.3425 A
RESULT
The current through the elements (i.e., branch currents) are,
Ia = 1.3014 A ; Ib = 0.9589 A ; Ic = 0.3425 A
EXAMPLE 1.11 (AU June’14, 8 Marks)

A
Determine the current in all the resistors of the circuit shown in Fig 1.
I1 I2 I3
SOLUTION 50 A 2 1 5
Let, voltage at node-A be VA

B
Now, by Ohm’s law, Fig. 1.
VA VA VA
I1 = ; I2 = ; I3 =
2 1 5
By KCL, at node-A,
VA VA VA
I + I + I = 50 & + + = 50 & 0.5VA + VA + 0.2 VA = 50
1 2 3 2 1 5
` 1.7 VA = 50 & VA = 50 = 29.4118 V

1.7
VA
` I1 = = 29.4118 = 14.7059 A
2 2
VA
I2 = = 29.4118 = 29.4118 A
1 1
VA
I3 = = 29.4118 = 5.8823 A
5 5
RESULT
The current in the resistors are,
I1 = 14.7059 A ; I2 = 29.4118 A ; I3 = 5.8823 A

1.5 Mesh Current Method of Analysis for DC and AC Circuits

Mesh analysis is a useful technique to solve the currents in the various elements of
a circuit. Mesh analysis is preferred if the circuit is excited by voltage sources and the current
through various elements is unknown. Mesh analysis can also be extended to circuits excited by
both voltage and current sources and to circuits excited by both independent and dependent sources.
In a circuit, each branch will have a current through it. Hence, the number of currents in a
circuit is equal to the number of branches. In a circuit some of the currents will be independent and
the remaining currents depend on independent currents. The number of independent currents in a
circuit is given by number of links in the graph of the circuit. (Refer Section 1.7.2.)
In mesh analysis, independent currents are solved by writing Kirchhoff’s Voltage

Law (KVL) equations for various meshes in a circuit. If the graph of a circuit has B branches
and N nodes then the number of links L is given by L = B − N + 1. Hence, L number of meshes
are chosen in a given circuit. “Mesh is defined as a closed path which does not contain any other
loops within it”. Let us denote the number of meshes by m. In a circuit the number of meshes m
is equal to links L.
For each mesh, an independent current is assigned called mesh current and for each mesh,
an equation is formed using Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law. The equation is formed by equating the
sum of voltage rise to the sum of voltage drop in a mesh. These m number of mesh equations are
arranged in a matrix form and mesh currents are solved by Cramer’s rule. A simple procedure to
form mesh basis matrix equation directly from circuit by inspection without forming KVL equations
is also discussed in this chapter.
Mesh analysis is applicable to planar circuits. “A circuit is said to be a planar circuit if it
can be drawn on a plane surface without crossovers”.
1.5.1 Mesh Analysis of Resistive Circuits Excited by DC Sources
A circuit with B branches will have B number of currents and in this some currents are
independent and the remaining currents depend on independent currents. The number of independent
currents m is given by m = B − N + 1, where N is the number of nodes.
In order to solve the independent currents of a circuit we have to choose m meshes (or
closed paths) in the circuit. For each mesh we have to attach a current called mesh current. The
mesh currents are the independent currents of the circuit. Let, I1, I2, I3, ......,Im be mesh currents.
For each mesh, a KVL equation is formed by equating the sum of voltage rise to the sum
of voltage fall in the mesh. Since there are m meshes we can form m equations.
In resistive circuits excited by dc sources, the voltages and currents are real (i.e., they are not
complex). For resistive circuits, the m number of equations can be arranged in the matrix form as
shown in equation (1.19), which is called mesh basis matrix equation. The formation of mesh
basis matrix equation from the KVL equations is explained in some of the solved problems ahead.
The mesh basis matrix equation (1.19), can be written in a simplified form as shown in
equation (1.20).
Note : The bold faced letters represent matrices.
R R11 R12 R13 g R1m VW RS I1 VW R E11 V
S S W
S R21 R22 R23 g R2m W S I2 W S E22 W
S R31 R32 R33 g R3m W S I3 W = S E33 W
S W S W S W
S h h h h W Sh W S h W
SR R m2 R m3 k R mm W SI m W SE W ..... (1.19)
T m1 ↓X T X T mm X
↓
↓
RI=E ..... (1.20)

where, R = Resistance matrix of order m × m
I = Mesh current matrix of order m × 1
E = Source voltage matrix of order m × 1
m = Number of meshes.
In equation (1.19), the elements of the resistance matrix and source voltage matrix can be
determined from the given circuit. Hence, the unknowns are mesh currents, which have to be solved
by any standard technique.
Alternatively, equation (1.19) can be formed directly from the circuit by inspection without
writing KVL equations. A procedure to form mesh basis matrix equation by inspection is given
below:
Procedure to Form Mesh Basis Matrix Equation by Inspection
Consider the mesh basis matrix equation shown below for a circuit with three meshes.
Let, I1, I2, I3 be the mesh currents.
> 21 R22 R23 H > 2 H > 22 H

R11 R12 R13 I1 E11
R I = E ..... (1.21)
R31 R32 R33 I3 E33
The elements of equation (1.21) for circuits with independent sources are,
R11 = Sum of resistances in mesh-1
R12 = R21 = Sum of resistances common between mesh-1 and mesh-2
E11 = Sum of voltage sources in mesh-1
E22 = Sum of voltage sources in mesh-2

E33 = Sum of voltage sources in mesh-3.
The resistances R11, R22, R33 are called self-resistances of mesh-1, mesh-2, mesh-3, respectively.
The resistances R12, R13, R21, R23, R31, R32 are called mutual-resistances between meshes.
The formation of the elements of resistance matrix and source voltage matrix are explained
below:
i) The self-resistance R jj is given by the sum of all the resistances in the jth mesh. The
self-resistances will be always positive.
ii) The mutual-resistance R jk is given by the sum of all the resistances common between
mesh-j and mesh-k.
The common resistance R jk is positive if the mesh currents Ij and Ik flow in the same
direction through the common resistance as shown in Fig. 1.37 and it is negative if the
mesh currents Ij and Ik flow in the opposite direction through the common resistance
as shown in Fig. 1.38.
In a circuit with only independent sources (reciprocal circuit), Rjk = Rkj.
mesh-j mesh-k mesh-j mesh-k
Rjk Ij Rjk Ik
Ij Ik
Fig. 1.37 : Example for positive Rjk . Fig. 1.38 : Example for negative Rjk .
mesh-j mesh-j
+
+
E
Ij
E
Ij
Fig. 1.39 : Example for Fig. 1.40 : Example for

positive source voltage. negative source voltage.
iii) The source voltage matrix element E jj is given by the sum of all the voltage sources
in the j th mesh. A source voltage is positive if it is a rise in voltage in the direction of
mesh current as shown in Fig. 1.39. A source voltage is negative if it is a fall or drop
in voltage in the direction of mesh current as shown in Fig. 1.40.
Note : In a circuit with both independent and dependent sources (non-reciprocal circuit) Rjk ! Rkj
Solution of Mesh Currents

In the mesh basis matrix equation [i.e., equation (1.19)], the unknowns are mesh currents
I 1, I2 , I 3 ... Im. The mesh currents can be obtained by premultiplying equation (1.19) with the inverse
of resistance matrix.
Consider equation (1.20),
RI=E
On premultiplying both sides by R −1, we get,
R−1 R I = R−1 E
U I = R−1 E R−1 R = U = Unit matrix
∴ I = R−1 E ..... (1.22) UI = I
Equation (1.22) will be the solution for mesh currents. Equation (1.22) can be solved by
Cramer’s rule, by which the kth mesh current Ik is given by equation (1.23).
m
Ik =
∆1k
∆
∆
∆
∆
∆
∆
E11 + 2k E22 + 3k E33 + ...... + mk E mm = 1
∆ ∆ / ∆ jk E jj ..... (1.23)
j =1
where,
Djk = Cofactor of Rjk
Ejj = Sum of voltage sources in mesh-j
D = Determinant of resistance matrix.
Proof for Cramer’s Rule
Consider equation (1.22), for a circuit with three meshes.
I1 R11 R12 R13 -1 E11
I = R- 1 E ⇒ > I2 H = >R21 R22 R23 H >E22 H ..... (1.24)
I3 R31 R32 R33 E33
We know that,
T
Adjoint of R Transpose of Rcof Rcof
R- 1 = = =
Determinant of R Determinant of R ∆
where, ∆ = Determinant of R
R cof = Cofactor matrix (matrix formed by cofactor of elements of R matrix).
Let, ∆ 11 = Cofactor of R 11
∆ 12 = Cofactor of R 12
and in general, ∆ jk = Cofactor of Rjk
>∆21∆22 ∆23 H >∆12 ∆22 ∆32 H

∆11 ∆12 ∆13 ∆11 ∆21 ∆31
Transpose T
` Rcof = Rcof =
∆31 ∆32 ∆33 ∆13 ∆23 ∆33
∆11 ∆21 ∆31

> ∆12 ∆22 ∆32 H
T
Rcof 1
` R- 1 = = ..... (1.25)
∆ ∆
∆13 ∆23 ∆33
On substituting for R–1 from equation (1.25) in equation (1.24), we get,
I1 E11
>I2 H >
∆ 12 22 32 H >E22 H
∆11 ∆21 ∆31
= 1 ∆ ∆ ∆
I3 ∆13 ∆23 ∆33 E33
On multiplying the matrices on the right-hand side of the above equation and equating to the terms on the
left-hand side we get,
∆11 ∆ ∆
I1 = E11 + 21 E22 + 31 E33
∆ ∆ ∆
∆12 ∆ ∆
I2 = E11 + 22 E22 + 32 E33
∆ ∆ ∆
∆13 ∆ ∆
I3 = E11 + 23 E22 + 33 E33
∆ ∆ ∆
The above equations can be used to form a general equation for mesh current. In general, the k th mesh current
of a circuit with m meshes is given by,
m
∆1k ∆ ∆ ∆
Ik =
∆
E11 + 2k E22 + 3k E33 + ...... + mk Emm = 1
∆ ∆ ∆ ∆
/ ∆ jk E jj
j =1
Short-cut Procedure for Cramer’s Rule

A short-cut procedure for Cramer’s rule is shown below:
Let us consider a circuit with three mesh. The mesh basis matrix equation for a three mesh
circuit is,
> 21 22 23 H > 2 H > 22 H

R11 R12 R13 I1 E11
R R R I = E
R31 R32 R33 I3 E33
Let us define three determinants as shown below:
E11 R12 R13 R11 E11 R13 R11 R12 E11
∆1 = E 22 R 22 R 23 ; ∆2 = R 21 E 22 R 23 ; ∆3 = R 21 R 22 E 22
E33 R32 R33 R31 E33 R33 R31 R32 E33
Here, ∆ 1 = Determinant of resistance matrix after replacing the first column of resistance
matrix by source voltage column matrix.
∆ 2 = Determinant of resistance matrix after replacing the second column of resistance
∆ 3 = Determinant of resistance matrix after replacing the third column of resistance
Let, ∆ = Determinant of resistance matrix
R11 R12 R13
∆ = R21 R 22 R 23
R31 R32 R33
Now mesh currents I 1 , I 2 and I 3 are given by,
∆1 ∆2 ∆3
I1 = ; I2 = ; I3 =
∆ ∆ ∆
Cross-Check
The equation for mesh currents obtained by short-cut procedure is the same as equation (1.23), and verified
as shown below:
E11 R12 R13
∆
I1 = 1 = 1 E 22 R 22 R 23 Expanding along first column
∆ ∆
E33 R32 R33
∆11 ∆21 ∆31
= 1 6 E11 ∆11 + E 22 ∆21 + E33 ∆31 @ = ∆ E11 + ∆ E 22 + ∆ E33
∆
R11 E11 R13

∆2
I2 = = 1 R 21 E 22 R 23 Expanding along second column
∆ ∆
R31 E33 R33
∆ ∆ ∆32
= 1 6 E11 ∆12 + E 22 ∆22 + E33 ∆32 @ = ∆12 E11 + ∆22 E 22 + ∆ E33
∆
R11 R12 E11
∆3
I3 = = 1 R 21 R 22 E 22 Expanding along third column
∆ ∆
R31 R32 E33
= 1 6 E11 ∆13 + E 22 ∆23 + E33 ∆33 @ = ∆13 E11 + ∆23 E 22 + ∆33 E33
∆ ∆ ∆ ∆
Various Steps to Obtain the Solution of Mesh Currents and Branch Currents in a Circuit
Step 1 : Draw the graph of the circuit.
Step 2 : Determine the branches B and nodes N. The number of mesh currents m is given by
m = B − N + 1.
Step 3 : Select m number of meshes of the circuit and attach a mesh current to each mesh.
Step 4 : In the given circuit choose arbitrary direction for branch and mesh currents. Let us
denote mesh currents by I1, I2, I3,....., and branch currents by Ia, Ib, Ic, Id, Ie,...... Write the
relationship between mesh and branch currents.
Preferably, the directions of mesh currents are chosen in the same orientation. For example,
the direction of all the mesh currents can be chosen clockwise (alternatively, the direction
of all the mesh currents can be chosen anticlockwise). When all the mesh currents are
chosen in the same orientation, all the mutual-resistances (Rjk) will be negative.
Step 5 : Form the mesh basis matrix equation by inspection and solve the mesh currents using
Cramer’s rule. For a circuit with three meshes, the mesh basis matrix equation and solution
of mesh currents using Cramer’s rule are given below:
>R21 R 22 R 23 H >I 2 H = >E 22 H

R11 R12 R13 I1 E11
R31 R32 R33 I3 E33
E11 R12 R13

∆1
I1 = = 1 E 22 R 22 R 23
∆ ∆
E33 R32 R33
R11 E11 R13

∆2 1
I2 = = R 21 E 22 R 23
∆ ∆
R31 E33 R33
R11 R12 E11

∆3
I3 = = 1 R 21 R 22 E 22
∆ ∆
R31 R32 E33
Step 6 : Solve the branch currents using the relationship between branch and mesh currents.
Note : 1. After solving the branch currents (if any, of the current) are found to be negative,
then the actual direction is opposite to that of the assumed direction. If
interested we can draw the circuit by indicating the actual direction of current.
2. If the directions of the current are already given in the circuit then we have to solve
for the given direction of the current.
EXAMPLE 1.12
5 2
Solve the currents in various branches of the circuit shown in Fig. 1, by +
6
mesh analysis. 50 V 3
E
SOLUTION 4 E 20 V +
The graph of the given circuit is shown in Fig. 2. It has six branches and four
nodes. Hence, the number of meshes m in the circuit is, m = B − N + 1 = 6 − 4 + 1 = 3.
The circuit has six currents (corresponding to six branches) and in this three 8
currents are independent (corresponding to three meshes).
Fig. 1.
Let us assume three mesh currents I 1 , I 2 and I 3 as shown in Fig. 2. The
directions of the current are chosen arbitrarily. The circuit with chosen mesh currents is shown in Fig. 3.
5 2
a e b +
I1 3 I2
50 V 6
I1 I2
E
4 20 V
c d E +
I3
I3
8
f
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
Method I : Formation of mesh basis equation by applying KVL
In this method, the mesh equations are formed using Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law. The mesh equation for
a mesh is formed by equating the sum of voltage fall to the sum of voltage rise. The voltage rise and fall are
determined by tracing the circuit in the direction of the mesh current. 5I 1
With reference to Fig. 4, the mesh equation for mesh-1 is formed as shown + E
below : + + E
I1 I2
Voltage fall : 5 I 1 , 3I 1 , 4I 1 50 V 3I1
3I2
E E +
Voltage rise : 50, 3 I 2 , 4I 3 4I1
+
E
+ E
∴ 5 I 1 + 3 I 1 + 4 I 1 = 50 + 3 I 2 + 4 I 3 4I3 I3
12 I 1 − 3 I 2 − 4 I 3 = 50 ..... (1)
Fig. 4.
With reference to Fig. 5, the mesh equation for mesh-2 is formed as shown + 2I2 E
below :
+ E +
Voltage fall : 3 I 2 , 2 I 2 , 6 I 2 , 20
I1 3I1 3I2 I2 6I2
Voltage rise : 3 I1 E + E
∴ 3 I 2 + 2 I 2 + 6 I 2 + 20 = 3 I 1 E +
20 V
−3 I 1 + 11 I 2 = −20 ..... (2) Fig. 5.
With reference to Fig. 6, the mesh equation for mesh-3 is formed as shown below :
I1 I2
Voltage fall : 4 I3 , 8 I 3
E 4I1 + 20 V
Voltage rise : 20, 4 I 1 +
4I3
E E +
I3
∴ 4 I 3 + 8 I 3 = 20 + 4 I 1 E 8I3 +
−4 I 1 + 12 I 3 = 20 ..... (3) Fig. 6.

Equations (1), (2) and (3) are the mesh equations of the circuit shown in Fig. 3. The mesh equations
are summarised here for convenience.
12 I 1 − 3 I 2 − 4 I 3 = 50
−3I 1 + 11 I 2 = − 20
−4 I 1 + 12 I 3 = 20
The mesh equations can be arranged in the matrix form as shown below and then solved by Cramer’s rule.
12 − 3 − 4 I1
11 0 H >I 2 H = >− 20 H
50
>− 3
− 4 0 12 I3 20 ..... (4)
Method II : Formation of mesh basis matrix equation by inspection

In this method, the mesh basis matrix equation is formed directly from the circuit shown in Fig. 3 by
inspection. The circuit has three meshes. The general form of mesh basis matrix equation for three mesh
circuit is shown in equation (5).
R11 R12 R13 I1 E11

>R21 R 22 R 23 H >I 2 H = >E 22 H
R31 R32 R33 I3 E33 ..... (5)
The elements of resistance matrix and source voltage matrix are formed as shown below:
R 11 = 5 + 3 + 4 = 12 R12 = R21 = −3 E 11 = 50
R2 2 = 3 + 2 + 6 = 11 R 13 = R31 = −4 E 22 = −20
R3 3 = 4 + 8 = 12 R 23 = R32 = 0 E 33 = 20
On substituting the above terms in equation (5), we get equation (6) and the solution of equation (6)
will give the mesh currents.
12 − 3 − 4 I1 50
>− 3 11 0 H >I 2 H = >− 20 H
− 4 0 12 I3 20 ..... (6)
Solution of mesh currents

It is observed that the mesh basis matrix equation obtained in method I and II are the same. In equation
(6), the unknown are I 1, I2 and I3. In order to solve I1 , I 2 and I3, let us define four determinants ∆, ∆ 1 , ∆ 2 and
∆3 as shown below :
12 − 3 − 4 50 − 3 − 4 12 50 − 4 12 − 3 50
∆ = − 3 11 0 ; ∆1 = − 20 11 0 ; ∆2 = − 3 − 20 0 ; ∆3 = − 3 11 − 20
− 4 0 12 20 0 12 − 4 20 12 − 4 0 20
The determinants are evaluated by expanding along first row and the mesh currents are solved by
Cramer’s rule.
12 − 3 − 4
∆ = − 3 11 0 = 12 # 611 # 12 − 0 @ − (− 3) # 6 − 3 # 12 − 0 @ + (− 4) # 60 − (− 4) # 11 @
− 4 0 12
= 1584 − 108 − 176 = 1300
50 − 3 − 4
∆1 = − 20 11 0 = 50 # 611 # 12 − 0 @ − (− 3) # 6 − 20 # 12 − 0 @ + (− 4) # 60 − 20 # 11 @
20 0 12
= 6600 − 720 + 880 = 6760
12 50 − 4
∆2 = − 3 − 20 0 = 12 # 6 − 20 # 12 − 0 @ − 50 # 6 − 3 # 12 − 0 @
− 4 20 12
+ (− 4) # 6 − 3 # 20 − (− 4) # (− 20) @
= −2880 + 1800 + 560 = − 520
12 − 3 50
∆3 = − 3 11 − 20 = 12 # 611 # 20 − 0 @ − ^− 3h # 6 − 3 # 20 − ^− 4h # ^− 20h@ + 50 # 60 − (− 4) # 11 @
− 4 0 20
= 2640 − 420 + 2200 = 4420
I1 = ∆1 = 6760 = 5.2 A
∆ 1300
∆2 = − 520
I2 = = − 0.4 A
∆ 1300
∆3 = 4420
I3 = = 3.4 A
∆ 1300
5 2 Id
Here, the mesh current I 2 is negative. Hence, the actual direction of
Ia Ib
I 2 is opposite to that of assumed direction. Since there are six branches in the +
I1 3 I2
given circuit, we can assume six currents I a , I b , I c , I d , I e and I f as shown in Fig. 7. 50 V 6
E
The direction of branch currents are chosen such that they are all positive. 4 Ic 20 V I
e
The relation between mesh and branch currents can be obtained from
I3
Fig. 7 and the branch currents are evaluated as shown below:
8 If
Ia = I1 = 5.2 A
Fig. 7.
Ib = I1 – I2 = 5.2 – (–0.4) = 5.6 A
Ic = I1 – I3 = 5.2 – 3.4 = 1.8 A
I d = –I2 = – (–0.4) = 0.4 A
I e = I3 – I2 = 3.4 –(–0.4) = 3.8 A
I f = I3 = 3.4 A
Id
EXAMPLE 1.13 1
1
5 + If E
V
V
Determine the currents in various elements of the bridge circuit shown in
10
E
+
Fig. 1 using mesh analysis. Ib 1
Ia
SOLUTION Ic
1
The graph of the given circuit is shown in Fig. 2.
1
Ie
It has six branches and four nodes.
Hence, the number of meshes m in the circuit is, + E
m = B – N + 1 = 6 – 4 + 1 = 3. 1 5V
The circuit has six currents (corresponding to six branches) and in this Fig. 1.
three currents are independent (corresponding to three meshes).
Let us assume three mesh currents as shown in Fig. 2. The direction of the current are chosen arbitrarily.
The circuit with chosen mesh currents is shown in Fig. 3. I d
1
1
Ib If Id If
+
E
5V
V
+ 0
E
1
1
I2 I3 Ib
I2 I3
Ic Ia Ic
Ie
1
Ia
1
Ie
I1
I1
+ E
1 5V
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3.
Method I : Formation of mesh basis equation by applying KVL
In this method, the mesh equations are formed using Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law. I2 I3
The mesh equation for a mesh is formed by equating the sum of voltage fall I
E
+
2 I3
to the sum of voltage rise.
+
E
I1 + E
+ I1
The voltage rise and fall are determined by tracing the circuit in the direction
E
of the mesh current.

I1
I1
With reference to Fig. 4, the mesh equation for mesh-1 is formed as shown below: E + + 5V E
Voltage fall : I1, I1, I1 Fig. 4.
Voltage rise : I2, I3 , 5
∴ I1 + I1 + I1 = I2 + I3 + 5
3I1 − I2 − I3 = 5 .....(1)
E
With reference to Fig. 5, the mesh equation for mesh-2 is formed as shown below: I2
+
5 + E
Voltage fall : I2, I2, I2
+
V
I2
E I2 I3 I3
Voltage rise : I1, I3 , 5 E E +
+ I2
+
∴ I2 + I2 + I2 = I1 + I3 + 5 I1 E
I1
−I1 + 3I2 − I3 = 5 ..... (2) Fig. 5.
With reference to Fig. 6, the mesh equation for mesh-3 is formed as shown below:
+
I3
Voltage fall : I3, I3, I3
E
10 V
E
+ E
+
Voltage rise : I1, I2 , 10 I2 I3 I
I2 3
+
E + I3 E
∴ I3 + I3 + I3 = I1 + I2 + 10 E I1
+
I1
−I1 − I2 + 3I3 = 10 ..... (3) Fig. 6.
Equations (1), (2) and (3) are the mesh equations of the circuit shown in Fig. 3. The mesh equations
are summarised here for convenience.
3I1 − I2 − I3 = 5
−I1 + 3I2 − I3 = 5
−I1 − I2 + 3I3 = 10
The mesh equations can be arranged in the matrix form as shown below and then solved by Cramer’s rule.
3 − 1 − 1 I1 5
>− 1 3 − 1 H >I 2 H = > 5 H
− 1 − 1 3 I3 10 ..... (4)
Method II : Formation of mesh basis equation by inspection

In this method, the mesh basis matrix equation is formed directly from the circuit shown in Fig.3 by
inspection. The circuit has three meshes. The general form of mesh basis matrix equation for three mesh
circuit is shown in equation (5).
R11 R12 R13 I1 E11
>R21R 22 R 23 H >I 2 H = >E 22 H ..... (5)
R31 R32 R33 I3 E33
The elements of the resistance matrix and source voltage matrix are formed as shown below:
R11 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3 R12 = R21 = −1 E11 = 5
R22 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3 R13 = R31 = −1 E22 = 5
R33 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3 R23 = R32 = −1 E33 = 10
On substituting the above terms in equation (5), we get,
3 −1 −1 I1 5
>− 1 3 − 1 H >I2 H = > 5 H
−1 −1 3 I3 10 ..... (6)
It is observed that the mesh basis matrix equation obtained in method I and II are the same. In equation
(6) the unknowns are I 1, I2 and I 3 . In order to solve I 1 , I 2 and I 3 , let us define four determinants ∆, ∆ 1 , ∆ 2
and ∆ 3 as shown below:
3 −1 −1 5 −1 −1 3 5 −1 3 −1 5
∆ = −1 3 −1 ; ∆1 = 5 3 −1 ; ∆2 = − 1 5 − 1 ; ∆3 = − 1 3 5
−1 −1 3 10 − 1 3 − 1 10 3 − 1 − 1 10
Cramer’s rule.
3 −1 −1
∆ = − 1 3 − 1 = 3 # 63 # 3 − (− 1) # (− 1) @ − (− 1) # 6 − 1 # 3 − ^− 1h # (− 1) @
−1 −1 3
+ (− 1) # 6 − 1 # ^− 1h − ^− 1h # 3 @
= 24 − 4 − 4 = 16
5 −1 −1
∆1 = 5 3 − 1 = 5 # 63 # 3 − (− 1) # (− 1) @ − (− 1) # 65 # 3 − 10 # (− 1) @ + (− 1) # 65 # ^− 1h − 10 # 3 @
10 − 1 3
= 40 + 25 + 35 = 100
3 5 −1
∆2 = − 1 5 − 1 = 3 # 65 # 3 − 10 # (− 1) @ − 5 # 6 − 1 # 3 − (− 1) # (− 1) @ + (− 1) # 6 − 1 # 10 − ^− 1h # 5 @
− 1 10 3
= 75 + 20 + 5 = 100
3 −1 5
∆3 = − 1 3 5 = 3 # 63 # 10 − (− 1) # 5 @ − (− 1) # 6 − 1 # 10 − (− 1) # 5 @ + 5 # 6 − 1 # (− 1) − (− 1) # 3 @
− 1 − 1 10
= 105 − 5 + 20 = 120
∆1
I1 = = 100 = 6.25 A
∆ 16
∆2
I2 = = 100 = 6.25 A
∆ 16
∆3
I3 = = 120 = 7.5 A
∆ 16
The relation between mesh and branch currents can be obtained from Fig. 3 and branch currents are
evaluated as shown below:
Ia = I1 = 6.25 A
Ib = I2 = 6.25 A
Ic = I1 − I2 = 6.25 − 6.25 = 0
Id = I3 = 7.5 A
Ie = I1 − I3 = 6.25 − 7.5 = −1.25 A
If = I2 − I3 = 6.25 − 7.5 = −1.25 A
EXAMPLE 1.14
(AU Dec’14, 16 Marks)
In the circuit shown in Fig.1, find (a) mesh currents in the circuit, (b) current A
supplied by the battery and (c) potential difference between terminals B and D.
2 + 6
SOLUTION 10 V
E
Since the given circuit has only one source, it is possible to predict the exact B D
directions of the current. 4
The current will start from the positive end of the supply and when it enters 3 8
node-A, it will divide into two parts. These two currents will again meet at node-C
and enter the negative end of the supply through 4 Ω resistor. C Fig. 1.
The circuit has three branch currents and in this two are independent. Hence, Ib
A
Ic
we can take two mesh currents.
2 Ia
+ 6
The actual directions of mesh and branch currents are shown in Fig. 2. 10 V
Using the circuit shown in Fig. 2, the mesh basis matrix equation is formed as shown E
B I1 I2 D
below:
4
= G = G = = 11 G
R11 R12 I1 E
R 21 R 22 I 2 E 22 ..... (1) 3 8
C Fig. 2.
The elements of the resistance matrix and source voltage matrix are formed
as shown below:
R11 = 2 + 4 + 3 = 9 R12 = R21 = 4 E 11 = 10
R22 = 4 + 6 + 8 = 18 E 22 = 10
= G = G = G
9 4 I1 10
=
4 18 I2 10 ..... (2)
In equation (2), the unknowns are I 1 and I2 . In order to solve I 1 and I 2 , let us define three determinants
∆, ∆ 1 and ∆ 2 as shown below:
9 4 10 4 9 10
∆ = ; ∆1 = ; ∆2 =
4 18 10 18 4 10
Cramer’s rule.
9 4
∆ = = 9 # 18 − 4 # 4 = 146
4 18
10 4
∆1 = = 10 # 18 − 10 # 4 = 140
10 18
9 10
∆2 = = 9 # 10 − 4 # 10 = 50
4 10
∆1
I1 = = 140 = 0.9589 A
∆ 146
∆2
I2 = = 50 = 0.3425 A
∆ 146
b) To find the battery current
With reference to Fig. 2, the battery current is given by, Ia = I1 + I2

IB A
∴ Battery current, Ia = I1 + I2 = 0.9589 + 0.3425 = 1.3014 A
I1 I2
c) To find potential difference between the termianals ‘’B’’ and ‘’D’’ + 2 6

10 V
E
The given circuit is redrawn as shown in Fig. 3. With reference to Fig. 3, + E
using KVL , we can write, B VBD D
3
+
I
2
I
4 1
⇒ VBD = 3I1 − 8I2
E 8
VBD + 8I2 = 3I1

E
3 8
∴ VBD = 3 × 0.9589 − 8 × 0.3425 = 0.1367 V C

Fig. 3.
EXAMPLE 1.15 (AU May’15, 16 Marks)

7
Use branch currents in the network shown in Fig. 1 I2 I3 I4
to find the current supplied by the 60 V source. Solve the I1
circuit by the mesh current method. 60 V +
E 12 6 12
SOLUTION
Fig. 1.
The direction of the mesh currents are chosen to 7
match the given branch currents as shown in Fig. 2. With
I4
reference to Fig.2, the mesh basis matrix equation is formed I1
as shown below: 60 V +
I2
E 12 6 12
I3
R11 R12 R13 I1 E11
>R21 R22 R23 H >I2 H = >E22 H ..... (1)
R31 R32 R33 I3 E33
Fig. 2.
Now, I4 = I1 − I2 − I3
R11 = 7 + 12 = 19 R12 = R21 = – 12 E11 = 60
R22 = 12 + 12 = 24 R13 = R31 = −12 E22 = 0
R33 = 6 + 12 = 18 R23 = R32 = +12 E33 = 0

R VR V R V
S 19 − 12 − 12 W SI1 W S60 W
S− 12 24 S W
12 W I2 = S 0 W
S WS W S W
..... (2)
SS− 12 12 18 WW SSI3 WW SS 0 WW
T XT X T X
In equation (2), the unknowns are I1, I2 and I3. In order to solve I1, I2 and I3, let us define four determinants
∆, ∆1, ∆2 and ∆3 as shown below:
19 − 12 − 12 60 − 12 − 12 19 60 − 12 19 − 12 60
∆ = − 12 24 12 ; ∆1 = 0 24 12 ; ∆2 = − 12 0 12 ; ∆3 = − 12 24 0
− 12 12 18 0 12 18 − 12 0 18 − 12 12 0
Cramer’s rule.
19 − 12 − 12
3 = − 12 24 12 = 19 # 724 # 18 − 122 A − _− 12i # 7 − 12 # 18 − _− 12i # 12 A
− 12 12 18
+ _− 12i # 7 − 12 # 12 − _− 12i # 24 A
= 5472 − 864 − 1728 = 2880
60 − 12 − 12
31 = 0 24 12 = 60 # 724 # 18 − 122 A = 17280
0 12 18
19 60 − 12
3 2 = − 12 0 12 = − 60 # 7 − 12 # 18 − _− 12 i # 12 A = 4320
− 12 0 18
19 − 12 60
3 3 = − 12 24 0 = 60 # 7 − 12 # 12 − _− 12i # 24 A = 8640
− 12 12 0
31
I1 = = 17280 = 6 A
3 2880
32
I2 = = 4320 = 1.5 A
3 2880
33
I3 = = 8640 = 3 A
3 2880
I4 = I1 − I2 − I3 = 6 − 1.5 − 3 = 1.5 A
Current supplied by 60 V source = I1 = 6 A
2 6
EXAMPLE 1.16 2
Solve the mesh currents shown in Fig. 1. + +

25 V 4 5 10 V
SOLUTION E E
I1 I2 I3
The mesh currents and their direction are given in the problem
and so we need not assume the currents. Using the circuit shown in Fig. 1,
Fig. 1.
the mesh basis matrix equation is formed as shown below:
R11 R12 R13 I1 E11

>R21R 22 R 23 H >I 2 H = >E22 H
R31 R32 R33 I3 E33 ..... (1)
R11 = 2 + 4 = 6 R12 = R21 = −4 E11 = 25
R22 = 4 + 6 + 5 = 15 R13 = R31 = 0 E22 = 0
R33 = 5 + 2 = 7 R23 = R32 = −5 E33 = −10
6 −4 0 I1 25
>− 415 − 5 H >I2 H = > 0H
0 −5 7 I3 − 10 ..... (2)
6 −4 0 25 − 4 0 6 25 0 6 − 4 25
∆ = − 4 15 − 5 ; ∆1 = 0 15 − 5 ; ∆2 = − 4 0 −5 ; ∆3 = − 4 15 0
0 −5 7 − 10 − 5 7 0 − 10 7 0 − 5 − 10
Cramer’s rule.
6 −4 0
∆ = − 4 15 − 5 = 6 # 615 # 7 − (− 5) # (− 5) @ − (− 4) # 6 − 4 # 7 − 0 @ + 0
0 −5 7
= 480 − 112 = 368
25 − 4 0
∆1 = 0 15 − 5 = 25 # 615 # 7 − (− 5) # (− 5) @ − (− 4) # 60 − (− 10) # (− 5) @ + 0
− 10 − 5 7
= 2000 − 200 = 1800
6 25 0
∆2 = − 4 0 − 5 = 6 # 60 − (− 10) # (− 5) @ − 25 # 6 − 4 # 7 − 0 @ + 0
0 − 10 7
= −300 + 700 = 400
6 − 4 25
∆3 = − 4 15 0 = 6 # 615 # (− 10) − 0 @ − (− 4) # 6 − 4 # (− 10) − 0 @ + 25 # 6 − 4 # (− 5) − 0 @
0 − 5 − 10
= −900 + 160 + 500 = −240
∆1
I1 = = 1800 = 4.8913 A
∆ 368
∆2
I2 = = 400 = 1.0870 A
∆ 368
∆3
I3 = = − 240 = − 0.6522 A
∆ 368
EXAMPLE 1.17 (AU June’16, 8 Marks) 4V

3
E+
In the circuit shown in Fig. 1, find I L by mesh analysis. 3 IL 3

+
SOLUTION 8V
E
5 1
Let us choose mesh currents as shown in Fig. 2. The mesh basis matrix equation 1 +
E
6V
is formed as shown below:
Fig. 1.
R11 R12 R13 I1 E11
>R21 R22 R23 H >I2 H = >E22 H 4V
3
R31 R32 R33 I3 E33 ..... (1)
E+
I1
The elements of resistance matrix and source voltage matrix are formed as 3 IL 3
shown below: + I2 I3
8V
E
5 1
R11 = 3 + 3 + 3 = 9 R12 = R21 = −3 E11 = 4
+
1 6V
E
R22 = 3 + 5 + 1 = 9 R13 = R31 = −3 E22 = 8
R33 = 5 + 3 + 1 = 9 R23 = R32 = −5 E33 = −6

Fig. 2.
9 −3 −3 I1 4
>− 3 9 − 5H >I2 H = > 8H ..... (2)
−3 −5 9 I3 −6
Here, IL = I2 − I3.
In order to solve the mesh currents I2 and I3, let us define three determinants ∆, ∆2 and ∆3 as shown below:
9 −3 −3 9 4 −3 9 −3 4
∆ = −3 9 −5 ; ∆2 = − 3 8 − 5 ; ∆3 = − 3 9 8
−3 −5 9 −3 −6 9 −3 −5 −6
Cramer’s rule.
9 −3 −3
∆ = − 3 9 − 5 = 9 # 69 2 − (− 5) 2 @ − (− 3) # 6 − 3 # 9 − (− 3) # (− 5) @
−3 −5 9
+ (− 3) # 6 − 3 # (− 5) − (− 3) # 9 @
= 504 − 126 − 126 = 252
9 4 −3
∆2 = − 3 8 − 5 = 9 # 68 # 9 − (− 6) # (− 5) @ − 4 # 6 − 3 # 9 − (− 3) # (− 5) @
−3 −6 9
+ (− 3) # 6 − 3 # (− 6) − (− 3) # 8 @
= 378 + 168 − 126 = 420
9 −3 4
∆3 = − 3 9 8 = 9 # 69 # (− 6) − (− 5) @ # 8] − (− 3) # 6 − 3 # (− 6) − (− 3) # 8 @
−3 −5 −6
+ 4 # 6 − 3 # (− 5) − (− 3) # 9 @
= −126 + 126 + 168 = 168
T2 T 3 T − T3
IL = I 2 − I 3 = − = 2 = 420 − 168 = 1 A
T T T 252
EXAMPLE 1.18 2 3
In the circuit shown in Fig. 1, find E such that I 2 = 0. + 4 +

E E I1 E 8.4 V
I2
SOLUTION
In mesh analysis, when the solution of mesh current is obtained by 2 5
Cramer’s rule, the mesh current I 2 is given by, I3
∆2 1
I2 = ..... (1)
∆ Fig. 1.
In equation (1), if I2 = 0, then ∆2 = 0. Therefore, in order to find the value of E, we can form the mesh
basis matrix equation. Then form the determinant ∆2 and equate the determinant to zero.
Using Fig. 1, the mesh basis matrix equation is formed by inspection as shown below:
R11 R12 R13 I1 E11

>R21 R 22 R 23 H >I 2 H = >E22 H ..... (2)
R31 R32 R33 I3 E33
R11 = 2 + 4 + 2 = 8 R12 = R21 = −4 E11 = E
R22 = 4 + 3 + 5 = 12 R13 = R31 = −2 E22 = −8.4
R33 = 2 + 5 + 1 = 8 R23 = R32 = −5 E33 = 0
8 −4 −2 I1 E
>− 412 − 5 H >I2 H = >− 8.4 H
−2 −5 8 I3 0 ..... (3)
In equation (3) by Cramer’s rule, the unknown current I 2 is given by,
8 E −2
∆2
I2 = , where ∆2 = − 4 − 8.4 − 5
∆
−2 0 8
On expanding ∆ 2 we get,
8 E −2
∆2 = − 4 − 8.4 − 5 = 8 # 6 − 8.4 # 8 − 0 @ − E # 6 − 4 # 8 − (− 2) # (− 5) @ + (− 2) # 60 − (− 2) # (− 8.4) @
−2 0 8
= −537.6 + 42E + 33.6 = −504 + 42E
On equating ∆2 = 0, we get,
− 504 + 42E = 0
∴ 42 E = 504
E = 504 = 12 V
42
EXAMPLE 1.19 12
Solve the current in 12 Ω resistor by mesh analysis.

I1
4 5
SOLUTION
+
The mesh currents and their directions are given in the problem and E 10 V
+ I2 + 60 V
so we need not assume the currents. Using the circuit shown in Fig. 1, the 40 V E I3 E
7
mesh basis matrix equation is formed as shown below:
R11 R12 R13 I1 E11

>R21R 22 R 23 H >I 2 H = >E22 H
Fig. 1.
..... (1)
R31 R32 R33 I3 E33
R11 = 12 + 4 + 5 = 21 R12 = R21 = −4 E11 = 0
R22 = 4 + 7 = 11 R13 = R31 = −5 E22 = 40 − 10 = 30 V
R33 = 7 + 5 = 12 R23 = R32 = −7 E33 = 10 − 60 = −50 V
21 − 4 − 5 I1 0
>− 4 11 − 7 H >I 2 H = > 30 H
..... (2)
− 5 − 7 12 I3 − 50
The current through 12Ω resistance is I1 . To solve the current I 1 by Cramer’s rule let us define the
determinants ∆ and ∆1 as shown below:
21 − 4 − 5 0 −4 −5
∆ = − 4 11 − 7 ; ∆1 = 30 11 − 7
− 5 − 7 12 − 50 − 7 12
The determinants are evaluated by expanding along first row and the mesh current I1 is solved by
Cramer’s rule.
21 − 4 − 5
∆ = − 4 11 − 7 = 21 # 611 # 12 − (− 7) # (− 7) @ − (− 4) # 6 − 4 # 12 − (− 5) # (− 7) @
− 5 − 7 12
+ (− 5) # 6 − 4 # (− 7) − (− 5) # 11 @
= 1743 − 332 − 415 = 996
0 −4 −5
∆1 = 30 11 − 7 = 0 − (− 4) # 630 # 12 − (− 50) # (− 7) @ + (− 5) # 630 # (− 7) − (− 50) # 11 @
− 50 − 7 12
= 40 − 1700 = −1660
∆1
I1 = = − 1660 = − 1.6667 A
∆ 996
EXAMPLE 1.20 8 2 10
Solve the mesh currents in the circuit shown in Fig. 1. 4 4 1 3
SOLUTION I1 I2 I3
+ + +
10 V +
5V 8V 20 V E
With reference to Fig.1, the mesh basis matrix equation is E E E
formed as shown below:

Fig. 1.
R11 R12 R13 I1 E11
>R21 R22 R23 H >I2 H = >E22 H ..... (1)
R31 R32 R33 I3 E33
Note : Here, the directions of the mesh currents are given in the problem itself .
R11 = 4 + 8 + 4 = 16 R12 = R21 = – 4 E11 = 10 − 5 = 5
R22 = 4 + 2 + 1 = 7 R13 = R31 = 0 E22 = 5 − 8 = −3
R33 = 1 + 10 + 3 = 14 R23 = R32 = 1 E33 = 20 − 8 = 12
>− 4
16 − 4 0
7 1H
I1
>− 3 H
5
>I2 H = ..... (2)
0 1 14 I3 12
16 − 4 0 5 −4 0 16 5 0 16 − 4 5
∆ = −4 7 1 ; ∆1 = − 3 7 1 ; ∆2 = − 4 − 3 1 ; ∆3 = − 4 7 − 3
0 1 14 12 1 14 0 12 14 0 1 12
Cramer’s rule.
16 − 4 0
∆ = − 4 7 1 = 16 # 67 # 14 − 1 # 1 @ − (− 4) # 6 − 4 # 14 − 0 @ + 0
0 1 14
= 1552 – 224 = 1328
5 −4 0
∆1 = − 3 7 1 = 5 # 67 # 14 − 1 # 1 @ − (− 4) # 6 − 3 # 14 − 12 # 1 @ + 0
12 1 14
= 485 – 216 = 269
16 5 0
∆2 = − 4 − 3 1 = 16 # 6 − 3 # 14 − 12 # 1 @ − 5 # 6 − 4 # 14 − 0 @ + 0
0 12 14
= –864 + 280 = – 584
16 − 4 5
∆3 = − 4 7 − 3 = 16 # 67 # 12 − 1 # (− 3) @ − (− 4) # 6 − 4 # 12 − 0 @ + 5 # 6 − 4 # 1 − 0 @
0 1 12
= 1392 – 192 –20 = 1180
∆1
I1 = = 269 = 0.2026 A
∆ 1328
∆2
I2 = = − 584 = − 0.4398 A
∆ 1328
∆3
I3 = = 1180 = 0.8886 A
∆ 1328
EXAMPLE 1.21 (AU Dec’15, 8 Marks)

Determine the power dissipation in the 4 Ω resistor of the 5 2 6
circuit shownin Fig. 1.
+ +
3 4 10 V
SOLUTION 50 V
E E
The graph of the given circuit is shown in Fig. 2. It has five
branches and three nodes. Hence, the number of meshes m in the
circuit is, m = B − N + 1 = 5 − 3 + 1 = 3. Fig. 1.
The circuit has five currents (corresponding to five branches) and in this three currents are independent
(corresponding to three meshes). Let us assume three mesh currents I1, I2 and I3 as shown in Fig. 2.
The direction of the currents are chosen arbitrarily. The circuit with chosen mesh currents is shown in Fig. 3.
Now, the current through 4 Ω resistor is (I2− I3) in the direction shown in Fig. 3.
b 2
5 I2 E I3 6
+ +
d I2 e
a 50 V 3 4 10 V
I3 c E E
I1 I1 I2 I3
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
2
` Power dissipated in 4Ω resistor = I 2 − I3 # 4
Using the circuit shown in Fig. 3, the mesh basis matrix equation is formed as shown below:
R11 R12 R13 I1 E11

>R21 R 22 R 23 H >I 2 H = >E22 H
R31 R32 R33 I3 E33 .....(1)
R11 = 5 + 3 = 8 R12 = R21 = −3 E11 = 50
R22 = 3 + 2 + 4 = 9 R13 = R31 = 0 E22 = 0
R33 = 4 + 6 = 10 R23 = R32 = −4 E33 = −10
8 − 3 0 I1 50
>− 3 9 − 4 H >I 2 H = > 0H
0 − 4 10 I3 − 10 ..... (2)
Here, we have to solve the mesh currents I2 and I3. In order to solve I2 and I3, let us define three
determinants ∆, ∆2 and ∆3 as shown below:
8 −3 0 8 50 0 8 − 3 50
∆ = −3 9 −4 ; ∆2 = − 3 0 −4 ; ∆3 = − 3 9 0
0 − 4 10 0 − 10 10 0 − 4 − 10
The determinants are evaluated by expanding along first row and then the currents I2 and I3 are solved
by Cramer’s rule.
8 −3 0
∆ = − 3 9 − 4 = 8 # 69 # 10 − (− 4) # (− 4) @ − (− 3) # 6 − 3 # 10 − 0 @ + 0
0 − 4 10
= 592 − 90 = 502
8 50 0
∆2 = − 3 0 − 4 = 8 # 60 − (− 10) # (− 4) @ − 50 # 6 − 3 # 10 − 0 @ + 0
0 − 10 10
= −320 + 1500 = 1180
8 − 3 50
∆3 = − 3 9 0 = 8 # 69 # (− 10) − 0 @ − (− 3) # 6 − 3 # (− 10) − 0 @ + 50 # 6 − 3 # (− 4) − 0 @
0 − 4 − 10
= −720 + 90 + 600 = −30
∆2
I2 = = 1180 = 2.3506 A
∆ 502
∆3
I3 = = − 30 = − 0.0598 A
∆ 502
2 2
` Power dissipated in 4 Ω resistor = I 2 − I3 # 4 = 2.3506 − (− 0.0598) #4
= 2.4104 2
# 4 = 2.41042 # 4 = 23.2401W
EXAMPLE 1.22 6
2
6
Determine the voltage E which causes the current I1 to be zero for the I2
circuit shown in Fig. 1. I1
+
20 V E 1
SOLUTION 5
I3 4
+
In mesh analysis, when the solution of mesh currents is obtained by E E
Cramer’s rule, the mesh current I 1 is given by,

Fig. 1.
∆
I1 = 1 ..... (1)
∆
In equation (1), if I1 = 0, then ∆1 = 0. In order to find the value of E, we can form the mesh basis matrix
equation. Then form the determinant ∆1 and equate the determinant to zero.
Using the circuit shown in Fig. 1, the mesh basis matrix equation is formed by inspection.
R11 R12 R13 I1 E11
>R21 R 22 R 23 H >I 2 H = >E22 H
R31 R32 R33 I3 E33 ..... (2)
R11 = 6 + 2 + 5 = 13 R12 = R21 = −2 E11 = 20 − E
R22 = 2 + 6 + 1 = 9 R13 = R31 = −5 E22 = 0
R33 = 5 + 1 + 4 = 10 R23 = R32 = −1 E33 = E

13 − 2 − 5 I1 20 − E
>− 2 9 − 1 H >I 2 H = > 0H
− 5 − 1 10 I3 E
20 − E − 2 − 5
Now, ∆1 = 0 9 −1
E − 1 10 ..... (3)
On expanding ∆1 along column-1, we get,
∆1 = (20 − E) # 69 # 10 − (− 1) # (− 1) @ − 0 + E # 6 − 2 # (− 1) − 9 # (− 5) @
= (20 − E) × 89 + 47 E = 1780 − 89 E + 47 E = 1780 − 42 E
On equating ∆1 to zero, we get,
0 = 1780 − 42 E
` 42E = 1780 ⇒ E = 1780 = 42.381V

42
EXAMPLE 1.23
10 5 4
For the circuit shown in Fig. 1, find (a) the power delivered to 4 Ω resistor
using mesh analysis and (b) to what voltage should the 80 V battery be changed 60 V +
E 40 V +
E 80 V +
E
so that no power is delivered to the 4 Ω resistor?

Fig. 1.
SOLUTION I2
10 5 4
Let us assume two mesh currents I1 and I2 as shown in Fig. 2. The direction
I1 I2
of the currents are chosen as clockwise. Now, the current through 4 Ω resistor is I2. 60 V + + +
E 40 V E 80 V E
2
` Power delivered to 4 Ω resistor = I 2 # 4
Fig. 2.
a) To find the power delivered to 4 Ω resistor
Using the circuit shown in Fig. 2, the mesh basis matrix equation is formed as shown below:
= G = G = = 11 G
R11 R12 I1 E
R 21 R 22 I 2 E 22 ..... (1)
R11 = 10 + 5 = 15 R12 = R21 = −5 E11 = 60 − 40 = 20

R22 = 5 + 4 = 9 E22 = 40 − 80 = −40
= G = G = = G
15 − 5 I1 20
− 5 9 I2 − 40
Let us solve I2 by Cramer’s rule.

∆2
Now, I 2 =
∆
15 − 5
where, ∆ = = 15 # 9 − (− 5) # (− 5) = 110
−5 9
15 20
∆2 = = 15 # (− 40) − (− 5) # 20 = − 500
− 5 − 40
∆2
` I2 = = − 500 = − 4.5455 A
∆ 110
` Power delivered to 4 Ω resistor = I 2 2

# 4 = − 4.5455 2 # 4
= 4.54552 # 4 = 82.6463 W
b) To find the change in voltage in 80 V source such that power delivered to 4 Ω resistor is zero
Let us take the new value of 80 V source as E.
Now in equation (1), E22 is given by, E22 = 40 − E. Equation (1) for case (b) is given below:
= G = G = = G
15 − 5 I1 20
..... (2)
− 5 9 I2 40 − E
In equation (2), by Cramer’s rule, I2 is given by I2 = ∆2 / ∆. If power delivered to 4 Ω is zero then I2 should
be zero. For I2 to be zero, the determinant ∆2 should be zero.
15 20
Now, ∆2 = = 15 # (40 − E) − (− 5) # 20
− 5 40 − E
= 600 – 15E + 100 = 700 – 15E
On equating ∆2 to zero, we get,

0 = 700 − 15 E
15 E = 700
E = 700 = 46.6667 V
15
∴ The value of 80 V should be reduced to 46.6667 V to make the power delivered to 4 Ω resistor as zero.
EXAMPLE 1.24
5 I 15
+ +
In the circuit shown in Fig. 1, find the current I by mesh method and the 10 V 20 V
1.25
E E
power supplied by each battery to the 1.25 Ω resistor.
SOLUTION Fig. 1.
Let us assume two mesh currents as shown in Fig. 2. Now the current I 5 I 15
+
+
is given by the sum of I1 and I2. 10 V I1 1.25
20 V
E E
Using the circuit shown in Fig. 1, the mesh basis matrix equation is I2
formed as shown below:
Fig. 2.
= G = G = = 11 G
R11 R12 I1 E
R 21 R 22 I 2 E 22 .....(1)
R11 = 5 + 1.25 = 6.25 R12 = R21 = 1.25 E11 = 10
R22 = 15 + 1.25 = 16.25 E22 = 20

= G = G = G
6.25 1.25 I1 10
= ..... (2)
1.25 16.25 I2 20
In equation (2), the unknowns are I1 and I2. In order to solve I1 and I2, let us define three determinants
∆, ∆1 and ∆2 as shown below and the mesh currents are solved by Cramer’s rule.
6.25 1.25
∆ = = 6.25 # 16.25 − 1.25 # 1.25 = 100
1.25 16.25
10 1.25
∆1 = = 10 # 16.25 − 20 # 1.25 = 137.5
20 16.25
6.25 10
∆2 = = 6.25 # 20 − 1.25 # 10 = 112.5
1.25 20
∆1
I1 = = 137.5 = 1.375 A
∆ 100
∆2
I2 = = 112.5 = 1.125 A
∆ 100
∴ I = I1 + I2 = 1.375 + 1.125 = 2.5 A

Let P10 and P20 be the power delivered by 10 V and 20 V sources.
Now, P10 = 10 × I1 = 10 × 1.375 = 13.75 W
P20 = 20 × I2 = 20 × 1.125 = 22.5 W

Let P5 and P15 be the power consumed by 5 Ω and 15 Ω resistances, respectively.
2
Now, P5 = I12 × 5 = 1.375 × 5 = 9.4531 W
2
P15 = I22 × 15 = 1.125 × 15 = 18.9844 W
Let PL10 and PL20 be the power delivered to load (i.e., to 1.25 Ω resistor) by the 10 V and 20 V sources,
respectively.
Now, PL10 = P10 − P5 = 13.75 − 9.4531 = 4.2969 W
PL20 = P20 − P15 = 22.5 − 18.9844 = 3.5156 W
Cross-Check
Power consumed by 1.25 Ω resistance, PL = I2 × 1.25 = 2.52 × 1.25 = 7.8125 W
Also, PL = PL10 + PL20 = 4.2969 + 3.5156 = 7.8125 W
EXAMPLE 1.25 (AU June’16, 16 Marks) 3 5 57 V

+ E 7
In the circuit shown in Fig. 1, find voltage across 5 Ω resistor +

VL
E
using source transformation technique and verify the results using + 4 6 E

mesh analysis. 42 V 4V
E +
E +
25 V 70 V
SOLUTION + E
Method 1: Source Transformation Technique Fig. 1.

Let, VL = Voltage across 5Ω resistor.
The voltage sources in Fig. 2 are converted into current sources as shown in Fig. 3.
5 W +57V
-
3W 5W 57 V 7W
+ -
+ -
VL
- 25 4 W 70 A 4
+
Þ 42
A 3W A 6W A 7W
42 V
4V
4W 6W 3 4 6 7
- +
- +
25 V 70 V
+ -
Fig. 3.
Fig. 2.
ß
5W 57V
+ -
The parallel current sources in Fig. 4 are
+ -
converted into a single equivalent current source in VL
Fig. 5. Similarly, the parallel resistances in Fig. 4 are 42 25 3W 4W 70 4
A A 6W 7W A A
converted into a single equivalent resistance in Fig. 5. 3 4 6 7
The current sources in Fig. 5 are converted into

voltage sources as shown in Fig. 6. Fig. 4.
ß
5W 57V
5W 57V + -
+ - + -
VL
12 + - 6´7
W VL 42 42 25 3´4 70 4
7 W - 6+ 7 -
13 3 4 3+4 6 7
93 12 168-75 93 12 42 490-24 466 A
´ 466 42 Ü = = A = W = W = =
+ ´ 12 12 13 42 42
12 7 + 7
- - 42 13
93 V 466
= = V
7 13 Fig. 5.
Fig. 6.
The circuit of Fig. 6 is redrawn as shown in Fig. 7.
With reference to Fig. 7 by voltage division rule, we can write,
5W
VL = − 7240 # 5 +
VL
-
12 42
91 5 + 450 93 466
- - 57 +
91 7 13 7 13
+
1209 - 3262 - 5187 - 156 + 294
=− 7240 # 5 = =
7´13 7´13
91 5 # 91 + 450 450
7240
91 =- V =
91
W
91
= − 7240 # 5 = − 40 V Fig. 7.
5 # 91 + 450
Method 2: Mesh Analysis 3 5 57 V 7
+ E
Let, VL = Voltage across 5Ω resistor. + E

VL
+ 4 6 E
Let us choose mesh currents as shown in Fig. 8. 42 V I2 I3 4V+
E I1
E +
Now, VL = 5I2 25 V 70 V
+ E
For the circuit of Fig. 8, the mesh basis matrix equation is
formed as shown below: Fig. 8.
R11 R12 R13 I1 E11
>R21R 22 R 23 H >I 2 H = >E22 H
R31 R32 R33 I3 E33 ..... (1)
R11 = 3 + 4 = 7 R12 = R21 = −4 E11 = 42 + 25 = 67
R22 = 4 + 5 + 6 = 15 R13 = R31 = 0 E22 = −25 − 57 − 70 = −152
R33 = 6 + 7 = 13 R23 = R32 = −6 E33 = 70 + 4 = 74

7 −4 0 I1 67
>− 415 − 6 H >I2 H = >− 152 H ..... (2)
0 − 6 13 I3 74
In order to solve I2 by Cramer’s rule, let us define two determinant ∆ and ∆2 as shown below:
7 −4 0 7 67 0
∆ = − 4 15 − 6 ; ∆2 = − 4 − 152 − 6
0 − 6 13 0 74 13
The determinants are evaluated by expanding along first row and the mesh current I2 is solved by
Cramer’s rule.
7 −4 0
∆ = − 4 15 − 6 = 7 # 615 # 13 − (− 6) 2 @ − (− 4) # 6 − 4 # 13 − 0 @ + 0 = 1113 − 208 = 905
0 − 6 13
7 67 0
∆2 = − 4 − 152 − 6 = 7 # 6 − 152 # 13 − 74 # (− 6) @ − 67 # 6 − 4 # 13 − 0 @ + 0 = −10724 + 3484 = −7240
0 74 13
T2
` I2 = = − 7240 = − 8
T 905
` VL = 5I 2 = 5 # (− 8) = − 40 V
1.5.2 Mesh Analysis of Circuits Excited by Both Voltage and Current Sources
The mesh analysis can be extended to circuits excited by both voltage and current sources. In
such circuits if each current source has a parallel impedance then it can be converted into an equivalent
voltage source with series impedance. After conversion, the circuit will have only voltage sources and
so the procedure for obtaining mesh basis matrix equation by inspection and its solution discussed in
Sections 1.5.1 and 1.5.4 can be directly applied to these circuits.
In certain circuits excited by both voltage and current sources, the current source may not
have a parallel resistance. In this situation the current source cannot be converted into a voltage
source. In this case the value of each current source is related to mesh currents and one of the mesh
currents can be expressed in terms of the source current and other mesh currents. The remaining
mesh currents can be solved by writing Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) equations.
Alternatively, the mesh basis matrix equation can be formed directly by inspection, by
taking the voltage of the current sources as unknown and relating the value of each current source
to mesh currents. Here, for each current source, one mesh current is eliminated by expressing the
mesh current in terms of the source current and other mesh currents. While forming the mesh basis
matrix equation, the voltage of current sources should be entered in the source matrix.
Now in the matrix equation, some mesh currents will be eliminated and an equal number of
unknown source voltages will be introduced. Thus, the number of unknowns will remain the same
as the number of meshes m. On multiplying the mesh basis matrix equation, we get m equations
which can be solved to give a unique solution for unknown currents.
1.5.3 Supermesh Analysis

In circuits excited by both voltage and current sources, if a current source lies common to
two meshes then the common current source can be removed for analysis purpose and the resultant
two meshes can be considered as one single mesh called supermesh. In order to solve the two mesh
currents of a supermesh, two equations are required. One of the equations is the KVL equation
of the supermesh and the other equation is obtained by equating the source current to the sum or
difference of the mesh currents (depending on the direction of the mesh currents). An example of
formation of supermesh is shown in Fig. 1.41. Also, Example 1.27 is solved using the supermesh
analysis technique.
2W 5W 2W 5W
+ - + - + - + -
2I1 5I2 2I1 5I2
+ Mesh-1 Mesh-2 + + +
Supermesh equations
10 V -
I1 4A 3I2 3W Þ 10 V - Supermesh 3I2 3W
2I1 + 5I2 + 3I2 + 6I1 = 10
- -
I1 - I2 = 4
- 6I1 + I2 - 6I1 +
6W 6W
Fig. a : Two mesh circuit with mesh Fig. b : Supermesh of circuit shown
currents in same orientation. in Fig. a and its equations.
2W 5W 2W 5W
+ - - + + - - +
2I1 5I2 2I1 5I2
_ _
+ + Supermesh equations
10 V - I1 I2 3I2 3W Þ 10 V - Supermesh 3I2 3W
2I1 + 6I1 = 5I2 + 3I2 + 10
4A + +
I1 + I 2 = 4
- 6I1 + - 6I1 +
6W 6W
Fig. c : Two mesh circuit with mesh Fig. d : Supermesh of circuit shown
currents in opposite orientation. in Fig. c and its equations.
Fig. 1.41 : Examples of formation of supermesh.
A
EXAMPLE 1.26
4 5 4
Find the voltage between A and B of the circuit shown in +
1
10 A 4 20 V
Fig. 1 using mesh analysis. E E
10 V
+
B
SOLUTION Fig. 1.
The graph of the given circuit is shown in Fig. 2. It has five branches and three nodes. Hence, the number
of meshes m in the circuit is m = B − N + 1 = 5 − 3 + 1 = 3.
The circuit has five currents (corresponding to five branches) and in this three currents are independent
(corresponding to three meshes). Let us assume three mesh currents as shown in Figs 2 and 3.
A
c
4 5 4
b I2 d + E
1
a I3 10 A E1 4 I3 20 V
I1 e
I1 I2 E +
E
10 V
+
Fig. 2. B
Fig. 3.
The directions of mesh currents are chosen arbitrarily. Here, one of the mesh has 10 A current source
which cannot be converted into a voltage source because the source does not have parallel impedance. Hence,
we can take this current as a known mesh current, but the voltage across the source E 1 is unknown. Therefore,
the number of unknowns remain as three (i.e., unknowns are E1, I 2 and I3) and so we can write three mesh
equations using KVL (corresponding to three meshes) and a unique solution is obtained by solving the three
equations. The mesh equations can be obtained by two methods.
Note : While solving simultaneous equations a unique solution can be obtained only if the number
of unknowns are equal to the number of equations.
Method I : Formation of mesh equations by applying KVL
In this method the mesh equations are formed using Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law. The mesh equation for
a mesh is formed by equating the sum of voltage fall to the sum of voltage rise. The voltage rise and fall are
determined by tracing the circuit in the direction of the mesh current.
Voltage fall : 4 I 2 , 5I 2 , I 2 + E
+ E 5I2 + E
4I1 I2 I3
Voltage rise : 4I1, I3, 10 V 4I2
I1 E + I2 E + I3
E
∴ 4 I 2 + 5I 2 + I 2 = 4I1 + I 3 + 10 10 V
+
− 4I1 + 10I 2 − I3 = 10 I1 = 10A Fig. 4.

− 4 # 10 + 10I2 − I3 = 10 ⇒ 10I2 − I3 = 50 ..... (1)
+ E
Voltage fall : I3, 4I3, 10 V + E 4I3
I2 I3 E
Voltage rise : I2, 20 V E + I3 20 V
I2 E +
10 V
∴ I3 + 4I3 + 10 = I2 + 20 ⇒ − I2 + 5I3 = 10 ..... (2) +
Mesh equations (1) and (2) are sufficient for solving I2 and I3. Fig. 5.
Method II : Formation of mesh equations by inspection
In this method the mesh basis matrix equation is formed by inspection using the circuit shown in Fig. 3.
R11 R12 R13 I1 E11

>R21 R 22 R 23 H >I 2 H = >E22 H ..... (3)
R31 R32 R33 I3 E33
R 11 = 4 + 4 = 8 R 12 = R 21 = − 4 E 11 = E 1 I1 = 10
R 22 = 4 + 5 + 1 = 10 R 13 = R 31 = 0 E 22 = 10
R 33 = 1 + 4 = 5 R 23 = R 32 = − 1 E 33 = − 10 + 20 = 10
8 − 4 0 10 E1
>− 4 10 − 1 H > I 2 H = >10 H
..... (4)
0 −1 5 I3 10
On multiplying the matrices on left-hand side of equation (4), and equating to terms on right-hand side,
we get the following equations:
From row - 2, −40 + 10I2 − I3 = 10 ⇒ 10I2 − I3 = 50 ..... (5)

From row - 3, −I2 + 5I3 = 10
..... (6)
It is observed that the mesh equations obtained by both the methods are the same.
From equation (5), we get,
I3 = 10I2 – 50 ..... (7)
On substituting for I3 from equation (7) in equation (6), we get,
– I 2 + 5(10 I 2 – 50) = 10 ⇒ 49I 2 − 250 = 10
` I2 = 260 = 5.3061 A
49
I3 = 10I2 − 50 = 10 × 5.3061 − 50 = 3.061 A

To find voltage across A and B
Let us denote the meeting point of 4 Ω and 5 Ω as node-C and the meeting point of 1 Ω and 10 V source
as node-D as shown in Fig. 6.
There are two short paths to find the voltage across A and B. They are closed path ABCA and ABDA.
Let voltage across A and B be denoted as VAB.
With reference to Fig. 6, in path-ABCA by KVL we can write, 5I2
C + E A
+
VAB + 4I2 + 5I2 = 4I1 + E + E
I2
I2 I3
4I1 4I2
∴ VAB = 4I1 − 9I2 = 4 × 10 − 9 × 5.3061 = −7.7549 V E +
E +
AB
I1
V
E D
In path-ABDA by KVL we can write, E 10 V
+
VAB + 10 + I3 = I2 B
Fig. 6.
∴ VAB = I2 − I3 − 10 = 5.3061 − 3.061 − 10 = −7.7549 V
EXAMPLE 1.27 2 5 3
In the circuit shown in Fig. 1, find the current supplied by
the voltage source and the voltage across the current source by +
mesh analysis. 10 V 4 10 A 4
E
SOLUTION
Let us assume three mesh currents as shown in Fig. 2.
The current delivered by the voltage source is I 1 . Let the Fig. 1.
voltage across the current source be E with current leaving
point as positive. Also, the voltage across various elements of the circuit are shown in Fig. 2.
2 5 3 2 5 3
+ E + E + E + E + E + E
I1 2I1 5I2 3I3 2I1 5I2 3I3
_
+ Mesh-1 + Mesh-2 + Mesh-3 +
+ + _ +
10 V 4I1 4I2 E 4I3 4 4I1 4I2 4I3 4
_ + 10 V Supermesh
_ 10 A _ _
_ _ + _
Mesh-1
I1 I2 I3
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
With reference to Fig. 2, the relation between mesh currents I2 and I3 is
I 3 – I 2 = 10 ⇒ I 3 = 10 + I 2 ..... (1)
Let us combine mesh-2 and mesh-3 and form a supermesh as shown in Fig. 3. The KVL equation for
the supermesh is formed as shown ahead:
4 I2 + 5I2 + 3 I 3 + 4 I 3 = 4 I 1 ⇒ 4 I1 = 9I2+ 7I3

∴ 4 I1 = 9I2+ 7(10 + I2) Using equation (1)
∴ 4 I1 = 16I2 + 70 ⇒ 16I2 = 4I1 – 70

` I 2 = 4 I1 − 70 ⇒ I 2 = 0.25I1 − 4.375 ..... (2)
16 16
The KVL equation for the mesh-1 is formed as shown below:
2I1 + 4I1 = 10 + 4I2

∴ 6I1 = 10 + 4(0.25I1 – 4.375) Using equation (2)
` 6I1 = 10 + I1 − 17.5 ⇒ 5I1 = − 7.5 ⇒ I1 = − 7.5 − 1.5 A

5
∴ I2 = 0.25I1 – 4.375
= 0.25(– 1. 5) – 4.375 = –4.75 A
∴ I3 = 10 + I2 = 10 – 4.75 = 5.25 A
With reference to Fig. 2 by KVL,
E = 3I3 + 4I3 = 7I3 = 7 × 5.25 = 36.75 V
∴ Current supplied by the voltage source, I1 = –1.5 A
Voltage across the current source, E = 36.75 V

Find the current in each branch of the circuit shown in Fig 1. 3 1
SOLUTION
+
Let us assume the four branch currents are Ia, Ib, Ic and Id as shown 5A 10 5 10 V
E
in Fig. 2. The current source of Fig.2 can be represented by an equivalent
voltage source of value 50 V with a source resistance of 10 Ω in series as
shown in Fig. 3. Let us assume two mesh currents I1 and I2 as shown in Fig. 3. Fig. 1.
Ia 3 W Ic 1 W 3W 1W
Ib Id 10 W
+ +
5A 10 W 5W 10 V I1 5W 10 V
Þ 5 ´ 10 + I2
- -
= 50 V -
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
Using the circuit shown in Fig. 3, the mesh basis matrix equation is formed as shown below :
= G = G = = 11 G
R11 R12 I1 E
R 21 R 22 I 2 E 22 ..... (1)
R11 = 10 + 3 + 5 = 18 R12 = R21 = − 5 E 11 = 50
R22 = 5 +1 = 6 E 22 = − 10
> H > H = > H

18 −5 I1 50 .....(2)
−5 6 I2 − 10
In equation (2), the unknowns are I 1 and I2 . In order to solve I 1 and I 2 , let us define three determinants
∆, ∆ 1 and ∆ 2 as shown below:
18 − 5 50 − 5 18 50
∆ = ; ∆1 = ; ∆2 =
−5 6 − 10 6 − 5 − 10
The determinants are evaluated as shown below and the mesh currents are solved by Cramer’s rule.
3 = 18 − 5 = 18 6 − _− 5 i2 = 108 − 25 = 83
#
−5 6
50 − 5 = 50 6 − − 10 − 5 = 300 − 50 = 250
31 = # _ # i
− 10 6
18 50 = 18 _− 10 i − − 5 50 = − 180 + 250 = 70
32 = # _ # i
−5 − 10
31
I1 = = 250 = 3.012 A
3 83
32
I2 = = 70 = 0.8434 A
3 83
The branch currents are,
Ia = I1 = 3.012 A
Ib = 5 - Ia = 5 − 3.012 A = 1.988 A
Ic = I2 = 0.8434 A
Id = I1 − I2 = 3.012 − 0.8434 = 2.1686 A
EXAMPLE 1.29 (AU June’14, 8 Marks) +

10 V
E
Determine the current in each mesh of the circuit shown in Fig. 1. 10 A 3 1
2
SOLUTION
Let, voltage across 10 A curret source be VS and I1 , I2 and I3
be mesh currets as shown in Fig. 2. Here I1 = 10 A. Fig. 1.
Using the circuit shown in Fig. 2, the mesh basis matrix equation +
10 V
is formed as shown below: + E
10 A VS 3 1
I1 I2 2 I3
R11 R12 R13 I1 E11
>R21 R22 R23 H >I2 H = >E22 H
E
R31 R32 R33 I3 E33 ..... (1)

Fig. 2.
The elements of resistance matrix and source voltage matrix
are formed as shown below:
R11 = 3 R12 = R21 = −3 E11 = VS
R22 = 3 + 2 = 15 R13 = R31 = 0 E22 = −10 I1 = 10 A
R33 = 2 + 1 = 7 R23 = R32 = −2 E33 = 10
R 3 −3
S 0 VW RS10 VW R Vs V
S W
S− 3 5 − 2 W S I2 W = S− 10 W .....(2)
S W S W S W
S 0 −2 3 W S I3 W T 10 X
T X T X
From row-2, we get,
−30 + 5I2 − 2I3 = −10
∴ 5I2 − 2I3 = 20 .....(1)
From row-3, we get,
− 2I2 + 3I3 = 10 .....(2)
Equation (1) × 3 ⇒ 15I2 − 6I3 = 60

Equation (2) × 2 ⇒ − 4I2 + 6I3 = 20
Add 11I2 = 80
` I 2 = 80 = 7.2727 A
11
10 + 2 I 2
From equation (2), I3 = = 10 + 2 # 7.2727 = 8.1818 A
3 3
The mesh currents I1 , I2, and I3 are given by,
I1 = 10 A
I2 = 7.2727 A
I3 = 8.1818 A
1.5.4 Mesh Analysis of Circuits Excited by AC Sources

(Mesh Analysis of Reactive Circuits)
The reactive circuits consist of resistances, inductive and capacitive reactances. Therefore,
the voltage and current of reactive circuits are complex (i.e., they have both real and imaginary
components). In general, the elements of these circuits are referred to as impedances.
The general mesh basis matrix equation for reactive circuit is
ZI=E ..... (1.26)
where, Z = Impedance matrix of order m × m
I = Mesh current matrix of order m × 1
E = Source voltage matrix of order m × 1
m = Number of meshes.
Equation (1.26) can be expanded as shown in equation (1.27).
R V R V R V
S Z11 Z12 Z13 g Z1m W S I1 W S E11 W
S Z 21 Z 22 Z 23 g Z 2m W S I 2 W S E 22 W
S W S W S W
S Z31 Z32 Z33 g Z3m W S I3 W = S E33 W
S h h h h W Sh W S h W ..... (1.27)
SS W S W SS W
Z m1 Z m2 Z m3 g Z mm W SI m W E mm W
T X T X T X
Note : The over bar is used to denote complex quantities.

The formation of the mesh basis matrix equation and the solution of mesh and branch
currents are similar to that of resistive circuits except that the solution of currents involves complex
arithmetic.
Therefore, the kth mesh current of a reactive circuit with m meshes is given by,
m
Ik = 1
∆ /∆ jk E jj ..... (1.28)
j =1
where, ∆ jk = Cofactor of Z jk
th
E jj = Sum of voltage sources in j mesh
∆ = Determinant of impedance matrix.
Note : Refer equation (1.23).
Instead of using the above equation for solution of mesh currents, a short-cut for Cramer’s
rule can be followed.
Consider the mesh basis matrix equation for a three mesh circuit consisting of reactive
elements.
>Z21 Z22 Z23 H >I2 H = >E22 H

Z11 Z12 Z13 I1 E11
Z31 Z32 Z33 I3 E33

Let us define the four determinants as
Z11 Z12 Z13 E11 Z12 Z13 Z11 E11 Z13 Z11 Z12 E11
∆ = Z 21 Z 22 Z 23 ; ∆1 = E 22 Z 22 Z 23 ; ∆2 = Z 21 E 22 Z 23 ; ∆3 = Z 21 Z 22 E 22
Z31 Z32 Z33 E33 Z32 Z33 Z31 E33 Z33 Z31 Z32 E33
Here, ∆ = Determinant of impedance matrix

∆1 = Determinant of impedance matrix after replacing the first column of impedance
matrix by source voltage column matrix
∆2 = Determinant of impedance matrix after replacing the second column of impedance
matrix by source voltage column matrix
∆3 = Determinant of impedance matrix after replacing the third column of impedance
Now mesh currents I1, I2 and I3 are given by,
∆1
I1 =
∆
∆
I2 = 2
∆
∆3
I3 =
∆
EXAMPLE 1.30 (AU Dec’16, 12 Marks) j2 W
In the circuit shown in Fig. 1, find I 2 and voltage drop across

1 Ω resistor. 1W -j8 W
+
SOLUTION o
I1
4W
I2 j6 W
8Ð20 V ~
With reference to Fig. 1, the mesh basis matrix equation is -
-
~ 10Ð0oV
formed by inspection as +
= G = G = = G
Z11 Z12 I1 E11 Fig. 1.
..... (1)
Z 21 Z 22 I 2 E 22
o o
Z11 = 1 + j2 − j8 + 4 = 5 − j6 E11 = 8∠20 + 10∠0 = 7.5175 + j2.7362 + 10
Z12 = Z 21 = − (−j8 + 4) = − 4 + j8 = 17.5175 + j2.7362

o
Z 22 = 4 − j8 + j6 = 4 − j2 E 22 = −10∠0 = −10
= G = G = = G
5 − j6 − 4 + j8 I1 17.5175 + j2.7362
..... (2)
− 4 + j8 4 − j2 I2 − 10
To solve the unknowns (i.e., mesh currents) of equation (2) by Cramer’s rule, we can define three
determinants ∆, ∆1 and ∆2 as shown below:
5 − j6 − 4 + j8 17.5175 + j2.7362 − 4 + j8
∆ = ; ∆1 =
− 4 + j8 4 − j2 − 10 4 − j2
5 − j6 17.5175 + j2.7362
∆2 =
− 4 + j8 − 10
Cramer’s rule.
5 − j6 − 4 + j8
∆ = = (5 − j6) # (4 − j2) − (− 4 + j8) 2
− 4 + j8 4 − j2
= 56 + j30
17.5175 + j2.7362 − 4 + j8
∆1 = = [(17.5175 + j2.7362) # (4 − j2)] − [(− 10) # (− 4 + j8)]
− 10 4 − j2
= 35.5424 + j55.9098
5 − j6 17.5175 + j2.7362
∆2 = = (5 − j6) # (− 10) − (− 4 + j8) # (17.5175 + j2.7362)
− 4 + j8 − 10
= 41.9596 − j69.1952
∆1 35.5424 + j55.9098
I1 = = = 0.9087 + j0.5116 = 1.0428+29.4 o A
∆ 56 + j30
∆2 41.9596 − j69.1952
I2 = = = 0.0679 − j1.272 = 1.2738+ − 86.9 o A
∆ 56 + j30
Let, V1 = Voltage drop across 1Ω resistor.
Now, V1 = I1 × 1 = I1 = 1.0428+29.4 o V
EXAMPLE 1.31
5W j5 W 4W 4W
Solve the currents in various branches of the circuit shown in +
100Ð0oV 2W -j2 W 2W
Fig. 1 using mesh analysis. ~ -
SOLUTION
Fig. 1.
The graph of the given circuit is shown in Fig. 2. It has five branches and
three nodes. Hence, the number of meshes m in the circuit is m = B − N + 1 = 5 − 3 + 1 = 3. Ib b
Ia Ie
Ic Id
The circuit has five currents (corresponding to five branches) and in this d
c I2
three currents are independent (corresponding to three meshes). a
I3
I1 e
Let us assume the mesh currents I1, I 2 and I3 and the branch currents
Ia, Ib, Ic, Id and Ie as shown in Figs 2 and 3. Fig. 2.
Ib Ie
The directions of the currents are chosen arbitrarily. With reference
Ia 5W j5 W Ic 4W Id 4 W
to Fig. 3, the mesh basis matrix equation is formed as shown below:
+ o
100Ð0 V -j2 W 2W
>Z21 Z22 Z23 H >I2 H = >E22 H

Z11 Z12 Z13 I1 E11 ~ 2W
- I1 I2 I3
..... (1)
Z31 Z32 Z33 I3 E33
Fig. 3.
o
Z11 = 5 + j5 + 2 = 7 + j5 Z12 = Z 21 = − 2 E11 = 100∠0 = 100
Z 22 = 2 + 4 − j2 = 6 − j2 Z13 = Z31 = 0 E 22 = 0
Z33 = −j2 + 4 + 2 = 6 − j2 Z 23 = Z32 = − (− j2) = j2 E33 = 0
>I2 H
7 + j5 − 2 0 I1 100
> − 2 6 − j2 j2 H = > 0H
0 j2 6 − j2 I3 0 ..... (2)
In equation (2), the unknowns are I1, I 2 and I3 . In order to solve I1, I 2 and I3 by Cramer’s rule, let us
define four determinants ∆, ∆1, ∆2 and ∆3 as shown below:
7 + j5 −2 0 100 −2 0
∆ = − 2 6 − j2 j2 ; ∆1 = 0 6 − j2 j2
0 j2 6 − j2 0 j2 6 − j2
7 + j5 100 0 7 + j5 − 2 100
∆2 = −2 0 j2 ; ∆3 = − 2 6 − j2 0
0 0 6 − j2 0 j2 0
Cramer’s rule.
7 + j5 − 2 0
∆ = − 2 6 − j2 j2 = (7 + j5) # 6(6 − j2) # (6 − j2) − j2 # j2 @
0 j2 6 − j2
− (− 2) # 6 − 2 # (6 − j2) − 0 @ + 0
= (7 + j5) × [36 − j24] + 2 × [−12 + j4] = 348 + j20
Note : All calculations are performed using the calculator in complex mode.
100 − 2 0
∆1 = 0 6 − j2 j2 = 100 # 6(6 − j2) 2 − (j2) 2 @ − (− 2) # 60 − 0 @ + 0
0 j2 6 − j2
= 100 # (36 − j24) = 3600 − j2400
7 + j5 100 0
∆2 = −2 0 j2 = (7 + j5) # 60 − 0 @ − 100 # 6 − 2 # (6 − j2) − 0 @ + 0
0 0 6 − j2
= − 100 # 6 − 12 + j4 @ = 1200 − j400
7 + j5 − 2 100
∆3 = − 2 6 − j2 0 = (7 + j5) # 60 − 0 @ − (− 2) # 60 − 0 @ + 100 # 6 − 2 # j2 − 0 @
0 j2 0
= 100 # (− j4) = − j400
∆1 3600 - j2400
I1 = = = 9.9157 − j7.4664 = 12.412+ − 37 o A
∆ 348 + j20
∆2 1200 - j400
I2 = = = 3.3711 − j1.3432 = 3.629+ − 21.7 o A
∆ 348 + j20
∆3 − j400
I3 = = = − 0.0658 − j1.1456 = 1.147+ − 93.3 o A
∆ 348 + j20
With reference to Fig. 3, the following relations between mesh and branch currents are obtained.
Now the branch currents are evaluated using the mesh currents I1, I 2 and I3 .
Ia = I1 = 12.412+ − 37 o A
I b = I 2 = 3.629+ − 21.7 o A
Ic = I1 − I 2 = 9.9157 − j7.4664 − (3.3711 − j1.3432)

= 6.5446 − j6.1232 = 8.962+ − 43.1 o A
I d = I 2 − I3 = 3.3711 − j1.3432 − (− 0.0658 − j1.1456)

= 3.4369 − j0.1976 = 3.443+ − 3.3 o A
I e = I3 = 1.147+ − 93.3 o A
EXAMPLE 1.32 5W 4W 2W
+ +
In the circuit shown in Fig. 1, find the mesh currents. o
100Ð0 V j2 W -j12 W
o
50Ð90 V
~
-
~
-
SOLUTION I1 I2 I3
With reference to Fig. 1, the mesh basis matrix Fig. 1.

equation is formed by inspection as shown below:
>Z21 Z 22 Z 23 H >I2 H >E22 H

Z11 Z12 Z13 I1 E11
= ..... (1)
Z31 Z32 Z33 I3 E33
o
Z11 = 5 + j2 Z12 = Z 21 = − j2 E11 = 100∠0 = 100
Z 22 = j2 + 4 − j12 4 − j10 Z13 = Z31 = 0 E 22 = 0

o
Z33 = −j12 + 2 = 2 − j12 Z23 = Z32 = − (− j12) = j12 E33 = −(50∠90 ) = −j50
>I2 H
5 + j2 − j2 0 I1 100
> − j2 4 − j10 j12 H = > 0H
0 j12 2 − j12 I3 − j50 ..... (2)
To solve the unknowns (i.e., mesh currents) of equation (2) by Cramer’s rule, we can define four
determinants ∆, ∆1, ∆2 and ∆3 as shown below:
5 + j2 − j2 0 100 − j2 0
∆ = − j2 4 − j10 j12 ; ∆1 = 0 4 − j10 j12
0 j12 2 − j12 − j50 j12 2 − j12
5 + j2 100 0 5 + j2 − j2 100
∆2 = − j2 0 j12 ; ∆3 = − j2 4 − j10 0
0 − j50 2 − j12 0 j12 − j50
The determinants are evaluated by expanding along the first row and the mesh currents are solved
by Cramer’s rule.
5 + j2 − j2 0
∆ = − j2 4 − j10 j12 = (5 + j2) # [(4 − j10) # (2 − j12) − j12 # j12] − (− j2) # 6 − j2 # (2 − j12) − 0 @ + 0
0 j12 2 − j12
= 296 – j276 + 8 − j48
= 304 − j324
100 − j2 0
∆1 = 0 4 − j10 j12 = 100 # [(4 − j10) # (2 − j12) − (j12) 2] − (− j2) # 60 − (− j50) # j12 @ + 0
− j50 j12 2 − j12
= 3200 – j6800 − j1200 = 3200 − j8000
5 + j2 100 0
∆2 = − j2 0 j12 = (5 + j2) # [0 − (− j50) # j12] − 100 # [− j2 # (2 − j12) − 0] + 0
0 − j50 2 − j12
= − 3000 − j1200 + 2400 + j400
= −600 − j800
5 + j2 − j2 100
∆3 = − j2 4 − j10 0 = (5 + j2) # [(4 − j10) # (− j50)] − 0] − (− j2) # [− j2 # (− j50) − 0]
0 j12 − j50
+ 100 # 6 − j2 # j12 − 0 @
= –2100 – j2000 – j200 + 2400
= 300 − j2200
∆1 3200 − j8000
I1 = = = 18.0595 − j7.0682 = 19.393∠−21.4 o A
∆ 304 − j324
∆2 − 600 − j800
I2 = = = 0.3891 − j2.2169 = 2.251∠−80 o A
∆ 304 − j324
∆3 300 − j2200
I3 = = = 4.0731 − j2.8958 = 4.998∠−35.4 o A
∆ 304 − j324
10 W Io
-j4 W j8 W
In the circuit shown in Fig. 1, find Io using mesh analysis. o
2Ð0 A
+
50Ð0oV -
SOLUTION 5W -j6 W
Let us assume three mesh currents I1, I 2 and I3 as shown in Fig. 2. Fig. 1.
10 W Io
With reference to Fig. 2, the mesh basis matrix equation is formed by inspection
as shown below: -j4 W j8 W
I2
o
2Ð0 A
+
>Z21 Z22 Z23 H >I2 H = >E22 H

Z11 Z12 Z13 I1 E11 o
50Ð0 V - - +
..... (1) I1 E2
Z31 Z32 Z33 I3 E33 5W I3 -j6 W
Fig. 2.
Z11 = 10 − j4 + 5 = 15 − j4 Z12 = Z 21 = − (− j4) = j4 E11 = 50∠0o = 50
Z 22 = j8 − j4 = j4 Z13 = Z31 = − 5 E 22 = − E 2
Z33 = 5 − j6 Z 23 = Z32 = 0 E33 = E 2
Here, I 2 = − 2+0 o = − 2 and I3 = 2+0 o = 2

>− 2 H
15 − j4 j4 − 5 I1 50
> j4 j4 0 H = > E2 H
− .....(2)
−5 0 5 − j6 2 E2
From row-1 we get
(15 − j4)I1 + j4(−2) − 5(2) = 50
(15 − j4)I1 = 50 + 10 + j8
60 + j8
∴ I1 = = 3.6017 + j1.4938 = 3.8992+22.5 o A
15 − j4
I0 = 3.8992+22.5 o A
EXAMPLE 1.34
3W 1W j1 W 6W
+ +
In the circuit shown in Fig. 1, find E 2 such that the current in 30Ð0 V
o
j4 W 2W E2
(1 + j1) Ω branch is zero.
~ -
~ -
SOLUTION Fig. 1.
Let us assume three mesh currents I1, I 2 and I3 as shown in 3W 1W j1 W 6W

+
+
Fig. 2. With reference to Fig. 2, the mesh basis matrix equation is formed 30Ð0 V
o
j4 W 2W ~ E2
by inspection as shown below:
~- -
I1 I2 I3
Fig. 2.
>Z21 Z 22 Z 23 H >I2 H >E22 H

Z11 Z12 Z13 I1 E11
= ..... (1)
Z31 Z32 Z33 I3 E33
o
Z11 = 3 + j4 Z12 = Z 21 = − j4 E11 = 30∠0 = 30
Z 22 = j4 + 1 + j1 + 2 = 3 + j5 Z13 = Z31 = 0 E 22 = 0
Z33 = 2 + 6 = 8 Z 23 = Z32 = 2 E33 = E 2
> >I2 H
3 + j4 − j4 0
− j4 3 + j5 2 H
I1 30
= > 0H ..... (2)
0 2 8 I3 E2
It is given that the current through (1 + j1) Ω impedance is zero and so the mesh current I 2 is zero.
When the mesh currents are solved by Cramer’s rule, I 2 is given by ∆2 / ∆. For I 2 to be zero, the determinant
∆2 should be zero. Therefore, the value of E 2 can be obtained by equating ∆2 to zero.
3 + j4 30 0
∆2 = − j4 0 2 = (3 + j4) # 60 − 2 # E2 @ − 30 # 6 − j4 # 8 − 0 @ + 0
0 E2 8
= − E2 (6 + j8) + j960
Put ∆ 2 = 0, ∴ 0 = −E 2 ( 6 + j8 ) + j960
E 2 (6 + j8) = j960
j960
` E2 = = 76.8 + j57.6 = 96+36.9 o V
6 + j8
The value of voltage source, E 2 = 96∠36.9o V
1.5.5 Mesh Analysis of Circuits Excited by Independent and Dependent Sources

Mesh analysis can be extended to circuits excited by both dependent and independent
sources. When a circuit has a dependent source, the dependent variable should be related to mesh
currents and then the dependent source should be treated as a source while forming the mesh basis
matrix equation.
If a dependent source depends on a voltage Vx in some part of a circuit then the voltage Vx
should be expressed in terms of mesh currents. If a dependent source depends on a current I x in
some part of a circuit then the current Ix should be expressed in terms of mesh currents.
Circuits with Dependent Voltage Source
If a circuit has a dependent voltage source then express the value of the source in terms of
mesh currents. While forming the mesh basis matrix equation, enter the value of the dependent
source at the appropriate location in the source matrix on the right-hand side.
Now, some of the terms in the source matrix on the right-hand side will be a function of
mesh currents and so they can be transferred to the left-hand side with the opposite sign. Then the
mesh basis matrix equation can be solved using Cramer’s rule. This procedure is explained below
with an example.
Consider a circuit with three meshes and a dependent voltage source in mesh-2. Let the
mesh basis matrix equation without considering the dependent voltage source be as shown in
equation (1.29).
> 21 R22 R23 H > 2H = > 22 H

R11 R12 R13 I1 E11
R I E ..... (1.29)
R31 R32 R33 I3 E33
Let the value of the dependent source in mesh-2, when expressed in terms of the mesh
currents, be 2I1 − 2I3. Let the voltage of the dependent source be such that it is a rise in voltage in
the direction of mesh current I2. Hence, the value of the dependent source 2I1 − 2I3 is added as a
positive quantity to the element in the second row of the source matrix as shown in equation (1.30).
>R21 R 22 R 23 H >I 2 H >E22 + 2 I1 − 2 I3 H

R11 R12 R13 I1 E11
=
R31 R32 R33 I3 E33 ..... (1.30)
From row-2 of equation (1.30), we get,
R21I1 + R22I2 + R23I3 = E22 + 2I1 − 2I3
R21I1 − 2I1 + R22I2 + R23I3 + 2I3 = E22
∴ (R21 − 2)I1 + R22I2 + (R23 + 2)I3 = E22 ..... (1.31)
Using equation (1.31), equation (1.30) can be written as shown in equation (1.32).
> −2 R 23 + 2 H > 2H = > 22 H

R11 R12 R13 I1 E11
R 21 R 22 I E ..... (1.32)
R31 R32 R33 I3 E33
In equation (1.30), the terms 2 I 1 and − 2I 3 on the right-hand side are functions of mesh
currents I1 and I3, respectively. In equation (1.32), these two terms are transferred to the left-hand
side with the opposite sign. Now equation (1.32) can be solved by Cramer’s rule.
Circuits with Dependent Current Source
When a circuit has a dependent current source then express the value of the source in terms
of mesh currents. If the dependent current source has parallel impedance then it can be converted
into a dependent voltage source with series impedance and the analysis can be proceeded as
explained in Section 1.5.5.
If the dependent current source does not have parallel impedance then it cannot be converted
into a voltage source. In this case the value of the current source is related to mesh currents. Then
for each current source one mesh current is eliminated by expressing the mesh current in terms
of the source current and other mesh currents. The mesh basis matrix equation can be formed by
inspection, by taking voltage across the dependent current source as unknown. While forming the
mesh basis matrix equation, the voltage of current sources should be entered in the source matrix.
Now in the matrix equation some mesh currents will be eliminated and an equal number of
unknown source voltages will be introduced. Thus, the number of unknowns will remain the same
as the number of meshes m. On multiplying the mesh basis matrix equation we get m number of
equations which can be solved to give a unique solution for unknowns and hence mesh currents.
EXAMPLE 1.35
E
+
2 1 2VX 2
+
Solve the mesh currents of the circuit shown in Fig. 1. + 2 VX
10 V E 3 1
I1 I2 E I3
SOLUTION
The given circuit has three meshes. The general form of mesh Fig. 1.
basis matrix equation for three-mesh circuit is shown in equation (1).
R11 R12 R13 I1 E11

>R21 R 22 R 23 H >I 2 H = >E22 H .....(1)
R31 R32 R33 I3 E33
With reference to Fig. 1, the elements of resistance matrix and source voltage matrix are formed as
shown below:
R11 = 2 + 2 = 4 R12 = R21 = −2 E11 = 10
R22 = 2 + 1 + 3 = 6 R13 = R31 = 0 E22 = −2Vx
R33 = 3 + 2 + 1 = 6 R23 = R32 = −3 E33 = 0
4 − 2 0 I1 10
>− 2 6 − 3 H >I 2 H = >− 2Vx H ..... (2)
0 − 3 6 I3 0
The value of dependent voltage source −2Vx should be expressed in terms of mesh currents.
With reference to Fig. 1 we can write,
Vx = 3(I2 − I3)
∴ −2Vx = −2 × 3(I2 − I3) = − 6I2 + 6I3 ..... (3)
Using equation (3), equation (2) can be written as shown in equation (4).
4 − 2 0 I1 10
>− 2 6 − 3 H >I 2 H = >− 6I2 + 6I3 H ..... (4)
0 − 3 6 I3 0
In equation (4), the terms on the right-hand side which are a function of mesh currents are transferred
to the left-hand side with the opposite sign as shown in equation (5).
4 −2 0 I1 10
>− 26 + 6 − 3 − 6 H >I 2 H = > 0H
0 −3 6 I3 0 ..... (5)
4 − 2 0 I1 10
>− 2 12 − 9 H >I 2 H = > 0H ..... (6)
0 − 3 6 I3 0
In equation (6), the unknowns are I1, I2 and I3. In order to solve I1, I2 and I3, let us define the four determinants
4 −2 0 10 − 2 0 4 10 0 4 − 2 10
∆ = − 2 12 − 9 ; ∆1 = 0 12 − 9 ; ∆2 = − 2 0 − 9 ; ∆3 = − 2 12 0
0 −3 6 0 −3 6 0 0 6 0 −3 0
Cramer’s rule.
4 −2 0
∆ = − 2 12 − 9 = 4 # 612 # 6 − (− 3) # (− 9) @ − (− 2) # 6 − 2 # 6 − 0 @ + 0
0 −3 6
= 180 − 24 = 156
10 − 2 0
∆1 = 0 12 − 9 = 10 # 612 # 6 − (− 3) # (− 9) @ − (− 2) # 60 − 0 @ + 0 = 450
0 −3 6
4 10 0
∆2 = − 2 0 − 9 = 4 # 60 − 0 @ − 10 # 6 − 2 # 6 − 0 @ + 0 = 120
0 0 6
4 − 2 10
∆3 = − 2 12 0 = 4 # 60 − 0 @ − (− 2) # 60 − 0 @ + 10 # 6 − 2 # (− 3) − 0 @ = 60
0 −3 0
∆1 450 = 2.8846 A
I1 = =
∆ 156
∆
I 2 = 2 = 120 = 0.7692 A
∆ 156
∆
I3 = 3 = 60 = 0.3846 A
∆ 156
EXAMPLE 1.36
+
E
3
Determine the current I L in the circuit shown in Fig. 1, using mesh analysis. 4Vx
3 3
+ E
SOLUTION Vx IL
The graph of the given circuit is shown in Fig. 2. It has six branches and four 1
1
5
nodes. Hence, the number of meshes m in the circuit is, m = B − N + 1 = 6 − 4 + 1 = 3. +
+ E
8V E
6V
Let us assume three mesh currents I 1, I2 and I3 as shown in Fig. 3.
Now, the current, IL = I1 − I2 Fig. 1.

a
+
E
3
4Vx
I3 I3
b c 3 3
1 3
2 + E IL
Vx
I1 I2 I2
1 I1
1
d e 5
f
+ +
8V E E
6V
4
Fig. 3.
Fig. 2.
The general mesh basis matrix equation for three mesh circuit is shown in equation (1).
R11 R12 R13 I1 E11

>R21 R 22 R 23 H >I 2 H = >E22 H
R31 R32 R33 I3 E33 ..... (1)
shown below:
R11 = 1 + 3 + 5 = 9 R12 = R21 = −5 E11 = 8
R22 = 5 + 3 + 1 = 9 R13 = R31 = −3 E22 = −6
R33 = 3 + 3 + 3 = 9 R23 = R32 = −3 E33 = 4Vx
9 − 5 − 3 I1 8
>− 5 9 − 3 H >I 2 H = > − 6H
− 3 − 3 9 I3 4 Vx ..... (2)
Let us express the value of dependent sources in terms of mesh currents. With reference to Fig. 3,
we can write,
Vx = 3(I1 − I3)
∴ 4Vx = 4 × 3(I1 − I3) = 12I1 − 12I3 ..... (3)
On substituting for 4Vx from equation (3), in equation (2) we get,
9 − 5 − 3 I1 8
>− 5 9 − 3 H >I 2 H = > − 6H
− 3 − 3 9 I3 12 I1 − 12 I3 ..... (4)
9 −5 − 3 I1 8
> −5 9 − 3 H >I 2 H = >− 6 H
− 3 − 12 − 3 9 + 12 I3 0 .....(5)
9 − 5 − 3 I1 8
> − 5 9 − 3 H >I 2 H = >− 6 H
− 15 − 3 21 I3 0 .....(6)
In equation (6), the unknowns are I1, I2 and I3. In order to solve I1 and I2 let us define three determinants
∆, ∆1 and ∆2 as,
9 −5 −3 8 −5 −3 9 8 −3
∆ = −5 9 −3 ; ∆1 = − 6 9 − 3 ; ∆2 = −5 −6 −3
− 15 − 3 21 0 − 3 21 − 15 0 21
by Cramer’s rule.
9 −5 −3
∆ = − 5 9 − 3 = 9 # 69 # 21 − (− 3) 2 @ − (− 5) # 6 − 5 # 21 − (− 15) # (− 3) @
− 15 − 3 21
+ (− 3) # 6 − 5 # (− 3) − (− 15) # 9 @
= 1620 − 750 − 450 = 420
8 −5 −3
∆1 = − 6 9 − 3 = 8 # 69 # 21 − (− 3) 2 @ − (− 5) # 6 − 6 # 21 − 0 @ + (− 3) # 6 − 6 # (− 3) − 0 @
0 − 3 21
= 1440 − 630 − 54 = 756
9 8 −3
∆2 = − 5 − 6 − 3 = 9 # 6 − 6 # 21 − 0 @ − 8 # 6 − 5 # 21 − (− 15) # (− 3) @
− 15 0 21
+ (− 3) # 60 − (− 15) # (− 6) @
= −1134 + 1200 + 270 = 336
∆1 ∆2 ∆ − ∆2 756 − 336 = 1 A
` IL = I1 − I 2 = − = 1 =
∆ ∆ ∆ 420
EXAMPLE 1.37 (AU Dec’16, 8 Marks) 2 8
+ _ Io
Vx
Determine the current Io in the circuit shown in Fig. 1, using 4 4
mesh analysis. 6 I1 I2
+ E
E Vs = 12 V +
3Vx
SOLUTION
The given circuit has two meshes. The general form of mesh Fig. 1.
basis matrix equation for two-mesh circuit is shown in equation (1).
= G = G = = G
R11 R12 I1 E11
.....(1)
R 21 R 22 I 2 E 22
shown below:
R11 = 6 + 2 + 4 = 12 E11 = −12
R12 = R21 = −4 E22 = 3Vx + 12
R22 = 4 + 8 + 4 = 16
..... (2)
= G = G = = G
12 − 4 I1 − 12
− 4 16 I 2 3Vx + 12
The value of dependent voltage source 3Vx should be expressed in terms of mesh currents.
With reference to Fig. 1 we can write,
Vx = 2I1
∴ 3Vx = 3 × 2I1 = 6I1 ..... (3)
Using equation (3), equation (2) can be written as shown in equation (4).
..... (4)
= G = G = = G
12 − 4 I1 − 12
− 4 16 I 2 6I1 + 12
= G = G = = G
12 − 4 I1 − 12
− 4 − 6 16 I 2 12 ..... (5)
= G = G = = G
12 − 4 I1 − 12
..... (6)
− 10 16 I 2 12
To determine current Io
From Fig. 1, we get, Io = I2
In order to solve I2, let us define the two determinants ∆ and ∆2 as shown below:
12 −4 12 − 12
∆ = ; ∆2 =
− 10 16 − 10 12
by Cramer’s rule.
12 −4
∆ = = 12 # 16 − (− 4) # (− 10) = 152
− 10 16
12 − 12
∆2 = = 12 2 − (− 12) # (− 10) = 24
− 10 12
∆2 24 = 0.1579 A
I2 = =
∆ 152
∴ Io = I2 = 0.1579 A
EXAMPLE 1.38
2Vx
In the circuit of Fig. 1, determine the power delivered Iy 3Iy
E
+
to the 4 Ω resistor using mesh analysis. 2

1
+
SOLUTION + 12 V
E Vx 2 4
_
The graph of the given circuit is shown in Fig. 2. It has six branches
and four nodes. Hence, the number of meshes m in the circuit is,
Fig. 1.
m = B − N + 1 = 6 − 4 + 1 = 3.
Let us assume three mesh currents I1, I2 and I3 as shown in Fig. 3. Now the current through 4 Ω resistor
is I3.
∴ Power delivered to the 4 Ω resistor = I3 2

#4
2Vx = 2 ´ 2(I1 - I3)

d
+ _
I2 E2
e f Iy = I1 I2
-
+
a 1W 3Iy = 3I1 2W
b +
I1 I3 c
+ Vx 2W 4W
- 12 V
I1 _ I3
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3.
R11 R12 R13 I1 E11
>R21 R 22 R 23 H >I 2 H = >E22 H
R31 R32 R33 I3 E33 ..... (1)
Let the voltage across dependent current source be E 2 as shown in Fig. 3. With reference to Fig. 3,
the elements of resistance matrix and source voltage matrix are formed as shown below:
R11 = 1 + 2 = 3 R12 = R21 = 0 E11 = 12 − 3Iy
R22 = 2 R13 = R31 = −2 E22 = 3Iy − E2
R33 = 2 + 2 + 4 = 8 R23 = R32 = −2 E33 = 0

3 0 − 2 I1 12 − 3 I y
> 0 2 − 2 H >I 2 H = >3 Iy − E2 H ..... (2)
− 2 − 2 8 I3 0
Let us express the value of dependent sources in terms of mesh currents. With reference to Fig. 3,
we can write,
Iy = I1 ⇒ 3Iy = 3I1 ..... (3)
Vx = 2(I1 − I3) ⇒ 2Vx = 2 × 2(I1 − I3) = 4I1 − 4I3

In mesh-2, I2 = −2Vx
∴ I2 = −(4I1 − 4I3) = −4I1 + 4I3 ..... (4)
Using equations (3) and (4), equation (2) can be written as shown in equation (5).
3 0 −2 I1 12 − 3 I1
> 0 2 − 2H > 1 3H
− 4 I + 4 I = >3 I1 − E2 H
−2 −2 8 I3 0 ..... (5)
From row-3 of equation (5), we get,
−2I1 − 2(−4I1 + 4I3) + 8I3 = 0
∴ 6I1 = 0 ⇒ I1 = 0
3I1 − 2I3 = 12 − 3I1

∴ −2I3 = 12 Put, I1 = 0
` I3 = 12 = − 6 A
−2
2 2
Power delivered to the 4 Ω resistor = I3 2
× 4 = −6 × 4 = 6 × 4 = 144 W
EXAMPLE 1.39 2 2 2
+ E
VL
Determine the voltage VL in the circuit shown in Fig. 1, using Ix
+
mesh analysis. E 5V 1 3Ix 1
SOLUTION
The graph of the given circuit is shown in Fig. 2. It has five branches Fig. 1.
and three nodes. Hence, the number of meshes m in the circuit is,
m = B − N + 1 = 5 − 3 + 1 = 3. Let us assume three mesh currents I1, I2 and I3 as shown in Fig. 3.
e 2 2 2
+ E
b Ix VL E
I2 c
a + E2
I1 I3 5V 1 3Ix 1
d E
I1 I2 + I3
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3.
Now, the voltage, VL = 2 I 2
R11 R12 R13 I1 E11

>R21 R 22 R 23 H >I 2 H = >E22 H
R31 R32 R33 I3 E33 ..... (1)
Let the voltage across dependent source be E2 as shown in Fig. 3.
shown below:
R11 = 2 + 1 = 3 R12 = R21 = –1 E11 = 5
R22 = 1 + 2 = 3 R13 = R31 = 0 E22 = E2
R33 = 2 + 1 = 3 R23 = R32 = 0 E33 = –E2
>− 1
3 − 1 0 I1
3 0 H >I 2 H =
5
> E2 H
0 0 3 I3 − E2 ..... (2)
With reference to Fig. 3, we can write,
I x = I1 ⇒ 3 Ix = 3 I1
Also, 3 I x = I2 − I3 ⇒ 3 I 1 = I2 − I3 ⇒ I3 = −3 I 1 + I2 ..... (3)
On substituting for I 3 from equation (3) in equation (2), we get,
>− 1
3 −1 0
3 0H
I1 5
> I2 H = > E2 H
0 0 3 − 3 I1 + I 2 − E2 ..... (4)

−I 1 + 3 I 2 = E2 ..... (5)
3 (−3I 1 + I2 ) = −E 2 ⇒ −9 I 1 + 3 I 2 = −E2 ..... (6)
On adding equations (5) and (6), we get,

∴ −10 I 1 + 6 I 2 = 0 ⇒ I1 = 6 I 2 ..... (7)
10
3I 1 – I 2 = 5
3 # 6 I2 − I2 = 5 Using equation (7)

10
∴ 0.8 I 2 = 5 ⇒ I2 = 5 = 6.25 A
0.8
∴ VL = 2 I 2 = 2 × 6.25 = 12.5 V
EXAMPLE 1.40 (AU May’17, 10 Marks) 10
Determine the voltage Vx and current Ix as shown in Fig. 1, using Ix

3A
VX
5
mesh analysis. 4
50 V +
E
+
SOLUTION VX 2
+
E
4Ix
E
and four nodes. Hence, the number of meshes m in the circuit is Fig. 1.
m = B − N + 1 = 6 − 4 + 1 = 3. Let us assume three mesh currents I1, I2
and I3 as shown in Fig. 3. 10
b Ix + I2 + VX
3A E2 E3 5
E 4
I1 I +
E
c 2 d 50 V E
e I3
a I3 +
+ 4Ix
f VX 2
E
E
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
R11 R12 R13 I1 E11

>R21 R 22 R 23 H >I 2 H = >E22 H
R31 R32 R33 I3 E33 ..... (1)
Let the voltage across indepent current source be E2 and voltage across dependent current source be E3.
shown below:
R11 = 10 + 2 = 12 R12 = R21 = 0 E11 = 50 − E2

R22 = 0 R13 = R31 = −2 E22 = E 2 − E3
R33 = 5 + 2 = 7 R23 = R32 = 0 E33 = E3 − 4I x

R V
12 0 − 2 I1 S 50 − E 2 W
> 0 0 0 H >I2 H = S E2 − E3 W ..... (2)
− 2 0 7 I3 SSE − 4I WW
3 x
T X
With reference to Fig. 3, we can write the following equations:
I2 − I1 = 3 ⇒ I2 = 3 + I1 .....(3)
Vx = 2(I1− I3) ⇒ Vx = 2I1 − 2I3 .....(4)
Vx 2I1 − 2I3
I3 − I 2 = ⇒ I3 − I 2 = Using equation (4)
4 4
I
∴ I3 − I2 = 0.5I1 − 0.5I3 ⇒ 1.5I3 = 0.5I1 + I2 ⇒ I3 = 0.5 I1 + 2 = 0.3333I1 + 0.6667I 2 .....(5)
1.5 1.5
Ix = I1 ⇒ ∴ 4Ix = 4I1 .....(6)
On substituting equations (3), (5) and (6) in equation (2) we get,

R V R V
12 0 −2 I1 S 50 − E 2 W
> 0 0 0H
S W
S 3 + I1 W = S E 2 − E3 W ..... (7)
−2 0 7 SS0.3333I + 0.6667I WW SSE − 4I WW
1 2 3 1
T X T X
12I1 − 2 (0.3333I1 + 0.6667I 2) = 50 − E 2 ..... (8)

0 = E2 − E3 ..... (9)

−2I1 + 7(0.3333I1 + 0.6667I2) = E3 − 4I1 ..... (10)
On adding equation (8), (9) and (10) we get,
10I1 + 5(0.3333I1 + 0.6667I2) = 50 − 4I1
10I1 + 4I1 + 1.6665I1 + 3.3335I2 = 50
15.6665I1 + 3.3335 (3 + I1) = 50 Using equation (3)
19I1 = 50 - 10.0005
∴ I1 = 50 − 10 = 2.1053 A
19
∴ I2 = 3 + I1 = 3 + 2.1053 = 5.1053 A
I3 = 0.3333I1 + 0.6667I2 = 0.3333 × 2.1053 + 0.6667 × 5.1053
= 4.1054 A
∴ Ix = I1 = 2.1053 A
Vx = 2I1 − 2I3 = 2 × 2.1053 − 2 × 4.1054 = −4.0002 V = − 4 V
Alternate method V
Ix+3+ X
A Ix 10 B 4 C
With reference to Fig. 4, by KCL at node E, we get, + 10I E
x +
VX V
3A 4 5 5(Ix+3+ X )
Vx = − 2 d3 + x n
V E E
4
50 V +
4 E I1 VX
3+
4 +
4Ix
Vx = − 6 − 0.5Vx + E
VX 2
E
1.5Vx = − 6
D
` Vx = − 6 = − 4 V Fig. 4.
1.5
With reference to Fig. 5, by KVL in the closed path ABCDA we get,
10I x + 5 dI x + 3 +
Vx
n + 4I x = 50
4
Vx
10I x + 5I x + 15 + 5 + 4I x = 50
4
5 # (− 4)
19I x + = 50 − 15
4
` 19I x = 50 − 15 + 5
` I x = 40 = 2.1053 A
19
1.6 Node Voltage Method of Analysis for DC and AC Circuits

Node analysis is a useful technique to solve the voltage across various elements of a circuit.
Node analysis is preferred when the circuit is excited by current sources and the voltage across
various elements is unknown. Node analysis can also be extended to circuits excited by both voltage
and current sources and to circuits excited by both independent and dependent sources.
In a circuit, each branch will have a voltage across it. Hence, the number of voltages in the
circuit are equal to the number of branches. In a circuit, some of the voltages will be independent and
the remaining voltages depend on the independent voltages. The number of independent voltages in a
circuit can be determined from the graph of the circuit. It is given by the branches of the tree (or twigs)
of the graph. The voltages of the tree branches are the same as the node voltages. (Refer Section 1.7.4.)
In nodal analysis, the independent voltages are solved by writing Kirchhoff’s Current Law
(KCL) equations for various nodes in the circuit. A tree of the graph with N nodes will have N – 1
branches or twigs. Hence, the number of independent voltages n = N − 1. The nodes of the circuit
are the same as the nodes of the graph and so a circuit will also have N number of nodes. “A node
is meeting point of two or more elements. When more than two elements meet at a point then the
node is called a principal node”. The voltage of a node can be expressed only with reference to
another node. Hence, one of the nodes is chosen as the reference node and the node voltages are
expressed with respect to the reference node.
For each node except the reference node, a voltage is assigned called node voltage. The
voltage of the reference node is always zero. Using KCL, an equation is formed for each node
by equating the sum of currents leaving the node to the sum of currents entering the node. These
equations are arranged in the form of a matrix and node voltages are solved by Cramer’s rule.
A simple procedure to form a node basis matrix equation directly from the circuit by inspection
without forming KCL equations is also discussed in this chapter.
1.6.1 Node Analysis of Resistive Circuits Excited by DC Sources
A circuit with N nodes and B branches will have N − 1 independent voltages and
B – (N – 1) dependent voltages which depend on independent voltages. Let us denote the number
of independent voltages by n, where, n = N − 1.
In order to solve the independent voltages of a circuit we have to identify the N nodes of the
circuit and choose one of the node as the reference node. For each node, except the reference, we
have to attach a voltage called node voltage. The node voltages are the independent voltages of the
circuit. Let V1, V2, V3, ....., Vn be the node voltages.
For each node except the reference node, a KCL equation is formed by equating the sum of
currents leaving the node to the sum of currents entering the node. Since there are n independent
nodes, we can form n equations.
In resistive circuits excited by dc sources, the voltages and currents are real (i.e., they are
not complex). For resistive circuits, the n equations can be arranged in a matrix form as shown in
equation (1.33), which is called the node basis matrix equation. The formation of the node basis
matrix equation from KCL equations is explained in some of the solved problems.
The node basis matrix equation (1.33), can be written as shown in equation (1.34).
Note : The bold faced letter represent matrices.
RG G12 G13 g G1n V RV1 V RI V
S 11 W S W S 11 W
SG 21 G22 G23 g G2n W S V2 W SI22 W
SG31 G32 G33 g G3n W S V3 W = S I33 W
S W S W S W
S h h h h W Sh W Sh W ..... (1.33)
S G n1 G n2 G n3 g G nn W S Vn W SI W
T X T X T nn X
↓
↓
GV=I ..... (1.34)

where, G = Conductance matrix of order n × n
V = Node voltage matrix of order n × 1
I = Source current matrix of order n × 1
n = Number of nodes except reference node.
In equation (1.33), the elements of conductance matrix and source current matrix can be
determined from the given circuit. Hence, the unknowns are node voltages, which have to be solved
by any standard technique.
Alternatively, equation (1.33) can be formed directly from the circuit by inspection
without writing KCL equations. A procedure to form node basis matrix equation by inspection is
given below :
Procedure to Form Node Basis Matrix Equation by Inspection
Consider the node basis matrix equation shown below for a circuit with three nodes excluding
the reference node.
Let V1, V2, V3 be the node voltages.
> 21 G22 G23 H >V2 H = > 22 H

G11 G12 G13 V1 I11
G I ..... (1.35)
G31 G32 G33 V3 I33
The elements of equation (1.35) for circuits with independent sources are,
G11 = Sum of conductances connected to node-1
G12 = G21 = Sum of conductances connected between node-1 and node-2
I11 = Sum of current sources connected to node-1

The conductances G11, G22, G33 are called self-conductances of node-1, node-2 and node-3,
respectively.
The conductances G12, G13, G21, G23, G31, G32 are called mutual-conductances between nodes.
The formation of the elements of conductance matrix and source current matrix are explained
below:
i) The self-conductance G jj is given by the sum of all the conductances connected to the
jth node. The self-conductances will always be positive.
ii) The mutual-conductance G jk is given by negative of sum of all the conductances connected
between node-j and node-k.
In a circuit with only independent sources (Reciprocal network), G jk = Gkj.
iii) The source current matrix element I jj is given by the sum of all the current sources
connected to the jth node. A current source is positive if it drives current towards a node
as shown in Fig. 1.42, and it is negative if it drives current away from the node as shown
in Fig. 1.43. V V
j j
Ij Ij
Reference node Reference node

Fig. 1.42 : Example for Fig. 1.43 : Example for
positive current source. negative current source.
Note : In a circuit with both independent and dependent sources (non-reciprocal circuit) Gjk ! Gkj
Solution of Node Voltages

In the node basis matrix equation [i.e., equation (1.33)], the unknowns are node voltages
V1,V2,V3 ... Vn. The node voltages can be obtained by premultiplying equation (1.33), with the
inverse of conductance matrix.
Consider equation (1.34),
GV=I
On premultiplying both sides by G−1, we get,
G−1 G V = G−1 I
U V = G−1 I G−1G = U = Unit matrix
\ V = G−1 I .....(1.36) UV=V
Equation (1.36), will be the solution for node voltages. Equation (1.36), can be solved by
Cramer’s rule, by which the kth node voltage Vk is given by equation (1.37).
n
∆l1k ∆l ∆l ∆l
Vk =
∆l
I11 + 2k I22 + 3k I33 + ...... + nk I nn = 1
∆l ∆l ∆l ∆l / ∆l jk I jj ..... (1.37)
j =1
where, ∆′jk = Cofactor of Gjk
Ijj = Sum of current sources connected to node-j
∆′ = Determinant of conductance matrix

Proof for Cramer’s Rule

Consider equation (1.36) for a circuit with three nodes excluding reference node.
V1 G11 G12 G13 -1 I11
V = G–1 I ⇒ >V2 H = >G21 G22 G23 H >I22 H .....(1.38)
V3 G31 G32 G33 I33
We know that,
Adjoint of G Transpose of Gcof GTcof
G- 1 = = =
Determinant of G Determinant of G ∆l
where, ∆’ = Determinant of G.
Gcof = Cofactor matrix (matrix formed by cofactor of elements of G matrix).
Let, ∆’11 = Cofactor of G11
∆’12 = Cofactor of G12
and in general, ∆’jk = Cofactor of Gjk
∆l 11 ∆l 12 ∆l 13 ∆l 11 ∆l 21 ∆l 31
>∆l 21 ∆l 22 ∆l 23 H >∆l 12 ∆l 22 ∆l 32 H
Transpose T
` Gcof = Gcof =
∆l 31 ∆l 32 ∆l 33 ∆l 13 ∆l 23 ∆l 33
∆l 11 ∆l 21 ∆l 31
= 1 >∆l 12 ∆l 22 ∆l 32 H
T
Gcof .....(1.39)
` G- 1 =
∆l ∆l
∆l 13 ∆l 23 ∆l 33
On substituting for G–1 from equation (1.39) in equation (1.38), we get,
V1 ∆l 11 ∆l 21 ∆l 31 I11
>V2 H = >
1 ∆l
∆l 12 ∆l 22 ∆l 32 H >I22 H
V3 ∆l 13 ∆l 23 ∆l 33 I33
On multiplying the matrices on the right-hand side of the above equation and equating to the terms on the
left-hand side we get,
∆l 11 ∆l ∆l
V1 = I + 21 I22 + 31 I33
∆l 11 ∆l ∆l
∆l 12 ∆l ∆l
V2 = I + 22 I22 + 32 I33
∆l 11 ∆l ∆l
∆l 13 ∆l ∆l
V3 = I + 23 I22 + 33 I33
∆l 11 ∆l ∆l
The above equations can be used to form a general equation for node voltage. In general, the k th node voltage of
a circuit with n nodes excluding reference is given by,
n
∆l 1k ∆l ∆l ∆l
Vk =
∆l 11
I + 2k I22 + 3k I33 + ...... + nk Inn = 1
∆l ∆l ∆l ∆l
/ ∆l jk I jj
j=1
Short-cut Procedure for Cramer’s Rule

A short-cut procedure for Cramer’s rule is explained below:
Let us consider a circuit with three nodes excluding reference. The node basis matrix equation
for this case is,
>G21G22 G23 H > V2 H = >I22 H

G11 G12 G13 V1 I11
G31 G32 G33 V3 I33
Let us define three determinants as shown below :

I11 G12 G13
∆l1 = I22 G22 G23
I33 G32 G33
G11 I11 G13

∆l2 = G21 I22 G23
G31 I33 G33
G11 G12 I11

∆l3 = G21 G22 I22
G31 G32 I33
Here,
∆l1 = Determinant of conductance matrix after replacing the first column of conductance
matrix by source current column matrix
∆l2 = Determinant of conductance matrix after replacing the second column of conductance
∆l3 = Determinant of conductance matrix after replacing the third column of conductance
matrix by source current column matrix.
Let, ∆l = Determinant of conductance matrix
G11 G12 G13
∆l = G21 G22 G23
G31 G32 G33
Now, node voltages V1, V2 and V3 are given by,
V1 = ∆l1
∆l
V2 = ∆l2
∆l
l
V3 = ∆ 3
∆l
Cross-Check
The equation for node voltages obtained by short-cut procedure is the same as equation (1.37), and verified as
shown below:
I11 G12 G13

∆l1
V1 = = 1 I 22 G 22 G 23 Expanding along first column
∆l ∆l
I33 G32 G33
= 1 6 I11 ∆l11 + I 22 ∆l21 + I33 ∆l31 @

∆l
∆l11 ∆l ∆l
= I + 21 I 22 + 31 I33
∆l 11 ∆l ∆l
G11 I11 G13

∆l 2
V2 = = 1 G 21 I 22 G 23 Expanding along second column
∆l ∆l
G31 I33 G33
= 1 6 I11 ∆l12 + I 22 ∆l22 + I33 ∆l32 @

∆l
∆l12 ∆l ∆l
= I + 22 I 22 + 32 I 33
∆ 11 ∆l ∆l
G11 G12 I11

∆l 3
V3 = = 1 G 21 G 22 I 22 Expanding along third column
∆l ∆l
G31 G32 I33
= 1 6 I11 ∆l13 + I 22 ∆l23 + I33 ∆l33 @

∆l
∆l13 ∆l ∆l
= I + 23 I 22 + 33 I33
∆l 11 ∆l ∆l
Various Steps to Obtain the Solution of Node Voltages and Branch Voltages in a Circuit
Step 1 : Draw the graph of the circuit.
Step 2 : Determine the branches B and nodes N. The number of node voltages n is given by
n = N – 1.
Step 3 : Choose one of the nodes as reference. Let us denote the reference node as 0 (zero)
and other nodes as 1, 2, 3, ....., n.
Step 4 : Let us denote the node voltages as V1, V2, V3,....., and the branch voltages as Va,
Vb, Vc, Vd, Ve,...... Write the relationship between node and branch voltages.
Step 5 : Form the node basis matrix equation by inspection and solve the node voltages using
Cramer’s rule. For a circuit with three nodes excluding the reference, the node basis
matrix equation and solution of node voltages using Cramer’s rule are given below:
>G21 G22 G23 H >V2 H = >I22 H

G11 G12 G13 V1 I11
G31 G32 G33 V3 I33

I11 G12 G13

∆l1 1
V1 = = I G G
∆l ∆l 22 22 23
I33 G32 G33
G11 I11 G13
∆l 2
V2 = = 1 G 21 I 22 G 23
∆l ∆l
G31 I33 G33
G11 G12 I11
∆l 3
V3 = = 1 G 21 G 22 I 22
∆l ∆l
G31 G32 I33
Step 6 : Solve the branch voltages using the relationship between branch and node voltages.
Note : After solving the node voltages if any of the voltage is found to be negative then
that node has a potential lesser than the reference node.
EXAMPLE 1.41 V1 V2
Write and solve the node voltage equations for the circuit shown 1
in Fig. 1. 2A 2 2A
1
SOLUTION
With reference to Fig. 2, the node equation for node-1 is formed 0
as shown below: Fig. 1.

Currents leaving node-1 : V1 − V2 , V1 V1
1 1 V2
2A
Current entering node-1 : 2A V1 E V2
V1 1
2A
` V1 − V2 + V1 = 2 1
1 1
V1 − V2 + V1 = 2 0
2 V1 − V2 = 2 ..... (1)
Fig. 2. Reference
node
With reference to Fig. 3, the node equation for node-2 is formed as shown below:
V2 E V1
Currents leaving node-2 : V2 − V1 , V2 , 2 A 1
1 2 V2
V1
Current entering node-2 : Nil 2A
` V2 − V1 + V2 + 2 = 0 V2
2A
1 2 2
V2 − V1 + 0.5V2 = −2
0
−V1 + 1.5 V2 = −2 ..... (2) Fig. 3.
Equations (1) and (2) are the node equations of the circuit, which are summarised below for convenience.
2 V1 − V2 = 2 ..... (1)
−V1 + 1.5 V2 = −2 ..... (2)
Equation (1) × 1 ⇒ 2 V1 − V2 = 2
Equation (2) × 2 ⇒ − 2V1 + 3V2 = − 4
On adding 2V2 = − 2
` V2 = − 2 = − 1V
2
V1 = 1.5V2 + 2
= 1.5 × (−1) + 2 = 0.5 V
The node voltages are,
V1 = 0.5 V
V2 = −1 V
5A
Write and solve the node voltage equations for the circuit shown in Fig. 1.
V1 4 V2
SOLUTION 2 6 10A
With reference to Fig. 2, the node equation for node-1 is formed as

shown below: Fig. 1.
5A
Currents leaving node-1 : V1 − V2 , V1
4 2
V1 4 V2
Current entering node-1 : 5A
V1EV2
` V1 − V2 + V1 = 5 2 4
4 2 V1
2
0.25V1 − 0.25V2 + 0.5V1 = 5
0 Reference node
0.75V1 − 0.25V2 = 5 .....(1) Fig. 2.
5A
With reference to Fig. 3, the node equation for node-2 is formed as
shown below: V2 EV1 5A
Currents leaving node-2 : V2 − V1 , V2 , 5 A V1

4
V2
10A
4 6
4
Current entering node-2 : 10 A
V2 6 10A
` V2 − V1 + V2 + 5 = 10 6
4 6
0.25V2 − 0.25V1 + 0.1667V2 = 10 − 5
0 Reference node
− 0.25V1 + 0.416V2 = 5 .....(2) Fig. 3.
Equations (1) and (2) are the node equations of the circuit, which are summarised below for convenience.
0.75V1 − 0.25V2 = 5 ..... (1)
− 0.25V1 + 0.416V2 = 5 ..... (2)
Equation (1) × 1 ⇒ 0.75V1 − 0.25V2 = 5

Equation (2) × 3 ⇒ − 0.75V1 + 1.25V2 = 15
On adding V2 = 20
∴ V2 = 20 V
5 + 0.25V2
V1 =
0.75
= 5 + 0.25 # 20 = 13.3333 V
0.75
EXAMPLE 1.43
Determine the voltages across various elements of the circuit 2A
shown in Fig. 1, using the node method.
1 1

2 4
SOLUTION 1 1 1
9A
2 3 4
The graph of the given circuit is shown in Fig. 2. It has seven
branches and four nodes.
Fig. 1.
Let us choose one of the node as reference as shown in Fig. 2.
Let the voltages of other three nodes be V1,V2 and V3.
The reference node is denoted by 0 to indicate that its voltage is zero volt. The circuit with chosen
node voltages is shown in Fig. 3.
g
2A
e V2 V1 V3
V1 V3 V2
f 1 1

2 4
1 1
9A 1
b c 2 4
a d 3
Reference node 0 Reference node

0
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
Method I : Formation of node basis matrix equation by applying KCL
In this method, the node equations are formed using Kirchhoff’s Current Law. The node equation for
a node is formed by equating the sum of currents leaving that node to the sum of currents entering that node.
While writing the node equation for a node it is assumed that all the resistances connected to that node
will draw current from that node. Hence, the current in the resistances will always leave the node.
V1 V1 − V2
Currents leaving node-1 : , , 2A 2A
1/2 1/2 2A
Current entering node-1 : Nil V1 V2 V3
V1
` + V1 − V2 + 2 = 0 V1
V1 E V2
1/2 1/ 2 1/ 2
1/ 2
2 V1 + 2 V1 − 2V2 + 2 = 0
0 Fig. 4.
4V1 − 2V2 = −2 ..... (1)
V2 − V1 V2 − V3 V2 V2 E V1 V2 E V3
Currents leaving node-2 : , , 1/ 2 1/ 4
1/2 1/4 1/3 V2
V1 V3
Current entering node-2 : 9A
9A
V2 − V1
` + V2 − V3 + V2 = 9 V2
1/2 1/4 1/3 9A 1/ 3
2V2 − 2V1 + 4V2 − 4V3 + 3V2 = 9
0 0
− 2V1 + 9V2 − 4V3 = 9 ..... (2)
Fig. 5.
2A
V3 − V2 V3 2A
Currents leaving node-3 : ,
1/4 1/4
Current entering node-3 : 2 A V1 V2 V3
V3 E V2
V3 − V2
` + V3 = 2 1/ 4 V3
1/4 1/4 1/ 4
4V3 − 4V2 + 4V3 = 2

Fig. 6. 0
−4V2 + 8V3 = 2 ..... (3)
Equations (1), (2) and (3) are node equations of the circuit shown in Fig. 3. The node equations are
summarised below for convenience.
4V1 − 2V2 = −2
−2V1 + 9V2 − 4V3 = 9
−4V2 + 8V3 = 2
The node equations can be arranged in a matrix form as shown below and then solved by Cramer’s rule.
4 − 2 0 V1 −2
>− 2 9 − 4 H >V2 H = > 9 H
0 − 4 8 V3 2 ..... (4)
Method II : Formation of node basis matrix equation by inspection
In this method, the node basis matrix equation is formed by inspection using the circuit shown in
Fig. 3. The general node basis matrix equation for a circuit with three nodes excluding the reference is shown
in equation (5).
G11 G12 G13 V1 I11

>G21 G 22 G 23 H >V2 H = >I 22 H
G31 G32 G33 V3 I33 ..... (5)
The elements of conductance matrix and source current matrix are formed as shown below:
G11 = 2 + 2 = 4 G12 = G21 = –2 I11 = –2
G22 = 2 + 3 + 4 = 9 G13 = G31 = 0 I22 = 9
G33 = 4 + 4 = 8 G23 = G32 = – 4 I33 = 2
4 − 2 0 V1 −2
>− 2 9 − 4 H >V2 H = > 9 H
0 − 4 8 V3 2 ..... (6)
Solution of node voltages

It is observed that the node basis matrix equations obtained in methods - I and II are the same. In
equation (6) the unknowns are V1, V2 and V3 . In order to solve V1, V2 and V3, let us define four determinants
∆l , ∆l1, ∆l2 and ∆l3 as shown below:
4 −2 0 −2 −2 0 4 −2 0 4 −2 −2
∆l = − 2 9 − 4 ; ∆l1 = 9 9 − 4 ; ∆l2 = − 2 9 − 4 ; ∆l3 = − 2 9 9
0 −4 8 2 −4 8 0 2 8 0 −4 2
The determinants are evaluated by expanding along first row and the node voltages are solved
by Cramer’s rule.
4 −2 0
= 4 # 69 # 8 − (− 4) 2 @ − (− 2) # 6 − 2 # 8 − 0 @ + 0
∆l = − 2 9 − 4
= 224 − 32 = 192
0 −4 8
−2 −2 0
= − 2 # 69 # 8 − (− 4) 2 @ − (− 2) # 69 # 8 − 2 # (− 4) @ + 0
∆l1 = 9 9 −4
= − 112 + 160 = 48
2 −4 8
4 −2 0
= 4 # 69 # 8 − 2 # (− 4) @ − (− 2) # 6 − 2 # 8 − 0 @ + 0
∆l 2 = − 2 9 − 4
= 320 − 32 = 288
0 2 8
4 −2 −2
= 4 # 69 # 2 − (− 4) # 9 @ − (− 2) # 6 − 2 # 2 − 0 @ + (− 2) # 6 − 2 # (− 4) − 0 @
∆l 3 = − 2 9 9
= 216 − 8 − 16 = 192
0 −4 2
∆l1
V1 = = 48 = 0.25 V
∆l 192
∆l 2
V2 = = 288 = 1.5 V
∆l 192
∆l 3
V3 = = 192 = 1V
∆l 192
To solve branch voltages
The given circuit has seven branches. Let us denote the branch voltages as Va, Vb, Vc, Vd, Ve, Vf and Vg
as shown in Fig. 7. The sign of branch voltages are chosen such that they are all positive. The
relation between the branch and node voltages are obtained using the circuit shown in Fig. 7 and the branch
voltages are solved as shown below: Vg
_ +
Va = V1 = 0.25 V 2A
_ Ve + Vf _
+
V1 V3
Vb = V2 = 1.5 V V2
+ + + +
Vc = V2 = 1.5 V Va Vb Vc Vd
_ _ 9A _ _
Vd = V3 = 1 V
Fig. 7.
Ve = V2 − V1 = 1.5 − 0.25 = 1.25 V
Vf = V2 − V3 = 1.5 − 1 = 0.5 V
Vg = V3 − V1 = 1 − 0.25 = 0.75 V
Note : The branch voltages are voltages across various elements in the circuit.
EXAMPLE 1.44
2
In the network shown in Fig. 1, find the current through the 2 Ω resistor,
1
using the node method.
5A 4 4
SOLUTION 1
4
The given circuit is redrawn as shown in Fig. 2. The graph of the circuit is
shown in Fig. 3. It has seven branches and four nodes. Let us choose one of the
Fig. 1.
nodes as reference as shown in Fig. 3. Let the voltages of other three nodes be
V1, V2 and V3. The reference node is denoted by 0.
V1 2 V2 V1 f V2
1
5A 4 4 a b c d e
1
4 V3 V3
0 0 g
Reference Reference
node node
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
In the 2 Ω resistor, the current will flow from node-1 to node-2 if V1 > V2, and when V2 > V1, the current
will flow from node-2 to node-1. Let the current through 2 Ω resistance be Ix.
V1 − V2
If V1 > V2 , then Ix = .
2
V2 − V1
If V2 > V1, then Ix = .
2
In both the cases it is enough if we solve the node voltages V1 and V2.
The node basis matrix equation is formed by inspection using the circuit shown in Fig. 2. The general
node basis matrix equation for a circuit with three nodes excluding the reference is shown in equation (1).
G11 G12 G13 V1 I11

>G21 G 22 G 23 H >V2 H = >I22 H ..... (1)
G31 G32 G33 V3 I33
The elements of conductance matrix and source current matrix are formed as shown below :
G11 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 1.75 G12 = G 21 = − 1 = − 0.5 I11 = 5

4 1 2 2
G 22 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 1.75 G13 = G31 = − 1 = − 1 I 22 = 0

2 4 1 1
G33 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 1.5 G 23 = G32 = − 1 = − 0.25 I33 = 0

4 1 4 4
1.75 − 0.5 −1 V1 5
>− 0.5 1.75 − 0.25 H >V2 H = >0 H
− 1 − 0.25 1.5 V3 0
In order to solve the node voltages V1 and V2, let us define three determinants ∆’, ∆’1 and ∆’2 as shown
below:
1.75 − 0.5 −1 5 − 0.5 −1 1.75 5 −1

∆l = − 0.5 1.75 − 0.25 ; ∆l1 = 0 1.75 − 0.25 ; ∆l2 = − 0.5 0 − 0.25
− 1 − 0.25 1.5 0 − 0.25 1.5 −1 0 1.5
The determinants are evaluated by expanding along the first row and the node voltages are solved
by Cramer’s rule.
1.75 − 0.5 −1
= 1.75 # 61.75 # 1.5 − (− 0.25) 2 @ − (− 0.5) # 6 − 0.5 # 1.5 − (− 1) # (− 0.25) @
∆l = − 0.5 1.75 − 0.25
− 1 − 0.25 1.5 + (− 1) # 6 − 0.5 # (− 0.25) − (− 1) # 1.75 @
= 4.4844 − 0.5 − 1.875 = 2.1094
5 − 0.5 − 1 = 5 61.75 1.5 − (− 0.25) 2 @ − 0 + 0

# #
∆l1 = 0 1.75 − 0.25
0 − 0.25 1.5 = 12.8125
1.75 5 − 1 = 0 − 5 # 6 − 0.5 # 1.5 − (− 1) # (− 0.25) @ + 0

∆l2 = − 0.5 0 − 0.25
−1 0 1.5 = 5
∆l1
` V1 = = 12.8125 = 6.074 V
∆l 2.1094
∆l 2 5
V2 = = = 2.3703 V
∆l 2.1094
V1 − V2
` Ix = = 6.074 − 2.3703 = 1.8519 A
2 2
Since V1 > V2, the direction of current I x is from node-1 to node-2.
EXAMPLE 1.45 5A
In the circuit shown in Fig. 1, find the potential difference between A and D. 4A 3A
B
SOLUTION A C
2 3
The given circuit has four nodes. Let us choose the node-D as reference
node and so the voltage of node-D is zero volt. All other node voltages are
4 2
5
expressed with respect to the reference node. Let the voltages of node A, B and
C be V1, V2 and V3 , respectively. Now the voltage between A and D is V1.
Fig. 1.
D
5A
The node basis matrix equation is formed by inspection using the circuit
shown in Fig. 2. The general node basis matrix equation for a circuit with three
4A 3A
nodes excluding the reference is shown in equation (1).
V2
V1 V3
G11 G12 G13 V1 I11
>G21 G22 G23 H >V2 H = >I22 H
2 3
G31 G32 G33 V3 I33 ..... (1)

4 2
5
The elements of conductance matrix and source current matrix are formed Reference
as shown below: node Fig. 2.
0
G11 = 1 + 1 = 0.75
G12 = G 21 = − 1 = − 0.5 I11 = 5 − 4 = 1
2 4 2
G 22 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 1.33 G13 = G31 = 0 I 22 = 4 − 3 = 1
2 2 3
G33 = 1 + 1 = 0.53 G 23 = G32 = − 1 = − 0.33 I33 = 3 − 5 = − 2

3 5 3
0.75 − 0.5 0 V1 1
>− 0.5 1.33 − 0.33 H >V2 H = > 1H
0 − 0.33 0.53 V3 −2 ..... (2)
In order to solve the node voltage V1, let us define two determinants D’ and D’1 as shown below:
0.75 − 0.5 0 1 − 0.5 0

∆l = − 0.5 1.33 − 0.33 ; ∆l1 = 1 1.33 − 0.33
0 − 0.33 0.53 − 2 − 0.33 0.53
The determinants are evaluated by expanding along the first row and the node voltage V1 is solved
by Cramer’s rule.
0.75 − 0.5 0
= 0.75 # 61.33 # 0.53 − (− 0.33) 2 @ − (− 0.5) # 6 − 0.5 # 0.53 − 0 @ + 0
∆l = − 0.5 1.33 − 0.33
= 0.447 − 0.1325 = 0.3145
0 − 0.33 0.53
1 − 0.5 0
= 1 # 61.33 # 0.53 − (− 0.33) 2 @ − (− 0.5) # 61 # 0.53 − (− 2) # (− 0.33) @ + 0
∆l1 = 1 1.33 − 0.33
= 0.596 − 0.065 = 0.531
− 2 − 0.33 0.53
∆l1
` V1 = = 0.531 = 1.6884 V
∆l 0.3145
Voltage between node A and D = VAD = V1 = 1.6884 V

2
EXAMPLE 1.46
In the circuit shown in Fig. 1, determine the power supplied by the current 2
4
sources. 8A 10 A
SOLUTION 2
The given circuit has four nodes. Let us choose one of the node voltage as Fig. 1.
reference node, which is indicated by 0. Let the voltages of the other three nodes
be V1, V2 and V3 as shown in Fig. 2.
The power supplied by 8 A source in watts = V1 × 8 V1

2
V2
2
The power supplied by 10 A source in watts = (V2 −V3) × 10 4
8A 10 A
The node basis matrix equation is formed by inspection using the circuit
shown in Fig. 2. The general node basis matrix equation for a circuit with three nodes 2
excluding the reference is shown in equation (1). 0 V3
Reference node
G11 G12 G13 V1 I11
>G21 G 22 G 23 H >V2 H = >I 22 H
Fig. 2.
..... (1)
G31 G32 G33 V3 I33
G11 = 1 + 1 = 1 G12 = G 21 = − 1 = − 0.5 I11 = 8

2 2 2
G 22 = 1 + 1 = 0.75 G13 = G31 = − 1 = − 0.5 I22 = 10

2 4 2
G33 = 1 + 1 = 1 G 23 = G32 = 0 I33 = − 10

2 2
1 − 0.5 − 0.5 V1 8
> − 0.50.75 0H >V2 H = > 10 H ..... (2)
− 0.5 0 1 V3 − 10
In equation (2), the unknowns are V1, V2 and V3. In order to solve V1, V2 and V3, let us define four
determinants, ∆l , ∆l1, ∆l2 and ∆l3 as shown below:
1 − 0.5 − 0.5 8 − 0.5 − 0.5

∆l = − 0.5 0.75 0 ; ∆l1 = 10 0.75 0
− 0.5 0 1 − 10 0 1
1 8 − 0.5 1 − 0.5 8
∆l2 = − 0.5 10 0 ; ∆l3 = − 0.5 0.75 10
− 0.5 − 10 1 − 0.5 0 − 10
by Cramer’s rule.
1 − 0.5 − 0.5
∆l = − 0.5 0.75 0 = 1 # 60.75 # 1 − 0 @ − (− 0.5) # 6 − 0.5 # 1 − 0 @ + (− 0.5) # 60 − (− 0.5) # 0.75 @
− 0.5 0 1
= 0.75 − 0.25 − 0.1875 = 0.3125
8 − 0.5 − 0.5
∆l1 = 10 0.75 0 = 8 # 60.75 # 1 − 0 @ − (− 0.5) # 610 # 1 − 0 @ + (− 0.5) # 60 − (− 10) # 0.75 @
− 10 0 1
= 6 + 5 − 3.75 = 7.25
1 8 − 0.5
∆l2 = − 0.5 10 0 = 1 # 610 # 1 − 0 @ − 8 # 6 − 0.5 # 1 − 0 @ + (− 0.5) # 6 − 0.5 # (− 10) − (− 0.5) # 10 @
− 0.5 − 10 1
= 10 + 4 − 5 = 9
1 − 0.5 8 1 # 60.75 # (− 10) − 0 @ − (− 0.5) # 6 − 0.5 # (− 10) − (− 0.5) # 10 @
∆l3 = − 0.5 0.75 10 = + 8 # 60 − (− 0.5) # 0.75 @
− 0.5 0 − 10
= −7.5 + 5 + 3 = 0.5
∆l1
V1 = = 7.25 = 23.2 V
∆l 0.3125
∆l 2 9
V2 = = = 28.8 V
∆l 0.3125
∆l 3
V3 = = 0.5 = 1.6 V
∆l 0.3125
Power supplied by 8 A current source = V1 × 8 = 23.2 × 8 = 185.6 W
Power supplied by 10 A current source = (V2 − V3) × 10 = (28.8 − 1.6) × 10 = 272 W
1
EXAMPLE 1.47
Find the power in the 4 Ω resistor of the circuit shown in Fig. 1, using
1 1
the node method.
10 A 4 20 A
SOLUTION
To estimate the power in the 4 Ω resistor, first we have to determine Fig. 1.

the voltage across 4 Ω resistor. The given circuit has four nodes. Let us 1
choose one of the node as the reference node and it is indicated by 0. Let
the voltages of other three nodes be V1, V2 and V3 as shown in Fig. 2. Now 1 V2 1
V1 V3
the voltage across 4 Ω resistor is V2 volts.
10 A 4 20 A
V 22
∴ Power in the 4 Ω resistor in watts = .
4
0 Reference node
The node basis matrix equation is formed by inspection using the Fig. 2.
circuit shown in Fig. 2. The general node basis matrix equation for a circuit
with three nodes excluding the reference is shown in equation (1).
G11 G12 G13 V1 I11

>G21 G 22 G 23 H >V2 H = >I22 H .....(1)
G31 G32 G33 V3 I33
G11 = 1 + 1 = 2 G12 = G 21 = − 1 = − 1 I11 = 10

1 1 1
G 22 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 2.25 G13 = G31 = − 1 = − 1 I22 = 0

1 1 4 1
G33 = 1 + 1 = 2 G 23 = G32 = − 1 = − 1 I33 = 20

1 1 1
2 − 1 − 1 V1 10
>− 12.25 − 1 H >V2 H = > 0 H
− 1 − 1 2 V3 20 ..... (2)
In order to solve the node voltage V2 , let us define two determinants D’ and D’2 as shown below:
2 −1 −1 2 10 − 1
∆l = − 1 2.25 − 1 ; ∆l 2 = − 1 0 − 1
−1 −1 2 − 1 20 2
The determinants are evaluated by expanding along the first row and the node voltage V2 is solved
by Cramer’s rule.
2 − 1 −1
∆l = − 1 2.25 − 1 = 2 # 6 2.25 # 2 − (− 1) 2 @ − (− 1) # 6 − 1 # 2 − (− 1) 2 @ + (− 1) # 6(− 1) 2 − (− 1) # 2.25 @
−1 − 1 2
= 7 − 3 − 3.25 = 0.75
2 10 − 1
∆l2 = − 1 0 − 1 = 2 # 60 − 20 # (− 1) @ − 10 # 6 − 1 # 2 − (− 1) 2 @ + ^− 1h # 6 − 1 # 20 − 0 @
− 1 20 2
= 40 + 30 + 20 = 90
∆l 2
` V2 = = 90 = 120 V
∆l 0.75
V2 2
Power in the 4Ω resistor = 42 = 120
4
= 3600 W
EXAMPLE 1.48 (AU May’17, 6 Marks) + Vx E
In the circuit shown in Fig. 1, write mesh equations by 8 Ix 10 4

inspection and solve Vx and Ix. Verify the result by node analysis. + +
100 V 4 10 40 V
E E
SOLUTION
Method 1: Mesh Analysis Fig. 1.
The mesh currents and their direction are given in Fig 2. The + Vx E
circuit has three meshes. The general form of mesh basis matrix 8 Ix 10 4
+ +
equation for three mesh circuit is shown in equation (1).
100 V 4 10 40 V
I1
E I2 E
R11 R12 R13 I1 E11
>R21 R22 R23 H >I2 H = >E22 H
I3
..... (1)
R31 R32 R33 I3 E33 Fig. 2.
R11 = 8 + 4 = 12 R12 = R21 = −4 E11 = 100
R22 = 4 + 10 + 10 = 24 R13 = R31 = 0 E22 = 0
R33 = 10 + 4 = 14 R23 = R32 = −10 E33 = −40

On substituting the above terms in equation (2), we get mesh equation,
12 −4 0 I1 100
>−4 24 − 10 H >I2 H = > 0 H .....(2)
0 − 10 14 I3 − 40
Here, Ix = I2 and Vx = 10I2

In order to solve I2, two determinants ∆ and ∆2 are defined as shown below and evaluated by expanding
along the first row and I2 is solved by Cramer’s rule.
12 − 4 0
∆ = −4 24 − 10 = 12 # [24 # 14 − (− 10) 2] − (− 4) # 6 − 4 # 14 − 0 @ + 0 = 2608
0 − 10 14
12 100 0
∆2 = −4 0 − 10 = 12 # [0 − (− 40) # (− 10)] − 100 6 − 4 # 14 − 0 @ + 0 = 800
0 − 40 14
T
` I x = I 2 = 2 = 800 = 0.30675 A
T 2608
Vx = 10Ix = 10 × 0.30675 = 3.0675 V
Method 2: Node Analysis

Let us convert the voltage sources in Fig. 1 into current sources as shown below and redraw the circuit
with current sources in Fig. 7.
=12.5 A
8W 4W
40 = 10 A
+ +
100 V Þ 8W 40 V Þ 4W
100
8
- -
4
Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Fig.5. Fig. 6.
The node basis matrix equation is formed by inspection Vx
V1 + E V2
using the circuit shown in Fig. 7. The general node basis matrix Ix 10
Is1 = 12.5 A
equation for a circuit with two nodes excluding the reference is shown
Is2 = 10 A
in equation (3). 8 4 10 4
= G = G = = G
G11 G12 V1 I11
..... (3)
G 21 G 22 V2 I 22 0 Reference node
Fig. 7.
The elements of conductance matrix and source current matrix
are formed as shown below:
G11 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 0.475 I11 = 12.5

8 4 10
G12 = G21 = − 1 = − 0.1 I22 = 10
10
G22 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 0.45
10 10 4
On substituting the above terms in equation (3), we get the node equation,
= G = G = = G
0.475 − 0.1 V1 12.5
..... (4)
− 0.1 0.45 V2 10
In order to solve the node voltages V1 and V2, let us define three determinants ∆l , ∆l1, and ∆l2 as
shown below and evaluate by expanding along the first row and solve the node voltages by Cramer’s rule.
0.475 − 0.1
∆l = = 0.475 # 0.45 − (− 0.1) 2 = 0.20375
− 0.1 0.45
12.5 − 0.1
∆l1 = = 12.5 # 0.45 − 10 # (− 0.1) = 6.625
10 0.45
0.475 12.5
∆l 2 = = 0.475 # 10 − (− 0.1) # 12.5 = 6
− 0.1 10
' ' ' '

` Vx = V1 − V2 = 3 1 − 3 2 = 3 1 −'3 2 = 6.625 − 6 = 3.0675 V
3 3 3 0.20375
Vx
Ix = = 3.0675 = 0.30675 A
10 10
1.6.2 Node Analysis of Circuits Excited by Both Voltage and Current Sources
Node analysis can be extended to circuits excited by both voltage and current sources. In
such circuits if each voltage source has a series impedance then they can be converted into an
equivalent current source with parallel impedance. After conversion, the circuit will have only
current sources and so the procedure for obtaining node basis matrix equation by inspection and
its solution discussed in Sections 1.6.1 and 1.6.4 can be directly applied to these circuits.
In circuits excited by both voltage and current sources, the voltage source may not have
series resistance. In this situation, the voltage source cannot be converted into a current source. In
this case, the value of each voltage source is related to node voltages and for each voltage source
one of the node voltages can be expressed in terms of source voltage and other node voltages. The
remaining node voltages can be solved by writing Kirchhoff’s Current Law equations.
Alternatively, the node basis matrix equation can be formed directly by inspection by taking
the current delivered by the voltage sources as unknown and relating the value of each voltage
source to node voltages. Here for each voltage source, one node voltage is eliminated by expressing
the node voltage in terms of the source voltage and other node voltages. While forming the node
basis matrix equation, the current of the voltage sources should be entered in the source matrix.
Now in the matrix equation some node voltages will be eliminated and an equal number of
unknown source currents will be introduced. Thus, the number of unknowns will remain the same
as n, where n is the number of nodes in the circuit except the reference node. On multiplying the
node basis matrix equation we get n equations which can be solved to give a unique solution for
unknowns.
1.6.3 Supernode Analysis
In circuits excited by both voltage and current sources, if a voltage source is connected
between two nodes then the voltage source can be short-circuited for analysis purpose and the
shorted two nodes can be considered as one single node called supernode. In order to solve the two
node voltages of a supernode, two equations are required. One of the equations is the KCL equation
of the supernode and the other equation is obtained by equating the source voltage to the difference of
the node voltages. An example of formation of a supernode is shown in Fig. 1.44. Also, Example 1.49
is solved using the supernode analysis technique.
5V Supernode
V1 +- V2
V2 V2
V1 4 V2 V1 4 V2
10 A V2 10 A V2
2
2W
5
5W
3
3W Þ 2
2W
5
5W
3
3W
4W 4W
0 Reference node 0 Reference node

V1 V2 V2 V2
Fig. a : Circuit with two independent nodes. 2
+
4
+
5
+
3
= 10
V1 - V2 = 5
Fig. b : Supernode of the circuit shown

in Fig. a and its equations.
Fig. 1.44 : Example of formation of a supernode.
EXAMPLE 1.49
In the circuit shown in Fig. 1, find the voltage across the 40 Ω resistor and the power supplied by 5 A
source, using node analysis.
100 V
SOLUTION E
+
The given circuit has four nodes. In this one of the nodes is chosen
E
+
as reference. Let the voltages of the other three nodes be V1, V2 and V3 4A
60 V
as shown in Fig. 2. Here, the voltage sources do not have a resistance in
5A 25 20 40
series and so they cannot be converted into a current source. Let Is1 and
Is2 be the currents supplied by 100 V and 60 V sources, respectively.
Fig. 1.
V1 − V3 = 100 V and V2 − V1 = 60 V 100 V
E
+
From the above equations we can say that node voltages V2 and Is1
V1 V2
V3 can be expressed in terms of V1. Now the number of unknowns in the E V3
+
60 V Is2 4A
circuit are three and they are V1, Is1 and Is2. Therefore, we can write three +
node equations using KCL (corresponding to three nodes) and a unique 5A V1 25 20 40
E
solution for unknowns can be obtained by solving the three equations.
The node equations can be obtained by two methods. 0 Reference node
Fig. 2.
Method I : Formation of node equations by applying KCL
In this method, the node equations are formed using Kirchhoff’s Current Law. The node equation for
a node is formed by equating the sum of currents leaving that node to the sum of currents entering that node.
While writing the node equation for a node it is assumed that all the resistances connected to that node will
draw current from that node. Hence, the currents in the resistances will always leave the node.
100 V
V1 V3
+
E
Currents leaving node-1 : ,I
25 s2 5A V1
Is1
V2
+
E
Currents entering node-1 : 5 A, I s1 60 V Is2
V1
5A
V1 25
` + Is2 = 5 + Is1
25
0
0.04 V1 = 5 + I s1 − Is2 ..... (1) Fig. 3.
V2 Is2
Current leaving node-2 : V2
20 V1 V3
+
E
60 V 4A
Currents entering node-2 : I s2, 4 A V2
20
V2
` = Is2 + 4
20
0
0.05 V2 = 4 + Is2 ..... (2) Fig. 4.
100 V Is1
V3
Currents leaving node-3 : , I , 4A V1
+
E
40 s1
Current entering node-3 : Nil V2 V3

4A
V3
V3
` + Is1 + 4 = 0 40
40
0
0.025 V3 = − 4 − I s1 ..... (3) Fig. 5.
Equations (1), (2) and (3) are the node equations of the given circuit.
On arranging equations (1) to (3) in the matrix form we get,
>
0.04 0 0
0H
V1 5 + Is1 − Is2
0 0.05 >V2 H = > 4 + Is2 H
0 0 0.025 V3 − 4 − Is1 .....(4)
Method II : Formation of node basis matrix equation by inspection
In this method, the node basis matrix equation is formed by inspection using the circuit shown in Fig. 2.
G11 G12 G13 V1 I11

>G21G 22 G 23 H >V2 H = >I22 H
G31 G32 G33 V3 I33 .....(5)
G11 = 1 = 0.04 G12 = G 21 = 0 I11 = 5 + Is1 − Is2

25
G 22 = 1 = 0.05 G13 = G31 = 0 I22 = 4 + Is2
20
G33 = 1 = 0.025 G 23 = G32 = 0 I33 = − 4 − Is1
40
>
0.04 0 0
0H
V1 5 + Is1 − Is2
0 0.05 >V2 H = > 4 + Is2 H
.....(6)
0 0 0.025 V3 − 4 − Is1
It is observed that the node basis matrix equation obtained by both the methods are the same.
With reference to Fig. 2, the following relations can be obtained between node voltages:
V2 − V1 = 60 V1 − V3 = 100
∴ V2 = 60 + V1 ..... (7) ∴ V3 = V1 − 100

..... (8)
>
0.04 0 0
0H
V1 5 + Is1 − Is2
0 0.05 > 60 + V1 H = > 4 + Is2 H
0 0 0.025 V1 − 100 − 4 − Is1 .....(9)
On multiplying the matrices on the left-hand side of equation (9) and equating to the terms on the
right-hand side, we get the following three equations:
0.04 V1 = 5 + I s1 − I s2 .....(10)
0.05 (60 + V1) = 4 + I s2 .....(11)
0.025 (V1 − 100) = − 4 − I s1 .....(12)
On adding the above three equations, we get,
0.04 V1 + 0.05(60 + V1 ) + 0.025 (V1 − 100) = 5
0.04 V1 + 3 + 0.05V1 + 0.025V1 − 2.5 = 5

0.115V1 + 0.5 = 5
V1 = 5 − 0.5 = 39.13 V
0.115
∴ V1 = 39.13 V
From equation (7), V2 = 60 + V1 = 60 + 39.13 = 99.13 V
From equation (8), V3 = V1 − 100 = 39.13 −100 = − 60.87 V
With reference to Fig. 2, the voltage across the 40 Ω resistor is V3.
∴ Voltage across the 40 Ω resistor = V3 = − 60.87 V
The negative voltage across the 40 Ω resistor indicates that the current through the 40 Ω is flowing
towards the node. (Remember that while forming node equations it is assumed that the currents through
resistances are leaving the node.)
If we are interested in positive voltage across the 40 Ω resistor then the polarity of voltage across the
40 Ω resistor is assumed as shown in Fig. 6. E
V3
Now, V40 = − V3 = −(−60.87)

V40 40
= 60.87 V
With reference to Fig. 2, we can say that the voltage across 5 A current source is V1. +
∴ Power supplied by 5 A source = V1 × 5 = 39.13 × 5 = 195.65 W Fig. 6.
EXAMPLE 1.50
In the circuit shown in Fig. 1, find the value of E using node analysis
A
2A
which will make the voltage across 10 Ω resistance as zero.
2
+
E
5V
SOLUTION
2 3
The given circuit has five nodes. In this one of the nodes is chosen E E
+
20 V E 10
+
as reference. Let the voltages of other four nodes be V1, V2, V3 and V4 as
shown in Fig. 2. Here, the voltage sources do not have series resistances
Fig. 1.
and so they cannot be converted into a current source. Let us treat the
V4
currents supplied by the voltage sources as unknown quantities, and the
values of voltage sources can be related to node voltages. Let I s1, I s4 and 2
2A
A
+
I s3 be the currents supplied by the 20 V, 5 V and E volt sources, respectively. Is4 E 5 V

V2
The node basis matrix equation of the given circuit is formed by V1 V3
2 3
inspection using the circuit shown in Fig. 2.
10 Is3 E E
+
20 V E Is1
+
R V R V R V
S G11 G12 G13 G14 W S V1 W SI11 W
SG 21 G 22 G 23 G 24 W S V2 W SI 22 W 0 Reference node
SG G32 G33 G34 WW S V W = SI W .....(1)
S 31 S 3 W S 33 W Fig. 2.
SG 41 G 42 G 43 G 44 W S V4 W SI 44 W
T X T X T X
G11 = 1 G12 = G 21 = − 1 V1 = 20
2 2 I11 = Is1 − 2
G 22 = 1 + 1 + 1 G13 = G31 = 0
I 22 = − Is4
V2 = 0 (given)
2 10 3 G14 = G 41 = 0
= 15 + 3 + 10 = 28 = 14 I33 = − Is3 + 2 V4 − V2 = 5
30 30 15 G 23 = G32 = − 1 ` V4 = 5
3 I 44 = 2 + Is4 − 2
G33 = 1 G 24 = G 42 = 0 = Is4
3 V3 = − E
G 44 = 0 G34 = G 43 = 0

R 1 V R V R V
S −1 0 0 W S 20 W S Is1 − 2 W
S 2 2 W S W S W
S− 1 14 − 1 0 W S 0 W S − Is4 W
S 2 15 3 W S W = S W
S 1 1 0 W SS− E WW S W .....(2)
S 0 −
3 3 WW S S s3
− I + 2 W
SS W S Is4 WW
S
0 0 0 0W S 5 W
T X T X T X
From row-4 of equation (2), we get, I s4 = 0 ..... (3)
c− m c m c m
1 # 20 + 14 # 0 + − 1 # (− E) + (0 # 5) = − I
s4
2 15 3
− 10 + 0 + E + 0 = − Is4
3
` E = − I + 10 .....(4)
s4
3
From equation (3), we know that, I s4 = 0,
` E = 0 + 10
3
E = 10 # 3 = 30 V
EXAMPLE 1.51
5 10
In the circuit shown in Fig. 1, determine the current delivered by 24 V
2A 20
source using node analysis.
+
24 V E
+
E 36 V
SOLUTION
The given circuit has only two principal nodes. Let us choose one Fig. 1.
of the principal nodes as reference and the voltage of the other principal V1
node as V1, as shown in Fig. 2. Let us take the voltage at the meeting point of
5 Ω and 24 V source as V2 and the voltage at the meeting point of 10 Ω 5 10
and 36 V as V3. With reference to Fig. 2, we can say that, V2 2A 20 V

3
Is1
+
24 V E E 36 V
V2 = 24 V and V3 = 36 V
0 Reference node
Fig. 2.
With reference to Fig. 3, the node equation for node-1 can be written as shown below :
Currents leaving node-1 : V1 − V2 , V1 − V3 , V1

5 10 20 V1
Current entering node-1 : 2 A

2A
V1 − V2 V −V V V1 E V2 V1 E V3
` + 1 3 + 1 = 2
5 10 20 5
2A V1 10
20
V1 V2 V V V
− + 1 − 3 + 1 = 2
5 5 10 10 20 V2 V3
0 0
V V
` c 1 + 1 + 1 m V1 = 2 + 2 + 3 Fig. 3.
5 10 20 5 10
Put, V2 = 24 and V3 = 36
` c 1 + 1 + 1 m V1 = 2 + 24 + 36
5 10 20 5 10
(0.2 + 0.1 + 0.05) V1 = 2 + 4.8 + 3.6
0.35V1 = 10.4
` V1 = 10.4 = 29.7143 V
0.35
Let, I s1 be the current delivered by 24 V source as shown in Fig. 2.
V2 − V1
Is1 = = 24 − 29.7143 = − 1.1429 A
5 5
Since the current delivered by 24 V source is negative, we can say that it absorbs power instead of
delivering power.
EXAMPLE 1.52 2
1 2
In the circuit shown in Fig. 1, solve the voltages across various
2A
elements using node method and determine the power in each element of the E
+
6V E 2V
+
circuit.
Fig. 1.
SOLUTION
The given circuit has five nodes and in this only two nodes are principal nodes. Let us choose one of
the nodes as the reference node, which is indicated by 0. The voltage of the reference node is zero volt. Let us
choose three other nodes and assign node voltages V1, V2 and V3 as shown in Fig. 2. Let the current delivered
by 2 V and 6 V sources be I s1 and I s2 , respectively. With reference to Fig. 2, the following relation can be
obtained for node voltages:
2 V3
V1 = 2 V ; V2 − V1 = 6 V
1 2
∴ V2 = 6 + V1 = 6 + 2 = 8 V 0 2A
V2
Is1 E 2V
In the circuit shown in Fig. 2, the voltage V 1 and V2 are known
+
Is2 E 6V
quantities, but the currents I s1 and I s2 are unknown quantities. Hence, the
V1 Reference node
total number of unknowns are three (i.e., V 3, I s1 and I s2 ) and so three node
equations can be formed and they can be solved to give a unique solution. Fig. 2.
Using Fig. 2, the node basis matrix equation is formed by inspection as shown below:
G11 G12 G13 V1 I11
>G21 G 22 G 23 H >V2 H = >I22 H
G31 G32 G33 V3 I33 .....(1)
G11 = 0 G12 = G 21 = 0 I11 = Is1 + 2 − Is2 V1 = 2

G 22 = 1 = 1 G13 = G31 = 0 I 22 = Is2 V2 − V1 = 6
1+2 3 − 1 = − 1 I33 = − 2
G = G = ` V2 = 6 + V1 = 6 + 2 = 8
= 1 +1 = 1 +1 = 5
23 32
G33 1+2 3
1+2 2 3 2 6
R V R V R V
S0 0 0 W S2 W SIs1 + 2 − Is2 W
S0 1 − W S8 W = S
1 W
S 3 3W S W S Is2 W ..... (2)
S
S0 − 1 5 W S V WW S W
S 3 6 W 3 S − 2 W
T X T X T X
The node equations are obtained by multiplying the matrices on the left-hand side and equating to the
terms on the right-hand side.
From row-1 we get, 0 = I s1 + 2 − I s2 ⇒ I s1 = −2 + I s2 ..... (3)
8−1 V = I 8 − V3
From row-2 we get, ⇒ Is2 = .....(4)
3 3 3 s2
3
From row-3 we get, − 8 + 5 V3 = − 2 .....(5)
3 6
From equation (5), we can write,
V3 = 6 # c − 2 + 8 m = 6 c − 6 + 8 m = 12 = 0.8 V
5 3 5 3 15
On substituting, V3 = 0.8 in equation (4), we get,
8 − V3
Is2 = = 8 − 0.8 = 2.4 A
3 3
On substituting, I s2 = 2.4 A in equation (3), we get,
I s1 = −2 + I s2 = −2 + 2.4 = 0.4 A
Vb _
+ V3
In Fig. 2 it can be observed that the current through series combination _
2 +
of 1 Ω and 2 Ω is Is2 and the current through the 2 Ω resistance in series with 1 Va Vc 2 _
2 V source is Is1. Now, the voltage across the resistances are given by the
+ E2 2A
V2 0
product of current and resistance. +
Is1 E 2V
+
+
Let the voltage across the resistances be Va , Vb and Vc and the Is2 E 6V
voltage across 2 A source be E 2 as shown in Fig. 3. V1 Reference node
Now, Va = 1 × I s2 = 1 × 2.4 = 2.4 V Fig. 3.

Vb = 2 × I s2 = 2 × 2.4 = 4.8 V
Vc = 2 × Is1 = 2 × 0.4 = 0.8 V
E 2 = V1 − V3 = 2 − 0.8 = 1.2 V
Estimation of power in each element
In dc circuits, the power in an element is given by the product of voltage and current in that element.
The resistances always absorb power. The sources can either deliver power or absorb power. In a source if
the current leaves at the positive end of the source then it delivers power.
Power consumed by the 1 Ω resistor = Va × I s2 = 2.4 × 2.4 = 5.76 W
Power consumed by the 2 Ω resistor = Vb × I s2 = 4.8 × 2.4 = 11.52 W
Power consumed by the 2 Ω resistor = V × I = 0.8 × 0.4 = 0.32 W

1 c s1
in series with 2 V source
Power delivered by 6 V source = 6 × I s2 = 6 × 2.4 = 14.4 W
Power delivered by 2 V source = 2 × I s1 = 2 × 0.4 = 0.8 W
Power delivered by 2 A source = E 2 × 2 = 1.2 × 2 = 2.4 W
Note : It is observed that the sum of power delivered (14.4 + 0.8 + 2.4 = 17.6 W) is equal to the
sum of power consumed (5.76 + 11.52 + 0.32 = 17.6 W).
EXAMPLE 1.53
Use nodal analysis to determine the values of voltages at various E
+
2V
nodes in the circuit shown in Fig. 1.
3 2
SOLUTION

2 1A 4
The given circuit has four nodes. In this one of the node is chosen as
the reference node and it is indicated by 0. The voltage of the reference node
is zero. Let the voltages of the other three nodes be V1, V2 and V3 with respect
Fig. 1.
2V
to the reference node, as shown in Fig. 2. The voltage source in the circuit
E
+
does not have series resistance and so it cannot be converted into a current Is3

source. Let I s3 be the current supplied by the 2 V source. With reference to 3 V2 2
V1 V3
Fig. 2, we can write,

2 1A 4
V3 − V1 = 2 V ⇒ V3 = 2 + V1
0 Reference node
From the above equation we can say that the node voltage V3 can be
Fig. 2.
expressed in terms of V1. Now, the number of unknowns in the circuit are three
and they are V1, V2 and I s3 . Therefore, we can write three node equations using KCL (corresponding to three
nodes) and a unique solution for unknowns can be obtained by solving the three equations.
The node basis matrix equation for the circuit shown in Fig. 2 is obtained by inspection as shown below:
G11 G12 G13 V1 I11
>G21G 22 G 23 H >V2 H = >I22 H .....(1)
G31 G32 G33 V3 I33
G11 = 3 + 2 = 5 G12 = G 21 = − 3 I11 = − Is3 V3 − V1 = 2

G 22 = 3 + 2 = 5 G13 = G31 = 0 I 22 = 1 ` V3 = 2 + V1
G33 = 2 + 4 = 6 G 23 = G32 = − 2 I33 = Is3
5 −3 0 V1 − Is3
>− 3 5 − 2H > V2 H = > 1H
.....(2)
0 −2 6 2 + V1 Is3
The node equations of the circuit are obtained by multiplying the matrices on the left-hand side of
equation (2) and equating to the terms on the right-hand side.
From row-1, we get,
5 V1 − 3V2 = − Is3 ..... (3)
From row-2, we get,
− 3 V1 + 5V2 − 2 × (2 + V1) = 1 ⇒ − 3 V1 + 5V2 − 4 − 2V1 = 1 ⇒ − 5 V1 + 5V2 = 5 ..... (4)
From row-3, we get,

− 2 V2 + 6 × (2 + V1) = Is3 ⇒ −2 V2 + 12 + 6V1 = Is3 ⇒ 6 V1 − 2V2 = Is3 − 12 ..... (5)
On adding equations (3), (4) and (5), we get,

5 V1 − 3V2 − 5V1 + 5V2 + 6V1 − 2V2 = − Is3 + 5 + I s3 − 12 ⇒ 6 V1 = −7
` V1 = − 7 = − 1.1667 V
6
5 + 5 V1 5 + 5 # (− 1.1667)
From equation (4), we get, = V2 = = − 0.1667 V
5 5
V3 − V1 = 2
∴ V3 = 2 + V1 = 2 + ( −1.1667) = 0.8333 V
V1 = −1.1667 V ; V2 = −0.1667 V and V3 = 0.8333 V

3
Use nodal analysis to determine the values of voltages at
various nodes in the circuit shown in Fig. 1.
10 3 2
SOLUTION
+
The given circuit has five nodes. In this one of the nodes 10 V 1 6
S 5A
is chosen as the reference. Let the voltages of the other four nodes E
be V1, V2, V3 and V4 as shown in Fig. 2. Here, V4 = 10 V. Let us
convert the 10 V voltage source in series with 10 Ω resistance
into equivalent current source as shown in Fig. 3. Fig. 1.
3W 3W
V4 10 W 3W 2W V3 V1 3W V2 2W V3
V1 V2
+
10
10 V
-
5W 5A 1W 6W Þ 10
= 1A 10W 5W 5A 1W 6W
0 0
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
The node basis matrix equation is formed by inspection using the circuit shown in Fig. 3.
G11 G12 G13 V1 I11
>G21 G 22 G 23 H >V2 H = >I22 H
G31 G32 G33 V3 I33 .....(1)
With reference to Fig. 3, the elements of conductance matrix and source current matrix are obtained
as shown below:
G11 = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 0.9967 G12 = G 21 = − c 1 + 1 m = − 0.6667 I11 = 1

10 5 3 3 3 3
G22 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 1.1667 G13 = G31 = 0 I22 = 5
3 3 2
G33 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 1.6667 G23 = G32 = − 1 = − 0.5 I33 = 0
2 1 6 2
R V R V R V
S 0.9667 − 0.6667 0 W S V1 W S1 W
S− 0.6667
S 1.1667 − 0.5 WW S V2 W = SS5 WW
S W
S 0 − 0.5 1.6667 W S V3 W S0 W
T X T X T X
To solve the node voltages V1 , V2 and V3, let us define four determinants ∆l , ∆l1, ∆l2 and ∆l3 as
shown below:
0.9667 − 0.6667 0 1 − 0.6667 0
∆l = − 0.6667 1.1667 − 0.5 ∆l1 = 5 1.1667 − 0.5
0 − 0.5 1.1667 0 − 0.5 1.1667
0.9667 1 0 0.9667 − 0.6667 1

∆l2 = − 0.6667 5 − 0.5 ∆l3 = − 0.6667 1.1667 5
0 0 1.1667 0 − 0.5 0
The determinants are evaluated by expanding along the first row and node voltages are solved by
Cramer’s rule.
0.9667 − 0.6667 0
∆l = − 0.6667 1.1667 − 0.5 = 0.9667 # 61.1667 # 1.6667 − ^− 0.5h2 @ +
0 − 0.5 1.6667
0.6667 # 6 − 0.6667 # 1.6667 − 0 @
= 0.8972
1 − 0.6667 0
− 0.5 = 1 # 91.1667 # 1.6667 − _− 0.5 i C + 0.6667 # 75 # 1.6667 − 0 A
2
∆l1 = 5 1.1667
0 − 0.5 1.6667
= 7.2505
0.9667 1 0
∆l2 = − 0.6667 5 − 0.5 = 0.9667 # 65 # 1.6667 − 0 @ − 1 # 6 − 0.6667 # 1.6667 − 0 @
0 0 1.6667
= 9.1672
0.9667 − 0.6667 1
∆l3 = − 0.6667 1.1667 5 = 0.9667 # 60 + 0.5 # 5 @ + 0.6667 # 60 − 0 @ + 1 # 60.6667 # 0.5 − 0 @
0 − 0.5 0
= 2.7501
'
V1 = 3 1 = 7.2505 = 8.0813 V
3 0.8972
'
V2 = 3 2' = 9.1672 = 10.2176 V
3 0.8972
'
V3 = 3 3' = 2.7501 = 3.0652 V
3 0.8972
V1 = 8.0813 V ; V2 = 10.2176 V ; V3 = 3.0652 V and V4 = 10 V

10 1
Determine the node voltages and the currents
across all the resistors of the circuit shown in Fig. 1,
using the node method.
20 A
+
25 A 4 2 10 E 20 V
SOLUTION
The given circuit has four nodes. In this one Fig. 1.

of the nodes is chosen as the reference node, which V1 10 V2 1 V3
is indicated by 0. The voltage of the reference node is
zero volt. Let us choose three other nodes and assign Is
20 A E 20 V
+
node voltages V1, V2 and V3 as shown in Fig. 2. Let the 25 A 4 2 10
current delivered by 20 V source be I s .
With reference to Fig. 2, we get,

0
Reference node
V3 = 20 V Fig. 2.
From the above equation we can say that the node voltage V3 is a known quantity. Now, the number
of unknowns in the circuit are three and they are V1, V2 and I s . Therefore, we can write three node equations
using KCL (corresponding to three nodes) and a unique solution for unknowns can be obtained by solving the
three equations.
The node basis matrix equation for the circuit shown in Fig. 2 is obtained by inspection as shown below:
G11 G12 G13 V1 I11
> 21 G22 G23 H
G > 2H =
V > 22 H
I .....(1)
G31 G32 G33 V3 I33
G11 = 1 + 1 = 0.35 G12 = G 21 = − 1 = − 0.1

4 10 10
G 22 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 1.6 G13 = G31 = 0 V3 = 10 V
10 2 1
G33 = + 1 = 1.1
1 G 23 = G32 = − 1 = − 1
1 10 1

R V
0.35 − 0.1 0 V1 S25 W
>− 0.1 1.6 − 1 H > V2 H = S20 W .....(2)
0 − 1 1.1 20 SS I WW
s
T X
The node equations of the circuit are obtained by multiplying the matrices on the left-hand side of
equation (2) and equating to the terms on the right-hand side.
From row-1, we get,
0.35V1 − 0.1 V2 = 25 .....(3)
From row-2, we get,
− 0.1V1 + 1.6 V2 − 20 = 20 ⇒ − 0.1 V1 + 1.6 V2 = 40 .....(4)
On multiplying equation (3) by 16, we get,
5.6 V1 − 1.6 V2 = 400 .....(5)
− 0.1 V1 + 1.6 V2 + 5.6 V1 − 1.6 V2 = 40 + 400 ⇒ 5.5 V1 = 440
` V1 = 440 = 80 V
5.5
40 + 0.1 V1
From equation (2), we get, V2 = = 40 + 0.1 # 80 = 30 V
1.6 1.6
V1 = 80 V ; V2 = 30 V and V3 = 20 V
To solve branch voltages and currents
The given circuit has five resistance branches. Let us denote the resistance branch voltages as Va, Vb,
Vc, Vd and Ve and resistance branch currents as Ia, Ib, Ic, Id and Ie , as shown in Fig. 3. The signs of branch
voltages and currents are chosen such that they are all positive. The branch voltages and currents are solved
as shown below:
Va = V1 = 80 V
Vb = V1− V2 = 80 − 30 = 50 V
Vc = V2 = 30 V
Vd = V2 − V3 = 30 − 20 = 10 V
Ve = V3 = 20 V
Va
Ia = = 80 = 20 A
4 4
V1 Ib 10 V2 Id 1 V3
Vb
Ib = = 50 = 5 A +
Vb
E +
Vd
E
10 10 Ia Ic Ie
+ + +
25 A Va 20 A V 10
+
V 4 2 Ve E 20 V
Ic = c = 30 = 15 A E
c
E E
2 2
Vd
Id = = 10 = 10 A
1 1 Fig. 3.
V
Ie = e = 20 = 2 A
10 10

10
Use nodal analysis to solve the circuit shown in Fig.1.
1 2
SOLUTION
5 4
Let the node voltages be V 1 and V 2 . Let us convert the
25 V voltage source in series with 5 Ω resistance into an equivalent +
25V 2
2 E
current source as shown in Fig. 2. Similarly, convert the 50 V voltage source
E
+
50V
in series with 2 Ω resistance into an equivalent current source as shown 0
Reference node
in Fig. 2.The node basis matrix equation of the given circuit is formed by Fig. 1.
inspection using the as circuit shown in Fig. 2. 10
V1 V2
= G = G = = G
G11 G12 V1 I11 25
.....(1) a 5A
G21 G22 V2 I 22 5 4
2
5
With reference to Fig. 2, the elements of conductance matrix 50
2
a 25A
and source current matrix are obtained as shown below : 2
0
Reference node
Fig. 2.
G11 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 0.8 G12 = G21 = − 1 = − 0.1 I11 = 5
2 5 10 10
G22 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 0.85 I22 = − 25

10 4 2
R VR V R V
S 0.8 − 0.1 W S V1 W S 5 W
S WS W = S W
S WS W S W
S− 0.1 0.85 W S V2 W S− 25 W
T XT X T X
In order to solve the node voltages V1 and V2, let us define three determinants ∆’, ∆’1 and ∆’2 as shown below:
0.8 − 0.1 5 − 0.1 0.8 5

∆l = ; ∆l1 = ; ∆l 2 =
− 0.1 0.85 − 25 0.85 − 0.1 − 25
by Cramer’s rule.
∆l = 0.8 − 0.1 = 0.8 0.85 − ^− 0.1h2 = 0.67

#
− 0.1 0.85
∆l1 = 5 − 0.1 = 5 0.85 − _− 25i _− 0.1i = 1.75

# #
− 25 0.85
∆l 2 = 0.8 5 = 0.8 _− 25 i − _− 0.1 i 5 = − 19.5

# #
− 0.1 − 25
∆l1
V1 = = 1.75 = 2.6119 V
∆ 0.67
∆l 2
V2 = = − 19.5 = − 29.1045 V
∆ 0.67
EXAMPLE 1.57
5 1
Determine the node voltages and, hence, the power supplied by a
5 A source into the circuit shown in Fig. 1, using supernode analysis
5A +E
technique.
6V
2 4
SOLUTION
Let us choose the reference node 0 and three node voltages V1, Fig. 1.
V2 and V3 as shown in Fig. 2. Now, the voltage across 5 A source is V1 V1
and the power delivered by 5 A source is V1 ´ 5 watts 5 1

Is2
With reference to Fig. 2, the relation between node voltages V2 and V3 is, +
5A V 1 V2 +E V3
V2 − V3 = 6 ⇒ V3 = V2 – 6 .....(1) _ 6V
Let us short-circuit node-2 and node-3 to form a supernode as 2 4
shown in Fig. 3. Reference
0 node
V1 V1 V1 V1 Fig. 2.
V3 - V1 V3 - V1
5W 1W 5W 1W
1 1
V2 - V1 V2 - V1
5 - 5 Supernode
+
V2 V3 Þ
V2 V3 V2 V3
6V
2 4 2 4
2W 4W 2W 4W
0 0 0 0
Fig. 3 : Formation of a supernode.
The KCL equation of the supernode is formed as shown below:
V2 − V1 V −V V V
+ 3 1 + 2 + 3 = 0
5 1 2 4
0.2V2 − 0.2V1 + V3 − V1 + 0.5V2 + 0.25V3 = 0
– 1.2V1 + 0.7V2 + 1.25V3 = 0
– 1.2V1 + 0.7V2 + 1.25 (V2 – 6) = 0 Using equation (1)
– 1.2 V1 + 1.95V2 – 7.5 = 0
7.5 + 1.2 V1
` V2 = = 7.5 + 1.2 V1 = 3.8462 + 0.6154 V1 .....(2)
1.95 1.95 1.95
With reference to Fig. 4, the KCL equation of node-1 is formed as shown below:
V1
V1 − V 2 V −V
+ 1 3 = 5
5 1
5 1
0.2V1 − 0.2V2 + V1 – V3 = 5
5A V1 E V2 V1 E V3
V2 5 1 V3
1.2V1 – 0.2V2 – (V2 – 6) = 5
Fig. 4.
1.2V1 – 1.2V2 = 5 – 6 Using equation (1)
1.2 V1 – 1.2(3.8462 + 0.6154V1) = –1 Using equation (2)
1.2 V1 – 4.6154 – 0.7385V1 = –1
0.4615V1 = 3.6154
` V1 = 3.6154 = 7.834 V
0.4615
From equation (2), V2 = 3.8462 + 0.6154 V1 = 3.8462 + 0.6154 × 7.834 = 8.6672 V
From equation (3), V3 = V2 – 6 = 8.6672 – 6 = 2.6672 V
Power supplied by 5 A source = V1 × 5 = 7.834 × 5 = 39.17 W
1.6.4 Node Analysis of Circuits Excited by AC Sources

(Nodal Analysis of Reactive Circuits)
Reactive circuits consist of resistances, inductive and capacitive reactances. Therefore,
the voltages and currents of reactive circuits are complex (i.e., they have both real and imaginary
components). In general, the elements of a circuit are referred to as impedances. In node analysis,
the admittance (which is the inverse of impedance) is more convenient.
The general node basis matrix equation for reactive circuit is,
YV=I ..... (1.40)
where, Y = Admittance matrix of order n × n
V = Node voltage matrix of order n × 1
I = Source current matrix of order n × 1
n = Number of nodes except the reference node.
Equation (1.40) can be expanded as shown in equation (1.41).
R V R V R V
S Y11 Y12 Y13 g Y1n W S V1 W S I11 W
S Y21 Y22 Y23 g Y2n W S V2 W SI 22 W
S W S W S W
S Y31 Y32 Y33 g Y3n W S V3 W = S I33 W
S h h h h W Sh W Sh W
SS W S W SS WW
Yn1 Yn2 Yn3 g Ynn W S Vn W I nn ..... (1.41)
T X T X T X
Note : The over bar is used to denote complex quantities.
The formation of node basis matrix equation and the solution of node and branch voltages are
similar to that of resistive circuits except that the solution of voltages involves complex arithmetic.
Therefore, the k t h node voltage of a reactive circuit with n nodes excluding reference is given by,
n
Vk = 1
∆l / ∆l jk I jj Note : Refer equation (1.37)
j =1 ..... (1.42)
where, ∆l jk = Cofactor of Yjk
I jj = Sum of current sources connected to j th node
∆l = Determinant of admittance matrix.
Instead of using equation (1.42) for solution of node voltages, the short-cut procedure for
Cramer’s rule can be followed.
Consider the node basis matrix equation for a circuit with three nodes except the reference node.
>Y21 Y22 Y23 H >V2 H = >I22 H

Y11 Y12 Y13 V1 I11
Y31 Y32 Y33 V3 I33
Let us define four determinants as shown below:
Y11 Y12 Y13 I11 Y12 Y13

∆l = Y21 Y22 Y23 ; ∆l1 = I 22 Y22 Y23
Y31 Y32 Y33 I33 Y32 Y33
Y11 I11 Y13 Y11 Y12 I11

∆l 2 = Y21 I 22 Y23 ; ∆l3 = Y21 Y22 I 22
Y31 I33 Y33 Y31 Y32 I33
Here, ∆’ = Determinant of admittance matrix

∆’1 = Determinant of admittance matrix after replacing the first column of admittance
∆’2 = Determinant of admittance matrix after replacing the second column of
admittance matrix by source current column matrix
∆’3 = Determinant of admittance matrix after replacing the third column of admittance
matrix by source current column matrix.
Now, node voltages V1, V2 and V3 are given by,

∆l1
V1 =
∆l
∆l 2
V2 =
∆l
∆l 3
V3 =
∆l
EXAMPLE 1.58
3 + j4 W 4 - j3 W
Determine the power consumed by the 10 Ω resistor in the circuit
shown in Fig. 1, using nodal analysis.
100Ð0oV
10Ð45o A
~ 10 W ~ 3W
SOLUTION
Let us convert the 100∠0 o V voltage source in series with
3 + j4 Ω impedance into a current source IS in parallel with 3 + j4 Ω Fig. 1.
impedance.
3 + j4 W
100Ð0oV
~ Þ I s = 20Ð - 53.13o A ~ 3 + j4 W
_
o
IS = 100+0 = 100 = 12 − j16 A = 20+ − 53.13 o A
3 + j4 3 + j4
The modified circuit is shown in Fig. 2. The circuit of Fig. 2 has three nodes. Let us choose one of the
nodes as the reference node, which is denoted as 0. The voltage of V1 4 - j3 W V2
Is = 20Ð-53.13o A
the reference node is zero. Let the voltages of the other two nodes
3 + j4 W
10Ð45o A
be V1 and V2 with respect to the reference node, as shown in Fig. 2.
10 W 3W
~ ~
The node basis matrix equation of the circuit of Fig. 2. is formed
by inspection as shown below:
0 Reference node
Fig. 2.
= G = G = = G
Y11 Y12 V1 I11
Y21 Y22 V2 I 22 ..... (1)
Y11 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 0.38 − j0.04

3 + j4 4 − j3 10
Y22 = 1 + 1 = 0.493 + j0.12

4 − j3 3
Y12 = Y21 = − c 1 m = − 0.16 − j0.12

4 − j3
I11 = 20+ − 53.13 o = 20 cos (− 53.13) + j20 sin (− 53.13) = 12 − j16
I 22 = − 610+45 o @ = − (10 cos 45 o + j10 sin 45 o) = − 7.071 − j7.071
Note : All calculations are performed using the calculator in complex mode.
= G = G = = G
0.38 − j0.04 − 0.16 − j0.12 V1 12 − j16
− 0.16 − j0.12 0.493 + j0.12 V2 − 7.071 − j7.071 ..... (2)
To determine the power consumed by the 10 Ω resistance, it is sufficient if we calculate V1 in equation (2).
In order to solve V1, let us define two determinants ∆l and ∆l1 as shown below:
0.38 − j0.04 − 0.16 − j0.12 12 − j16 − 0.16 − j0.12

∆l = ; ∆l1 =
− 0.16 − j0.12 0.493 + j0.12 − 7.071 − j7.071 0.493 + j0.12
∆l1
Now, the voltage V1 is given by, V1 = .
∆l
0.38 − j0.04 − 0.16 − j0.12

∆l = = 6(0.38 − j0.04) # (0.493 + j0.12) @ − [− 0.16 − j0.12] 2
− 0.16 − j0.12 0.493 + j0.12
= 0.1809 − j0.0125
12 − j16 − 0.16 − j0.12 = 6(12 − j16) # (0.493 + j0.12) @
∆l1 =
− 7.071 − j7.071 0.493 + j0.12 − 6(− 7.071 − j7.071) # (− 0.16 − j0.12) @
= 7.5532 − j8.4279
∆l1 7.5532 − j8.4279

` V1 = = = 44.759 − j43.496 = 62.412+ − 44.2 o V
∆l 0.1809 − j0.0125
2 2
V1
Power consumed by the 10 Ω resistor = = 62.412 = 389.5 W
10 10
EXAMPLE 1.59 j3 W
Find the voltages across various elements in the circuit shown in

Fig. 1, using node method. -j5 W
SOLUTION
5Ð90o A
10Ð0o A
3W 6W
~ ~
and three nodes. Hence, the circuit will have six voltages corresponding to Fig. 1.
six branches. The branch voltages depend on the node voltages. In node
analysis, the voltage of one of the nodes is chosen as the reference and it is equal to zero volt. In the circuit
of Fig. 3, the reference node is denoted as 0. The voltages of the other two nodes are denoted as V1 and V2 .
j3 W
f
e V1 -j5 W V2
5Ð90o A
10Ð0o A
a b c d
~ 3W 6W
~
0 0 Reference node
Reference node
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
The node basis matrix equation of the circuit shown in Fig. 3 is obtained by inspection as shown below:
..... (1)
= G = G = = G
Y11 Y12 V1 I11
Y21 Y22 V2 I 22
Y11 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 0.333 − j0.133 I11 = 5+90 o = j5

3 j3 − j5
Y22 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 0.167 − j0.133 I 22 = 10+0 o = 10

j3 − j5 6
Y12 = Y21 = − c 1 + 1 m = j0.133

j3 − j5
= G = G = = G
0.333 − j0.133 j0.133 V1 j5
.....(2)
j0.133 0.167 − j0.133 V2 10
To solve the node voltages by Cramer’s rule, let us define three determinants ∆l , ∆l1 and ∆l2 as
shown below:
0.333 − j0.133 j0.133 j5 j0.133 0.333 − j0.133 j5
∆l = ; ∆l1 = ; ∆l2 =
j0.133 0.167 − j0.133 10 0.167 − j0.133 j0.133 10
∆l1 ∆l 2
Now, the node voltages are given by, V1 = and V2 = .
∆ ∆
0.333 − j0.133 j0.133
∆l = = 6(0.333 − j0.133) # (0.167 − j0.133) @ − [j0.133] 2
j0.133 0.167 − j0.133
= 0.0556 − j0.0665
j5 j0.133
∆l1 = = 6 j5 # (0.167 − j0.133) @ − 610 # j0.133 @
10 0.167 − j0.133
= 0.665 − j0.495
0.333 − j0.133 j5
∆l 2 = = 6(0.333 − j0.133) # 10 @ − 6 j0.133 # j5 @
j0.133 10
= 3.995 − j1.33
∆l1 0.665 − j0.495
` V1 = = = 9.302 + j2.2227 = 9.564+13.4 o V
∆l 0.0556 − j0.0665
∆l 2 3.995 − j1.33
V2 = = = 41.3339 + j25.5163 = 48.575+31.7 o V
∆l 0.0556 − j0.0665
To find branch voltages
The branch voltages are denoted by Va, Vb, Vc, Vd, Ve and Vf , as Vf
shown in Fig. 4. The polarites of branch voltages are chosen arbitrarily. - +
j3 W
The branch voltages depend on the node voltages. The relation between
branch and node voltages are obtained with reference to Fig. 4 as V1 Ve V2
- +
shown below : -j5 W
+ + +
5Ð90o A
10Ð0o A
Va = Vb = V1 = 9.564+13.4 o V ~ Va 3 W Vb 6W Vc Vd ~
- - - -
o
Vc = Vd = V2 = 48.575+31.7 V
0 Reference node
Ve = Vf = V2 − V1 Fig. 4.
= (41.3339 + j25.5163) − (9.302 + j2.2227)
= 32.0319 + j23.2936 = 39.606∠36 o V
1.6.5 Node Analysis of Circuits Excited by Independent and Dependent Sources

Node analysis can be extended to circuits excited by both dependent and independent
sources. When a circuit has a dependent source, the dependent variable should be related to node
voltages and then the dependent source should be treated as a source while forming the node basis
matrix equation.
If a dependent source depends on a voltage Vx in some part of a circuit then the voltage Vx
should be expressed in terms of node voltages. If a dependent source depends on a current I in
some part of a circuit then the current Ix should be expressed in terms of node voltages.
Circuits with Dependent Current Source
When a circuit has a dependent current source then express the value of the source in terms
of node voltages. While forming the node basis matrix equation, enter the value of the dependent
source at the appropriate location in the source matrix on the right-hand side.
Now some of the terms in the source matrix on the right-hand side will be a function of
node voltages and so they can be transferred to the left-hand side with the opposite sign. Then the
node basis matrix equation can be solved by Cramer’s rule. This procedure is explained here with
an example.
Consider a circuit with three nodes excluding the reference node and with a dependent
current source between node-2 and the reference node. Let the node basis matrix equation without
considering the dependent current source be as shown in equation (1.43).
> 21 G22 G23 H > 2H = > 22 H

G11 G12 G13 V1 I11
G V I
.....(1.43)
G31 G32 G33 V3 I33
Let the value of the dependent current source when expressed in terms of node voltages be
3 V1 − 3V3. Let the dependent current source drive the current towards node-2. Hence, the value
of the dependent source 3V1 − 3V3 is added as a positive quantity to the element in the second row
of the source matrix as shown in equation (1.44).
>G21 G 22 G 23 H >V2 H >I22 + 3 V1 − 3V3 H

G11 G12 G13 V1 I11
=
G31 G32 G33 V3 I33 .....(1.44)
From row-2 of equation (1.44), we get,
G21 V1 + G22 V2 + G23 V3 = I 22 + 3 V1 − 3V3
G21 V1 − 3 V1 + G22 V2 + G23 V3 + 3V3 = I 22
∴ (G21 − 3) V1 + G22 V2 + (G23 + 3)V3 = I 22 ..... (1.45)
Using equation (1.45), equation (1.44) can be written as shown in equation (1.46).
> 21 − 3 G 22 G 23 + 3 H > 2H = > 22 H

G11 G12 G13 V1 I11
G V I ..... (1.46)
G31 G32 G33 V3 I33
In equation (1.44), the terms 3 V1 and –3V3 on the right-hand side are a function of node
voltages V1 and V3, respectively. In equation (1.46) these two terms are transferred to the left-hand
side with the opposite sign. Now equation (1.46) can be solved by Cramer’s rule.
Circuits with Dependent Voltage Source
When a circuit has a dependent voltage source then express the value of the source in
terms of node voltages. If the dependent voltage source has a series impedance then it can be
converted into a dependent current source with parallel impedance and the analysis can be proceeded .
If the dependent voltage source does not have series impedance then it cannot be converted
into a current source. In this case the value of the voltage source is related to the node voltages.
Then for each voltage source one node voltage is eliminated by expressing the node voltage in
terms of the source voltage and other node voltages. The node basis matrix equation can be formed
by inspection by taking the current delivered by the dependent voltage source as unknown. While
forming the node basis matrix equation, the current of the voltage sources should be entered in
the source matrix.
Now in the matrix equation some node voltages will be eliminated and an equal number of
unknown source currents will be introduced. Thus, the number of unknowns will remain the same
as n, where n is the number of nodes in the circuit except the reference node. On multiplying the
node basis matrix equation, we get n number of equations which can be solved to give a unique
solution for unknowns and hence the node voltage.
3Ix
EXAMPLE 1.60
Determine the node voltages of the circuit shown in Fig. 1. V1 10 4

V3
V2
SOLUTION Ix
4A 2
5
The given circuit has three nodes excluding the reference. The
general node basis matrix equation of a circuit with three nodes excluding
0 Reference node
the reference is shown in equation (1).
Fig. 1.
G11 G12 G13 V1 I11
>G21 G 22 G 23 H >V2 H = >I22 H
G31 G32 G33 V3 I33 .....(1)
With reference to Fig. 1, the elements of conductance matrix and source current matrix are obtained
as shown below :
G11 = 1 + 1 = 0.6 G12 = G 21 = − 1 = − 0.1 I11 = 4

2 10 10
G 22 = 1 + 1 = 0.35 G13 = G31 = 0 I 22 = − 3I x

10 4
G33 = 1 + 1 = 0.45 G 23 = G32 = − 1 = − 0.25 I33 = 3I x

4 5 4
0.6 − 0.1 0 V1 4
>− 0.1 0.35 − 0.25 H >V2 H = >− 3I x H
0 − 0.25 0.45 V3 3I x ..... (2)
Let us express the value of dependent current source in terms of node voltages. With reference to
Fig. 1 we can write,
V3 V3
Ix = ; ` 3I x = 3 # = 0.6V3
5 5 .....(3)
On substituting for 3Ix from equation (3) in equation (2), we get,
0.6 − 0.1 0 V1 4
>− 0.1 0.35 − 0.25 H >V2 H = >− 0.6V3 H
0 − 0.25 0.45 V3 0.6V3 .....(4)
The terms − 0.6 V3 and +0.6V3 in the source matrix on the right-hand side of equation (4) can be
transferred to the left-hand side with the opposite sign as shown in equation (5).
0.6 − 0.1 0 V1 4
>− 0.1 0.35 − 0.25 + 0.6 H >V2 H = >0 H ..... (5)
0 − 0.25 0.45 − 0.6 V3 0
0.6 − 0.1 0 V1 4
>− 0.1 0.35 0.35 H > 2H =
V >0 H ..... (6)
0 − 0.25 − 0.15 V3 0
To solve the node voltages V1 , V2 and V3, let us define four determinants ∆l , ∆l1, ∆l2 and ∆l3 as
shown below:
0.6 − 0.1 0 4 − 0.1 0
∆l = − 0.1 0.35 0.35 ∆l1 = 0 0.35 0.35
0 − 0.25 − 0.15 0 − 0.25 − 0.15
0.6 4 0 0.6 − 0.1 4

∆l2 = − 0.1 0 0.35 ∆l3 = − 0.1 0.35 0
0 0 − 0.15 0 − 0.25 0
The determinants are evaluated by expanding along the first row and node voltages are solved by
Cramer’s rule.
0.6 − 0.1 0
∆l = − 0.1 0.35 0.35 = 0.6 # 60.35 # (− 0.15) − (− 0.25) # 0.35 @
0 − 0.25 − 0.15
− (− 0.1) # 6 − 0.1 # (− 0.15) − 0 @ + 0
= 0.021 + 0.0015 = 0.0225

4 − 0.1 0
∆l1 = 0 0.35 0.35 = 4 # 60.35 # (− 0.15) − (− 0.25) # 0.35 @ − 0 + 0 = 0.14
0 − 0.25 − 0.15
0.6 4 0
∆l2 = − 0.1 0 0.35 = 0 − 4 # 6 − 0.1 # (− 0.15) − 0 @ + 0 = − 0.06
0 0 − 0.15
0.6 − 0.1 4
∆l3 = − 0.1 0.35 0 = 0 − 0 + 4 # 6 − 0.1 # (− 0.25) − 0 @ = 0.1
0 − 0.25 0
Now, the node voltages are,
∆l1
V1 = = 0.14 = 6.2222 V
∆l 0.0225
∆l 2
V2 = = − 0.06 = − 2.6667 V
∆l 0.0225
∆l 3
V3 = = 0.1 = 4.4444 V
∆l 0.0225
EXAMPLE 1.61 10 A
Determine the power delivered to the 10 Ω resistor in the circuit 5 4

shown in Fig. 1.
_
SOLUTION 2 Vx
+
E
Ix 0.3Vx 10
+
The given circuit has four nodes. Let us choose one of the Ix
nodes as reference. Let the voltage of the other three nodes be V1 ,
Fig. 1.
V2 and V3 as shown in Fig. 1. Let Is2 be the current delivered by the
dependent voltage source. 10 A
V32
Now, power delivered to 10 Ω resistor = 5 V2 4 V3
10 V1
The general node basis matrix equation of a circuit with three _ Is2
nodes excluding the reference is given by equation (1). +
2 Vx Ix 0.3Vx 10
E
G11 G12 G13 V1 I11 +
>G21 G22 G23 H >V2 H = >I22 H .....(1) Ix
G31 G32 G33 V3 I33 0 Reference node

Fig. 2.
With reference to Fig. 1, the elements of conductance matrix
and source current matrix can be formed as shown below :
G11 = 1 + 1 = 0.7 G12 = G 21 = − 1 = − 0.2 I11 = − 10

2 5 5
G 22 = 1 + 1 = 0.45 G13 = G31 = 0 I 22 = Is2

5 4
G33 = 1 + 1 = 0.35 G 23 = G32 = − 1 = − 0.25 I33 = 10 + 0.3Vx
4 10 4
0.7 − 0.2 0 V1 − 10
>− 0.2 0.45 − 0.25 H >V2 H > Is2 H
..... (2)
=
0 − 0.25 0.35 V3 10 + 0.3Vx
Let us express the value of dependent sources in terms of node voltages. With reference to Fig. 2, we
can write,
Vx = −V1 ⇒ 0.3 Vx = −0.3V1 ..... (3)

V1
Ix = − = − 0.5 V1
2
..... (4)
Also, with reference to Fig. 2, we get,
V2 = I x ..... (5)
From equations (4) and (5), we can write,
V2 = −0.5 V1 ..... (6)
0.7 − 0.2 0 V1 − 10
>− 0.2 0.45 − 0.25 H >− 0.5V1 H = > Is2 H ..... (7)
0 − 0.25 0.35 V3 10 − 0.3V1
0.7 V1 − 0.2 × (−0.5V1) = −10 ⇒ 0.8 V1 = −10 ⇒ V1 = − 10 = − 12.5 V

0.8
−0.25 × (−0.5 V1) + 0.35V3 = 10 − 0.3V1
0.125V1 + 0.35V3 = 10 − 0.3V1
0.35V3 = 10 − 0.3V1 − 0.125V1
10 − 0.425 # (− 12.5)
` V3 = 10 − 0.425V1 = = 43.75 V
0.35 0.35
V32 (43.75) 2
` Power delivered to 10 Ω resistor = = = 191.40625 W
10 10

2 +
2
Determine the voltage Vx in the circuit shown in 4A
Vx 4
2A
Fig. 1, using node analysis. _
1 1
SOLUTION
5Vx
The given circuit has four nodes. Let us choose one of the
_
Fig. 1.
+
nodes as reference. Let voltages of the other nodes with respect to the
reference be V1 , V2 and V3 as shown in Fig. 2. Let Is2 be the current V1
delivered by the dependent voltage source. Now, the voltage Vx = V1.

+ 2
2
4A Vx 4 2A
The general node basis matrix equation of a circuit with three _
nodes excluding the reference is given by equation (1).
V2 V3
1 0 1
G11 G12 G13 V1 I11
>G21 G22 G23 H >V2 H = >I22 H .....(1)
5Vx
Reference node
G31 G32 G33 V3 I33 Is2
_ Fig. 2.
+
With reference to Fig. 2, the elements of conductance matrix and source current matrix can be formed
as shown below :
G11 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 1.25 G12 = G21 = − 1 = − 0.5 I11 = 4 + 2 = 6

2 4 2 2
G22 = 1 + 1 = 1.5 G13 = G31 = − 1 = − 0.5 I22 = Is2 − 4
2 1 2
G33 = 1 + 1 = 1.5 G23 = G32 = 0 I33 = − Is2 − 2
2 1
1.25 − 0.5 − 0.5 V1 6

>− 0.5 1.5 0H >V2 H = > Is2 − 4 H
− 0.5 0 1.5 V3 − Is2 − 2 ..... (2)
Vx = V1 ..... (3)
V2 − V3 = 5 Vx ..... (4)
V2 = 5 Vx + V3
∴ V2 = 5 V1 + V3 Using equation (3) ..... (5)
On substituting for V2 from equation (5) in equation (2), we get,
1.25 − 0.5 − 0.5 V1 6

>− 0.5 1.5 0H >5V1 + V3 H = > Is2 − 4 H
− 0.5 0 1.5 V3 − Is2 − 2
..... (6)
1.25 V1 − 0.5(5V1 + V3) − 0.5V3 = 6
∴ −1.25 V1 − V3 = 6 ⇒ V3 = −1.25V1 – 6 ..... (7)
−0.5 V1 + 1.5(5V1 + V3 ) = I s2 − 4
7 V1 + 1.5V3 = Is2 − 4 ..... (8)
−0.5 V1 + 1.5V3 = −Is2 − 2 ..... (9)
7 V1 + 1.5V3 − 0.5V1 + 1.5V3 = Is2 − 4 − I s2 − 2

6.5 V1 + 3V3 = −6
6.5 V1 + 3(− 1.25V1 – 6) = –6 Using equation (7)
` 2.75V1 − 18 = − 6 ⇒ V1 = − 6 + 18 = 4.3636 V
2.75
Since, Vx = V1 , Vx = 4.3636 V
1.7 Network Terminology

Topology is a branch of science which deals with the study of geometrical properties and
special relations unaffected by continuous change of shape or size of figures. The concept of
topology was first applied to networks by Kirchoff to study the relationship between the nodes
and branches in a network.
A circuit or network can be drawn in different shapes and sizes by maintaining the
relationship between the nodes and branches as shown in Fig. 1.45.
Therefore, “network topology is the study of the properties of a network which are
unaffected when we stretch, twist or distort the size and shape of the network”. A network consists
of interconnections of various elements. The physical arrangement of the elements and the length
of wires used for connecting the elements may give rise to different types of layout for the circuits.
As long as the relationship between the nodes and branches are maintained, the circuit response
will be the same.
R3 3
2
L R1
R3
L 2 C E
1 3 C R2
1 +E 0 C
1
+ R2 +
E E R1 E
R3 R2
L E
3
2 0
0 R1
Fig. 1.45 : Different shapes of a circuit.
1.7.1 Graph of a Network

The topological properties of networks are described by a graph. The graph of a network
consists of nodes and branches of the network. In a network, the branches have elements but in a
graph, the branches are drawn by lines. When arrows are placed on the branches of a graph it is
called an oriented graph. The arrow indicates the direction of branch current and the polarity of
branch voltage.
Fig. a : Network. Fig. b : Graph of network Fig. c : Oriented graph of

in Fig. a. network in Fig. a.
Fig. 1.46 : A typical network and its graph and oriented graph.
A sequence of branches traversed while going from one node to another node is called a
path. A graph is said to be a connected graph if there exists at least one path from each node of
a graph to every other node of the graph.
To draw the graph of a circuit, first redraw the circuit by replacing the sources by their
internal impedances. The ideal voltage sources are replaced by short circuits and ideal current
sources are replaced by open circuits. Now, the circuit becomes a network consisting of R, L
and C elements only. Then represent the nodes of the network as small circles and the elements
connected between the nodes as lines. The series connected elements are considered as a single
branch. While drawing the graph of a network, the number of nodes and branches and the
relationship between them has to be maintained. But the size and shape of graph and curvature of
lines in the graph are not important.
R6 R6
R3 R4 R3 R4
2 2
1 3 1 3
R1
R2 I R5 R1 R2 R5
+
E E
4 4
Fig. a : Typical circuit. Fig. b : The circuit of Fig. a after replacing
sources by their internal impedance.
a a a 1
1 3
b c
b a
b 2 c
1 3 2
b 2 c d 2 c 3
1 3
e f e f
d
d d e f e f
4 4
4 4
Fig. c : Various shapes of graphs for the circuit of Fig. a.
Fig. 1.47 : A typical circuit and its different graphs.
A typical circuit and its different graphs are shown in Fig. 1.47. In the graph, the nodes are
represented by small circles and denoted by numerals 1, 2, 3 and 4. In the graph, the elements
connected between the nodes are represented by lines. These lines are called branches and denoted
by lower case letters a, b, c, d, e and f. This convention of denoting nodes by numerals and
branches by lower case letters has been followed in this book.
1.7.2 Trees, Link, Twig and Cotree
When some of the branches in an original graph are removed, the resultant graph is called
a subgraph. The tree is a subgraph which is obtained by removing some branches such that the
subgraph includes all the nodes of the original graph, but does not have any closed paths. For
a given graph, there may be more than one possible tree. Hence, a tree can be defined as any
connected open set of branches which includes all nodes of a given graph. A tree of a graph with
N nodes has the following properties:
l The tree contains all the nodes of the graph.
l The tree contains N − 1 branches.
l The tree does not have a closed path.
The branches removed to form a tree are called links or chords. By removing a link from
a graph, one closed path can be eliminated. Alternatively, on adding a link to a tree one closed
path is created. Hence, by adding the links one by one to a tree all closed paths can be created.
Therefore, the number of closed paths in a graph is equal to the number of links.
1
The cotree is the complement of a tree. Hence, every tree has a cotree.
The links connected to the nodes of a graph form a cotree. The branches of a a b c
tree are called twigs and the branches of a cotree are called links. A typical
d e
graph is shown in Fig. 1.48, and some possible trees of the graph and the 2
3
4
cotree of each tree are shown in Table 1.4. f
For most of the trees, the cotree will also be in the form of a tree. But Fig. 1.48 : Graph.
for some possible tree, the cotree may have closed paths and cotree may not
be connected (i.e., all the nodes are not connected in a cotree).
A definite relationship exists between the number of nodes and branches in a tree. Any
tree of the graph with B branches and N nodes will consist of N − 1 branches and the remaining
branches are links.
Therefore, for a graph with B branches and N nodes, the number of links or chords is given by,
Link, L = B - (N - 1) = B - N + 1
Table 1.4 : The Trees and Cotrees of the Graph in Fig. 1.48
Tree Cotree Tree Cotree

1 1
1 1
c
b a
a c b
2 4 2
3 4
f 3
2 d 3 e 4 2 4 f
d 3 e
Twig: [a, d, e] Link: [b, c, f] Twig: [c, d, e] Link: [a, b, f]
1
1
1 1 a
a
c b c
b
2 4
2 4 3 e
3 2 4
2 4 f d 3 f
d 3 e
Twig: [b, c, d] Link: [a, e, f]
Twig: [c, d, e] Link: [a, b, f]
1
1 1
c 1
b b
a a c
2 4 2 4
3 2 4 d 3 4
d 3 e f 2 3 e
f
Twig: [b, c, f] Link: [a, d, e] Twig: [b, d, f] Link: [a, c, e]
1 1 1
1
a
b c b a
c
2 4 2 4
3 e 2 e 4 2
f d 3 3 4
d 3
f
Twig: [a, b, f] Link: [c, d, e] Twig: [b, e, f] Link: [a, c, d]
1.7.3 Network Variables

When a network is excited by connecting a source, every branch will have a current
flowing through it and so a voltage will exist across the terminals of the branch. Hence, a graph
(or network) with B branches will have B number of branch currents and B number of branch
voltages. These branch currents and voltages are called network variables. The branch currents
are called current variables and branch voltages are called voltage variables of the network.
An arrow is placed on the branch to indicate the direction of the branch current and polarity
of the branch voltage. The arrow placed on the branch is called reference or orientation. In
a branch, a single reference is used to represent both the directions of branch current and the
polarity of branch voltage.
The current-voltage relation of a branch is obtained by Ohm’s law, by treating the branch
as load. Hence, the set of references for the branches of a graph are called load set reference.
+ Ibr -
Vbr Þ Vbr Þ
- + Ibr
Vbr = Branch voltage ; Ibr = Branch current
Fig. 1.49 : Orientation (or reference) of a branch.

The conventional direction of branch current and the polarity of branch voltage are shown
in Fig. 1.49. In a network, branch current directions can be assumed arbitrarily and the polarity of
branch voltages can be fixed as per Ohm’s law, by treating the branches as loads. Alternatively,
the polarity of branch voltages can be assumed arbitrarily and the direction of branch current can
be fixed as per Ohm’s law, by treating the branch as load.
1.7.4 Solution of Network Variables
In a network or a circuit we may be interested in the voltage and current in the various
branches which is normally referred to as response. In a network if all the branch currents are
known then the voltages can be obtained by Ohm’s law. Alternatively, if the branch voltages are
known then the currents can be obtained by Ohm’s law.
Hence, in order to determine the response on current basis first we have to solve B number
of branch currents and to determine the response on voltage basis first we have to solve B number
of branch voltages.
For a unique solution of B number of variables, we have to form B number of equations
involving the B variables and solve them. But in practice it can be shown that all the branch
currents are not independent and so the independent current variables which are less than B, are
sufficient to solve the currents. Similarly, all the branch voltages are not independent and so the
independent voltage variables which are less than B, are sufficient to solve the voltages.
1.7.5 Link Currents (Independent Current Variables)

In a network it can be proved that the branch currents of the links are independent current
variables. When the links are removed in a network, all the closed paths are destroyed and so
no current can flow in the network. The removal of a link is equal to making link current as zero.
Therefore, when the link current are made zero, all the currents in the network become zero.
Hence, we can say that the branch currents depends on link currents. Therefore, “the link
currents are independent and branch currents are dependent”. In a network with N nodes and B
branches we have B – N + 1 links. Therefore, in a network there will be B current variables in
which B − N + 1 are independent current variables and the remaining N − 1 [i.e., B − (B − N + 1)
= N − 1] currents are dependent current variables.
In order to determine the response of a network on current basis, it is sufficient if we form
B – N + 1 equations involving independent current variables and solve them for a unique solution.
Thereafter, the dependent current variables can be solved using the independent current variables.
1.7.6 Twig Voltages (Independent Voltage Variables)
In a network it can be proved that the branch voltages of the twigs (or tree branches) are
independent voltage variables. In a graph when all the twigs are short circuited, then all the
nodes will be short circuited as well. Eventually, the voltages of the nodes become zero. Also
the short circuiting of nodes will lead to short-circuiting of all the branches and so all the branch
voltages will become zero.
Hence, we can say that the branch voltages depend on twig voltages. Therefore, “the twig
voltages are independent and branch voltages are dependent”. In a network with N nodes and
B branches we have N − 1 twigs. Therefore, in a network we have B voltage variables in which
N − 1 are independent voltage variables and the remaining B − (N − 1) voltages are dependent
voltage variables.
In order to determine the response of a network on voltage basis it is sufficient if we form
N − 1 equations involving independent voltage variables and solve them for a unique solution.
Thereafter, the dependent voltage variable can be solved using independent voltage variables.
1.8 Incidence and Reduced Incidence Matrices

The geometrical features of a graph are number of nodes, branches and orientation of branches
relative to the nodes. The incidence matrix tabulates these geometric features of a graph as a two
dimensional array. We can define the incidence matrix as a two dimensional array which provides
information regarding the orientation of branches of a graph relative to the nodes of the graph.
The incidence matrix can be constructed only for oriented graph, in which an arrow is
placed in each branch. Each column of the incidence matrix provides information regarding the
connections (incidence) of one oriented branch to the various nodes of the graph. The numbers 0,
+1 and −1 are used to represent the connection (incidence) of the branch to a node.
When a branch is not connected to a node it is represented by 0. In a connected branch, if
the direction of arrow is towards the node then it is represented by −1 and if the direction of arrow
is away from the node then it is represented by +1.
The procedure for construction of incidence matrix is given below.
1. Mark the nodes of the graph by numerals 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., and the branches of the graph by
lower case letters a, b, c, d, etc.,.
2. Prepare a table as shown below. In the table the branches are listed in column and nodes in
rows.
Branches
Nodes a b c d
.
.
.
1
2
3
4
.
.
.
.
.
.
3. At the intersection of a row and column, write the incidence of the branch to the node by
putting 0 or +1 or −1, as explained below.
Consider a branch-k and node-1,
i) If the branch-k is not connected to node-1 then at the
intersection of column-k and row-1 enter 0.
ii) If the branch-k is connected to node-1 and the arrow in
the branch is towards node-1 then at the intersection of
column-k and row-1 enter − 1.
iii) If the branch-k is connected to node-1 and the arrow in
the branch is away from node-1 then at the intersection
of column-k and row-1 enter + 1. Fig. a: Graph.
2
The incidence matrix with informations of all the nodes is
called complete incidence matrix and it is denoted by AC. In an
a b
incidence matrix, one of the row can be deleted or eliminated and f
such a matrix is called reduced incidence matrix or simply incidence c

1 3
matrix and it is denoted by A. The order of complete incidence
matrix is N × B and the order of incidence matrix is (N−1) × B.
d e
The formation of complete incidence matrix and reduced incidence
matrix are explained with an example here.
4
Consider the graph shown in Fig. 1.50(a). The graph consists Fig. b: Oriented Graph.
of four nodes and six branches. Let us place arrows on the branches
Fig. 1.50:
arbitrarily as shown in fig 1.50(b). Let us mark the nodes as 1, 2, 3 and 4 and branches as a, b, c, d,
e and f as shown in Fig. 1.50(b).
A table is formed as shown below with nodes listed in the rows and branches in the columns.
Branches
Branches
Nodes
a b c d e f
1
2
3
4
Consider node-1, the branches b, e and f are not connected to node-1. Hence, at the
intersections of row-1 with columns b, e and f enter 0. The branches a and c are connected to
node-1 and their arrows are away from node-1. Hence, at the intersections of row-1 with columns a
and center +1. The branch-d is connected to node-1 and its arrow is towards node-1. Hence, at the
intersection of row-1 with column-d enter −1. Now the entries of row-1 will be as shown below.
a b c d e f
1 +1 0 +1 −1 0 0
Similarly, the other rows of the incidence matrix are formed by considering the nodes one
by one. The table with filled entries for the graph shown in Fig. 1.50 is given below:
Branches
Nodes
a b c d e f
1 +1 0 +1 −1 0 0
2 −1 +1 0 0 0 +1
3 0 −1 −1 0 +1 0
4 0 0 0 +1 −1 −1
All the rows of the above table constitute the complete incidence matrix. If one of the row is
deleted in the above table then the remaining rows form the reduced incidence matrix. Let us delete
row-4 and form the reduced incidence matrix. The complete incidence matrix and reduced incidence
matrix of the graph shown in Fig. 1.50 are given by equations (1.47) and (1.48), respectively.
R V
S 1 0 1 −1 0 0 W
S− 1 1 0 0 0 1 W
Complete Incidence matrix, AC = S W ..... (1.47)
S 0 −1 −1 0 1 0 W
S 0 0 0 1 −1 −1W
T X
Reduced Incidence matrix, A = >− 1 1 0 0 1H

1 0 1 −1 0 0
0 ..... (1.48)
0 −1 −1 0 1 0
It is interesting to observe that the number of possible trees of a graph is given by the
determinant of the product AAT, where A is the reduced incidence matrix and AT is the transpose
of the reduced incidence matrix.
Properties of Complete Incidence Matrix
1. Every column has two non-zero elements, one of which is +1 and the other is −1.
2. The sum of the elements in any column of complete incidence matrix is zero.
3. The rank of the complete incidence matrix is N−1.
4. The determinant of the complete incidence matrix of a closed loop is zero.
1.8.1 Network Analysis using Incidence Matrix

In a network we can attach a current and voltage to each branch. Let I a, I b, Ic ... be the
branch currents and Va, Vb, Vc ... be the branch voltages. In a network with N nodes, one of the
node voltage is chosen as the reference potential and the voltages of other (N−1) nodes can be
expressed relative to the reference node as V1,V2, V3 ... VN−1. The voltage and current variables can
be expressed as column matrices as shown below.
Let, I B = Branch current column matrix of order B × 1.
V B = Branch voltage column matrix of order B × 1.
V N = Node voltage column matrix of order (N−1) × 1.

R V V
R V R V S 1 W
S Ia W S Va W S V2 W
SI W SV W S W
Here, IB = S b W ;
VB = S b W ; VN = S V3 W
S Ic W V
S cW S h W
Sh W Sh W SS V WW
T X T X N-1
T X
From the incidence matrix, the relation between the branch voltages and node voltages can
be obtained using equation (1.49).
V B = AT V N ..... (1.49)
It can be proved that the product of incidence matrix and branch current matrix will give
KCL equations at the nodes. The KCL states that the sum of currents at a node is zero. Hence, the
product of incidence matrix and branch current matrix will be a null matrix.
∴ A IB = 0 ..... (1.50)
Consider a circuit with B branches and N nodes. Let I a, Ib, Ic, Id ... be branch currents and Va,
Vb, Vc, Vd ... be branch voltages. Consider branch-a with a current source as shown in Fig. 1.51.
Now by KCL we can write, +
Ia
GaV a = Isa + I a ..... (1.51) GaVa
Isa Va
Ga
Similarly, for branches b, c, d ... we can write,
G b Vb = Isb + I b_
b E
Gc Vc = Isc + Ic ` ..... (1.52)
G d Vd = Isd + I db Fig. 1.51.
a
where, G a, Gb, Gc, Gd ... = Conductances of branches a, b, c, d ... respectively.
Isa, Isb, Isc, Isd ... = Current sources in the branches a, b, c, d ... respectively.
Note : A current source is positive if the current leaving point is connected to the positive end
of the branch.
Equations (1.51) and (1.52) can be arranged in the matrix form as shown below. Here, if
branch-j does not have a current source then I sj will be zero.
RG 0 0 0 gV RV V R V R V
S a W S a W SIsa W S Ia W
S0 Gb 0 0 gW S Vb W SIsb W SI b W
S0 0 Gc 0 gW S V W = SI W + S I W ..... (1.53)
S W S c W S sc W S c W
S0 0 0 Gd gW S Vd W SIsd W SI d W
Sh h h h W S h W S h W Sh W
T X T X T X T X
RG 0 0 0 g V RI V
S a W S sa W
S0 Gb 0 0 gW SIsb W
Let, GB = S 0 0 Gc 0 g W and ISB = SIsc W
S W S W
S0 0 0 Gd g W SIsd W
Sh h h h W S W
T X Th X
Here, G B = Branch conductance matrix of order B × B.
I SB = Branch source current matrix of order B × 1.
Now equation (1.53) can be written as,

G BVB = ISB + IB ..... (1.54)
On substituting for VB from equation (1.49) in equation (1.54) we get,
GB AT V N = ISB + I B ..... (1.55)
On premultiplying equation (1.55) by incidence matrix A we get,
A GB AT V N = AISB + AIB ..... (1.56)
From equation (1.50) we know that AIB = 0.
∴ [AGB AT ] V N = AI SB ..... (1.57)
Let, AG B AT = G
and, A I SB = I
where, G = Conductance matrix of order (N−1) × (N−1).

I = Source current matrix of order (N−1) × 1.
Now equation (1.57) can be written as shown in equation (1.58).
GV N = I ..... (1.58)
The matrix equation (1.58) will give a set of (N−1) equations involving (N−1) unknown
node voltage variables. The solution of equation (1.58) will give (N−1) node voltages. From the
knowledge of node voltages, using equation (1.49) the branch voltages can be obtained. From the
knowledge of branch voltages and branch conductances, by using Ohm’s law, the branch currents
can be determined.
5V
EXAMPLE 1.63 2
E
+
Draw the graph of the circuit shown in Fig. 1, and hence determine the
3 1
incidence matrix. Also draw any four possible trees of the graph.
1
4 1 2
1
SOLUTION
3
i) To construct the graph Fig. 1.
The voltage source in the given circuit is replaced by a short circuit as 2 S.C.
shown in Fig. 2. The series connected resistances 2 Ω and 1 Ω are combined
to single equivalent as shown in Fig. 2. 3 1
2
1 3
The network of Fig. 2 has five nodes and eight branches. The nodes are 1
marked with numerals 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. The graph of the network is constructed 4 1
by representing the nodes as small circles and the elements connected between
the nodes as straight lines as shown in Fig. 3. 4 3 5
2+1=3
Fig. 2.
Let us place arbitrary arrows on the branches of the graph and denote
the branches as a, b, c, d, e, f, g and h, as shown in Fig. 4, to obtain the oriented graph.
a
1 2
3 b 2 c
1 3
d f
e
4 5 g
4 h 5
Fig. 3 : Graph.
Fig. 4 : Oriented Graph.
ii) To construct the trees of the graph
The graph of the given circuit has five nodes (N = 5) and eight branches (B = 8).
∴ Number of links, L = B − N + 1 = 8 − 5 + 1 = 4
The tree of the graph can be formed by removing four branches such that there is no closed path in
the graph but at the same time all nodes remains connected. The four branches removed to form a tree are
called links. The four trees of the graph are shown in Fig. 5.
b 1 b 2 3
1 2 3
d f f
e g
g
4
5 4 5
Link: [a,c,e,h] Link: [a,c,d,h]
a a
b 2 2 3
1 3 1 c
f
e f
4 h 5 4 5
Link: [c,d,e,g] Link: [b,d,g,h]
Fig. 5 : Trees of the graph shown in Fig. 4.

iii) To form incidence matrix
The graph of the given circuit has five nodes and eight branches. Let us form a table with five rows and
eight columns by listing the nodes in the rows and branches in the columns.
Branches
Nodes
a b c d e f g h
5
The entries of the table are filled by considering the orientation of the branches to nodes. By referring
to the oriented graph of Fig. 4, the orientations of the branches to nodes are listed here for convenience.
Node-1 : i) Branches c, e, f, g and h are not connected.

ii) Branches a, b and d are connected with orientation away from the node.
Node-2 : i) Branches a, d, g and h are not connected.

ii) Branches b, e and f are connected with orientation towards the node.
iii) Branch-c is connected with orientation away from the node.
Node-3 : i) Branches b, d, e, f and h are not connected.
ii) Branches a and c are connected with orientation towards the node.
iii) Branch-g is connected with orientation away from the node.
Node-4 : i) Branches a, b, c, f and g are not connected.
ii) Branch-d is connected with orientation towards the node.
iii) Branches e and h are connected with orientation away from the node.
Node-5 : i) Branches a, b, c, d and e are not connected.
ii) Branches h and g are connected with orientation towards the node.
iii) Branch-f is connected with orientation away from the node.
The above information is used to fill the entries of the table. If a branch is not connected to
a node then 0 is entered at the intersection of concerned node and branch. If a branch is connected
and orientation is towards the node then −1 is entered at the intersection of concerned node and
branch. If a branch is connected and orientation is away from the node then +1 is entered at the
intersection of the concerned node and branch. The table with filled entries is shown below.
Branches
Nodes
a b c d e f g h
1 +1 +1 0 +1 0 0 0 0
2 0 −1 +1 0 −1 −1 0 0
3 −1 0 −1 0 0 0 +1 0
4 0 0 0 −1 +1 0 0 +1
5 0 0 0 0 0 +1 −1 −1
All the rows of the above table constitute the complete incidence matrix. The incidence
matrix is formed by eliminating one of the rows. Let us eliminate the row-5 and form the incidence
matrix as shown ahead.
R 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0V
S W
S 0 −1 1 0 −1 −1 0 0W
Complete incidence matrix, Ac = S− 1 0 − 1 0 0 0 1 0 W
S W
S 0 0 0 −1 1 0 0 1 W
S 0 0 0 0 0 1 −1 −1W
T X
R V
S 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0W
S 0 −1 1 0 −1 −1 0 0W
Incidence matrix, A = S
S− 1 0 − 1 0 0 0 1 0 WW
S 0 0 0 −1 1 0 0 1W
T X
1.9 Cut-Sets
1.9.1 Fundamental Cut-Sets
A cut-set is a set of branches whose removal cuts the connected graph into two parts, with
the condition that replacing any one branch of the cut-set renders the two parts connected.
Each branch of a cut-set has one of its terminal connected to a node in one part and its other
end connected to a node in another part. Each cut-set contains one twig (or branch of tree) and the
remaining branches are links.
A graph with N nodes and B branches will have B − N + 1 links and N − 1 twigs. Since each
cut-set involves only one twig, we can form N − 1 cut-sets in a graph. The cut-set is also called
fundamental cut-set or f-cutset when one of the branch is twig and remaining branches are links.
In order to determine the cut-sets of a graph, form a tree of the graph. The tree will have
N − 1 twigs, where N is the number of nodes in the graph. The cut-sets can be formed by considering
the twigs one by one.
To obtain the cut-set associated with a twig, short circuit all the other twigs of the tree
(except the selected twig). Now all the nodes will be short-circuited except the node at one end of
the selected twig. The branches connected to this node will form a cut-set. All the short-circuited
branches will be shorted to the node on the other end of the selected twig.
On cutting the branches connected to the node which are not short-circuited, the graph can
be divided into two parts such that one part has branches that are not short-circuited and the other
part has branches that are short-circuited. This concept is illustrated in Fig. 1.52.
In another case, when the twigs are short-circuited except the selected twig to form a cut-set,
a group of nodes will be short-circuited to a node at one end of the selected twig and another group
of nodes will be short-circuited to the node at other end of the selected twig. In this case some of
the branches will be short-circuited and the other branches will be connected across the nodes at
the two ends of the selected twig.
On cutting the branches which are not short-circuited, the graph can be divided into two
parts. The cut-set is given by the branches which are not short-circuited. This concept is illustrated
in Fig. 1.53.
1 1
Twig-b
c Form a tree (selected twig)
a
b Þ b Twig : [b, d, e]
Twig-d Link : [a, c, f]
4 e 4
2 d 3 e 2 d 3
Twig-e
f
Short-circuit
twig-d and twig-e ß
Node which
is not short-
1 circuited
Combine the short- Form the cut-set by 1
1
circuited nodes and cutting the branches
redraw the graph which are not short- Link b c
c
a
b Þ a c Cut
circuited a Link
b
Þ Twig
d e Cut-set : [a, b, c]
2 4
3 2, 3, 4
d
S.C. S.C. Short-
e circuited
f I f
Short- P Q nodes
circuited branches
Fig. 1.52 : Formation of a cut-set.

1 1
Twig-b
a b c b
4 Form a tree 4
Þ Twig-d(selected twig)
d e d
f f
g 6 5 h g 6 5 h
Twig-f
2 3 2 3
i Twig-g Twig-h
Twig : [b, d, g, f, h]
Link : [a, c, e, i]
Short-circuit
ß Twigs-b, g, f and h
1
Combine the short- b Short-circuited
c circuited nodes and branch
a b Link
redraw the graph 1, 4 4
a
4 SC
Þ d Form the cut-set by cutting
a
Link
e the branches which are d e c
c not short-circuited
e
d
g
Cut
Þ Twig
2, 3, 5, 6 Cut-set : [a, c, d, e]
6 f Short- f
g circuited h
5 h i
SC branches
SC SC
2 i 3
Fig. 1.53 : Formation of cut-set.

From the above analysis the general procedure for formation of cut-set can be obtained as
given below:
1. Form a tree of the graph. The tree will have N − 1 twigs, where N is the number of nodes in the
graph.
2. Select the node to which largest number of branches(twigs) connected as the reference
node.
3. The tree will have N − 1 twigs and N − 1 nodes except the reference node. Hence, associate
one twig with one node.
4. To form a cut-set select a node and cut the branches around the node in the graph. Now we have
two cases.
Case i : The branches connected to the selected node have only one twig connected to it, which is
also the twig associated with the selected node. In this case all the branches connected
to this node form the cut-set.
Case ii : The branches connected to the selected node have more than one twig connected to it. In this
case, cut the graph in two parts such that in one part a minimum portion of graph is
included along with selected node. Now in this portion of the graph, short circuit the
extra twigs other than the associated twig with the selected node. On short circuiting the
extra twigs some more branches may be connected to the selected node. Now the cut-set
is given by the branches connected to the selected node after short circuiting the extra twigs.
EXAMPLE 1.64
Determine the cut-sets of the graph shown in Fig. 1.
SOLUTION
The given graph has eight branches (B = 8) and five nodes (N = 5).
∴ Links, L = B − N + 1 = 8 − 5 + 1 = 4. Fig. 1.
Let us name the branches as a, b, c, d, e, f, g and h and mark the nodes as 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 as shown
in Fig. 2. Since there are four links we can remove four branches a, c, f and h to form a tree as shown in Fig.
3. Now the branches a, c, f and h are links and the branches b, d, e and g are twigs.
1 1
Twig-b
a b c Twig-d b
e e
2 3 2 3
d 5 d 5
Twig-e
f g h g Twig : [b, d, e, g]
Twig-g Link : [a, c, f, h]
4 Fig. 2 : Graph. 4 Fig. 3 : Tree.

The tree of the graph has four twigs and so we can form four cut-sets. Let us choose node-5 as the
reference and associate the remaining four nodes with four twigs as shown below.
Twig-b is associated with node-1.
Twig-d is associated with node-2.
Twig-e is associated with node-3.
Twig-g is associated with node-4.
Here in the tree of the graph, each node has only one twig connected to it. Hence, cut-sets can be
formed by cutting the branches connected to the nodes in the graph as shown in Fig. 4. The four cut-sets are
shown in Fig. 5.
1 1 a Twig
a c Cut-set-1 a c
b b 2
d
Twig f
Cut-set-1 : [a, b, c] Cut-set-2 : [a, d, f]

a c
e
2 3
d 5
f h Twig Twig
c
Cut-set-3 e g
Cut-set-2 3 f h
h 4
g
f h Cut-set-4 Cut-set-3 : [c, e, h] Cut-set-4 : [f, g, h]
4
Fig. 4. Fig. 5 : Cut-sets.
EXAMPLE 1.65
Determine the cut-sets of the graph shown in Fig. 1.
SOLUTION
The given graph has nine branches (B = 9) and six nodes (N = 6).
∴ Links, L = B − N + 1 = 9 − 6 + 1 = 4
Let us name the branches as a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h and i and mark the nodes as

1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 as shown in Fig. 2. Since there are four links we can remove
Fig. 1.
four branches a, c, e and i to form a tree as shown in Fig. 3. Now the branches b,
d, f, g and h are twigs and the branches a, c, e and i are links.
1 1
Twig-b
a b c b
4 4
Twig-d
d e d
f f
g 6 5 h g 6 5 h
Twig : [b, d, f, g, h]
2 3 2 Twig-f 3
i Link : [a, c, e, i]
Twig-g Twig-h
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
The tree of the graph has five twigs and so we can form five cut-sets. Let us choose node-6 as the
reference and associate remaining five nodes with five twigs as shown below.
Twig-g is associated with node-2.
Twig-h is associated with node-3.
Twig-f is associated with node-5.
Here in the tree of the graph, the nodes 1, 2 and 3 have only one twig connected to each of them.
Hence, cut-sets associated with these nodes can be formed by cutting the branches connected to these nodes
in the graph as shown in Fig. 4. The three cut-sets associated with twigs b, g and h (as well as with nodes 1,
2 and 3) are shown in Fig. 5.
1 1
a b c Cut-set-1 a b c
4 Twig
Cut-set-1 : [a, b, c]
d e
Twig Twig
f
a c a c
g 6 5 h g h
2 3 2 3
i i i i
Cut-set-2 Cut-set-3 Cut-set-2 : [a, g, i] Cut-set-3 : [c, h, i]
Fig. 4. Fig. 5 : Cut-sets associated with

twigs-b, g and h.
In the tree of the graph, the nodes 4 and 5 have two twigs connected to each of them. Hence, in order
to determine the cut-sets associated with these nodes, cut the portions of the graph as shown in Fig. 6. In each
portion of the graph, short-circuit the extra twigs other than the selected twigs associated with the node and
redraw the cut portions of the graph as shown in Fig. 6 to obtain the cut-sets. The cut-sets associated with
twigs d and f (as well as with nodes 4 and 5) are also shown in Fig. 6.
1 4
1
a b c a c
a b c
SC
Þ Þ d e
4
d 4 e
d e
Twig
Cut-set-4 : [a, c, d, e]
e c
a c e e
g 6 f 5 h
Þ c Þ f
2 3 f 5 h
i i SC Twig
3 5
i i
Cut-set-5 : [c, e, f, i]
Fig. 6.
1.9.2 Cut-Set Matrix and Cut-Set Schedule

A graph will have B branches and so there will be B number of branch voltages. Therefore,
in a graph there will be B number of voltage variables called branch voltages. Here all the branch
voltages are not independent voltages. We can show that in a graph the twig voltages are independent
voltages and link voltages are dependent voltages.
For a graph with N nodes, we can form a tree with N nodes and N − 1 twigs. We can choose
one of the nodes as the reference and the voltages of other N − 1 nodes can be expressed with
respect to the reference node. In a cut-set, the twig voltage will be the same as the node voltage
associated with it. Therefore, we can say that the number of independent voltages will be equal to
the number of twigs.
The relation between node voltages and branch voltages can be summarised in the form
of a matrix called cut-set matrix. The procedure for constructing a cut-set matrix is given below:
1. Mark the nodes of the graph by numerals 1, 2, 3, etc., and the branches of the graph by lower
case letters a, b, c, etc.
2. Identify the links and remove the links to form a tree. The tree will have N − 1 twigs where, N is
the number of nodes in the graph. Choose one node as the reference and associate the
remaining N − 1 nodes with N − 1 twigs.
3. To each branch of the graph, assign an orientation (or an arrow) which is the reference
for polarity of branch voltage. For the twig, always assign the orientation as away from
the node associated with the twig.
4. Draw the (fundamental) cut-sets of the graph.
5. Assign a voltage to the node in each cut-set. Let the node voltages be denoted as V1, V2, V3,
etc. Each cut-set will have only one twig and twig voltage will be the same as the node
voltage.
6. Prepare a table as shown below. In the table, node voltages are listed in rows and
branches are listed in columns. Each cut-set of the graph can be used to fill the entries
of each row of the table.
Table 1.5 : Cut-set Schedule
Node Branches
voltages a b c d e ...
V1
V2
V3
...
7. At the intersection of a row and column the relation between the node and branch voltage is
represented as 0, +1 or −1, as explained below.
8. Consider a branch-k and cut-set-1,
(i) If the branch-k is not included in the cut-set then enter 0 at the intersection of column-k
and row-1.
(ii) If the branch-k is included in the cut-set and orientation of branch-k is same as that
of the twig in the cut-set then enter “+1” at the intersection of column-k and row-1.
(iii) If the branch-k is included in the cut-set and orientation of branch-k is opposite to that
of the twig in the cut-set then enter –1 at the intersection of column-k and row-1.
All the rows and columns of the table constitute the cut-set matrix, and it is denoted by Q.
The formation of cut-set matrix is explained here with an example.
Consider the graph shown in Fig. 1.54(a). The graph has four nodes and six branches.
Let us denote the nodes by numerals 1, 2, 3 and 4 and branches by alphabets a, b, c, d, e and f as
shown in Fig. 1.54(b).
1 1
c Twig-b
a b b
d d
2 4 2 4
e f Twig-d f
Twig-f
3 3
Fig. a : Graph. Fig. b : Oriented graph. Fig. c : Tree.
Fig. 1.54 : A graph and its tree.
Here, branches, B = 6 and nodes, N = 4

Therefore, Links, L = B − N + 1 = 6 − 4 + 1 = 3
Since there are three links, we can form a tree by removing branches a, c and e as shown in
Fig. 1.54(c). Now the branches a, c and e are links and the branches b, d and f are twigs.
The tree of the graph has three twigs and so we can form three cut-sets. Let us choose
node-4 as the reference and associate the remaining three nodes with the three twigs as shown below:
Let us choose the orientation for twigs as away from the node associated with them and
arbitrary orientations for the links as shown in Fig. 1.54(b).
Here, in the tree of the graph, each node has only one twig connected to it. Hence, cut-sets
can be formed by cutting the branches connected to the nodes in the graph as shown in Fig. 1.55.
1 c Cut-set-1 1 c
a a
b b Twig-b
Cut-set-2
Cut-set-1 : [a, b, c]
a
d
2 4 Twig-f
a Twig-d
e d
2
e e f
e f c
c Cut-set-3 3
3 Cut-set-2 : [a, d, e] Cut-set-3 : [c, e, f]
Fig. 1.55 : Cut-sets of the graph in Fig. 1.54(b).

Let the voltages of the nodes 1, 2 and 3 be V1, V2 and V3, respectively, with respect to the
reference node. A table formed with node voltages listed in the rows and branches listed in the
columns is shown below:
Table 1.6 : Cut-Set Schedule
Node Branches
voltages a c d e
b f
V1
V2
V3
Consider cut-set-1, the branches d, e and f are not included in cut-set-1 and so enter 0 at the
intersection of row-1 and columns d, e and f.
The twig associated with cut-set-1 is twig-b and its orientation is away from node-1. The
branches a and b have orientation away from node-1 (same as that of twig-b) and so enter +1 at
the intersection of row-1 and columns a and b.
The branch-c has orientation towards node-1 (opposite to that of twig-b) and so enter –1 at
the intersection of row-1 and column-c. The entries of row-1 are shown below.
Branches
a b c d e f
V1 +1 +1 E1 0 0 0
Similarly, the other rows of the cut-set matrix are formed by considering cut-sets one
by one. The table with filled entries for the graph of Fig. 1.54(b) is given ahead. All rows and
columns of the table constitute the cut-set matrix Q. The cut-set matrix of the graph in Fig. 1.54(b)
is shown in equation (1.59).
Table 1.7 : Cut-Set Schedule
Node Branches
voltages a c d e
b f
V1 +1 +1 E1 0 0 0
V2 E1 0 0 +1 +1 0
V3 0 0 +1 0 E1 +1
R V
S 1 1 −1 0 0 0 W
Cut - set matrix, Q = S − 1 0 0 1 1 0 W
S 0 0 1 0 −1 1 W
T X ..... (1.59)
1.9.3 Node Analysis Using Cut-Sets

In general, a graph with B branches and N nodes will have N − 1 twigs, and so the order of
cut-set matrix will be (N − 1) × B.
Let, VB = Branch voltage column matrix of order B × 1
VN = Node voltage column matrix of order (N − 1) × 1
QT = Transpose of cut-set matrix.
[The order of transpose matrix is B × (N − 1)]
Now the relation between branch voltages and node voltages can be expressed as a matrix
equation of the form shown in equation (1.60).
VB = QT VN ..... (1.60)
R V R V
S Va W S V1 W
SV W S V2 W
Here, VB = S b W and VN = S W
V
S cW S h W
Sh W S VN - 1 W
T X_ B # 1 i T X: _ N - 1 i # 1 D
Let, IB = Branch current column matrix of order B × 1.

Now the product of the cut-set matrix and branch current matrix will give the KCL equations
at the nodes of the fundamental cut-sets. The KCL equation states that the sum of currents at a node
is zero. Hence, the product of the cut-set matrix and branch current matrix will be a null matrix.
∴ QIB = 0 ..... (1.61)

R V
S Ia W
SI W
Here, I B = S bW
S Ic W
Sh W
T X_ B # 1 i
Equations (1.60) and (1.61) can be used to form the equilibrium equations of a network
(or circuit). The solution of equilibrium equations obtained from the cut-set matrix will give the
node voltages. Using equation (1.60), the branch voltages can be estimated from the knowledge
of node voltages. From the knowledge of branch voltages and resistances (or impedances), the
branch currents can be computed.
The formation of equilibrium equations for the graph shown in Fig. 1.54(b) is explained
here. The graph shown in Fig. 1.54(b) has four nodes and six branches.
∴ N = 4 and B = 6
∴ Number of twigs = N − 1 = 4 − 1 = 3
The network of graph will have six branch voltages Va , Vb, Vc, Vd, Ve and Vf and three node
voltages V1 , V2 and V3 . Also the network will have six branch currents Ia , I b, I c, I d, I e and I f.
The voltage and current matrices of the network are given below.
R V R V
S Va W S Ia W
S Vb W R V S Ib W
SV W S V1 W SI W
VB = S W ; = S W
c c
VN = S V2 W ; IB
S Vd W SV W S Id W
SV W 3 SI W
S eW T X S eW
S Vf W S If W
T X T X
The cut-set matrix Q of the network is given by equation (1.59). Now equation (1.60) for
this network can be written as shown below:
VB = QT VN
R V
S Va W
S Vb W R VT R V
S V W S 1 1 − 1 0 0 0 W S V1 W
S W = S − 1 0 0 1 1 0 W S V2 W
c
S Vd W S W W
S V W T 0 0 1 0 − 1 1 X ST V3 X
S We
S Vf W
T X
R V R V
S Va W S 1 −1 0 W
S Vb W S 1 0 0W R V
SV W S W S V1 W
S cW −1 0 1 W
= S S V2 W
S Vd W S 0 1 0W SV W
SV W S 0 1 −1 W 3
S We
S W T X_ 3 # 1 i
S Vf W S 0 0 1W
_6#1 i
T X T X_ 6 # 3 i ..... (1.62)
On multiplying equation (1.62) we get,

R V R V
S Va W S V1 − V2 W
S Vb W S V1 W
S V W S−V + V W
S cW = S 1 3W
S Vd W S V2 W
SV W S V − V W
S eW S 2 3
W
S Vf W S V3 W ..... (1.63)
T X T X
From equation (1.63) we can write,
Ve = V2 − V3 4
Va = V1 − V2 ; Vd = V2
Vb = V1 ;
Vc = − V1 + V3 ; Vf = V3 ..... (1.64)
Now equation (1.61) for this network can be written as shown below:
R V
S Ia W
R V S Ib W
S 1 1 − 1 0 0 0 W S Ic W
QI B = S − 1 0 0 1 1 0 W S W = 0
S 0 0 1 0 − 1 1 W S Id W
T X SS Ie WW
S If W ..... (1.65)
T X
R V
S Ia + I b − Ic W
S − Ia + Id + Ie W = 0
S I − I + I W
T
c e f
X ..... (1.66)
− Ia + Id + Ie = 0 4
Ia + I b − Ic = 0
Ic − Ie + If = 0 ..... (1.67)
From Ohm’s law, the branch current can be expressed as a product of voltage and conductance
(or admittance) of the branch.
Therefore, the branch currents can be expressed as,
Ia = Va Ga Id = Vd Gd
Ie = Ve Ge 4
;
I b = Vb G b ;
Ic = Vc Gc ; If = Vf Gf ..... (1.68)
where, G a, Gb, Gc, Gd, G e and G f are conductances of the branches a, b, c, d, e

and f respectively.
When a branch has a current source in parallel with conductance then branch current can be
expressed as,
I = VG ± I s
where, I s is the source current.
Note : If the circuit has a voltage source in a branch then it has to be converted into an
equivalent current source. The solution using a cut-set matrix for the circuits with voltage sources
that cannot be converted into current sources is beyond the scope of this book.
Using equation (1.68), equation (1.67) can be written as shown below.
− Va Ga + Vd G d + Ve Ge = 0 4
Va Ga + Vb G b − Vc Gc = 0
..... (1.69)
Vc Gc − Ve Ge + Vf Gf = 0
Using equation (1.64), equation (1.69) can be written as shown below.
_
_ V1 − V2 i Ga + V1 G b − _ − V1 + V3 i Gc = 0bb
− _ V1 − V2 i Ga + V2 Gd + _ V2 − V3 i Ge = 0` ..... (1.70)
_ − V1 + V3 i Gc − _ V2 − V3 i Ge + V3 Gf = 0b
a
On rearranging equation (1.70) we get,
_
_ Ga + G b + Gc i V1 − Ga V2 − Gc V3 = 0b b
− Ga V1 + _ Ga + G d + G e i V2 − G e V3 = 0`
− Gc V1 − G e V2 + _ Gc + G e + G f i V3 = 0b ..... (1.71)
a
Equations (1.71) are called equilibrium equations based on cut-set schedule. The equilibrium
equations can be solved to get a unique solution for node voltages. Using equation (1.64), the
branch voltages can be calculated from the knowledge of node voltages. Using Ohm’s law, the
branch currents can be calculated from the knowledge of branch voltages and branch conductances
(or admittances).
Equation (1.71) can be expressed in the matrix form as shown below.
R V R V R V
S Ga + G b + Gc − Ga − Gc W S V1 W S 0 W
S − Ga Ga + Gd + Ge − Ge W S V2 W = S 0 W
S − Gc − Ge Gc + Ge + Gf W S V3 W S 0 W ..... (1.72)
T X T X T X
In general, we can write,
GVN = I ..... (1.73)
where, I is current source matrix.
The matrix G formed by branch conductances in equation (1.73) is also called the parameter
matrix. In case of a purely resistive network, the elements of the matrix will be conductances and
so it is also called the conductance matrix. In case of a reactive network, the elements of the matrix
will be admittances and so it is also called the admittance matrix.
Alternate Method for Formation of Equilibrium Equations

Consider a circuit with B branches and N nodes. Let I a, Ib, Ic, I d ... be branch currents and Va, Vb, Vc, Vd ... be
branch voltages. Consider branch-a with a current source as shown in Fig. 1.56.
Now by KCL, we can write, +

Ia
GaVa
G aV a = I sa + Ia ..... (1.74)
Va
Isa Ga
Similarly, for branches b, c, d ... we can write,
G b Vb = Isb + I b
Gc Vc = Isc + Ic 4
_
..... (1.75)
Gd Vd = Isd + Id Fig. 1.56.
Note : A current source is positive if the current leaving point is connected to the positive end of the branch.
where, Ga , Gb, Gc, Gd ... = Conductances of branches a, b, c, d ... respectively.
I sa , I sb , I sc , I sd ... = Current sources in the branches a, b, c, d ... respectively.
Equations (1.74) and (1.75) can be arranged in the matrix form as shown below. Here if branch-j does not
have a current source then I sj will be zero.
RG 0 0 0 gV RV V R V R V
S a W S a W S Isa W S Ia W
S0 0 Gc 0 gW S Vc W = S Isc W + S Ic W ..... (1.76)
S W S W S W S W
S0 0 0 Gd gW S Vd W SIsd W S Id W
Sh h h h W S h W S h W Sh W
T X T X T X T X
RG 0 0 0 gV RV V R V RI V
S a W S aW S Isa W S aW
Let, G B = S0 0 Gc 0 g W ; VB = S Vc W ; ISB = S Isc W ; I B = S Ic W
S W S W S W S W
S0 0 0 Gd gW S Vd W SIsd W SId W
Sh h h h W Sh W Sh W Sh W
T X T X T X T X
Here, GB = Branch conductance matrix of order B × B
I SB = Branch source current matrix of order B × 1

Now, equation (1.76) can be written as,
GBVB = I SB + I B ..... (1.77)
On substituting for VB from equation (1.60), equation (1.77) can be written as,
GBQ T V N = ISB + IB ..... (1.78)
On premultiplying equation (1.78) by cut-set matrix Q we get,
Q GB Q T VN = Q I SB + Q I B ..... (1.79)
From equation (1.57), we know that Q I B = 0
∴ [Q GB Q T ] VN = QI SB ..... (1.80)
In equation (1.80) the matrix triple product Q G B Q T will be in the form of conductance matrix G and QISB
will be in the form of current source matrix I.
i.e., QG B QT = G and QI SB = I
Therefore, equation (1.80) will be the same as equation (1.73). Hence, equation (1.80) will give the
equilibrium equation for the networks excited by current sources.
For the graph shown in Fig. 1.54(b) using equation (1.59) equation, (1.80) can be written as shown below:
Note : Here we have considered a network without any current source.

RG V R V
S a 0 0 0 0 0W S 1 −1 0W
S 0 Gb 0 0 0 0 W S 1 0 0W
1 1 −1 0 0 0
>− 1 0 0 1 1 0 H
V1
> V2 H
S 0 0 G 0 0 0W S− 1 0 1 W
S c
W S W
S 0 0 0 Gd 0 0 W S 0 1 0W
0 0 1 0 − 1 1 ^3 # 6h S V3 ^3 # 1h
0 0 0 0 Ge 0 W S 0 1 −1W
SS WW SS WW
0 0 0 0 0 G f ^6 # 6 h 0 0 1 ^6 # 3 h
T X T X
R V
S0 W
S0 W
= >− 1 0 0 1 1 0 H
1 1 −1 0 0 0 S0 W
S W
S0 W
0 0 1 0 − 1 1 ^3 # 6h S W
0
SS WW
R V 0
T X ^6 # 1 h
S 1 −1 0W
S 1 0 0W
>− Ga 0 0 Gd Ge 0 H SS 0 1 0 WW >V2 H = >0 H

Ga G b − Gc 0 0 0 S V1 0
−1 0 1W
0 0 Gc 0 − Ge Gf S V3 0
0 1 −1W
SS WW
0 0 1
T X
− Ge H > V2 H = >0 H
Ga + G b + Gc − Ga − Gc V1 0
> − Ga Ga + Gd + Ge ..... (1.81)
− Gc − Ge Gc + Ge + Gf V3 0
It is observed that equation (1.81) is the same as equation (1.72).

EXAMPLE 1.66
Determine the branch currents and voltages of the circuit shown
4 2 4A
in Fig. 1 using cut-set schedule.
2
5
10 A 1 5
SOLUTION
The current sources in the given circuit are replaced by open Fig. 1.
circuits as shown in Fig. 2. The network of Fig. 2 is redrawn as shown
in Fig. 3.
4 2 OC 4 2
2 2 2 3
5 5
OC 1 5 1 5
4
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
The network of Fig. 3 has four nodes and six branches. The nodes are marked with numerals 1, 2, 3
and 4. The graph of the network is constructed by representing the nodes as small circles and the elements
connected between the nodes by lines as shown in Fig. 4.
1 1 1
Twig-a
c c
b b
a d a 3 a d
2 3 2 2 3
Twig-e
Twig-f
e e e
f f f
4 4 4
Fig. 4 : Graph. Fig. 5 : Tree. Fig. 6 : Oriented graph.
The lines connecting the nodes are branches. Let us name the branches as a, b, c, d, e and f as shown
in Fig. 4.
Here, branches, B = 6 and nodes, N = 4
Therefore, Links, L = B − N + 1 = 6 − 4 + 1 = 3
Since there are three links, we can form a tree by removing branches b, c and d as shown in Fig. 5.
Now the branches b, c and d are links and the branches a, e and f are twigs.
The tree of the graph has three twigs and so we can form three cut-sets. Let us choose node-4 as the
reference and associate remaining three nodes with twigs as shown below.
Twig-a is associated with node-1.
Twig-e is associated with node-2.
Let us choose the orientation for twigs as away from the node associated with them and arbitrary
orientation for the links as shown in Figs. 5 and 6.
Here in the tree of the graph, each node has only one twig connected to it. Hence, cut-sets can be
formed by cutting the branches connected to the nodes in the graph as shown in Fig. 7.
V1 1
1 c
a c Cut-set-1 a
Twig-a b
b
Cut-set-3 Cut-set-1: [a, b, c]
b c
d d
2 3 V2 b c V3
e d
Cut-set-2
d 3
f 2
e Twig-f
Twig-e f
Cut-set-2: [b, d, e] Cut-set-3: [c, d, f]
4
Fig. 7 : Cut-sets of the graph shown in Fig. 6.
Let the voltages of the nodes 1, 2 and 3 be V1, V2 and V3 , respectively, with respect to reference node.
A table is formed as shown below with node voltages listed in the rows and branches listed in the columns.
The entries of the table are filled by considering the association of the branches with cut-set.
TABLE : Cut-set schedule
Node Branches
voltages
a b c d e f
V1
V2
V3
By referring to the cut-sets shown in Fig. 7, the inclusion or exclusion of the branches in cut-sets and
their orientations are listed here for convenience.
Cut-set-1 : (i) Branches d, e and f are not included.
(ii) Branches a and b are included with orientation same as that of twig in the cut-set-1
(twig-a).
(iii) Branch-c is included with orientation opposite to that of twig in the cut-set-1 (twig-a).
Cut-set-2 : (i) Branches a, c and f are not included.
(ii) Branches d and e are included with orientation same as that of twig in the cut-set-2
(twig-e).
(iii) Branch-b is included with orientation opposite to that of twig in the cut-set-2 (twig-e).
Cut-set-3 : (i) Branches a, b and e are not included.
(ii) Branches c and f are included with orientation same as that of twig in the cut-set-3 (twig-f).
(iii) Branch-d is included with orientation opposite to that of twig in the cut-set-3 (twig-f).
The above informations are used to fill the entries of the table. If a branch is not included in the
cut-set then enter 0 at the intersection of concerned row and column. If a branch is included and orientation is
same as that of twig in the cut-set then enter +1 at the intersection of concerned row and column. If a branch is
included and orientation is opposite to that of twig in the cut-set then enter -1 at the intersection of concerned
row and column. The table with filled entries is shown below.
TABLE : Cut-set schedule
Node Branches
voltages
a b c d e f
V1 C1 C1 E1 0 0 0
V2 0 E1 0 C1 C1 0
V3 0 0 C1 E1 0 C1
All the rows and columns of the above table constitute the cut-set matrix Q. The cut-set matrix is shown
in equation (1).
R V
S1 1 − 1 0 0 0 W
Cut - set matrix, Q = S 0 − 1 0 1 1 0 W
S W
S0 0 1 − 1 0 1 W .....(1)
T X
The given circuit has six branches. For each branch we can assign a voltage and current. Let Va , Vb,
Vc, Vd, Ve and Vf be branch voltages and Ia, Ib, Ic, Id, Ie and If be branch currents. Also the circuit has three
node voltages V1, V2 and V3. The voltage and current matrices of the circuit are given below:
R V R V
S Va W S Ia W
S Vb W R V S Ib W
S W S V1 W S W
S Vc W S Ic W
VB = S W ; VN = S V2 W ; IB = S W
S Vd W S W S Id W
S V3 W
S Ve W T X S Ie W
S W S W
S Vf W S If W
T X T X
The relation between the branch and node voltages are given by the following matrix equation:
T
VB = Q VN ..... (2)
R V
S Va W
S Vb W R
S W S 1 1 − 1 0 0 0 VWT R V
S V1 W
S Vc W
` S W = S0 − 1 0 1 1 0 W S V2 W
S Vd W SS 0 0 1 − 1 0 1 WW S W
S V3 W
S Ve W T X T X
S W
S Vf W
T X
R V R V
S Va W S 1 0 0 W
S Vb W S 1 − 1 0 W R V
S W S W V1
S Vc W S − 1 0 1 W SS WW
S W= S W V2
S Vd W S 0 1 − 1 W SS V WW ..... (3)
S Ve W S 0 1 0 W T 3 X
S W S W
S Vf W S 0 0 1 W
T X T X
On multiplying equation (3) we get,
R V R V
S Va W S V1 W
S Vb W S V1 − V2 W
S W S W
S Vc W S − V1 + V3 W
S W= S W
S Vd W S V2 − V3 W
S Ve W S V2 W
S W S W
S Vf W S V3 W ..... (4)
T X T X
From equation (4) we can write,
_
Va = V1 ; Vd = V2 − V3 b
b
Vb = V1 − V2 ; Ve = V2 `
Vc = − V1 + V3 ; Vf = V3 b ..... (5)
a
On applying KCL to cut-sets we get,
QIB = 0 ..... (6)

R V
S Ia W
R V SS Ib WW
S 1 1 − 1 0 0 0 W SI W
` S0 − 1 0 1 1 0 W S W = 0
c
S W S Id W
S0 0 1 − 1 0 1 W
T X S Ie W
S W
S If W .....(7)
T X
R V
S I a + Ib − I c W
S − Ib + I d + I e W = 0
S W
S Ic − Id + I f W .....(8)
T X
_
I a + Ib − I c = 0 b
b
− Ib + I d + I e = 0 ` .....(9)
Ic − Id + I f = 0 b
a
When the branches do not have a parallel current source, by Ohm’s law, the branch current can be
expressed as a product of branch voltage and conductance of the branch. Therefore, the branch currents I a,
Ib, Id and If can be expressed as,
_
Ia = Va # 1 = 0.5Va b
2 b
Ib = Vb # 1 = 0.25Vb b b
4
`
Id = Vd # 1 = 0.2Vd b
5 b
I f = Vf # 1 = 0.2Vf b b
5 .....(10)
a
The branches c and e with current source are shown in Fig. 8.
2
1 _
+
Ie
Ve
a Ve
I
Ve 10 A 1 4A 2 Vc
Vc
a 0.5 Vc
2
4 Ie
_ +
3
Fig. 8.
With reference to Fig. 8 by KCL we can write,
4
Ie = Ve − 10
Ic = 0.5Vc + 4 .....(11)
Note : Here the polarity of branch voltages should be assigned such that the branch current enters
at the positive end of the branch.
Using equations (10) and (11), equation (9) can be written as shown below:
_
0.5Va + 0.25Vb − _ 0.5Vc + 4 i = 0 b
b
− 0.25Vb + 0.2Vd + Ve − 10 = 0 `
0.5Vc + 4 − 0.2Vd + 0.2Vf = 0 b .....(12)
a
Using equation (5), equation (12) can be written as shown below:
_
0.5V1 + 0.25 _ V1 − V2 i − 0.5 _ − V1 + V3 i − 4 = 0 b
b
− 0.25 _ V1 − V2 i + 0.2 _ V2 − V3 i + V2 − 10 = 0 `
0.5 _ − V1 + V3 i + 4 − 0.2 _ V2 − V3 i + 0.2V3 = 0 b ..... (13)
a
Equation (13) can be rearranged and expressed as shown below:
1.25 V1 − 0.25V2 − 0.5V3 = 4 ..... (14)
−0.25 V1 + 1.45V2 − 0.2V3 = 10 ..... (15)
−0.5V1 − 0.2V2 + 0.9V3 = −4 ..... (16)
Equation (14) × (−0.2) ⇒ −0.25 V1 + 0.05V2 + 0.1V3 = −0.8
Equation (15) × 0.5 ⇒ −0.125 V1 + 0.725V2 − 0.1V3 = 5
On adding −0.375 V1 + 0.775V2 = 4.2 ..... (17)
Equation (14) × 0.9 ⇒ 1.125 V1 − 0.225V2 − 0.45V3 = 3.6

Equation (16) × 0.5 ⇒ −0.25V1 − 0.1V2 + 0.45 V3 = −2
On adding 0.875 V1 − 0.325V2 = 1.6

..... (18)
Equation (17) × 0.325 ⇒ −0.121875 V1 + 0.251875V2 = 1.365
Equation (18) × 0.775 ⇒ 0.678125 V1 − 0.251875 V2 = 1.24
On adding 0.55625 V1 = 2.605
` V1 = 2.605 = 4.6831V
0.55625
4.2 + 0.375V1
V2 =
0.775
= 4.2 + 0.375 # 4.6831 = 7.6854 V

0.775
− 4 + 0.5V1 + 0.2V2
V3 =
0.9
= − 4 + 0.5 # 4.6831 + 0.2 # 7.6854 = − 0.1349 V

0.9
Therefore, the node voltages are,
V1 = 4.6831 V
V2 = 7.6854 V
V3 = −0.1349 V
From equation (5), the branch voltages are calculated as shown below:
Va = V1 = 4.6831 V
Vb = V1 − V2 = 4.6831 − 7.6854 = −3.0023 V
Vc = −V1 + V3 = −4.6831 + (−0.1349) = −4.818 V
Vd = V2 − V3 = 7.6854 − (−0.1349) = 7.8203 V
Ve = V2 = 7.6854 V
Vf = V3 = − 0.1349 V
From equations (10) and (11), the branch currents can be estimated as shown below:
I a = 0.5 Va = 0.5 × 4.6831 = 2.3416 A

I b = 0.25 Vb = 0.25 × (−3.0023) = −0.7506 A
Ic = 0.5 Vc + 4 = 0.5 × (−4.818) + 4 = 1.591 A
I d = 0.2 Vd = 0.2 × 7.8203 = 1.5641 A

1
I e = Ve − 10 = 7.6854 − 10 = −2.3146 A _
Ia Ib
+
If = 0.2 Vf = 0.2 × (−0.1349) = −0.027 A 4 Vc 2 4A
Vb
+ _ +
The circuit with assumed direction of branch current and Id 5 Ic
2 Va 2
+ _ 3
corresponding polarity of branch voltages is shown in Fig. 9. The _ Ie If
Vd
+ +
negative values of currents and voltages indicate that the actual direction Vf 5
10 A 1 Ve
of current and polarity of voltages are opposite to that of assumed _
_
direction and polarity. The actual direction of currents and polarity of
4
voltages are shown in Fig. 10. Fig. 9.
1
I a = 2.3416 A ; Va = 4.6831 V
Ia Ib _ +
Ib = 0.7506 A ; Vb = 3.0023 V 4 Vc 2 4A
Vb

+ +
Ic = 1.591 A ; Vc = 4.818 V Ia 5 Ic
2 Va 2
+ _ 3
_ Ie I
Id = 1.5641 A ; Vd = 7.8203 V Va _f
+
Vf 5
Ie = 2.3146 A ; Ve = 7.6854 V 10 A 1 Ve
+
_
I f = 0.027 A ; Vf = 0.1349 V Fig. 10.
4

Let Ga, Gb, Gc, Gd, Ge and Gf be the conductances of the branches a, b, c, d, e and f , respectively. With reference to
Fig. 3 we can write,
Ga = 1 = 0.5 M ; G b = 1 = 0.25 M ; Gc = 1 = 0.5 M

2 4 2
G d = 1 = 0.2 M ; G e = 1 = 1 M ; G f = 1 = 0.2 M
5 1 5
R V R V
S Ga 0 0 0 0 0 W S 0.5 0 0 0 0 0W
S 0 G b 0 0 0 0 W S 0 0.25 0 0 0 0 W
S W S W
S 0 0 Gc 0 0 0 W S 0 0 0.5 0 0 0 W
` Branch conductance matrix, G B = S W = S
0 0 0 Gd 0 0 0 0 0 0.2 0 0 W
S W S W
S 0 0 0 0 Ge 0 W S 0 0 0 0 1 0W
SS 0 0 0 0 0 G WW SS 0 0 0 0 0 0.2 WW
f
T X T X
The branches c and e have current sources 4 A and 10 A, respectively. The other branches a, b, d and f do not
have current sources.
R V R V
S Isa W S 0 W
S Isb W S 0 W
S W S W
S Isc W S − 4 W
` Current source matrix, IS = S W = S W
I 0
S sd W S W
S Ise W S 10 W
SS I WW SS 0 WW
sf
T X T X
The cut-set matrix, Q is given by equation (1). Now the equilibrium equations are given by,
[Q G B QT ] VN = QIS
R V R V R V
S 0.5 0 0 0 0 0W S 1 0 0W S 0W
R V S 0 0.25 0 0 0 0 W S 1 − 1 0W R V R V S 0W
S1 1 −1 0 0 0 W S WS W S V1 W S 1 1 − 1 0 0 0 W S W
S0 −1 0 1 1 0 W S 0 0 0.5 0 0 0 W S − 1 0 1W S V2 W = S 0 − 1 0 1 1 0 W S−4 W
S WS 0 0 0 0.2 0 0 W S 0 1 −1 W S W S W S 0W
S0 0 1 −1 0 1 W S WS W S V3 W S 0 0 1 − 1 0 1 W S W
T X S 0 0 0 0 1 0W S 0 1 0W T X T X S 10 W
SS 0 0 0 0 0 0.2 WW SS 0 0 1 WW SS 0 WW
T X T X T X
R V
S 1 0 0W
R V S 1 −1 0 W R V R V
S 0.5 0.25 − 0.5 0 0 0W S W S V1 W S 4W
S 0 − 0.25 S−1 0 1 W S W S 10 W
0 0.2 1 0W S V =
S W 0 1 −1 W S 2 W S W
S 0 0 0.5 − 0.2 0 0.2 W S W S V3 W S−4 W
T X S 0 1 0W T X T X
SS 0 0 1 WW
T X
R V R V R V
S 1 .25 − 0 .25 − 0 .5 W S 1W S W
V 4
S − 0.25 1.45 − 0.2 W S V2 W = S 10 W
S WS W S W
S − 0.5 − 0.2 0.9 W S V3 W S − 4 W
T X T X T X
On multiplying the above matrix equation we get,
1.25 V1 − 0.25V2 − 0.5V3 = 4
−0.25 V1 + 1.45V2 − 0.2V3 = 10
−0.5V1 − 0.2V2 + 0.9V3 = −4

The above three equations are same as equations (14), (15) and (16).
1.10 Tie-Set
A tie-set is a set of branches that forms a closed path in a graph such that the closed path
contains one link or chord and the remainder are tree branches. The closed path is also known as
a loop.
A tree of a graph does not have any closed path. On adding a link to the tree, a closed path
is created which is also called a loop. Therefore, on adding each link we get a loop and so the
number of loops in a graph is equal to the number of links. Also the number of tie-sets is equal to the
number of links. The tie-set with one of the branches as a link and remaining branches as twigs is
also called a fundamental circuit or f-circuit.
As an example, the possible tie-sets of a graph are shown in Fig. 1.57. The graph shown in
Fig. 1.57(a) has six branches (B = 6) and four nodes (N = 4).
Therefore, links L = B − N + 1 = 6 − 4 + 1 = 3.
Since the number of links are three, we can remove three branches to form a tree. Let us
remove the branches a, c and f to form a tree as shown in Fig. 1.57(b). Now the branches a, c and f
are links and the branches b, d and e are twigs. The graph has three links and so we can form three
tie-sets by involving one link in each tie-set as shown in Fig. 1.57(c).
Link Link
1 1 1 1
Twig
a c a c
b b b b
Twig
2 4
2 4 2 4
d 3 e d 3 e d 3 3 e
Link : [a, c, f] Tie-set-1 : [a, b, d] Tie-set-2 : [b, c, e]
Twig : [b, f, e] 4
f 2 d 3 e
Fig. a : Graph. Fig. b : Tree of the graph
Link
in Fig. a. f
Tie-set-3 : [d, e, f]
Fig. c : Tie-set of the graph in Fig. a.
Fig. 1.57 : A graph and its tie-sets.
1.10.1 Tie-Set Matrix and Tie-Set Schedule

A graph has B number of branches and each branch is a series path and so a current
can be attached to each branch called branch current. Therefore, in a graph there will be B
number of current variables called branch currents. Here all the branch currents are not
independent currents. It is observed that the number of independent currents in a graph is equal
to the number of links. Therefore, loop currents are independent currents and branch currents
depend on loop currents. (Ofcourse some branch currents are the same as loop currents).
The relation between loop currents and branch currents can be summarised in the
form of a matrix called tie-set matrix. The procedure for constructing a tie-set matrix is
given below.
1. Mark the nodes of the graph by numerals 1, 2, 3, etc., and the branches of the graph by
lower case letters a, b, c, etc.
2. To each branch of the graph, assign a current and name the current as I a, Ib, Ic, Id, etc.
3. Identify the links and remove the links to form a tree.
4. Draw the tie-sets (or fundamental circuits or loops) of the graph.
5. Assign a current to each fundamental circuit (or loop) such that the direction (or
orientation) of loop current is the same as that of branch current corresponding to the
link in that loop. The loop currents are denoted as I1, I2, I3, etc.
6. Prepare a table as shown ahead. In the table, loop currents are listed in rows and
branches are listed in columns. Each tie-set of the graph can be used to fill the entries
of each row of the table.
Table 1.8 : Tie-set Schedule
Loop Branches
currents a b c d ...
I1 ...
I2
I3
...
7. At the intersection of a row and column, the relation between the loop and branch
current is represented as 0, +1 or −1, as explained below.
8. Consider a branch-k and loop current I1
(i) If the loop current I1 does not flow through branch-k then enter 0 at the
intersection of column-k and row-1.
(ii) If the loop current I 1 flow through branch-k in the direction of Ik then enter +1
at the intersection of column-k and row-1.
(iii) If the loop current I1 flows through branch-k in the opposite direction of I k then
enter –1 at the intersection of column-k and row-1.
All the rows and columns of the table constitute the tie-set matrix. The tie-set matrix is
denoted by M. The formation of tie-set matrix is explained here with an example.
a
Ia
1 1 1
2 2 2
Ib Ic
4 b 4 c b 4 c
Twig
Twig
Id Ie e If e
d f
3 3 3
Link : [a, d, f]
Fig. a : Graph. Fig. b : Oriented graph. Twing : [b, c, e]
Ia
a
Link Fig. c : Tree of the graph in Fig. a.
1 1
I1 2 2
b c Ib Ic
Ib Ic b c
4 4 4
Tie-set-1 : [a, b, c] I2 I3
Id Ie e Ie e
If
d f
Link
3 3
Tie-set -3 : [c,e,f]
Tie-set-2 : [b, d, e]
Fig. d : Tie-sets of the graph in Fig. b.
Fig. 1.58 : A graph and their tie-sets.
Consider the graph shown in Fig. 1.58(a). The graph consists of six branches and so we can
choose six branch currents Ia , Ib, Ic, Id, Ie and If as shown in Fig. 1.58(b). The directions of branch
currents are chosen arbitrarily.
Let us form a tree of the graph by removing the branches a, d and f. Now the branches a, d and
f are links and the branches b, c and e are twigs. The tie-sets or f-circuits of the graph are shown in
Fig. 1.58(d). Let us choose loop currents I 1, I2 and I3 such that their directions are the same as that
of branch currents corresponding to the link in the tie-sets.
A table is formed as shown below with loop currents listed in the rows and branches listed
in the columns.
Loop Branches
currents a c d e
b f
I1
I2
I3
Consider tie-set-1, the branches d, e and f are not included in tie-set-1 and so the loop current
I1 will not flow through these branches. Hence enter 0 at the intersection of row-1 and columns
d, e and f.
The loop current in tie-set-1 is I1. The current I1 flows through branch-a in the same
direction as that of Ia. Hence, enter +1 at the intersection of row-1 and column-a. The current I1
flows through branches b and c in a direction opposite to that of branch currents and so enter
–1 at the intersection of row-1 and columns b and c. The entries of row-1 are shown below.
a b c d e f
I1 +1 E1 E1 H 0 0
Similarly, the other rows of the tie-set matrix are formed by considering tie-sets one by one.
The table with filled entries for the graph of Fig. 1.58(b) is given ahead. All rows and columns of
the table constitute the tie-set matrix M. The tie-set matrix of the graph in Fig. 1.58(b) is shown in
equation (1.82).
Loop Branches
currents a c d e
b f
I1 +1 E1 E1 0 0 0
I2 0 +1 0 +1 +1 0
I3 0 0 +1 0 E1 +1
R V
S1 − 1 − 1 0 0 0W
Tie - Set matrix, M = S 0 1 0 1 1 0W
S0 0 1 0 − 1 ..... (1.82)
1W
T X
1.10.2 Mesh Analysis Using Tie-Sets
In general, a graph with B branches and N nodes will have (B − N + 1) links and so the
order of tie-set matrix will be (B − N + 1) × B.
Let, I B = Branch current column matrix of order B × 1
I L = Loop current column matrix of order (B − N + 1) × 1
MT = Transpose of tie-set matrix (The order of transpose matrix is B × (Β − Ν + 1)).
Now, the relation between branch currents and loop currents can be expressed as a matrix
equation of the form shown in equation (1.83).
I B = MT I L ..... (1.83)
R V R V
S Ia W S I1 W
SI W S I2 W
Here, I B = S bW and IL = S W
S Ic W S h W
Sh W S I (B - N + 1) W
T X (B # 1) T X [(B - N + 1) # 1]
Let, VB = Branch voltage column matrix of order (B × 1).
Now the product of tie-set matrix and branch voltage matrix will give the KVL equations of
the fundamental circuits or tie-sets. The KVL equation states that the sum of voltages in a closed
path is zero. Hence, the product of tie-set matrix and branch voltage matrix will be a null matrix.
∴ MVB = 0 ..... (1.84)

R V
S Va W
SV W
Here, VB = S b W
S Vc W
Sh W
T X (B # 1)
Equations (1.83) and (1.84) can be used to form the equilibrium equations of a network
(or circuit). The solution of equilibrium equations obtained from tie-set matrix will give the loop
currents. Using equation (1.83), the branch currents can be estimated from the knowledge of loop
currents. From the knowledge of branch currents and resistances (or impedances), the branch
voltages can be computed.
The formation of equilibrium equations for the graph shown in Fig. 1.58(b) is explained
here. The graph shown in Fig. 1.58(b) has four nodes and six branches.
∴ N = 4 and B = 6
∴ Number of links = B − N + 1 = 6 − 4 + 1 = 3
The network of the graph will have six branch currents Ia, Ib, Ic, Id, Ie and If and three loop
currents I1, I2 and I3. Also the network will have six branch voltages Va, Vb, Vc, Vd, Ve and Vf .
The current and voltage matrices of the network are given below:
R V R V
S Ia W S Va W
S Ib W R V S Vb W
SI W S I1 W SV W
IB = S W VB = S W
c c
; I L = S I2 W ;
S Id W SI W S Vd W
SI W T X
3 SV W
S eW S eW
S If W S Vf W
T X T X
The tie-set matrix M of the network is given by equation (1.82). Now equation (1.83) for
this network can be written as shown below:
IB = MT IL
RI V
S aW
SI b W
1 −1 −1 0 0 0 T
S W = >0 1 0 1 1 0 H
I1
> 2H
SI W
c
I
SId W
S Ie W 0 0 1 0 −1 1 I3
SS WW
If
T X
R V R V
S Ia W S 1 0 0W
S Ib W S−1 1 0W R V
SI W S W S I1 W
S cW = S−1 0 1W
S I2 W
S Id W S 0 1 0W SI W ..... (1.85)
SI W S 0 1 − 1 WW
3
T X(3 # 1)
S eW S
S If W S 0 0 1 W(6
T X(6 # 1)
T X # 3)
On multiplying the matrices on the right hand side of equation (1.85) we get,
R V R V
S Ia W S I1 W
S Ib W S − I1 + I2 W
SI W S W
S c W = S − I1 + I3 W
S Id W S I2 W ..... (1.86)
SI W S I −I W
S We
S 2 3
W
S If W S I3 W
T X T X
I e = I2 − I3 4
Ia = I1 ; I d = I2
I b = − I1 + I2 ; ..... (1.87)
Ic = − I1 + I3 ; I f = I3
Now the equation (1.84) for this network can be written as shown below.
R V
S Va W
R V S Vb W
S 1 − 1 − 1 0 0 0 W S Vc W
MVB = S 0 1 0 1 1 0 W S W = 0
S 0 0 1 0 − 1 1 W S Vd W ..... (1.88)
T X SS Ve WW
S Vf W
T X
R V
S Va − Vb − Vc W
S Vb + Vd + Ve W = 0 ..... (1.89)
SV − V + V W
c e f
T X
4
Va − Vb − Vc = 0
Vb + Vd + Ve = 0 ..... (1.90)
Vc − Ve + Vf = 0
From Ohm’s law the branch voltage can be expressed as a product of current and resistance
(or impedance) of the branch.
Therefore the branch voltages can be expressed as,
Va = Ia Ra Vd = I d Rd
4
;
Vb = I b R b ; Ve = Ie Re
Vc = Ic Rc ; Vf = I f R f ..... (1.91)
where, R a , R b , R c , R d , R e and R f are resistances of the branches a, b, c, d, e and f
respectively.
When a branch has voltage source in series with resistance, the branch voltage can be
expressed as,
V = IR ± E
where, E is the emf of the source in the branch.
Note : If the circuit has a current source in a branch then it has to be converted into an
equivalent voltage source. The solution using tie-set matrix for circuits with current source that
cannot be converted into voltage source is beyond the scope of this book.
Using equation (1.91), equation (1.90) can be written as shown below:
4
Ia Ra − I b R b − Ic Rc = 0
I b R b − Id Rd + Ie Re = 0
Ic Rc − I e R e + I f R f = 0 ..... (1.92)
Using equation (1.87), equation (1.92) can be written as shown below:
_
I1 Ra − _ − I1 + I 2 i R b − _ − I1 + I3 i Rc = 0 bb
_ − I1 + I 2 i R b + I 2 Rd + _ I 2 − I3 i Re = 0 ` ..... (1.93)
_ − I1 + I3 i Rc − _ I 2 − I3 i Re + _ I3 i Rf = 0 b
a
On rearranging equation (1.93) we get,
_
_ Ra + R b + Rc i I1 − R b I2 − Rc I3 = 0 b b
− R b I1 + _ R b + R d + R e i I2 − R e I3 = 0 ` ..... (1.94)
− Rc I1 − R e I2 + _ Rc + R e + R f i I3 = 0 b
a
Equations (1.94) are called equilibrium equations based on the tie-set schedule.
The equilibrium equations can be solved to get a unique solution for loop currents. Using
equation (1.88), the branch currents can be calculated from the knowledge of loop currents. Then
using Ohm’s law, the branch voltages can be calculated from the knowledge of branch currents
and branch resistances (or impedances).
Equation (1.94) can be expressed in the matrix form as shown below:
R V R V R V
S Ra + R b + Rc − Rb − Rc W S I1 W S0 W
S − R b R b + Rd + Re − R e W S I2 W = S 0 W ..... (1.95)
S − Rc − R e R c + R e + R f W S I3 W S0 W
T X T X T X
In general, we can write,
R IL = E ..... (1.96)
where, E is voltage source matrix.
The matrix R formed by branch resistances in equation (1.95) is called the parameter
matrix. In case of a purely resistive network, the elements of the parameter matrix are resistances
and so it is also called a resistance matrix. In case of a reactive network, the elements of the
parameter matrix are impedances and so it is also called an impedance matrix.
Consider a circuit with B branches and N nodes. Let I a , I b , I c , I d ... be branch currents and Va , Vb, V c ,
Vd ... be branch voltages. Consider branch-a with a voltage source as shown in Fig. 1.59.
Now by KVL, we can write,

_
_
IaRa Ra
R a Ia = Ea + Va ..... (1.97)
+ Va
Similarly, for branches b, c, d ... we can write, +
Ea E
+
R b I b = E b + Vb Ia
Rc Ic = Ec + Vc 4 ..... (1.98)
Rd Id = Ed + Vd Fig. 1.59.
where, Ra , Rb, Rc, Rd ... = Resistances of branches a, b, c, d ... respectively.
Ea , Eb, Ec, Ed ... = Voltage sources in the branches a, b, c, d ... respectively.
Note : The voltage source is positive if the assumed branch current leaves from the positive end of
the source.
Equations (1.97) and (1.98) can be arranged in the matrix form as shown below. Here, if branch-j does not
have a voltage source then Ej will be zero.
RR 0 0 0 gV RI V RE V R V
S a W S aW S aW S Va W
S0 Rb 0 0 gW SI b W SE b W S Vb W
S0 0 Rc 0 gW S Ic W = S Ec W + S Vc W ..... (1.99)
S W S W S W S W
S0 0 0 Rd gW S Id W S Ed W S Vd W
T X T X T X T X
RR 0 0 0 gV RI V RE V RV V
S a W S aW S aW S aW
S0 Rb 0 0 gW SI b W SE b W S Vb W
Let, R B = S0 0 Rc 0 g W ; I B = S Ic W ; E B = S Ec W ; VB = S Vc W
S W S W S W S W
S0 0 0 Rd gW S Id W S Ed W S Vd W
T X T X T X T X
Here, RB = Branch resistance matrix of order B × B.
EB = Branch source voltage matrix of order B × 1.
Now, equation (1.99) can be written as,
R B I B = EB + V B ..... (1.100)
On substituting for IB from equation (1.83) in equation (1.100) we get,
R BM T I L = EB + VB ..... (1.101)
On premultiplying equation (1.101) by tie-set matrix M we get,
MR B MT I L = MEB + MVB ..... (1.102)
From equation (1.94) we know that MVB = 0,
∴ [MRBMT ]IL = [MEB] ..... (1.103)
In equation (1.103), the matrix triple product MR B MT will be in the form of resistance matrix R and MEB
will be in the form of voltage source matrix E.
Hence, MR B MT = R and MEB = E
Therefore, equation (1.103) will be the same as equation (1.96). Hence, equation (1.103) will give the
equilibrium equations for the networks excited by voltage sources.
For the graph shown in Fig. 10.10(b), using equation (1.82), equation (1.103) can be written as shown
below:
Note : Here we have considered a network without any voltage source.
RR 0 0 0 0 0 WV R V
S a S 1 0 0W
S0 Rb 0 0 0 0W S− 1 1 0W
1 −1 −1
>0 0H
0 0 0 I1
> I2 H
S0 0 Rc 0 0 0W S− 1 0 1 WW
1 0 1 1 S W S
S0 0 0 Rd 0 0W S 0 1 0W
0 0 1 0 −1 1 (3 # 6) S0 I3
0 0 0 Re 0W S 0 1 −1W
SS W SS WW
0 0 0 0 0 Rf W(6 # 6) 0 0 1 (6 # 3)
T X T X
R V
S0 W
S0 W
= >0 1 0 0H
1 −1 −1 0 0 0 S0 W
1 1 S W
S0 W
0 0 1 0 −1 1 (3 # 6) S0 W
SS WW
0
T X(6 # 1)
R V
S 1 0 0W
S− 1 1 0W
>0 H
Ra − R b − Rc 0 0 0 I 0
> 1 0W > 2H
0H
S− 1 0 1 WW 1
0 R b 0 R d R e S I =
S 0
0 0 Rc 0 − Re Rf S 0 I 0
1 −1W 3
SS W
0 0 1W
T X
..... (1.104)
>0 H
Ra + R b + Rc − Rb − Rc I1 0
> − R b R b + Rd + Re − Re H >I 2 H =
− Rc − Re Rc + Re + Rf I3 0
It is observed that equation (1.104) is the same as equation (1.95).

2 4 1
EXAMPLE 1.67
Determine the branch currents and voltages of the circuit shown + +
10 V E 5 3 E 5V
in Fig. 1, using tie-set schedule.
Fig. 1.
SOLUTION
The voltage sources in the given circuit are replaced by short circuits as shown in Fig. 2. The network
of Fig. 2 has three nodes and five branches. The nodes are marked with numerals 1, 2 and 3. The graph of
the network is constructed by representing the nodes as small circles and the elements connected between
the nodes by lines as shown in Fig. 3.
2 1 4 2 1 1 b 2
SC 5 3 SC c d
a e
3 3
Fig. 2. Fig. 3 : Graph.

The lines connecting the nodes are branches. Let us name the 1 b 2
Ib
branches as a, b, c, d and e as shown in Fig. 3. Let us place arbitrary arrows Ic
Ia Ie
c d
on the branches of the graph as shown in Fig. 4 to obtain the oriented graph. a Id
e
To each branch we can attach a current called branch current whose direction
3
is indicated by the arrow in the branches, as shown in Fig. 4.
Fig. 4 : Oriented graph.
Here, nodes, N = 3 and branches, B = 5.
Therefore, links L = B − N + 1 = 5 − 3 + 1 = 3
1 2
The tree of the graph can be formed by removing three branches such
Ic
that there is no closed path in the graph but at the same time all nodes remain c Id d
connected. The three branches removed to form a tree are called links. Let Twig Twig
us remove the branches a, b and e and form a tree of the graph as shown in 3
Fig. 5. Now the branches a, b and e are links and the branches c and d are twigs. Fig. 5 : Tree.
The tie-sets of the graph are shown in Fig. 6. Let us choose loop currents I1, I2 and I3 such that their
directions are the same as that of branch currents corresponding to the link in the tie-set.
1 2
1 b 2
Ic Ib
Ic Ie
Ia I2
c d
c d Id
a I1 Id I3 e
3 3
Link 3 Link
Tie-set-1 : [a, c] Tie-set-2 : [b, c, d] Tie-set-3 : [d, e]
Fig. 6 : Tie-sets of the graph shown in Fig. 4.

A table is formed with loop currents listed in the rows and branches listed in the column. The entries
of the table are filled by considering the association of the branches with tie-sets.
TABLE : Tie-set Schedule
Loop Branches
currents
a b c d e f
I1
I2
I3
By referring to the tie-sets shown in Fig. 6, the inclusion or exclusion of branches with tie-sets are listed
here for covenience.
Tie-set-1 : (i) Branches b, d and e are not included.
(ii) Branch-a is included with direction (or orientation) of branch current same as that of loop
current.
(iii) Branch-c is included with direction (or orientation) of branch current opposite to that of
loop current.
Tie-set-2 : (i) Branches a and e are not included.
(ii) Branches b and c are included with direction (or orientation) of branch current same as
that of loop current.
(iii) Branch-d is included with direction (or orientation) of branch current opposite to that of
loop current.
Tie-set-3 : (i) Branches a, b and c are not included.
(ii) Branch-e is included with direction (or orientation) of branch current same as that of loop
current.
(iii) Branch-d is included with direction (or orientation) of branch current opposite to that of
loop current.
The above information is used to fill the entries of the table. If a branch is not included in the
tie-set then enter 0 at the intersection of concerned loop and branch current. If a branch is included in
the tie-set and orientation is the same then enter +1 at the intersection of concerned loop and
branch current. If a branch is included in the tie-set and orientation is opposite then enter –1 at the
intersection of concerned loop and branch current. The table with filled entries is shown below:
TABLE : Tie-set Schedule
Loop Branches
currents a c d e
b
I1 +1 0 E1 0 0
I2 0 +1 +1 E1 0
I3 0 0 0 E1 +1
All the rows and columns of the above table constitute the tie-set matrix M. The tie-set matrix is shown
in equation (1):
R V
S1 0 − 1 0 0W
Tie - set matrix, M = S 0 1 1 − 1 0W ..... (1)
SS 0 0 0 − 1 1 WW
T X
The given circuit has five branch currents Ia , Ib, Ic, Id and Ie and three loop currents I1 , I2 and I3.
Also for each branch we assign a voltage called branch voltage. Let Va , Vb , Vc , Vd and Ve be the branch
voltages. The current and voltage matrices of the circuit are given below:
R V RV V
S Ia W R V S aW
S Ib W S I1 W S Vb W
IB = S Ic W ; IL = S I 2 W ; VB = S Vc W
S W SS I WW S W
S Id W 3 S Vd W
S Ie W T X S Ve W
T X T X
The relation between branch and loop currents are given by the following matrix equation:
T
IB = M I L ..... (2)
RI V
S aW R V R V
S Ib W S1 0 − 1 0 0 WT S I1 W
` SI W = S 0 1 1 − 1 0W SI2 W
S Wc
SS 0 0 0 − 1
S Id W 1 WW SS I WW
3
S Ie W T X T X
T X
R V R V
S Ia W S 1 0 0W R V
S Ib W S 0 1 0W S I1 W
SI W = S − 1 1 0 W SI2 W
S Wc S W SS I WW .....(3)
S Id W S 0 −1 −1 W 3
S Ie W S 0 0 1W T X
T X T X
R V R V
S Ia W S I1 W
S Ib W S I2 W
SI W = S − I + I W
S Wc S 1 2W ..... (4)
S Id W S − I 2 − I3 W
S Ie W S W
S I3 W
T X T X
4
Ia = I1 ; I d = − I 2 − I3
Ib = I 2 ; I e = I3
Ic = − I1 + I 2 ..... (5)
On applying KVL to tie-sets we get,
M VB = 0 ..... (6)
RV V
R V S aW
S1 0 − 1 0 0W S Vb W
` S0 1 1 − 1 0W SV W = 0
SS 0 0 0 − 1 S cW
1 WW
..... (7)
S Vd W
T X S Ve W
T X
R V
S Va − Vc W
S Vb + Vc − Vd W = 0 ..... (8)
SS − V + V WW
d e
T X
_
Va − Vc = 0b
b
Vb + Vc − Vd = 0 ` ..... (9)
− Vd + Ve = 0b
a
If the branches do not have a voltage source, then by Ohm’s law, the branch voltage can be expressed
as a product of branch current and resistance of the branch. Therefore, the branch voltages Vb , Vc and Vd can
be expressed as,
_
Vb = Ib # 4 = 4Ib b
b
Vc = Ic # 5 = 5Ic `
..... (10)
Vd = Id # 3 = 3Id b
a
2 1 +
The branches a and e with voltage source are shown in Fig. 7. E
+ E
E
2Ia Ie
E
With reference to Fig. 7, by KVL we can write, + +
E 5V
10 V E Va Ve
Ia Ie
4
Va = 2Ia − 10
+ +
Ve = Ie − 5 ..... (11) Fig. 7.
Note : Here the polarity of branch voltages should be assigned such that the branch currents enter at
the positive end of the branch.
Using equations (10) and (11), equation (9) can be written as shown below:
_
2Ia − 10 − 5Ic = 0 b
b
4Ib + 5Ic − 3Id = 0 `
− 3Id + Ie − 5 = 0 b ..... (12)
a
Using equation (5), equation (12) can be written as shown below:
_
2I1 − 10 − 5 (− I1 + I 2) = 0 b
b
4I 2 + 5 (− I1 + I 2) − 3 (− I 2 − I3) = 0 `
..... (13)
− 3 (− I 2 − I3) + I3 − 5 = 0 b
a
The equation (13) can be rearranged and expressed as shown below:
7 I1 − 5 I2 = 10 ..... (14)
− 5 I 1 + 12 I 2 + 3 I 3 = 0 ..... (15)
3 I2 + 4 I3 = 5 ..... (16)
Equation (15) × 4 ⇒ −20 I 1 + 48 I 2 + 12 I 3 = 0
Equation (16) × (–3) ⇒ − 9 I 2 − 12 I 3 = −15
On adding −20 I 1 + 39 I 2 = −15 ..... (17)
Equation (14) × 39 ⇒ 273 I 1 − 195 I 2 = 390
Equation (17) × 5 ⇒ −100 I 1 + 195 I 2 = −75
On adding 173 I 1 = 315
` I1 = 315 = 1.8208 A
173
−5 I 2 = 10 − 7 I 1
10 − 7I1
` I2 = = 10 − 7 # 1.8208 = 0.5491 A
−5 −5
4 I 3 = 5 − 3I 2
5 − 3I 2
` I3 = = 5 − 3 # 0.5491 = 0.8382 A
4 4
Therefore, the loop currents are,
I 1 = 1.8208 A
I2 = 0.5491 A
I3 = 0.8382 A
From equation (5), the branch currents are calculated as shown below:
I a = I1 = 1.8208 A
I b = I2 = 0.5491 A
I c = −I1 + I2 = −1.8208 + 0.5491 = −1.2717 A
Id = −I2 − I3 = −0.5491 − 0.8382 = −1.3873 A
Ie = I3 = 0.8382 A
From equations (10) and (11), the branch voltages are estimated as shown below:
2 Ib 4 1
Va = 2 I a − 10 = 2 × 1.8208 − 10 = −6.3584 V + _
_
Ia _ Ie
_
_
+ +
Vb = 4 I b = 4 × 0.5491 = 2.1964 V 10 V E Va Vc 5 Vd 3 Ve E 5V
+ +
Vc = 5 I c = 5 × (−1.2717) = −6.3585 V Ic Id
+
Fig. 8.
Vd = 3 I d = 3 × (−1.3873) = −4.1619 V
Ve = I e − 5 = 0.8382 − 5 = −4.1618 V
The circuit with assumed direction of branch current and corresponding polarity of branch voltages
is shown in Fig. 8. The negative values of currents and voltages indicate that the actual direction of
currents and polarity of voltages are opposite to that of assumed direction and polarity. The actual direction of
currents and polarity of voltages are shown in Fig. 9.
2 Ib 4 1 I a = 1.8208 A ; Va = 6.3584 V
+ _
+
Ia Ie
+ + I b = 0.5491 A ; Vb = 2.1964 V
+ +
10 V E Va Vc 5 Vd 3 V E 5V
e
_ _
Ic = 1.2717 A ; Vc = 6.3585 V
_
Ic Id
_
Id = 1.3873 A ; Vd = 4.1619 V
Fig. 9.
I e = 0.8382 A ; Ve = 4.1618 V

Let R a, Rb , R c , R d and Re be the resistances of the branches a, b, c, d and e, respectively. With reference to
R a = 2 Ω ; Rb = 4 Ω ; Rc = 5 Ω ; Rd = 3 Ω ; Re = 1 Ω
R V R V
S Ra 0 0 0 0 W S2 0 0 0 0W
S 0 Rb 0 0 0 W S0 4 0 0 0W
S W S W
Branch resistance matrix, R B = S 0 0 Rc 0 0 W = S 0 0 5 0 0W
S W S W
S 0 0 0 Rd 0 W S0 0 0 3 0W
S 0 0 0 0 Re W S0 0 0 0 1W
T X T X
The branches a and e have voltage sources 10 V and 5 V, respectively. The other branches b, c and d does not
have voltage sources.
R V R V
S Esa W S10 W
S Esb W S 0W
S W S W
` Voltage source matrix, Es = S Esc W = S 0 W
S W S W
S Esd W S 0W
S Ese W S 5W
T X T X
The tie-set matrix, M is given by equation (1). Now the equilibrium equations are given by,
[MR BMT ]IL = ME S

R V R V R V
S2 0 0 0 0W S 1 0 0W S10 W
R V S R V R V S W
S 1 0 − 1 0 0 W S0 4 0 0 0W S 0 1 0W I
S 1W S 1 0 − 1 0 0 W S 0W
W S W
S0 1 1 −1 0 W S0 0 5 0 0W S−1 1 0 W S I2 W = S 0 1 1 − 1 0 W S 0 W
S W S W S W
S 0 0 0 − 1 1 W SS 0 0 0 3
W
0W
S W
S 0 −1 −1 W S I3 W S 0 0 0 − 1 1 W SS 0 WW
T X S T X T X S W
0 0 0 0 1W S 0 0 1W 5
T X T X T X
R V
S 1 0 0W
R V S 0 1 0 W R I1 V R V
S2 0 −5 0 0 W S W S W S10 W
S0 4 5 −3 0 W S − 1 1 0 W I2 = S 0 W
S W
S W S W S W S W
S0 0 0 −3 1 W S 0 − 1 − 1 W S I3 W S 5W
T X S 0 0 1W T X T X
T X
R V R V R V
S 7 − 5 0 W S I1 W S10 W
S − 5 12 3 W S I 2 W = S 0W
S W S W S W
S 0 3 4 W S I3 W S 5W
T X T X T X
On multiplying the above matrix equation we get,
7 I1 − 5 I2 = 10
−5 I 1 + 12 I 2 + 3 I 3 = 0
3 I2 + 4 I3 = 5
The above three equations are same as that of equations (14), (15) and (16).
1.11 Duality R L C
+ _ + _ + _
Ri di
Duality refers to the concept of forming (or identifying) a voltage 1
basis circuit for a given current basis circuit (or viceversa) with similar form
L
dt C z
i dt
i
of governing equations and solutions. +E
e
Consider a RLC series circuit excited by a voltage source e as shown Fig. 1.60.
in Fig. 1.60. Let i be the current through the circuit. Now with reference to
Fig. 1.60, by KVL we can write,
Ri + L di + 1
dt C # i dt = e
.....(1.105)
Let us make following changes in equation (1.105):
replaced by replaced by
e is L C
replaced by replaced by
i v C L
replaced by
R G
On making the above replacement, equation (1.105) will be converted into the form shown
in equation (1.106):
Gv + C dv + 1
dt L # v dt = is
.....(1.106)
Equation (1.106) represents an RLC parallel circuit excited by a current source as shown
in Fig. 1.61. We can obtain equation (1.106) by writing KCL equation at node-A of the circuit in
Fig. 1.61.
A
It is observed that equations (1.105) and (1.106) are + dv 1
in similar and so the solutions of these two equations will

Gv
1
C
dt L z
v dt
is v Ga C L
R
also be similar. Hence, the circuit in Fig. 1.60 is dual of the
_
circuit in Fig. 1.61 and viceversa.
Fig. 1.61.
In general, two networks are said to be dual if the mesh
equations (KVL equations) of one of the networks is similar in form to the nodal equations (KCL
equations) of the other network.
While forming the dual network, the current variable is exchanged with the voltage
variable and so we can say that voltage is dual of current and viceversa. Also, the parameters are
replaced by their duals. The various elements/variables/quantities and their duals that we may
encounter in network analysis are listed in Table 1.11.
Table 1.11 : Elements/Variables/Quantities Involved in Network Analysis and their Duals
Elements/Variables/Quantities of
Elements/Variables/Quantities of
Original network Dual network
on current basis on voltage basis Original network Dual network
on current basis on voltage basis
Loop method Node method
Current Voltage Tie-set Cut-set
Mesh/loop Node-pair Link Twig
Mesh/loop current Node-voltage Link current Twig-voltage
Voltage source Current source Short circuit Open circuit
Resistance Conductance Series path Parallel path
Inductance Capacitance Open switch Closed switch
Capacitance Inductance
1.11.1 Dual Graphs

For a given graph, a dual graph can be constructed by converting each tie-set of the given
graph as cut-sets in the dual graph. The links of the given graph will become twigs in the dual
graph and the twigs of the given graph will become links in the dual graph. Two graphs are said to
be dual if the tie-sets of one graphs is the same as that of cut-sets of the other graph.
Procedure for Constructing Dual of a Given Graph

1. Let the given (original) graph consist of N nodes and B branches. Now, link L = B − N + 1.
Identify the links and remove them to form a tree.
2. Determine the tie-sets of the original graph and number them as 1, 2, 3, etc. The original
graph will have L-number of tie-sets.
3. The number of cut-sets in the dual graph should be the same as that of tie-sets in the given
graph. Hence, in order to construct the dual graph, draw L number of nodes separately.
4. Number the nodes drawn separately as 1l , 2l , 3l , etc. Draw one extra node as the reference
node. The branches forming the tie-set-j in the original graph will be the branches associated
with cut-set-j in the dual graph.
5. Connect the links of the original graph as twigs in the dual graph between the nodes and
reference node and form the tree of the dual graph. Each tie-set will have only one link
associated with it. The link associated with tie-set-j in the original graph is connected as a
twig between node- jl and the reference node in the dual graph.
6. The branches common to two tie-sets in the original graph are connected as branches common
to corresponding two nodes in the dual graph. For example, if the branch-q is common to
tie-set j and k in the original graph then the branch-q should be connected between node- jl
and kl in the dual graph.
7. The orientations of the branches in the given graph should be transferred to the dual graph.
Choose clockwise orientations for all tie-sets.
(i) If the tie-set orientation and branch orientation of a branch are the same in the original
graph then mark the orientation of the corresponding branch in the dual graph as away
from the node.
(ii) If the tie-set orientation and branch orientation of a branch are opposite then mark the
orientation of the corresponding branch in the dual graph as towards the node.
When the orientation of all the tie-sets are clockwise, the branches common to two tie-sets
will have the same orientation in one tie-set and opposite orientation in the other tie-set. Similarly,
the corresponding branch connected between two nodes in the dual graph will have orientation
away from the node at one node and towards the node at another node.
EXAMPLE 1.68
Determine the dual graph for the graph shown in Fig. 1.
SOLUTION
The given graph has four nodes (N = 4) and seven branches (B = 7). Let
us denote the nodes as 1, 2, 3 and 4 and branches as a, b, c, d, e, f and g as
shown in Fig. 2. Fig. 1.
Here, B = 7 ; N = 4, ∴ Links, L = B − N + 1 = 7 − 4 + 1 = 4
Let us remove the branches a 2 b

1
a, c, f and g and form a tree as shown in 2 b
1
Fig. 3. The tie-sets of the graph are shown c
d e
in Fig. 4. Assign clockwise orientation for all d f
e
tie-sets as shown in Fig. 4. Let us choose link
3 4
orientations same as that of their associated tie-
3 4 Twig : [b, d, e] ; Link : [a, c, f, g]
set orientation and arbitrary orientation for other g
branches as shown in Fig. 4. Fig. 2. Fig. 3 : Tree.

2
2 2 b
c 1
d
d e
a e f
2 b 3 4
1 g
3 4
Tie-set-1 : [a, b] Tie-set-2 : [c, d] Tie-set-3 : [d, e, g] Tie-set-4 : [b, e, f]
Fig. 4 : Tie-sets of the graph in Fig. 2.
The given graph has four links and so we can choose four nodes for the dual graph. Let us draw the
four nodes as small circles and denote them as 1’, 2’, 3’ and 4’ as shown in Fig. 5. Let us draw one extra
node 0’ as the reference node.
2’ 1’ 2’ 1’
c
a
0’ 0’
g
f
3’ 4’ 3’ 4’
Fig. 5 : Nodes of the dual graph. Fig. 6 : Tree of the dual graph.
Form the tree of the dual graph by connecting the links of the original graph as twigs between the
nodes and the reference node as shown in Fig. 6. Since the link and tie-set orientations are the same, the twig
orientations are away from the node.
The twigs of the original graph are connected as links in the dual graph, as shown in Fig. 7. The
branch-b is common to tie-sets-1 and 4 and so it is connected between nodes 1l and 4l in the dual graph. The
branch-d is common to tie-sets-2 and 3 and so it is connected between nodes 2l and 3l in the dual graph. The
branch-e is common to tie-sets-3 and 4 and so it is connected between nodes 2l and 3l in the dual graph. The
dual graph is shown in Fig. 7.
2’ 1’
The orientations of common branches b, d and e are the same as that of
tie-set orientations 1, 2 and 4, respectively. Hence, the orientations of branches c
a
b, d and e are away from nodes 1l , 2l and 4l, respectively, as shown in Fig. 7. 0’
d b
Let us form the cut-sets of the dual graph and show that they are the g
same as that of tie-sets of the original graph. f
e 4’
3’
2’
2’ a 1’
c a 1’ c
Fig. 7 : Dual graph for the
d b
d b graph shown in Fig. 2.
Cut-set-2 Cut-set-1 Cut-set-1: [a, b] Cut-set-2: [c, d]
0’
Cut-set-3 Cut-set-4
d b d b
g f g f
3’ e e 4’ 3’ e e 4’
Cut-set-3: [d, e, g] Cut-set-4: [b, e, f]
Fig. 8 : Cut-sets of the dual graph.

The cut-sets of the dual graph are shown in Fig. 8. It is observed that the branches that constitute the
tie-sets of the original graph are the same as that of branches that constitute the cut-sets of the dual graph.
1.11.2 Duality of Network

Two networks are said to be dual if the mesh equations (KVL equations) of one of the
network are in a form similar to that of nodal equations (KCL equations) of the other network.
Dual of Mesh Basis Network
The dual of mesh basis network will be a node basis network. The number of meshes in the
original network will be equal to the number of nodes (except reference node) in the dual network.
The elements connected to a mesh in the original network will be represented by their dual elements
connected to a node in the dual network.
In the elements associated with a mesh, certain elements will be common to two meshes and
certain elements are included in the concerned mesh alone. Hence, we can say that the elements
included in the mesh-j alone should be represented by their dual as elements connected between
node-j and reference node in the dual network. The elements common between mesh-j and k should
be represented by their dual as elements connected between node-j and k in the dual network. In
order to verify the dual network, write the mesh equations for the original network and compare
them with the node equations of the dual network.
Procedure to Find the Dual of Mesh Basis Network
1. Determine the number of meshes in the given network. Let the network consists of L
meshes. Name the meshes as 1, 2, 3, etc.
2. Draw L number of nodes separately for the dual network and draw one extra node as
the reference node.
3. Consider the elements connected in each mesh one by one and represent the elements
associated with a mesh by their dual elements associated with corresponding node in
the dual network.
4. Consider mesh-j, the elements associated with mesh-j have to be represented by their
dual elements associated with node-j.
i) The elements included in mesh-j alone are represented by their dual elements connected
between node-j and the reference in the dual network.
ii) The elements common between mesh-j and k are represented by their dual elements
connected between node-j and k in the dual network.
5. A voltage source with voltage rise in the direction of mesh current in the original network
should be represented by a current source driving current towards the node in the dual
network and viceversa.
6. Write mesh equations for the original network and node equations for the dual network. Verify
that both are similar in form.
Alternate Method
1. Let the given network have L number of meshes. Place a dot inside each mesh and
number them as 1, 2, 3, etc.,. Place an extra dot outside the network and denote it by 0.
2. The dots placed inside the original network represents the nodes of the dual network. The
dot placed external to the network represents the reference node of the dual network.
3. To construct the dual network, draw L number of nodes separately and number them as 1, 2,
3, etc. Also, draw the reference node and denote it by 0.
4. In the original network, draw all possible lines from dot to dot by crossing each element one
time.
5. Each line between two dots crossing an element in the original network can be
represented as a branch in the dual network by drawing a branch between two
corresponding nodes with the dual of the element crossed. For example, if an inductance
is crossed in the original network by drawing a line between dot-j and k then draw a
branch with capacitance between node-j and k in the dual network.
6. The dual network is obtained by drawing the dual branches for all possible lines drawn on
the original network.
7. Write mesh equations for the original network and node equations for the dual network.
Verify that both are in similar form.
Dual of Node Basis Network
The dual of node basis network will be a mesh basis network. The number of nodes (except
the reference node) in the original network will be equal to the number of meshes in the dual
network. The elements connected to a node in the original network will be represented by their
dual elements connected as a mesh in the dual network.
In the elements associated with a node, certain elements will be connected between two
nodes and certain elements will be connected between the concerned node and the reference node.
Hence, we can say that the elements connected between node-j and the reference node should be
represented by their dual as elements associated with mesh-j alone in the dual network. The elements
connected between node-j and k should be represented by their dual as elements common between
mesh-j and k in the dual network. In order to verify the dual network, write the node equations for
the original network and compare them with the mesh equations of the dual network.
Procedure to Find the Dual of Node Basis Network
1. Determine the number of nodes in the given network. Let the network consists of
N nodes in which one node is the reference. Name the remaining N – 1 nodes as
1, 2, 3 ... (N – 1) and denote the reference node by 0.
2. The dual network will have N − 1 meshes.
3. Consider the elements associated with each node one by one and represent the elements
associated with a node by their dual elements associated with corresponding mesh in
the dual network.
4. Consider node-j, the elements associated with node-j have to be represented by their dual
elements associated with mesh-j.
i) The elements connected between node-j and reference are represented by their dual
elements connected in mesh-j alone in the dual network.
ii) The elements connected between node-j and k are represented by their dual elements
common between mesh-j and k in the dual network.
5. A current source driving the current towards the node in the original network should
be represented by a voltage source with rise in voltage in the direction of mesh current in
the dual network and viceversa.
6. Write node equations for the original network and mesh equations for the dual network.
Verify that both are similar in form.
Alternate Method
1. Place a dot inside each closed path of the original network and number them as 1, 2, 3, etc.
Place an extra dot outside the network and denote it by 0. Let the total number of dots
placed be P.
2. The dots placed inside the original network represent the nodes of the dual network.
3. To construct the dual network draw P number of nodes separately and number them as 0, 1,
2, 3, etc.
4. In the original network draw all possible lines from dot to dot by crossing each element one
time.
5. Each line between two dots crossing an element in the original network can be represented
as a branch in the dual network by drawing a branch between two corresponding nodes
with the dual of the element crossed. For example, if a capacitance is crossed in the
original network by drawing a line between dot-j and k then draw a branch with
inductance between node-j and k in the dual network.
6. The dual network is obtained by drawing the dual branches for all possible lines drawn on the
original network.
7. Write the node equations for the original network and mesh equations for the dual network.
Verify that both are in similar form .
2H 2W
EXAMPLE 1.69
Determine the dual of the network shown in Fig. 1. 0.1 H 0.5 F
SOLUTION 10 W 4W
5W
The given network has three meshes. Let us name the + +
o
20 sinwt V 5 sin(wt + 45 ) V
meshes as 1, 2 and 3 and assume three mesh currents i 1, i2 and ~
_ ~
_
i 3 as shown in Fig. 2. Now the original network is a mesh basis
Fig. 1.
network and so its dual will be node basis network.
2H 2W
i3
mesh-3
0.1 H 0.5 F 1 2 3
10 W 4W
5W
+ i1 i2 + Node-1 Node-2 Node-3

o
20 sinwt V mesh-1 mesh-2 5 sin(wt + 45 ) V Reference Node
~
_ ~
_ 0
Fig. 2 : Original network. Fig. 3 : Nodes of the dual network.

The original network has three meshes and so the dual network will have three nodes. Let us draw three
nodes 1, 2 and 3 and a reference node 0 as shown in Fig. 3. The dual of the elements and variables of the
original network are listed in Table 1.
Table 1
Elements/Variables of original network Elements/Variables of dual network
Element/Variable Value/Symbol Element/Variable Value/Symbol
20 sinωt V 20 sinωt A
Voltage sources Current sources
5 sin(ωt+ 45o) V 5 sin(ωt + 45o) A
10 Ω 10 M
5Ω 5M
Resistances Conductances
4Ω 4M
2Ω 2M
0.1 H 0.1 F
Inductances Capacitances
2H 2F
Capacitance 0.5 F Inductance 0.5 F
i1 v1
Node currents i2 Node voltages v2
i3 v3
0.1 F
Consider mesh-1, the elements associated with mesh-1 are represented by
their dual element associated with node-1 as shown in Fig. 4. The explanation for
1
the elements and their connections in Fig. 4 is given below: 2 3
W
5
20 sinwt A
Node-1 : i) In mesh-1, the 20 sin ωt source and 10 Ω resistance are associated 10

W
with mesh-1 alone. Hence, connect the dual of these two elements
between node-1 and reference node in the dual network. In the
original network, the voltage of the source is rise in the direction of Fig. 4.
mesh current and so it is represented as a current source driving current towards the node in
the dual network.
ii) In mesh-1, the 5 Ω resistance is common to mesh-1 and 2. Hence, connect the dual of this element
between node-1 and 2 in the dual network.
iii) In mesh-1, the 0.1 inductance is common to mesh-1 and 3. Hence, connect the dual of this
element between node-1 and 3 in the dual network.
Similarly, consider the elements of mesh-2 and 3 one by one 0.1 F
and connect the dual of those elements to the nodes of dual network W
as shown in Fig. 5. The explanation for elements and connections 1 v1 5 2 0.5 H v 3
3
to nodes 2 and 3 is given below: v2
5 sin(wt+45 ) A
W
20 sinwt A
10 2F
o
Node-2 : i) In mesh-2, the 5 sin (ωt + 45) V source and 4 Ω W W
4 2
resistance are associated with mesh-2 alone. Hence,
connect the dual of these two elements between
node-2 and the reference node. In the original 0
network, the voltage of the source is a fall in the Fig. 5 : Dual network of the network
direction of the mesh current and so it is represented shown in Fig. 2.
as a currrent source driving current away from the
node in the dual network.
ii) In mesh-2, the 0.5 F capacitance is common to mesh-2 and 3. Hence, connect the dual of this
element between node-2 and 3 in the dual network.
Node-3 : i) In mesh-3, the 2 H inductance and 2 Ω resistance are associated with mesh-3 alone. Hence,
connect the dual of these two elements between node-3 and the reference node.
Alternate Method
Place three dots inside the three meshes and number them as 1, 2 and 3 as shown in Fig. 6(a).
Place the reference node 0 external to the network.
2H 2W 0.1 F
d
c 3
d W
5
mesh-3 i 1 e 2 f 3
a 0.5 H
h g
5 sin(wt+45 ) A
b c i
10 W 0.1 H 0.5 F 4W
o
b f g
W W
e 5W 10 4
+ a 1 h + W
2 2
o
20 sinwt A mesh-1 mesh-2 5 sin(wt+45 ) A 2F
_ ~ ~ _
20 sinwt A
0
0
Fig. a : Original network. Fig. b : Dual network.

Fig. 6 : Construction of dual network.
There are nine elements in the given network. Hence, we can draw nine lines between nodes as
shown in Fig. 6(a) such that each line crosses only one element one time (Also each line has to cross the
branches of original network only one time). Now these dotted lines represent the branches of the dual
network with the dual of element crossed by it as the element of branch. The details of branches and their
elements are listed in Table 2.
Draw the nodes 0, 1, 2 and 3 separately and connect the nine branches a to i between the nodes as
shown in Fig. 6(b) by referring to the Table 2.
Table 2
Connection of
Element of the branch in Element of the branch in
Branch the branch in the
original network dual network
dual network
a 20 sinωt V-voltage 20 sinωt V-current node-1 to node-0

source source
b 10 Ω-resistance 10 M - conductance node-1 to node-0
c 2 H-inductance 2 F-capacitance node-3 to node-0
d 0.1 H-inductance 0.1 F-capacitance node-1 to node-3
e 5 Ω-resistance 5 M - conductance node-1 to node-2
f 0.5 -capacitance 0.5 H-inductance node-2 to node-3
g 4 Ω-resistance 4 M - conductance node-2 to node-0
h 5 sin(ωt + 45o) V-voltage 5 sin(ωt + 45o) A-current node-2 to node-0

source source
i 2 Ω-resistance 2 M - conductance node-3 to node-0
Mesh Equations of the Original Network

The individual meshes of the original network with polarity of voltages across various elements are
shown in Fig. 7. The following mesh equations are obtained by writing KVL equations for the meshes shown
in Fig. 7 by tracing the meshes in the direction of respective mesh current.
di3 i3 i3 1
_
0.1
dt
+ _
z
0.5 3
i dt
+
+ _ + _
_ d i 1
10 W 10i
0.1 1
dt +
_
+ _ 0.5
zi2 dt +
4i1 4 W
1 5i 5i2 5i1 5i2
+ 1 i2 _
+ _ + _ + +
20 sinwt V i1 i1 i2 5 sin(wt+45o) V
~_ ~ _
Fig. a : Mesh-1. Fig. b : Mesh-2.

di
2 3
dt _ 2i3
+ + _
2H 2
i3 1
di
0.1 3
_ dt + _
0.5 3
+
z
i dt
+ _ + _
di 1
0.1 1
dt z
0.5 2
i dt
i1 i2
Fig. 7 : Meshes of the original network.
Fig. c : Mesh-3.
10i1 + 0.1 d _ i1 − i3 i + 5 _ i1 − i2 i = 20 sin ωt

dt
5 _ i2 − i1 i + 1
0.5 # _ i2 − i3 idt + 4i2 = − 5 sin _ ωt + 45 o i
di3
2
dt
+ 2i3 + 1
0.5 # _ i3 − i2 idt + 0.1 dtd _ i3 − i1 i = 0
Node Equations of the Dual Network

The individual nodes of the dual network with direction of currents through various elements are shown
in Fig. 8. The following node equations are obtained by writing KCL equations for the nodes shown in Fig. 8.
d d
0.1 dv -v
dt 1 3
i 0.1 d
v - v1
dt 3
i
0.1 F 0.1 F
1
v3 v1
3
W
v1 5 2 W 0.5 H v3
v2 v1
1 5 2 0.5 H v3 v2 2
1 3 3 2v3
v2
10v1 5(v1 - v2) 5(v1 - v2) h 1
0.5 z dv 2 -v3 i
1
0.5 z cv 3 -v 2 h dt
20 sin wt A
W W
10 o
4 4v2 dv 3 W
5 sin(wt + 45 ) A 2 2
dt 2F
0 0 0 0 0
Fig. a : Node-1. Fig. b : Node-2. Fig. c : Node-3.

Fig. 8 : Nodes of dual network.
10v1 + 0.1 d _ v1 − v3 i + 5 _ v1 − v2 i = 20 sin ωt

dt
5 _ v2 − v1 i + 1
0.5 # _v2 − v3 idt + 4v2 = − 5 sin _ ωt + 45 o i
dv3
2
dt
+ 2v3 + 1
0.5 # _v3 − v2 idt + 0.1 dtd _v3 − v1 i = 0
CONCLUSION
It is observed that the mesh equations of the original network and node equations of the dual network
are identical in form.
7 sin(wt + 30o) A
EXAMPLE 1.70
Determine the dual of the network shown in Fig. 1. W
0.5 H 3
12 sin(wt + 45 ) A
o
W 0.6 F W
2 4
0.8 F
SOLUTION Fig. 1.
The given network has four nodes. Let us choose one of the nodes as the reference node and denote
it by 0. Let us name the other three nodes as 1, 2 and 3 and assume three node voltages v1, v2 and v3 as
shown in Fig. 2. Now the original network is a node basis network and so its dual will be a mesh basis network.
o
7 sin(wt + 30 ) A
node-1 node-3
W
0.5 H 2 3
1 3
12 sin(wt + 45 ) A
v1 v2 v3
o
W node-2 0.6 F W
2 4
0.8 F
0
Reference node
Fig. 2 : Original network (Node Basis).
The original network has three nodes (except the reference node) and so the dual network will have
three meshes. The dual of the elements and variables of the original network are listed in Table 1.
Table 1
Elements/Variables of original network Elements/Variables of dual network
Element/Variable Value/Symbol Element/Variable Value/Symbol
12 sin(ωt + 45o) A 12 sin(ωt + 45o) V

Current sources Voltage sources
7 sin(ωt + 30o) A 7 sin(ωt + 30o) V
2M 2Ω
Conductances 3M Resistances 3Ω
4M 4Ω
Inductance 0.5 H Capacitance 0.5 F
0.8 F 0.8 H
Capacitances Inductances
0.6 F 0.6 H
Consider node-1, the elements associated with node-1 are represented by mesh-2
their dual element associated with mesh-1 as shown in Fig. 3. The explanation for the 0.5 F
elements and their connections in Fig. 3 are given below:
12 sin(wt+45 ) A
7 sin(wt+30o) V
o
2W
+
Mesh-1 : i) In node-1, the 12 sin (t + 45o ) A source and 2 M conductance are mesh-1
- mesh-3
+
connected between node-1 and the reference and they are in parallel. -
Hence, connect the dual of these two elements in series in mesh-1

as elements associated with mesh-1 alone in the dual network. In the Fig. 3.
original network, the current source is driving current towards the node
and so it is represented as a voltage source whose voltage is a rise in the direction of mesh
current.
ii) In node-1, the 0.5 H inductance is connected between node-1 and 2. Hence, connect the dual
of this element as element common to mesh-1 and 2 in the dual network.
iii) In node-1, the 7 sin (ωt + 30 o ) A source is connected between node-1 and 3. Hence, connect
the dual of this element as element common to mesh-1 and 3 in the dual network. In the original
network, the current 7 sin (ωt + 30o) A is driving current towards node-3. Hence, in the dual
network it is represented as a voltage source whose voltage is a rise in the direction of mesh
current i 3.
Similarly, consider the elements connected to nodes-2 and 3 one by one and connect the dual of those
elements to the meshes of dual network as shown in Fig. 4. The explanation for elements and their connections
is given below:
Mesh-2 : i) In node-2, the 0.8 F capacitance is connected between node-2 and the reference. Hence,
connect the dual of this element as element associated with 0.8 H
mesh-2 alone in the dual network. mesh-2
i2
ii) In node-2, the 3 M conductance is connected between 0.5 F 3W
12 sin(wt + 45o) A
node-2 and 3. Hence, connect the dual of this element as
7 sin(wt + 30o) V
2W 0.6 H
element common to mesh-2 and 3 in the dual network. +
i1 - i3
Mesh-3 : i) In node-3, the 0.6 F capacitance and 4 M conductance are +
- mesh-1 mesh-3 4W
connected between node-3 and the reference and they are

in parallel. Hence, connect the dual of these two elements Fig. 4 : Dual network of the
in series in mesh-3 as elements associated with mesh-3 network shown in Fig. 2.
alone in the dual network.
Alternate Method
The given network has five closed paths. Therefore, place five dots inside the closed paths and number
them as 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 as shown in Fig. 5(a). Place one extra dot external to the network and denote it by 0.
These dots represent the meeting point of elements in the dual network.
o
7 sin(wt + 30 ) A
d f 0.8 H
3 W e
0.5 H 3
12 sin(wt+45 ) A
a 0.5 F
d 3 f 3W
o
4
W 2
W g
7 sin(wt+30o) V
c 2 5 4 a
1 e g 2W 0.6 H
2 4 0.6 F +
c -
b 0.8 F h 12 5
sin 1 b h
+
(w
-
t+4 4W
5 )o 0
0 V
Fig. a : Original network. Fig. b : Dual network.
Fig. 5 : Construction of dual network.
There are eight elements in the given network. Hence, we can draw eight lines between dots as shown
in Fig. 5(a) such that each line crosses only one element one time (Also each line has to cross the branches of
original network only one time). Now these broken lines represent the branches of the dual network with dual of
element crossed by it as the element of branch. The details of branches and their elements are listed in Table 2.
Table 2
Connection of
Element of the branch in Element of the branch in
Branch the branch in the
original network dual network
dual network
a 7 sin (ωt + 30o) A-current 7 sin (ωt + 30o) V-voltage dot-3 to dot-0
source source
b 12 sin (ω+ 45o) A-current 12 sin (ωt + 45o) V-voltage dot-1 to dot-0
source source
c 2 M - conductance 2 Ω-resistance dot-1 to dot-2
d 0.5 H-inductance 0.5 F-capacitance dot-2 to dot-3
e 0.8 F-capacitance 0.8 H-inductance dot-2 to dot-4
f 3 M - conductance 3 Ω-resistance dot-3 to dot-4
g 0.6 F-capacitance 0.6 H-inductance dot-4 to dot-5
h 4 M - conductance 4 Ω-resistance dot-5 to dot-0
Draw the dots 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 separately and connect the eight branches a to h between the dots
as shown in Fig. 5(b) by referring to the Table 2.
Node Equations of the Original Network

o
7 sin(wt + 30o) A 7 sin(wt + 30 ) A
v 1
v2
3 3
W
0.5 H 3 3
v1 2 W 2
1 v2 v1 0.5 H v2 3 v3 v2 v3
1 4v3
2v1 1 2 3 3(v3 - v2)
zc
12 sin(wt + 45 ) A
h
v 1 - v 2 dt 1 3(v2 - v3)
zc h
o
0.5 v 2 - v 1 dt W
W 0.5 0.6 F 4
2 dv 3
0.6
dv 2 dt
0.8 0.8 F
dt
0 0 0 0
0
Fig. a : Node-1. Fig. d : Node-2. Fig. c : Node-3.
Fig. 6 : Nodes of original network.
The individual nodes of the original network with direction of currents through various elements are
shown in Fig. 6. The following node equations are obtained by writing KCL equations for the nodes shown
in Fig. 6.
2v1 + 1
0.5 # _v1 − v2 idt = 12 sin _ ωt + 45 o i − 7 sin _ ωt + 30 o i
1
0.5 # _v2 − v1 idt + 0.8 ddtv2 + 3_v2 − v3 i = 0
dv3
3 _ v3 − v2 i + 0.6 + 4v3 = 7 sin _ ωt + 30 o i
dt
Mesh Equations of the Dual Network
The individual meshes of the dual network with polarity of voltages across various elements are shown in
Fig. 7. The following mesh equations are obtained by writing KVL equations for the meshes shown in Fig. 7
by tracing the meshes in the direction of respective mesh current.
0.8 H
+ _
di
1 i2 0.8 2
_
z
0.5 2
i dt
+
1
z
0_.5 2
i dt
dt
i2
i3
_ 3i2 +
_ + _ 3i2 + _
_+ + +
_ _
7 sin(wt + 30o) V
1 7 sin(wt + 30 ) V + + 3i3
z
i1 dt 3i3
o
1 di 3 0.6 H
2W
+
2i1 0.5
+
- i3
0.5 1z
i dt
+
-
0.6
dt _
+
i1
o
12 sin(wt + 45 ) V + i1 i1 i3 i2 4i3 4 W
-
_
Fig. a : Mesh-1. Fig. b : Mesh-2. Fig. c : Mesh-3.

Fig. 7 : Meshes of the dual network.
2i1 + 1
0.5 # _ i1 − i2 idt = 12 sin _ ωt + 45 o i − 7 sin _ ωt + 30 o i
1
0.5 # _ i2 − i1 idt + 0.8 ddti2 + 3_ i2 − i3 i = 0
di3
3 _ i3 − i2 i + 0.6 + 4i3 = 7 sin _ ωt + 30 o i
dt
CONCLUSION
It is observed that the node equations of the original network and mesh equations of the dual network
are identical in form.
1.12 Summary of Important Concepts

1. An electric circuit consists of parameters - R, L and C and sources connected in a
particular combination.
2. A circuit without sources is called a network.
3. The sources in which the current/voltage does not change with time are called direct
current sources.
4. The networks excited by dc sources are called dc circuits.
5. The elements which can deliver energy are called active elements.
6. The elements which consume energy either by absorbing or storing are called passive
elements.
7. Resistance, inductance and capacitance are called fundamental parameters.
8. The voltage/current of an independent source does not depend on voltage/current in any
part of the circuit.
9. The voltage/current of a dependent source depends on the voltage/current in some part of
the same circuit.
10. A node is the meeting point of two or more elements.
11. The principal node is the meeting point of more than two elements.
12. The path between any two nodes is called a branch.

13. A path that starts and ends at the same node after travelling through some part of a circuit is
called a closed path.
14. A connection of two or more elements in which the same current flows is called a series
connection.
15. A connection of two or more elements such that the same voltage exists across them is
called a parallel connection.
16. When three elements meet at a node, they are said to be in star or T-connection.
17. When three elements are connected to form a closed path with a node in between any two
elements they are said to be in delta or P-connection.
18. An open path or path of infinite resistance between two nodes is called an open circuit.
19. A closed path of zero resistance between two nodes is called a short circuit.
20. When current leaves an element from the positive terminal, it delivers energy.
21. When current enters an element at the positive terminal, it absorbs energy.
22. Network topology is the study of properties of the network which are unaffected when we
stretch, twist or distort the size and shape of the network.
23. A graph describes the topological properties of a network and consists of nodes and
branches of a network.
24. When arrows are placed on the branches of a graph it is called an oriented graph.
25. A tree is a subgraph obtained by removing some branches of a graph such that all nodes of
the graph are included without a closed path.
26. A tree has N nodes and N – 1 branches.
27. The branches removed to form a tree are called links or chords and the branches of a tree
are called twigs.
28. In a graph with B branches and N nodes, the number of links, L = B – N + 1.
29. The cotree is the complement of a tree and it is obtained by connecting the links to the
nodes of a graph.
30. Branch currents and voltages are called network variables.
31. The arrow placed on a branch is called reference or orientation.
32. In a branch, a single orientation is used to represent current and voltage direction.
33. When reference is placed on a branch by treating it as load, the reference is called load
set reference.
34. In a graph, link currents are independent current variables and twig currents are
dependent current variables.
35. In a graph, twig voltages are independent voltage variables and link voltages are
dependent voltage variables.
36. A single-loop circuit is one which has only one closed path.
37. A single node pair circuit is one which has only one independent node and a reference node.
38. Ohm’s law states that voltage across a conductor is directly proportional to current through it.
39. Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of currents in a node is zero.
By KCL, the sum of currents entering a node = Sum of currents leaving a node.
40. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of voltages in a closed path
is zero. By KVL, the sum of voltage raise in a closed path = Sum of voltage fall in a closed
path.
41. In a source, when voltage is constant and current varies with load then it is called voltage
source.
42. In a source, when current is constant and voltage varies with load then it is called current
source.
43. In an ideal voltage source, the source resistance is zero.
44. In an ideal current source, the source resistance is infinite.
45. A voltage source with internal resistance Rs can be represented by an ideal voltage source
in series with an external resistance of value Rs.
46. A current source with internal resistance Rs can be represented by an ideal current source in
parallel with an external resistance of value Rs.
47. A voltage source E in series with resistance Rs can be converted into an equivalent current
source Is (Is = E/Rs) parallel with resistance Rs.
48. A current source Is in parallel with resistance Rs can be converted into an equivalent voltage
source E (E = Is Rs ) in series with resistance Rs.
49 When a source voltage depends on a voltage in some part of same circuit, the source
is called Voltage Controlled Voltage Source (VCVS).
50. When a source voltage depends on a current in some part of same circuit, the source
is called Current Controlled Voltage Source (CCVS).
51. When a source current depends on a voltage in some part of a same circuit, the source
is called Voltage Controlled Current Source (VCCS).
52. When a source current depends on a current in some part of a same circuit, the source
is called Current Controlled Current Source (CCCS).
53. Power is rate of work done and energy is total work done.
54 Commercially, one kilowatt-hour of electrical energy is called one unit.
55. Resistance is the property of an element by which it opposes the flow of current.
56. The voltage-current relation in a resistance is governed by Ohm’s law. If V and I are
voltage and current in a resistance R then V = IR.
57. Current division rule: If I is the total current through two parallel connected resistances R1
and R2 then the currents I1 and I2 flowing through R1 and R2 are,
I1 = I # R2 and I2 = I # R1
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
58. Voltage division rule: If V is the total voltage across two series connected resistances R1
and R2 then the voltages V1 and V2 across R1 and R2 are,
V1 = V # R1 and V2 = V # R2
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
59. Mesh is defined as a closed path which does not contain any other loops within it.
60. Mesh analysis is used to solve the independent current variables of a circuit.
61. The number of current variables in a circuit is equal to the number of branches.
62. The number of independent currents in a circuit is given by the number of links in the
graph of a circuit.
63. The number of links L in a circuit with B branches and N nodes is given by L = B – N + 1.
64. In mesh analysis, independent currents are solved by writing KVL equations for various
meshes of a circuit.
65. The mesh basis matrix equation for resistive circuit is,
RR R R g R V RI V RE V
S 11 12 13 1m
W S 1W S 11 W
S R21 R22 R23 g R2m W S I2 W S E22 W
S R31 R32 R33 g R3m W S I3 W = S E33 W
S W S W S W
S h h h h h W Sh W S h W
SR R R g R W SI W SE W
T m1 m2 m3 mm
X T mX T mm X
66. Mesh currents are solved using Cramer’s rule.
67. The kth mesh current Ik by Cramer’s rule is,
m
Ik = 1
∆
/∆ jk E jj
j=1
where, m = Number of meshes in the circuit

Djk = Cofactor of Rjk
Ejj = Sum of voltage sources in mesh-j
D = Determinant of resistance matrix.
68. For circuit with three meshes, the mesh currents by Cramer’s rule are,
∆ ∆ ∆
I1 = 11 E11 + 21 E22 + 31 E33
∆ ∆ ∆
∆ ∆ ∆
I 2 = 12 E11 + 22 E22 + 32 E33
∆ ∆ ∆
∆13 ∆23 ∆33
I3 = E11 + E22 + E33
∆ ∆ ∆
69. The mesh currents for a circuit with three meshes using short-cut procedure for Cramer’s
rule are,
∆1 ∆ ∆3
I1 = I = 2 ; I3 =
∆ ; 2 ∆ ∆
R11 R12 R13 E11 R12 R13 R11 E11 R13 R11 R12 E11
where, ∆ = R 21 R 22 R 23 ; ∆1 = E 22 R 22 R 23 ; ∆2 = R 21 E 22 R 23 ; ∆3 = R 21 R 22 E 22
R31 R32 R33 E33 R32 R33 R31 E33 R33 R31 R32 E33
70. When a current source lie common to two meshes then the common current source can be
removed for analysis purpose and the resultant two meshes can be considered as one
single mesh called supermesh.
71. Node analysis is used to solve the independent voltage variables of a circuit.
72. The number of voltage variables in a circuit is equal to number of branches.
73. The number of independent voltages in a circuit is given by number of twigs (or tree
branches) in the graph of a cirucit.
74 The number of twigs (or tree branches) n in a circuit with N nodes is given by, n = N – 1.
75. In node analysis, the independent voltages are solved by writing KCL equations for
various nodes of a circuit.
76. In node analysis, one of the node is chosen as reference node and its voltage is considered as
zero and all other node voltages are solved with respect to reference node.
77. The node basis matrix equation for resistive circuit is,
RG G12 G13 g G1n V RV1 V RI V
S 11 W S W S 11 W
SG 21 G 22 G 23 g G 2n W S V2 W S I 22 W
SG31 G32 G33 g G3n W S V3 W = S I33 W
S W S W S W
SG G n2 G n3 g G nn W S Vn W SI W
T n1 X T X T nn X
78. Node voltages are solved using Cramer’s rule.
79. The kth node voltage Vk by Cramer’s rule is,
n
Vk = 1
∆l
/ ∆l jk I jj
j=1
where, n = Number of independent nodes in a circuit

∆l jk = Cofactor of Gjk
∆l = Determinant of conductance matrix.
80. For a circuit with three nodes excluding the reference node, the node voltages by
Cramer’s rule are,
∆l11 ∆l ∆l
V1 = I + 21 I + 31 I
∆l 11 ∆l 22 ∆l 33
∆l12 ∆l ∆l
V2 = I + 22 I + 32 I
∆l 11 ∆l 22 ∆l 33
∆l13 ∆l ∆l
V3 = I + 23 I + 33 I
∆l 11 ∆l 22 ∆l 33
81. The node voltages of a circuit with three nodes excluding the reference using short-cut
procedure for Cramer’s rule are,
∆l1
V1 =
∆l
∆l 2
V2 =
∆l
∆l 3
V3 =
∆l
G11 G12 G13 I11 G12 G13
where, ∆l = G 21 G 22 G 23 ; ∆l1 = I 22 G 22 G 23 ;
G31 G32 G33 I33 G32 G33
G11 I11 G13 G11 G12 I11

∆l 2 = G 21 I 22 G 23 ; ∆l3 = G 21 G 22 I 22
G31 I33 G33 G31 G32 I33
82. When a voltage source is connected between two nodes it can be short-circuited
for analysis purpose and the short-circuited two nodes can be considered as one single
node called supernode.
83. An incidence matrix is a two dimensional array that provides information regarding the
orientation of branches of a graph relative to the node of the graph.
84. A cut-set is a set of branches whose removal cuts the connected graph into two parts.
85. In a graph with N nodes and B branches N-1 cut-sets can be formed.
86. If one of the branches is twig and remaining branches are links, the cut-set is called
fundamental cut-set or f-cut-set.
87. A cut-set matrix is a matrix that relates the node voltages and branch voltages of a graph.
88. The order of the cutiset matrix of a graph with B branches and N nodes is (N-1) × B.
89. A tie-set is a set of branches that form a closed path in a graph such that the closed path
contains one link or chord and remaining are tree branches.
90. The tie-set with one of the branch as link and reamaining branches as twigs is also called
fundamental circuit or f-circuit.
91. A tie-set matrix is a matrix that relates the loop currents and branch currrents of a graph.
92. The order of the tie-set matrix of a graph with B branches and N nodes is (B-N+1) × B.
93. Duality is defined as the concept of forming a voltage basis circuit for a given current basis
circuit or vice-versa with similar form of governing equations and solutions.
94. A dual graph of a given graph can be constructed by converting each the tie-set of the given
graph as cut-sets in the dual graph.
95. Two graphs are said to be dual if the tie-sets of one graph is same as that of the another
graph.
96. Two networks are said to be dual if the mesh equations (KVL equations) of one of the
networks are in similar form as that of nodal equations (KCL equations) of the other network.
97. The dual of mesh basis network will be a node basis network.
1.13 Short-answer Questions

Q1.1 What is the difference between a circuit and network?
A network will not have any independent sources, whereas a circuit will have an independent
source. When independent sources are connected to a network it becomes a circuit.
Q1.2 Define active and passive elements.
The elements which can deliver energy are called active elements. The elements which
consume energy either by absorbing or storing it are called passive elements.
Q1.3 List the active and passive elements of an electric circuit.
The active elements of electric circuits are voltage source and current source. (Both
independent and dependent source.) The passive elements of electric circuits are resistor,
inductor and capacitor.
Q1.4 Define the dependent source of a circuit.
If the electrical energy supplied by a source depends on the voltage or current in some other
part of the same circuit then it is called a dependent source.
Q1.5 What is node and principal node?
In a circuit, the meeting point of two or more elements is called a node. If more than two
elements meet at a node then the meeting point is called a principal node.
Q1.6 Define the branch of a circuit.
The path between any two nodes in a circuit is called a branch.
Q1.7 Define series and parallel connection.
If two or more elements are connected such that the current through them is the same then
the connection is called a series connection.
If two or more elements are connected such that the voltage across them is the same then
the connection is called a parallel connection.
Q1.8 What is meant by open circuit and short circuit?
A path of infinite resistance between any two nodes is called an open circuit. The current
through an open circuit is zero.
A path of zero resistance between any two nodes is called a short circuit. The voltage across
a short circuit is zero.
Q1.9 Define Ohm’s law.
Ohm’s law states that the potential difference (or voltage) across any two ends of a conductor
is directly proportional to the current flowing between the two ends provided the temperature
of the conductor remains constant.
Q1.10 What are the limitations of Ohm’s law? (AU Dec’16, 2 Marks)
(i) Ohm’s law cannot be applied for non-linear elements.
(ii) Ohm’s law cannot be applied to a unilateral network which has diodes and transistors.
Q1.11 Define Kirchhoff’s laws.
1. Kirchhoff’s current law states that the algebraic sum of currents in a node is zero.
2. Kirchhoff’s voltage law states that the algebraic sum of voltages in a closed path is zero.
Q1.12 Draw the characteristics of an ideal and a practical voltage source.
E E
I I
Fig. Q1.12.1 : Characteristic of Fig. Q1.12.2 : Characteristic of
an ideal voltage source. a practical voltage source.
Q1.13 Draw the characteristics of an ideal and a practical current source.
Is Is
V V
Fig. Q1.13.1 : Characteristic of Fig. Q1.13.2 : Characteristic of
an ideal current source. a practical current source.
Q1.14 A 10 A current source has a source resistance of 100 Ω. What will be the equivalent voltage
source?
Solution
The current source can be converted into an equivalent voltage source as shown in Fig. Q1.14.1
below:
A A
100 W
10 A 100 W Þ +
- 10 ´ 100
= 1000 V
B B
Fig. Q1.14.1 : Current source to voltage source conversion.

Q1.15 Convert the voltage source shown in Fig. Q1.15.1 into a current source.
A A
Solution Rs = 5
E +E 20 V Is 4A Rs = 5
Given that, E = 20 V, Rs = 5 Ω
Now, Is = E = 20 = 4 A B B
Rs 5 Fig. Q1.15.2.
Fig. Q1.15.1.
The voltage source of Fig. Q1.15.1, can be represented by an equivalent current source of
value 4 A with a source resistance of 5 Ω in parallel as shown in Fig. Q1.15.2.
Q1.16 A 2 kW, 220 V water heater is used to heat a water tank for 45 minutes. What will be the
number of units of energy consumed?
Solution
Energy consumed = Power # Time
= 2 kW # 45 Hours = 1.5 kWh = 1.5 Units

60
Q1.17 An electrical appliance consumes 1.2 kWh in 30 minutes at 120 V. What is the current
drawn by the appliance? (AU Dec’14, 2 Marks)
Solution
Energy consumed in 30 minutes = 1.2 kWh
Energy consumed in 1 hour (60 minutes) = 1.2 # 60 = 2.4 kWh

30
∴ Power rating of the device, P = 2.4 kW = 2400 W
∴ Current, I = P = 2400 = 20 A A
V 120
I2 I
Q1.18 Determine the value of current I, in the circuit shown in
2 +
Fig. Q1.18.
2A 8V
+ E
Solution
2V
E
The voltage at node-A = 8 V
Current through 2 Ω resistance, I 2 = 8 − 2 = 3 A Fig. Q1.18.

2
By KCL, 2 + l = I 2 ⇒ I = I 2 − 2 = 3 − 2 = 1 A
Q1.19 Obtain the current in each branch of the 5 2

network shown in Fig. Q1.19.1. using
Kirchhoff’s Current Law. I3
Solution
(AU May’15, 2 Marks) 20 V +
E I1 10
+ 8V
E
I2
Let VA be the voltage at node-A.

Fig. Q1.19.1.
By, KCL at node-A we get,
20 − VA VA − 8 VA
I1 − I2 − I3 = 0 & − − = 0
5 2 10
V V V
` 20 − A − A + 8 − A = 0 & 4 − 0.2 VA − 0.5VA + 4 − 0.1VA = 0
5 5 2 2 10
8 − 0.8VA = 0 & 0.8VA = 8 V1 = 20V 5 VA 2 V2 = 8 V

1 A 2
` VA = 8 = 10 V 20 E V A VA E 8
0.8 I
1
a
5 I2 a
V 2 +
20 V +
E I3 a A E 8V
10
20 − VA 10
I1 = = 20 − 10 = 2 A
5 5
I2 =
VA − 8
= 10 − 8 = 1 A
Fig. Q1.19.2.
2 2
VA
I3 = = 10 = 1 A
10 10
Q1.20 Find the voltage across AB in the circuit shown 3 10 V
A
+E
in Fig. Q1.20.1.
(AU June’16 & May’17, 8 Marks)
Solution V
7 V +E
5
4 8 2
+E
With reference to Fig. Q1.20.2, by voltage
division rule,
Voltage across 4 Ω resistor, V2 = 7 # 4 = 4 V B

4 + 3 Fig. Q1.20.1.
Voltage across 8 Ω resistor, V3 = 10 # 8 = 8V
8 + 2
3 10 V
A
On tracing from A to B, as shown in Fig. Q1.20.2. + E
+E
V1
VAB = V2 + 5 + V3 = 4 + 5 + 8 = 17 V + + E
V
7 V +E
5
V2 4 8 V3 V4 2
E
I1 I2
+
Q1.21 Determine the currents I1, I2, I3 and I4 in the E E +
circuit shown in Fig. Q1.21.
Solution B
Fig. Q1.20.2.
By KCL at node-A,
2A
I1 + 2 + 5 = 0 ⇒ I1 = −7 A A B
I1 I2
At node-B,
I2 = 2 + 4 = 6 A
5A 4A
At node-C,
4 + I4 + 1 = 0 ⇒ I4 = −5 A I3 I4
At node-D, D C
1A
I3 = 5 + 1 = 6 A Fig. Q1.21.
Q1.22 Find the current I and voltage across 30 W (AU June’14, 8 Marks)
resistor in the circuit shown in Fig. Q1.22.1. 8 2
Solution
+
E
The given circuit is redrawn as shown in 40 V + 100 V
E I
Fig. Q1.22.2.
Now, by KVL, 30
Fig. Q1.22.1.
40 + 8 I + 2 I + 30 I = 100 8
E +
8I
8 I + 2 I + 30 I = 100 − 40
+
+ 100 V
40 V I
I = 60 = 1.5 A
E
40 I = 60 ⇒ E
40
+ 30I E + 2I E
Voltage across 30 Ω resistor = 30 I = 30 ´ 1.5 = 45 V 30 2
Fig. Q1.22.2.
Q1.23 Determine the current through each resistor in the circuit (AU June’14, 6 Marks)
shown in Fig. Q1.23.
12 A
Solution
+
Since three equal resistances are connected in parallel, Vs 4 4 4
the current will divide equally in the three parallel paths. E
I1 I2 I3
` I1 = I2 = I3 = 12 = 4 A
3 B
Fig. Q1.23.
` Vs = I1 # 4 = 4 # 4 = 16 V
Q1.24 What will be the length of copper rod having a cross-section of 1 cm2 and a resistance of 1W ?
Take resistivity of copper as 2 ´ 10 −8 W-m.
Solution
Given that, R = 1 Ω, a = 1 cm2 = 1 # 10- 4 m2, ρ = 2 # 10- 8 Ω − m
ρl
We know that, Resistance, R =
a
` Length, l = Ra
ρ
= 1 # 1 # 10- 4 = 5000 m = 5 km
2 # 10- 8
Q1.25 What is a single loop circuit?
A single loop circuit is one which has only one closed path.
Q1.26 Define a single node pair circuit.
A single node pair circuit is one which has only one independent node and a reference node.
Q1.27 Distinguish between mesh and loop of a circuit.

(AU June’16, 2 Marks)
Loop: A loop is any closed path in a circuit in which no node is encountered more than once. A
loop may contain other paths inside it.
Mesh : A mesh is a closed path which does not contain any other loops within it.
R1 R3 C
Consider the circuit as shown in Fig. Q1.27. A B
The closed path ABCDA is a loop. It has another two closed

+ R2 R4
paths ABDA and BCDB inside it. V
E
The closed paths ABDA and BCDB are meshes which have no
other closed paths inside them. D
Fig. Q1.27.
Q1.28 What is mesh analysis?
Mesh analysis is a useful technique to solve the independent current variables of a circuit.
Q1.29 When is mesh analysis preferred to solve currents?

Mesh analysis is preferred to solve current variables when the circuit is excited by voltage
sources only. Applying mesh analysis is straightforward and easier in circuits excited
by voltage sources only. Mesh analysis can also be extended to circuits excited by
both voltage and current sources.
Q1.30 How is mesh analysis performed?

In a circuit with B branches and N nodes the number of independent currents is given by,
m = B – N + 1. Hence, m number of meshes are selected in the given circuit and one mesh
current is attached to each mesh.
For each mesh, a KVL equation is formed and then the m number of mesh equations are
solved by Cramer’s rule to get a unique solution for mesh currents.
Q1.31 How are mesh currents solved using the mesh basis matrix equation?
Consider the mesh basis matrix equation,
RI=E
On premultiplying the above equation both sides by R −1 we get,
R−1 R I = R−1 E
U I = R−1 E R−1 R = U = Unit matrix
∴ I = R−1 E UI = I
The above equation will be the solution for mesh currents and the kth mesh current is,
m
Ik =
∆1k
∆
∆
∆
∆
∆
∆
E11 + 2k E22 + 3k E33 + ...... + mk Emm = 1
∆ ∆ / ∆ jk E jj
j =1
The above equation for mesh currents is also called Cramer’s rule.
Q1.32 What is supermesh?

When a current source lies common to two meshes then the common current source can be
removed for analysis purpose and the resultant two meshes can be considered as one single
mesh called supermesh.
Q1.33 What is the value of E in the circuit shown in Fig. Q1.33 if the value of I2 is zero?
Solution 2 3
The mesh basis matrix equation by inspection is,

+ E
2 + E
4 − 2 I1
G = G = = G
10 V
=
10 E
− 2 5 I2 E I1 I2
∆2
Here, I 2 = . Therefore, for I2 = 0 , ∆2 = 0 Fig. Q1.33.
∆
4 10
Now, ∆2 = = 4E + 20
−2 E
` 4E + 20 = 0 ⇒ 4E = − 20 ⇒ E = − 20 = − 5 V
4
1 2
Q1.34 Find the value of E1 and E2 in the circuit shown in Fig. Q1.34.
Solution 4
+
The mesh basis matrix equation by inspection is, E1 I1 = 3 A I2 = 1 A 3
_ +
> H > H = > H

5 − 4 I1 E1 − E 2 E2
_
− 4 9 I2 E2
Fig. Q1.34.
On substituting for I1 = 3 A and I2 = 1 A in the above equation we get,
> H > H = > H

5 −4 3 E1 − E2
−4 9 1 E2
From row-2 we get,

–4 ´ 3 + 9 ´ 1 = E2 ⇒ E2 = –3 V
From row-1 we get,
5 ´ 3 – 4 ´ 1 = E1 – E2 ⇒ 11 = E1 – E2
∴ E1 = 11 + E2 = 11 – 3 = 8 V
2 4
Q1.35 Find the value of I2 and E2 in the circuit shown in Fig. Q1.35.
Solution + +
9V E 5 E E
2
The mesh basis matrix equation by inspection is, I1 = 2 A I2
> H> H = > E H > H> H = > E H

7 − 5 I1 9 7 −5 2 9
⇒
− 5 9 I2 − 2 − 5 9 I2 - 2 Fig. Q1.35.
From row-1 we get,

7 # 2 − 5I2 = 9 ⇒ 5I2 = 14 − 9 ⇒ I2 = 14 − 9 = 1 A
5
From row-2 we get,
–5 ´ 2 + 9I2 = −E2 ⇒ −E2 = –10 + 9 ´ 1 = –1 V ⇒ E2 = 1V
Q1.36 In the circuit shown in Fig Q1.36, find the power delivered to 1Ω resistor.
Solution
The mesh basis matrix equation is,
2 4 1
> H> H = > H > H> H = > H

2 + 4 − 4 I1 16 − 5 6 − 4 I1 11
⇒
− 4 4 + 1 I2 5 − 10 − 4 5 I2 −5 16 V +
E
+
E
5V +
E 10 V
I1 I2
6 11
Now, ∆2 = = 6 # a− 5 k − a− 4 k # 11 = 14
−4 −5 Fig. Q1.36.
6 −4 2
∆ = = 6 # 5 − a − 4 k = 14
−4 5
∆2
I2 = = 14 = 1
∆ 14
Power delivered to 1 Ω resistor = I22 ´ 1 = 1 ´ 1 = 1 W
Q1.37 Find the current I in the circuit shown in Fig. Q1.37. 2 4
Solution I
+
The mesh basis matrix equation is, 10 V
_ 2
> H > H = > H

4 − 2 I1 10 I1 I2
− 2 6 I2 0
Fig. Q1.37.
4 −2 2
Now, ∆ = = 4 # 6 − a − 2 k = 20
−2 6
10 − 2
∆1 = = 10 # 6 − 0 = 60
0 6
4 10
∆2 = = 0 − a− 2 k # 10 = 20
−2 0
∆1 ∆2 ∆ − ∆2
I = I1 − I 2 = − = 1 = 60 − 20 = 2 A
∆ ∆ ∆ 20
Q1.38 What is node analysis?
Node analysis is a useful technique to solve the independent voltage variables of a circuit.
Q1.39 When is node analysis preferred to solve the voltages?
Node analysis is preferred to solve voltage variables when a circuit is excited by
current sources only. Applying node analysis is straightforward and easier in circuits excited by
current sources only. Node analysis can also be extended to circuits excited by both
voltage and current sources.
Q1.40 How is node analysis performed?
In a circuit with N nodes, one of the nodes is chosen as the reference node and its voltage
is considered as zero. The voltages of remaining N – 1 nodes are independent voltages
of the circuit with respect to the reference node. For each node (except the reference node),
a KCL equation is formed and then the n (where, n = N – 1) number of node equations are
solved by Cramer’s rule to get a unique solution for node voltages.
Q1.41 How are the node voltages solved using the node basis matrix equation?
Consider the node basis matrix equation,
GV=I
On premultiplying the above equation both sides by G−1 we get,
G−1 G V = G−1 I
U V = G−1 I G−1 G = U = Unit matrix
∴ V = G−1 I UV = V
The above equation will be the solution for node voltages and the kth node voltage is,
n
∆l1k ∆l ∆l ∆l
Vk = I11 + 2k I22 + 3k I33 + ...... + nk Inn = 1 / ∆l jk I jj
∆l ∆l ∆l ∆l ∆l j =1
The above equation for node voltages is also called Cramer’s rule.
Q1.42 What is supernode?
When a voltage source is connected between two nodes it can be short-circuited for
analysis purpose and the short-circuited two nodes can be considered as one single node
called supernode.
Q1.43 What is the value of Is2 in the circuit shown in Fig. Q1.43 if the value of V2 is zero?

Solution V1 2 V2
The node basis matrix equation by inspection is,

Is2
= G = G = = G
5 − 2 V1 4 4A 3 3
− 2 5 V2 − Is2
0
∆l 2
Now, V2 = . Therefore, for V2 = 0, ∆l 2 = 0 Reference node
∆
Fig. Q1.43.
5 4
Here, ∆l 2 = = − 5Is2 + 8
− 2 − Is2
` − 5Is2 + 8 = 0 ⇒ 5Is2 = 8 ⇒ Is2 = 8 = 1.6 A
5
Is2
Q1.44 Find the value of Is1 and Is2 in the circuit shown in Fig. Q1.44.

Solution 3
V1 = 3 V V2 = 2 V

Is1 2 2
= G = G = = G
5 − 3 V1 Is1 − Is2 1
− 3 6 V2 Is2
On substituting for V1 = 3 V and V2 = 2 V in the above 0 Reference node

equation we get, Fig. Q1.44.
= G = G = = G
5 −3 3 Is1 − Is2
−3 6 2 Is2
From row-2 we get,
–3 ´ 3 + 6 ´ 2 = Is2 ⇒ Is2 = 3 A
From row-1 we get,
5 ´ 3 – 3 ´ 2 = Is1 – Is2 ⇒ Is1 = 9 + Is2 = 9 + 3 = 12 A

V1 = 4 V 4
Q1.45 Find the value of V2 and Is2 in the circuit shown in Fig. Q1.45. V2
Solution

4A 1 Is2

The node basis matrix equation by inspection is, 2
= G = G = = G
5 − 4 V1 4
= G = G = = G
5 −4 4 4
⇒ 0
Reference node
− 4 6 V2 Is2 − 4 6 V2 Is2
Fig. Q1.45.
From row-1 we get,
5 # 4 − 4V2 = 4 ⇒ 4V2 = 16 ⇒ V2 = 16 = 4 V
4
From row-2 we get,
– 4 ´ 4 + 6V2 = Is2 ⇒ Is2 = –16 + 6 ´ 4 = 8 A

Q1.46 In the circuit shown in Fig. Q1.46, find the power delivered to 2M conductance.
Solution 2A

3
V1 V2
= G= G = = G⇒ = G= G = = G
1+3 − 3 V1 4−2 4 − 3 V1 2
− 3 3 + 1 + 2 V2 2+1 − 3 6 V2 3 1

4A 2
1
1A
4 −3
∆l = = 4 # 6 − ^− 3h2 = 15
−3 6
0 Reference node
4 2 Fig. Q1.46.
∆l 2 = = 4 # 3 − ^− 3h # 2 = 18
−3 3
∆l 2
` V2 = = 18 = 1.2 V
∆l 15
Power delivered to 2M conductance = V22 ´ 2 = 1.22 ´ 2 = 2.88 W
Q1.47 Find the voltage Vx in the circuit shown in Fig. Q1.47.

Solution 1
The node basis matrix equation is, + Vx E

V1 V2
= G = G = = G
7 − 5 V1 9 4

− 5 10 V2 0
2 5
9A
7 −5
∆l = = 7 # 10 − ^− 5h2 = 45
− 5 10 0 Reference node
9 −5 Fig. Q1.47.
∆l1 = = 90 − 0 = 90
0 10
7 9
∆l 2 = = 0 − ^− 5h # 9 = 45
−5 0
∆l1 ∆l 2 ∆l1 − ∆l 2
Vx = V1 − V2 = − = = 90 − 45 = 1V
∆l ∆ ∆ 45
Q1.48 What are network variables?
Branch currents and voltages are called network variables. Branch currents are
called current variables and branch voltages are called voltage variables.
Q1.49 What is network topology?
Network topology is the study of properties of a network which are unaffected when
we stretch, twist or distort the size and shape of the network.
Q1.50 What is a graph?
A graph is topological description of a network and consists of nodes and branches.
Q1.51 What is oriented graph?
A graph is called an oriented graph when the direction of branch currents and voltages are
specified by placing an arrow in each branch of the graph.
Q1.52 What is a path in a graph?
A sequence of branches traversed while going from one node to another node is called a path.
Q1.53 What is connected graph?
A graph is said to be a connected graph if there exists atleast one path from each node of a
graph to every other node of the graph.
Q1.54 What are planar and nonplanar graphs?
When a graph can be drawn on a plane surface without crossover of branches then it is
called a planar graph.
A graph which cannot be drawn on a plane surface without crossover of branches is called
a non-planar graph.
Q1.55 Define tree, link and cotree.

Tree:
Tree is a subgraph and can be defined as any connected open set of branches which
includes all nodes of a given graph.
Link:
The branches removed from the graph of a network to form a tree are called links.
Cotree:
The cotree is complement of a tree.
Q1.56 How will you form a tree of a graph?
A tree is a subgraph which is obtained by removing some branches such that the subgraph
includes all the nodes of the graph but does not have any closed paths. For a graph with
B branches and N nodes, the number of closed paths is given by links L,
where, L = B – N + 1
Hence, a tree is formed by removing L number of branches from a graph such that all
the nodes remain connected but without any closed paths.
Q1.57 Draw a tree of the graph shown in
Fig. Q1.57.1.
The given graph has 10 branches,
(B = 10) and 5 nodes (N = 5). Fig. Q1.57.1. Fig. Q1.57.2.
∴ Links, L = B – N + 1 = 10 – 5 + 1 = 6
Let us remove 6 branches and form a tree as shown in Fig. Q1.57.2.
Q1.58 Write the properties of a tree.
The properties of a tree of a graph are,
1. The tree contains all the nodes of a graph.
2. The tree contains N – 1 branches.
3. The tree does not have a closed path.
Q1.59 What are links and twigs ?

The branches of a graph which are removed to form a tree are called links or chords. The
branches of a tree are called twigs.
In a graph with B branches and N nodes,
Number of links = B – N + 1
Number of twigs = N – 1
Q1.60 What is a cotree ?
The cotree is complement of a tree. It is obtained by connecting the links to the
nodes of a graph.
Q1.61 Define incidence matrix.
The incidence matrix is defined as a two-dimensional array which provides information
regarding the orientation of branches of a graph relative to nodes of the graph.
Q1.62 Determine the incidence matrix of the graph shown in Fig. Q1.62.
1 a
a b c d e 2
R V
S 1 −1 1 0 0 W 1
b c
Complete incidence matrix, AC = S − 1 0 0 1 0 W 2 d
S W
S 0 1 0 0 1W 3
S 0 0 −1 −1 −1 W 4 3 e 4
T X
Let us delete row-4 and form reduced incidence matrix. Fig. Q1.62.
R V
S 1 −1 1 0 0 W
4 = S−1 0 0 1 0 W
Incidence matrix, A
(or reduced incidence matrix) SS 0 1 0 0 1 WW
T X
Q1.63 What is tie-set ?
A tie-set is a set of branches that form a closed path in a graph such that the closed path
contains one link and the remaining are tree branches.
Q1.64 What is tie-set matrix ?
The tie-set matrix is a two-dimensional array in which the relation between the loop currents
and branch currents is tabulated.
Q1.65 Determine the tie-sets of the graph shown in Fig. Q1.65.1.
The graph shown in Fig. Q1.65.1 has 5 branches (B = 5) and four nodes (N = 4).
∴ Links, L = B − N + 1 = 5 − 4 + 1 = 2
Since the graph has two links, the number of tie-sets will be two. Let us remove L number of
branches and form a tree as shown in Fig. Q1.65.1. The tie-sets are shown in
Fig. Q1.65.2 and Fig. Q1.65.3. 1 a
1 1 2
2
I2
b c c
c d
d I1
4
3 e 4
3 e 4 Tie-set-2: [a,c,d]
Tie-set-1: [b,c,e]
Fig. Q1.65.1 : Tree. Fig. Q1.65.2. Fig. Q1.65.3.

Q1.66 What are equilibrium equations ?
Equilibrium equations are a set of equations governing the network in which the unknowns
are the independent variables of the network. On solving the equilibrium equations, we get
the solution of unknown variables.
When equilibrium equations are formed using tie-sets, the unknowns are loop currents and
when they are formed using cut-sets, the unknowns are node voltages.
Q1.67 What is cut-set ?
The cut-set is a set of branches whose removal cuts the connected graph into two parts with
the condition that replacing any one branch of the cut-set renders the two parts connected.
Each cut-set contains one twig and the remaining branches are links.
Q1.68 What is cut-set matrix ?
The cut-set matrix is a two-dimensional array in which the relation between the node voltages
and branch voltages is tabulated.
Q1.69 Determine the cut-sets of the graph shown in Fig. Q1.69.1.
The graph shown in Fig. Q1.69.1 has 4 nodes (N = 4) and so we can form, N – 1 = 4 – 1 = 3 cut-sets.
The three cut-sets are shown in Fig. Q1.69.2.
1 1 a
2 b c 2
Cut-set-1 : [b, c]
Cut-set-1 d Cut-set-2 : [a, d]
c Cut-set-2
Cut-set-3 : [b, e]
d Cut-set-3
b
Reference node
3 e 4 3 e 4
Fig. Q1.69.1. Fig. Q1.69.2.

Q1.70 What is duality in circuits ?
Duality refers to the concept of forming (or identifying) a voltage basis circuit for a given
current basis circuit (or viceversa) with similar form of governing equations and solutions.
Q1.71 What is dual network ?
Two networks are said to be dual networks if the mesh equations (KVL equations) of one of the
networks are in a form similar to that of nodal equations (KCL equations) of the other network.
Q1.72 What is dual graph ?
Two graphs are said to be dual if the tie-sets of one graph is the same as that of cut-sets of
the other graph.
Q1.73 Draw the dual of the network shown in Fig. Q1.73.1.
The dual of the network of Fig. Q1.73.1 is shown in Fig. Q1.73.2.

5
2 3

5A 2 3 2A 5
+ +
5V E E 2V
Fig. Q1.73.1. Fig. Q1.73.2.

1.14 Exercises
I. Fill in the Blanks With Appropriate Words
1. The elements which consume energy either by absorbing/storing it are called _________ elements.
2. The sources in which the current/voltage does not change with time are called _________.
3. The electrical energy supplied by _________source depends on another source of electrical energy.
4. The path between any two nodes is called _________.
5. In an electric circuit, when elements are _________connected, the current will be the same.
6. In an electric circuit, a path of infinite resistance is called _________.
7. In an electric circuit, a path of zero resistance is called _________.
8. In an electric circuit, the algebraic sum of _________ in a node is zero.
9. In an electric circuit, the algebraic sum of _________ in a closed path is zero.
10. In an ideal _________ source, the terminal voltage remains constant.
11. The _________ is given by the product of power and time.
12. Mesh analysis is used to solve ________ variables of a circuit.
13. A circuit with B branches and N nodes will have ________ independent currents.
14. In a mesh basis matrix equation, mesh currents are solved using ________.
15. Mesh equations are ________ equations of a circuit.
16. The solution of a mesh basis matrix equation RI = E will be in the form ________.
17. Node analysis is used to solve ________ variables of a circuit.
18. A circuit with N nodes will have ________ independent voltages.
19. In a node basis matrix equation, node voltages are solved by using ________.
20. Node equations are ________ equations of a circuit.
21. The solution of node basis matrix equation GV = I will be in the form ________.
22. The ________ is a branch of science which deals with the study of geometrical properties that
are unaffected by change of shape or size of figures.
23. The ________ indicates the direction of a branch current and the sign of a branch voltage.
24. In ________ graphs, the branches do not cross one over the other.
25. The number of closed paths in a graph is equal to the number of ________ .
26. When some of the branches in an original graph are removed, the resultant graph is called ________ .
27. A network has 7 nodes and 5 independent loops. The number of branches in the network is ________ .
28. In a graph ________ currents are independent variables.
29. The number of possible trees in a graph is given by determinant of ________ .
30. Using incidence matrix, the relation between branch and node voltages is expressed by the equation
________ .
31. The tie-set with one of the branches as link and remaining branches as twigs is called ________ .
32. The number of tie-sets is equal to the number of ________ .
33. Using tie-set matrix, the relation between branch and loop currents is expressed by the equation
________ .
34. The number of cut-sets is equal to the number of ________ .
35. Using cut-set matrix, the relation between branch and node voltage is expressed by the equation
________ .
36. The planar graph has 4 nodes and 6 branches. The number of meshes in the dual graph is ________ .
ANSWERS
T
1. passive 9. voltages 17. Voltage 25. links 33. IB = M I L
2. dc sources 10. voltage 18. N – 1 26. subgraph 34. twigs
T
3. dependent 11. energy 19. Cramer’s rule 27. 11 35. VB = Q VN
4. branch 12. Current 20. KCL 28. link 36. 3
T
5. series 13. B – N + 1 21. V = G-1I 29. AA
T
6. open circuit 14.Cramer’s rule 22. topology 30. VB = A VN
7. short circuit 15.KVL 23. arrow or 31. fundamental circuit
orientation
8. currents 16. I = R–1E 24. planar 32. links
II. State Whether the Following Statements are True or False

1. The elements of electric circuits which can deliver energy are called active elements.
2. Inductance and capacitance absorb energy.
3. The electrical energy supplied by an independent source depends on another electrical source.
4. In an electric circuit, the meeting point of two or more elements is called the principal node.
5. In parallel connected elements, the voltage will be the same.
6. In an electric circuit, a voltage exists across open terminals.
7. In an electric circuit, a current flows through short-circuited terminals.
8. In an electric circuit, when an element delivers energy, the current will leave from the negative terminal.
9. In an electric circuit, when an element absorbs energy, the current will enter at the negative terminal.
10. An ideal voltage source can be converted into an ideal current source.
11. In an ideal current source, the terminal voltage remains constant.
12. Power is rate of work done and energy is the total work done.
13. Mesh analysis can be used to solve voltage variables from the knowledge of current variables.
14. Mesh analysis can be applied only to circuits excited by voltage sources.
15. Mesh currents are independent current variables of a circuit.
16. Mesh analysis is applicable to non-planar circuits.
17. Mesh equations are formed using KCL.
18. Node analysis can be used to solve current variables from the knowledge of voltage variables.
19. Node analysis can be applied only to circuits excited by current sources.
20. Node voltages are independent voltage variables of a circuit.
21. For node analysis, any node can be chosen as the reference node.
22. Node equations are formed using KVL.
23. A graph describes the topological properties of a network.
24. The orientation of a branch indicates only the direction of the branch current.
25. In non-planar graphs, branches cross one over the other.
26. A tree does not have any closed path.
27. The cotree is the complement of a tree.
28. A tree of a graph with N nodes will have N + 1 branches.
29. The links connected to the nodes of a graph form a cotree.
30. The cotree is a connected subgraph and does not have any closed path.
31. In a graph, link voltages are independent variables.
32. In a graph, twig voltages are independent variables.
33. The sum of elements in any column of a reduced incidence matrix is zero.
34. The determinant of a complete incidence matrix of a closed loop is non-zero.
35. The product of an incidence matrix and a branch current matrix is a null matrix.
36. The product of a tie-set matrix and a branch voltage matrix is a null matrix.
37. The product of a cut-set matrix and a branch current matrix is a null matrix.
ANSWERS
1. True 9. False 17. False 25. True 33. False
2. False 10. False 18. True 26. True 34. False
3. False 11. False 19. False 27. True 35. True
4. True 12. True 20. True 28. False 36. True
5. True 13. True 21. True 29. True 37. True
6. True 14. False 22. False 30. False
7. True 15. True 23. True 31. False
8. False 16. False 24. False 32. True
III. Choose the Right Answer for the Following Questions

1 5
1. The voltage VAB across the open circuit in the circuit shown in Fig. 1 is, A
+
a) 2 V
20 V +E 4 VAB
b) 4 V
E
c) 8 V B
5 6
d) 6 V Fig. 1.
2. The current Isc through the short circuit in the 3
circuit shown in Fig. 2 is,
a) 4 A 12 V +E 4 2 5 Isc
b) 3 A
c) 2 A 1
Fig. 2.
d) 1 A
5 6
3. The voltage VL in the circuit shown in Fig. 3 is,
a) 4 V +
2A VL 4 3A
b) 8 V E
c) 12 V
d) 20 V Fig. 3.
4. The current Is delivered by the voltage source in the circuit shown 2 4
in Fig. 4 is,
Is
a) 6 A 8 1
b) 5 A +
E 20 V
c) 4 A
Fig. 4.
d) 2 A
A
5. The node voltage VA in the circuit shown in Fig. 5 is,
VA
a) 8 V
5 10 A 2 10 2A
b) 6 V
c) 10 V
d) 2 V Fig. 5.
6. The values of voltage sources E1 and E2 in the circuit shown in 5 5
Fig. 6 are,
2A 1A
+ +
a) 11 V, 16 V
E1 2 E2
b) 16 V, 11 V E E
c) 5 V, 7 V
d) 7 V, 5 V Fig. 6.
7. The currents I1 and I2 in the circuit shown in Fig. 7 are,

I1 2A
a) 7, 5
5A 4A
b) 3, 7
c) –5, –3 1A
I2
d) –7, –5
Fig. 7.
8. The equivalent current source for the voltage source in the circuit shown in Fig. 8 is,
5 2
10 V + 1
3
2 E
Fig. 8.
7 6
2
a) b) c) d)
10 A 10 A 2 5A 2 2A 10
9. The equivalent voltage source for the current source in the circuit shown in Fig. 9 is,
5
5A
2 8
3
Fig. 9.
5 1.2 3
a) b) c) d)
+ + + +
5V 3 25 V 6V 15 V
E E E E
10. The equivalent current source for the dependent voltage source in the circuit shown in Fig. 10
with respect to terminals A -B is,
4 3Ix
A
+ E
10 V +E 5 Ix 2
Fig. 10.
B
1.5Ix
a) A b) A c) A d) Not possible
5 Ix 5 Ix 1.5Ix 2 5 Ix 1.5Ix 2
B 2 B B
11. The equivalent voltage source for the dependent current
source in the circuit shown in Fig. 11 with respect to terminals A-B is, 0.2Vx
A B
a) E +
0.1Vx 2
A B A
b) + E
B
7 2
0.4Vx 2 +
12 V +E 6 4 Vx
A B
c) E + E
0.4Vx 2
d) Not possible Fig. 11.
12. In Fig. 12, the currents I1, I2 and I3 respectively are, 5A
a) 1.5 A, 1.5 A, 2 A I1 I2 I3
b) 1 A, 1 A, 3 A 3 3 6
c) 1 A, 2 A, 3 A
d) 2 A, 2 A, 1 A Fig. 12.
V1 V2 V3
13. In Fig. 13, the voltage V1, V2 and V3 respectively are, + E + E + E
a) 4 V, 6 V, 10 V 2 4 10
b) 3.5 V, 6.5 V, 10 V
c) 2.5 V, 5 V, 12.5 V +E
20 V
d) 2 V, 6 V, 12 V Fig. 13.
14. Mesh analysis is based on,

a) KCL b) KVL c) Ohm’s law d) none of the above
15. A planar circuit has 6 branches and 4 nodes, then the number of meshes are,
a) 6 b) 5 c) 4 d) 3
th
16. In a circuit with m meshes, the k mesh current by Cramer’s rule is given by,
k j
a) I k = 1
∆ /∆ jk E jj b) I k = 1
∆ /∆ jk E kk
j=1 k =1
m m
c) I k = 1
∆ /∆ jk E jj d) I k = 1
∆ /∆ jm E km
j=1 k =1
17. In mesh analysis, when all the mesh currents are chosen in the same orientation then the
mutual-resistances are,
a) always negative b) always positive
c) positive or negative d) always zero
18. The mesh currents I1, I2 and I3 in the circuit shown in Fig. 18 are 2A
respectively are,
4A I1
a) 2 A, 4 A, 6 A
b) 2 A, 10 A, 6 A 6A
I2 I3
c) 2 A, 6 A, 0
Fig. 18.
d) 2 A, 6 A, 4 A
19. In the circuit shown in Fig. 19, the currents I1 and I2 respectively are, 1 1
a) 1 A, –1 A
+ 2 +
b) 2 A, 2 A 5V E E 5V
I1 I2
c) 2 A, 0
d) 1 A, 0 Fig. 19.
20. In the circuit shown in Fig. 20, the value of E1 and I1 respectively are, 1 1
a) 6 V, 3 A
E1 + 1 1
b) 4 V, 2 A E
I1 I2 = 1 A
c) 7 V, 1 A
d) 5 V, 3 A Fig. 20.
3 3
21. In the circuit shown in Fig. 21, what is the value of E1 for the
current I1 to be zero?
E1 + 3 +
10 V
a) 20 V E E
I1 I2
b) 10 V
c) 5 V Fig. 21.
d) 0
22. In the circuit shown in Fig. 22, what is the value of E1, if the power 4 2
delivered to 1Ω resistor is 1 W?
a) 10 V E1 +
E 3 1
I1 I2
b) 9 V
c) 11 V Fig. 22.
d) 7 V
1 2
23. In the circuit shown in Fig. 23, the value of I1 and I2 respectively are,
a) 2 A, 1 A
9V + 7 5
b) 3 A, 2 A E
I1 I2
c) 4 A, 1 A
d) 2 A, 5 A Fig. 23.
24. Node analysis is based on,

a) KCL b) KVL c) Ohm’s law d) none of the above
25. If a circuit has 8 branches and 5 nodes, then the number of independent voltages are,
a) 7 b) 6 c) 5 d) 4
26. In a circuit with n independent voltages, the kth node voltage by Cramer’s rule is given by,
k j
a) Vk = 1
∆l / ∆l jk I jj b) Vk = 1
∆l / ∆l jk I kk
j=1 k =1
n m
c) Vk = 1
∆l / ∆l jk I jj d) Vk = 1
∆l / ∆l jn I kn
j=1 k =1
27. In a node basis matrix equation, mutual conductances are,

a) always positive b) always negative
c) positive or negative d) always zero
28. The node voltages V1, V2 and V3 in the circuit shown in Fig. 28 respectively are,
a) 6 V, 4 V, – 2 V
6V 2V
+E V2 +E
V1 V3
b) 10 V, 4 V, 2 V
+
E 4V
c) 6 V, 2 V, –2 V
0 Reference node
d) 10 V, 2 V, 2 V
Fig. 28.
29. In the circuit shown in Fig. 29, the voltages V1 and V2 respectively are,
V1 2 V2
a) 4 V, 2 V

b) 3 V, 1 V 3A 1 1 3A
c) 3 V, 3 V 0
Reference node
d) 2 V, 2 V
Fig. 29.
30. The node voltages V1, V2 and V3 in the circuit shown in Fig. 30 are, V1
6A V2
2
a) 1.5 V, 2 V, 1.67 V
4
b) 24 V, 8 V, 15 V 4A
Reference node
c) 2 V, 2 V, 2 V 3 5A
d) 10 V, 6 V, 8 V Fig. 30.
V3
31. If the node voltage V2 is zero then the value of Is2 in the cirucit shown in Fig. 31 is,
V1 1 V2 1 V3
a) –4 A
b) 4 A 4A 2 4 2 Is2
c) –2 A
0 Reference node
d) 2 A Fig. 31.
32. In the circuit shown in Fig. 32, the power P1 and P2 delivered V1 1 V2
by current sources are,
a) P1 = 4 W, P2 = 4 W 4 A, P1 1 2 2 A, P2
b) P1 = 8 W, P2 = 4 W 0
Reference node
c) P1 = 6 W, P2 = 2 W
Fig. 32.
d) P1 = 8 W, P2 = 0
V1 2 V2
33. In the circuit shown in Fig. 33, what is the value of Is1 for the power
delivered to 1 W resistor is 25 W?
2 2 1
a) 35 A Is1
b) 17.5 A
0
Reference node
c) 8.75 A Fig. 33.
d) 4.375 A
34. The number of links and twigs in the graph shown in Fig. 34 respectively are,
a) 5, 6
b) 5, 5
c) 6, 5
Fig. 34.
d) 11, 5
35. For the graph shown in Fig. 35, which one of the following is not a proper tree?
1 2
4
3 5
Fig. 35.
a) 1 2 b) 1 2 c) 1 2 d) 1 2
4 4
3 4 5 3 4 5 3 5 3 5
ANSWERS
1. c 8. c 15. d 22. c 29. c
2. b 9. d 16. c 23. a 30. b
3. d 10. b 17. a 24. a 31. a
4. a 11. c 18. c 25. d 32. d
5. c 12. d 19. a 26. c 33. b
6. b 13. c 20. d 27. b 34. a

7. d 14. b 21. c 28. b 35. c
IV. Unsolved Problems

E1.1 Find the node voltages in the circuit shown in Fig. E1.1.
R1
I2 R2
A B 5 3
R1 I1
12 V V2 6V 2A
V1 +E +E V3 R3 1
1 2 3
2A 5A 4 2
+
R2 R3 E 3V I3 +
Vs E
D C
0 10 A Fig. E1.3.
Fig. E1.1. Fig. E1.2.
E1.2 Find the branch currents I1, I2 and I3 in the circuit shown in Fig. E1.2.
E1.3 Find the value of the source voltage Vs in the circuit shown in Fig. E1.3.
E1.4 A 20 V source with internal resistance 0.2 Ω is connected in series with a 30 V source with internal
resistance 0.3 Ω to deliver a load current of 10 A to resistive load. Calculate, a) Load power PL
and b) Power delivered by each source to load.
E1.5 Two current sources with internal resistance 50 Ω and 100 Ω are connected in parallel to supply a
4.8 kW load at 200 V. If the generated source current of the source with 50 Ω internal resistance is
12 A, what is the generated source current of the other source?
E1.6 What is the value of the emf, E of the battery in the circuit shown in Fig. E1.6? Say whether the
battery is charging or discharging.
1 2 2 2
14 A 1A
+ + +
1 E E 3 1
24 V
E E E
Fig. E1.6. Fig. E1.7.

E1.7 What is the value of source voltage, E in the circuit shown in Fig E1.7.
E1.8 What is the value of load voltage, VL in the circuit shown in Fig. E1.8? Also, calculate the power
delivered by the current source.
2A
4 5 2
4 I 3 V1 V2
+ 4
+ 10 V
10 A 3 2 VL E 4
0.5 4
E 4.5 A 4 1A
5 6
Fig. E1.8.
Fig. E1.9. Fig. E1.10.
E1.9 Determine the current, I delivered by the voltage source in the circuit shown in Fig. E1.9. Also,
calculate the power delivered by the voltage source.
E1.10 Determine the voltages V1 and V2 in the circuit shown in Fig. E1.10.
E1.11 Determine the mesh currents shown in the circuit of Fig. E1.11.
1 1 4 Ie
Id
Ib 3
3 I2 4 I3 3 1 5 1
A If
Ic
2 2 12 V + 1 1 +
E E E
+ E
5
+ E 1
10 V 5V
I1
Ia 1 1
2 9V
+ E
Fig. E1.13.
5
Fig. E1.11. Fig. E1.12.

E1.12 Determine the current through various branches of the circuit in Fig. E1.12 by mesh analysis.
Take resistance of ammeter as 0.2 Ω.
E1.13 In the circuit shown in Fig. E1.13, find the value of E by mesh analysis such that the current
through the 5 Ω resistor is zero.
E1.14 By mesh analysis, determine the power delivered to 2 Ω and 1 Ω resistor in the circuit of Fig. E1.14.
+E
5V
E
2 +
VL
5V E
2
+
3
1
5
2 12 V 1
4
E
10 V +
+
E
1 2 2
Fig. E1.14.
Fig. E1.15.
E1.15 In the circuit shown in Fig. E1.15, determine the voltage VL by mesh analysis.
E1.16 Determine the mesh currents of the circuit shown in Fig. E1.16.
IL
+ -j5 W
o
I1 -j2 W
50Ð0 V ~ 2W
- j4 W 2W j4 W
2W
I3
1W j3 W
j4 W 5Ð0o A -j3 W o
2Ð30 A
4W ~ 1W 1W ~
I2
Fig. E1.16. Fig. E1.17.

E1.17 Determine the current I L in the circuit shown in Fig. E1.17 by mesh analysis.
E1.18 Determine the active and reactive power delivered to the 2 + j4 Ω impedance in the circuit of
Fig. E1.18.
4W 2W
2 + j4 W
2 1
8 +
5A 5 10 V
-j3 W -j5 W
E
o
100Ð0 V
~ Fig. E1.19.
Fig. E1.18.
E1.19 Determine the power delivered to the 8 Ω resistor in the circuit of Fig. E1.19 using mesh analysis.
E1.20 In the circuit shown in Fig. E1.20, form two supermeshes and hence, determine the current IL.
5 3
IL
I1 I4
+
6V E 2A 2 3A 5
I2 I3
1 1
Fig. E1.20.
E1.21 Determine the power delivered by each source to the 2 Ω resistor in the circuit of Fig. E1.21 by
mesh analysis.
6 6 2 Ix 2 2
+
10 V +
2 2A 12 V E + 4Ix 5
E 4 E
I1 I2 I3
Fig. E1.21. Fig. E1.22.
E1.22 Solve the mesh currents of the circuit shown in Fig. E1.22
E1.23 Determine the voltage across 6 Ω resistor in the circuit of Fig. E1.23 by mesh analysis.
4V E 2V
+ +E
+
E
3V 8V 2 4
+
1 0.5Vx
3 1
Ix 5
+
3
Vx E
4 2Ix
6 10
A B A B
Fig. E1.23. Fig. E1.24.

E1.24 In the circuit of Fig. E1.24, determine the current through 10 Ω resistor by mesh analysis.
E1.25 Determine the power delivered by the dependent voltage source in the circuit of Fig. E1.25 by mesh
analysis.
E
+
0.5Vx
1 2 2 2 3A
3 3
+ + 6
6V + 9V
E E
Vx 4 +
1 E 1 +
10 V 2A
E
V4 4
_
Fig. E1.25.
Fig. E1.26.
E1.26 Find the voltage across 4 Ω resistor in the circuit shown in Fig. E1.26 by mesh analysis.
E1.27 Determine the branch voltages in the circuit shown in Fig. E1.27 by node method.
V2
2
+ _
Vf 1
1 2 2
4 5
+ _ + _
Ve Vd V1 V3
+ +
+
Va 8 Vc 4A
5A Vb
_
2A 10
_
_
5 5
Fig. E1.27. 0
Fig. E1.28.
E1.28 Determine the node voltages in the circuit shown in Fig. E1.28.
E1.29 Determine the current I L in the circuit of Fig. E1.29 by node method.
0.1
IL
5 3A
0.4
4 10 A

2 4 1
0.5
0.2
1.6 5A 2A
2.5
0.25
Fig. E1.30.
Fig. E1.29.
E1.30 Determine the power supplied/absorbed by the current sources in the circuit shown in Fig. E1.30.
E1.31 Determine the power absorbed by 10 Ω resistor in the circuit of Fig. E1.31.
10 o
5Ð0 A
2A 4A
~
V1 V2
3W j4 W
1 5 3
8W
5W
-j4 W
3 7 0
Fig. E1.31. Fig. E1.32.
E1.32 Determine the node voltages V 1 and V 2 in the circuit shown in Fig. E1.32.
E1.33 Determine the node voltages in the circuit shown in Fig. E1.33.
1+j2 W
V1 0.4 W V2 j0.5 W V3
10+j5 W 4+j8 W
0.2 W 0.1 W
6Ð0o A
3Ð90o A
~
5Ð90o A
10Ð0o A
-j0.2 W ~ 2-j6 W
j0.2 W ~ ~
-j0.1 W
0
Fig. E1.34.
Fig. E1.33.
E1.34 In the circuit shown in Fig. E1.34, determine the active and reactive power in the impedance
1 + j2 Ω by node method.
E1.35 In the circuit shown in Fig. E1.35, calculate the current I L by node method.
+ +
Va Vb
2-j6 W 10 _
2
_

+
IL 10 V E
10Ð30o A
_
+
5Ð0o A
Vc Vd
~ 8-j4 W
10+j5 W ~ A ~ 15 V + 5 _ +
o
5V
4
+
E E
0
-9
5Ð
Fig. E1.35. +
Ve 1
_
Fig. E1.36.
E1.36 Determine the voltages across the resistors in the circuit shown in Fig. E1.36 by node analysis.
E1.37 Determine the power delivered/absorbed by the sources in the circuit shown in Fig E1.37, by node
analysis.
I1 I2
8 10
2 4 5
15 V +
E
10 V +
E
4 5 I3 5 A I4
4A 1A
+
E 5V
8 10
2 1
Fig. E1.37. Fig. E1.38.
E1.38 Determine the currents I 1, I 2 , I 3 a n d I 4 in the circuit shown in Fig. E1.38 by node analysis.
E1.39 Calculate the voltage Vx and hence, estimate the power delivered or absorbed by the dependent
source in the circuit shown in Fig. E1.39.
E1.40 Calculate the power delivered to 5 Ω resistor in the circuit shown in Fig. E1.40, by node
analysis.
_ Vx + _ E
+
Vx
3
2 4Ix
2A 1A + 2 4 4
IL
4 2Vx 2 2 5
+ 4Vx 7A
E 5A 5
4 8 1 Ix
10
3
Fig. E1.39. Fig. E1.40. Fig. E1.41.

E1.41 Calculate the current through the 5 Ω resistance in the circuit shown in Fig. E1.41 by node
analysis.
E1.42 Draw the graph, oriented graph and three possible trees of the circuit shown in Fig. E1.42
1
1 1
2 4
1 1
+ + 10 V
5V E E 2 5
10 A 3 4A
2 2
5
7 7
4 6
Fig. E1.42. Fig. E1.43.

E1.43 Determine the incidence matrix of the circuit shown in Fig. E1.43.
E1.44 Determine the tie-sets and form the tie-set matrix of the circuit shown in Fig. E1.44.
1 1
6 2
1
1 1 1
1 3 5
+ + 4 1
5V 2V
+
1
+
_
E
_
E
10 V 4V
Fig. E1.44. Fig. E1.45.

E1.45 Form the equilibrium equations of the circuit shown in Fig. E1.45 using tie-set schedule
and hence, solve the branch currents.
E1.46 Determine the cut-sets of the circuit shown in Fig. E1.46.
2 2
5A 2A
6A 4A
1
2 1
2 1 5
4 5 4
5 1 1 5
10
Fig. E1.46. Fig. E1.47.
E1.47 Determine the cut-sets and cut-set matrix of the circuit shown in Fig. E1.47.
E1.48 Form the equilibrium equations of the circuit shown in Fig. E1.48 using cut-set schedule and
hence, solve the branch voltages.
2
4A 2A
1 5 1
+
4 10 V 4
E
Fig. E1.48.
E1.49 Draw the dual of the graph shown in Fig. E1.49.
E1.50 Determine the node basis dual of the mesh basis circuit shown in Fig. E1.50.
4W 4 W 0.25 H 5W
W
6 0.08 F
4sin(wt - 15 ) V
2sin wt A
o
10sin wt V
+ + 2W
0.02 F ~ 3W
~ 0.05 F ~
_ _ W
4 0.2 H
Fig. E1.49. Fig. E1.50. Fig. E1.51.

E1.51 Determine the mesh basis dual of the node basis circuit shown in Fig. E1.51. v
ANSWERS
E1.1 V1 = 21 V, V2 = 9 V, V3 = 3 V
E1.2 I1 = 12 A, I2 = 7 A, I3 = 5 A
E1.3 Vs = 37 V
E1.4 PL = 450 W, PD20 = 180 W, PD30 = 270 W
E1.5 Is2 = 18 A
E1.6 E = 2 V, Charging
E1.7 E = 7V
E1.8 VL = 6 V, Ps = 610 W
E1.9 I = 2 A, Ps = 18 W
E1.10 V1 = 4 V, V2 = 3 V
E1.11 I1 = −1.3043 A ; I2 = 0.9938 A ; I3 = 0.6366 A
E1.12 Ia = 1.8037 A ; Ib = 0.9907 A ; Ic = 0.813 A ; Id = 0.5141 A ;
Ie = 0.4766 A ; If = 1.3271 A
E1.13 E = 12 V E1.14 P2Ω = 0.0987 W ; P1Ω = 1.1857 W
E1.15 VL = –6.25 V
E1.16 I1 = 16.1971∠31o A ; I 2 = 8.7841∠71.6o A ; I3 = 11.4531∠−104o A
E1.17 IL = 0.6114∠62.7 o A E1.18 P = 108.9 W ; Q = 217.8 VAR
E1.19 P = 16.0201 W
E1.20 I L = 1.0952 A
5 3
+ E + E
5I1 3I4
Supermesh-1 + _ Supermesh-2 +
+
6V E 2I2 2I3 5I4 5
_ + E
E I2 + E I3 +
1 1
E1.21 P 2X = 4.125 W ; P2X = 11W
10V 2A
E1.22 I1 = 2 A ; I2 = 0 ; I3 = 1.1429 A E1.23 VAB = 6.7056 V
E1.24 IAB = 0.375 A (current flowing from A to B) E1.25 P = 2.6315 W (delivered)
E1.26 V4 = 12 V
E1.27 Va = 37.8947 V ; Vb = 30.8772 V ; Vc = 31.4035 V
Vd = − 0.5263 V ; Ve = 7.0175 V ; Vf = 6.4912 V
E1.28 V1 = − 3.3333 V ; V2 = 0 ; V3 = 3.3333 V
E1.29 IL = − 6.199 A
E1.30 P5A = 30 W (Delivered) ; P2A = − 2 W (Absorbed) ; P3A = 15 W (Delivered)
E1.31 P10Ω = 40 W
o
E1.32 V1 = 7.8125∠53.1 V ; V2 = 13.9754∠−153.4o V
o
E1.33 V1 = 1.5132∠15.8 V ; V2 = 1.1186∠−34.2o V ; V3 = 0.2925∠106.6o V
E1.34 P = 45.5555 W ; Q = 91.111 VAR
o
E1.35 IL = 3.0403∠33 A
E1.36 Va = − 1.9512 V ; Vb = 8.0488 V ; Vc = 11.9512 V ; Vd = − 1.9512V ; Ve = 3.0488V
E1.37 P4A = 80.5624 W (Delivered) ; P1A = –1.8748 W (Absorbed) ; P15V = 10.0485 W (Delivered)
E1.38 I1 = 5 A ; I2 = − 2.8572 A ; I3 = 0 ; I4 = 2.1429 A
E1.39 P4Vx = − 9.1428 W (Power absorbed)
E1.40 P5Ω = 26.792 W
E1.41 IL = 3.1111 A
1 a 2 1 a 2
E1.42
b c b c
d d
3 3
4 h 4 h
e e
f g f g
5 5
Fig : Graph. Fig : Oriented graph.
1 a 2 1 a 2 1 a 2
c b b
3 d d d
4 3 4 3 4
h
g
f
5 5 5
Fig : Possible trees.

R 1 0 0 0 0 − 1 1 0 0V
S W
S− 1 − 1 0 0 0 0 0 − 1 1W
E1.43 Incidence matrix, A = S 0 1 − 1 0 0 0 0 0 0W
S W
S 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 − 1W
S 0 0 0 −1 1 0 −1 1 0
W
T X
E1.44 1 3
Link
Link c Link
e
1 a 2 2 b 3 4
Link I3 4 I4
I1 I2 h
d d c g
e f g
4 4 5 5
Tie-set-1 : [a, d, e] Tie-set-2 : [b, c, d] Tie-set-3 : [e, g, f] Tie-set-4 : [c, g, f]
R V
S1 0 0 1 −1 0 0 0W
S0 1 1 −1 0 0 0 0W
Tie - set Matrix, M = S W
S0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0W
S0 0 −1 0 0 0 −1 1W
T X
T
E1.45 Equilibrium equation, IB = M IL
RI V R V
S aW S 0 0 1W
SIb W S 0 0 1W
W >I 2 H
SI W S 0 − 1 I
1W 1
S cW = S
SId W S − 1 0 1W
SIe W S 1 0 I3
0W
SS WW SS WW
I 0 1 0
T fX T X
Ia = Ib = 0.0903 A ; Ic = 0.6817 A ; Id = −1.377 A ; Ie = 1.4673 A ; If = −0.5914 A
a a 2 b b 3 Twig-i
1 h
i
Twig-f d
E1.46 g f
e Twig-d c
g
c
Twig-e 4
Cut-set-1 : [a, f, g] Cut-set-2 : [a, b, e] Cut-set-3 : [b, d, c] Cut-set-4 : [g, h, i, c]
Fig : Cut-sets.
Twig-a Twig-d Twig-b

E1.47 a Twig-e b
1 e d 4
f c
f g g 3 c
2
Cut-set-1 : [a, f] Cut-set-2 : [f, c, g] Cut-set-3 : [g, d, c] Cut-set-4 : [b, c]
Fig : Cut-sets.
R V
S1 0 0 0 0 1 0W
S0 0 0 0 1 − 1 1W
Cut - set matrix, Q = S W
S0 0 −1 1 0 0 − 1W
S0 1 1 0 0 0 0W
T X
E1.48 Equilibrium equation, VB = QT VN
RV V R V
S aW S 1 0 − 1W
S Vb W S 1 0 0W
W > V2 H
SV W S− 1 − 1 V
0W 1
S cW = S
S Vd W S 0 1 0W
S Ve W S 0 0 V3
1W
SS WW SS WW
V 0 −1 −1
T fX T X
Va = 9.867 V ; Vb = 1.0667 V ; Vc = 1.6 V ; Vd = −2.6667 V ; Ve = −8.8003 V ; Vf = 11.467 V
f
2’ 1’
E1.49 a
b
g e
c 5’
d
3’ 4’
h
0.05 H 2 0.02 H
1 3
E1.50
0.25 F
4
W
5
W
4 A
W
o
)
15
t-
(w
10sin wt A 0
in
4s
4W
E1.51
6W 3’ 2W
2’ 4’
3W 0.08 H 0.2 F
1’
+
-
2sin wt V
0’
Chapter 2
NETWORK THEOREMS FOR DC AND

AC CIRCUITS
2.1 Network Reduction (AU May’15, 2 Marks)
A typical network involves series, parallel, star and delta-connections of parameters like
resistances, inductances and capacitances. Sometimes it may require to find the single equivalent
value of the series/parallel/star-delta-connected parameters of the network. In such a case, the
parameters of the network have to be reduced step by step, starting from a dead end. Basically, the
network reduction will be attempted with respect to two terminals, and in any network reduction
technique, the ratio of voltage and current should be the same even after reducing the network.
Reducing the series/parallel/star-delta-connected parameters to a single equivalent parameter,
conversion of star-connected parameters to equivalent delta parameters and vice versa are explained
in this chapter.
The network also involves series/parallel connection of sources for higher voltage/current
requirement. The series and parallel connections of voltage sources and current sources and their
reduction into a single equivalent are also discussed in this chapter.
2.1.1 Resistances in Series and Parallel

Equivalent of Series-connected Resistances
Consider a circuit with R1 R2 Req = R1 + R2
series combination of two + E + E
IR1 IR2
resistances R 1 and R 2 connected
to a dc source of voltage V as
shown in Fig. 2.1(a). Let the
I I
current through the circuit be I. + E + E
V V
Now the voltage across R 1 and Fig. a : Resistances in series. Fig. b : Equivalent circuit of Fig. a.
R2 are IR 1 and IR 2 , respectively. Fig. 2.1 : Resistances in series.
By Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL), we can write,
V = I R 1 + IR 2
= I (R 1 + R 2 )
Let, V = I Req ..... (2.1)

where, Req = R 1 + R 2
From equation (2.1), we can say that the series-connected resistances R 1 and R 2 can be
replaced with an equivalent resistance R eq given by the sum of individual resistances R 1 and R 2 .
This concept can be extended to any number of resistances in series. Therefore, we can say
that the resistances in series can be replaced with an equivalent resistance whose value is given by
the sum of individual resistances.
“When n number of identical resistances of value R are connected in series, the equivalent
resistance R eq = nR”.
R1 R2 Req = R1 + R2
Þ
A B A B
R1 R2 R3 Req = R1 + R2 + R3
Þ
A B A B
R1 R2 R3 Rn Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + .... + Rn
Þ
A B A B
Fig. 2.2 : Resistances in series and their equivalents.
Equivalent of Parallel-connected Resistances

Consider a circuit in which two resistances in parallel are connected to a dc source of voltage
V as shown in Fig. 2.3(a). Let I be the current supplied by the source and I 1 and I2 be the currents
through R1 and R2, respectively. Since the resistances are parallel to the source, the voltage across
them will be the same.
I
By Ohm’s law, we can write, I1 I2

+ +
I1 = V V + V R1 V R2
..... (2.2) E
R1 E E
I2 = V ..... (2.3)
R2 Fig. a : Resistances in parallel.
By Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL), we can write,
I
I = I 1 + I2 +
V + V Req
= V + V
E
Using equations (2.2) and (2.3) E 1 R R
R1 R2 Req a a 1 2
1 1 R1 C R2
C
R1 R2
= Vc 1 + 1 m Fig. b : Equivalent circuit of Fig. a.

R1 R2
Fig. 2.3 : Resistances in parallel.
` V = I 1
1 + 1
R1 R2
Chapter 2 - Network Theorems for DC and AC Circuits 2. 3
Let, V = I R eq ..... (2.4)
1 R1 R2
where, Req = = ..... (2.5)
1 + 1 R1 + R2
R1 R2
Also, 1 = 1 + 1 ..... (2.6)

Req R1 R2
From equation (2.4), we can say that the parallel-connected resistances R 1 and R 2 can be
replaced with an equivalent resistance given by equation (2.5). From equation (2.6), we can say
that the inverse of the equivalent resistance of parallel-connected resistances is equal to the sum
of the inverse of individual resistances.
This concept can be extended to any number of resistances in parallel. Therefore, we can
say that the resistances in parallel can be replaced with an equivalent resistance whose value is
given by the inverse of sum of the inverse of individual resistances.
“When n number of identical resistances of value R are connected in parallel, the equivalent
resistance R eq = R/n”.
A A
R1 R2 1 R R
Þ Req = = 1 2
1 1 R1 + R2
+
R1 R2
B B
A A
R1 R2 Þ 1
R3 Req =
1 1 1
+ +
R1 R2 R3
B B
A
A
1
R1 R2 R3 Rn Req =
Þ 1
+
1
+
1
+ ..... +
1
R1 R2 R3 Rn
B B
Fig. 2.4 : Resistances in parallel and their equivalents.
2.1.2 Voltage Sources in Series and Parallel

A voltage source is designed to deliver energy at a constant voltage called rated voltage.
The current delivered by the voltage source depends on the load and the current is limited by the
power rating of the source. When the voltage requirement of a load is higher, the voltage sources
are connected in series. When the current requirement of a load is higher, the voltage sources are
connected in parallel.
Series Connection of Voltage Sources

In series connection, voltage sources of different voltage ratings may be connected in series.
However in series connection, the current delivered by the voltage sources is the same.
Case i : Series connection of ideal voltage sources

The series connection of ideal voltage sources is shown in Fig. 2.5(a). By applying KVL to
series-connected sources of Fig. 2.5(a) it is possible to determine the single equivalent source as
shown in Fig. 2.5(b).
I I
A + - + -+ - + -
B Þ A + - B
E1 E2 E3 En Eeq
Eeq = E1 + E2 + E3 +.....+ En
Fig. a : Series connection. Fig. b : Equivalent voltage source.

Fig. 2.5 : Series connection of ideal voltage sources.
Case ii : Series connection of voltage sources with internal resistance

The series-connected voltage sources with internal resistance shown in Fig. 2.6(a) can be
represented as ideal sources with a series resistance as shown in Fig. 2.6(b). The series-connected
resistance of Fig. 2.6(c) can be represented by an equivalent resistance as shown in Fig. 2.6(d).
The series-connected voltage sources of Fig. 2.6(c) can be represented by an equivalent source
as shown in Fig. 2.6(d).
+ - + - + - + - - - - -B
ß
A B A + + + +
E1, R1 E2, R2 E3, R3 En, Rn R1 E1 R2 E2 R3 E3 Rn En
Fig. a : Series connection. Fig. b.
- + - + -
ß
A + + - + -
R1 R2 R3 Rn E1 E2 E3 En B A
Req Eeq B
Fig. c. Fig. d : Equivalent source.
Eeq = E1 + E2 + E3 + ..... + En
Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + ..... + Rn
Fig. 2.6 : Series connection of voltage sources with internal resistance.
Parallel Connection of Voltage Sources

Practically, voltage sources of an identical voltage rating should be connected in parallel,
but the current delivered by the parallel-connected sources may be different. If voltage sources
with different voltage ratings are connected in parallel then current will circulate within the sources
which produce excess heat and this in-turn may damage the source.
Case i : Parallel connection of ideal voltage sources

A A
I1 I2 I3 In Ieq
Ieq = I1 + I2 + I3 + .... + In
+ + + + +
E E E E
Þ E
- - - - -
B B
Fig. a : Parallel connection. Fig. b : Equivalent source.

Fig. 2.7 : Parallel connection of ideal voltage sources.
The parallel-connected ideal voltage sources with the same voltage rating, as shown in Fig. 2.7(a),
can be converted into a single equivalent source using KCL, as shown in Fig. 2.7(b).
Note : The parallel connection of ideal voltage sources with different voltage rating is illegal.
Case ii : Parallel connection of voltage sources with internal resistance

Ieq Ieq
A A
+ I1 I2 I3 In +
I1 I2 I3 In
R1 R2 R3 Rn
E1, R1
+
E2, R2
+
E3, R3
+
En, Rn
+ Eeq Þ Eeq
+ + + +
E E E E E1 E2 E3 En
- - - - -
E
B B
Fig. a : Parallel connection. Fig. b.
ß
E1 E2 E3 En
R1 R2 R3 Rn
R1 R2 R3 Rn
ß Fig. c.
A
A
E1 E2 E3 En Eeq = Ieq ´ R eq
Ieq = + + + ...... +
R1 R2 R3 Rn Req
1
Ieq Req Þ = R eq
LM E1 + E2 + E3 + ..... + En OP
R eq = +
1
+
1
+
1
+ ...... +
1 Eeq MN R1 R2 R3 Rn P
Q
R1 R 2 R 3 Rn -
B B
Fig. d. Fig. e.
Fig. 2.8 : Parallel connection of voltage sources with internal resistance.
The parallel-connected voltage sources with internal resistance shown in Fig. 2.8(a) can be
represented as ideal sources with a series resistance as shown in Fig. 2.8(b).
Using source transformation technique, the voltage sources can be converted into current
sources as shown in Fig. 2.8(c). Now, the parallel-connected current sources can be combined
as an equivalent single current source as shown in Fig. 2.8(d). Finally, again using source
transformation technique, the current source of Fig. 2.8(d) can be converted into an equivalent
voltage source as shown in Fig. 2.8(e).
Note : The conversion of parallel-connected voltage sources into a single equivalent

voltage source can also be obtained by Millman’s Theorem.
2.1.3 Current Sources in Series and Parallel

A current source is designed to deliver energy at a constant current called rated current.
The voltage across the current source depends on the load and the voltage is limited by the power
rating of the source. When the voltage requirement of a load is higher, the current sources are
connected in series. When the current requirement of a load is higher, the current sources are
connected in parallel.
Series Connection of Current Sources
Practically, current sources of an identical current rating should be connected in series, but
the voltage across the series-connected sources may be different. If current sources with different
current ratings are connected in series then sources with lesser current ratings are forced to carry
higher currents which produce excess heat and this in-turn may damage the source.
Case i : Series connection of ideal current sources

The series-connected ideal current sources with an identical current rating, as shown in
Fig. 2.9(a), can be converted into a single equivalent source using KVL, as shown in Fig. 2.9(b).
I I I I I I I
B + - + - + - + - A Þ B + - A
E1 E2 E3 En Eeq
Eeq = E1 + E2 + E3 +.....+ En
Fig. a : Series connection. Fig. b : Equivalent current source.

Fig. 2.9 : Series connection of ideal current sources.
Note : The series connection of ideal current sources with different current rating is illegal.
Case ii : Series connection of current sources with internal resistance
The series-connected current sources with internal resistance shown in Fig. 2.10(a) can be
represented as ideal sources with a parallel resistance as shown in Fig. 2.10(b).
Using source transformation technique, the current sources can be converted into voltage
sources as shown in Fig. 2.10(c). Now, the series-connected voltage sources can be combined
as an equivalent single voltage source as shown in Fig. 2.10(d). Finally, again using source
transformation technique, the voltage source of Fig. 2.10(d) can be converted into an equivalent
current source as shown in Fig. 2.10(e).
I1, R1 I2, R2 I3 , R 3 In, Rn
B A
Fig. a.
ß
I1 I2 I3 In
B A
R1 R2 R3 Rn
Fig. b. ß
B A
- + - + - + - +
R1 I1R1 R2 I2R2 R3 I3R3 Rn InRn
Fig. c. ß
Ieq
B A B A
- + Þ
Req Eeq
Fig. d. Fig. e.
Req
Eeq
Ieq a
R eq a R1 C R 2 C R 3 C......C Rn R eq
Eeq a I1 R1 C I2 R 2 C I3 R 3 C......C In Rn 1
a I1 R1 C I2 R 2 C I3 R 3 C ...... C In Rn
R eq
Fig. 2.10 : Series connection of current sources with internal resistance.
Parallel Connection of Current Sources

In parallel connection, current sources with different current ratings may be connected in
parallel. However in parallel connection, the voltage across the sources is the same.
Case i : Parallel connection of ideal current source

The parallel-connected ideal current sources shown in Fig. 2.11(a) can be converted into a
single equivalent source using KCL, as shown in Fig. 2.11(b).
A A
+ +
I1 I2 I3 In E Þ Ieq E
-B -B
Ieq = I1 + I2 + I3 +.....+ In
Fig. a : Parallel connection. Fig. b : Equivalent of parallel connection.

Fig. 2.11 : Parallel connection of ideal current sources.
Case ii : Parallel connection of current sources with internal resistance

The parallel-connected current sources with internal resistance shown in Fig. 2.12(a) can
be represented as ideal sources with a parallel-resistance as shown in Fig. 2.12(b).
The parallel-connected resistances of Fig. 2.12(c) can be represented by an equivalent
resistance as shown in Fig. 2.12(d). The parallel-connected current sources of Fig. 2.12(c) can be
represented by an equivalent current source as shown in Fig. 2.12(d).
A
I2, R2 I3 , R 3
I 1, R 1 In, Rn
B
Fig. a.
ß
A
I1 R1 I2 R2 I3 R3 In Rn
B
Fig. b.
ß
A
I1 I2 I3 In R1 R2 R3 Rn
B
Fig. c.
ß
A Ieq = I1 + I2 + I3 + ....................... + In
Ieq Req 1
R eq =
1 1 1 1
+ + + .......... +
B R1 R 2 R 3 Rn
Fig. d.
Fig. 2.12 : Parallel connection of current sources with internal resistance.
2.1.4 Inductances in Series and Parallel

Equivalent of Series-connected Inductances
Consider a circuit with series combination of two inductances L 1 and L 2 connected to an ac
source of voltage v as shown in Fig. 2.13(a). Let the current through the circuit be i and voltages
across L 1 and L 2 be v 1 and v 2 , respectively.
L1 L2 Leq = L1 + L2
+ + E
v1 E v2
i i
+ ~E
v
+ ~E v
Fig. a : Inductance in series. Fig. b : Equivalent circuit of Fig. a.
Fig. 2.13 : Inductance in series.
By Faraday’s Law, we can write,
ν1 = L1 di and ν2 = L2 di ..... (2.7)

dt dt
In Fig. 2.13(a), using Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, we can write,
v = v1 + v2
= L1 di + L2 di Using equation (2.7)

dt dt
= ` L1 + L2 j di
dt
Let, ν = Leq di
dt
where, Leq = L1 + L2 ..... (2.8)
From equation (2.8), we can say that the series-connected inductances L 1and L2 can be
replaced with an equivalent inductance Leq given by the sum of individual inductances L 1 and L 2 .
This concept can be extended to any number of inductances in series. Therefore, we can say
that inductances in series can be replaced with an equivalent inductance whose value is given by
the sum of individual inductances.
“When n number of identical inductances of value L are connected in series, the equivalent
inductance L eq = nL”.
L1 L2 Leq = L1 + L2
Þ
A B A B
L1 L2 L3 Leq = L1 + L2 + L3
Þ
A B A B
L1 L2 L3 Ln Leq = L1 + L2 + L3 +....+ Ln
Þ
A B A B
Fig. 2.14 : Inductances in series and their equivalents.

Equivalent of Parallel-connected Inductances

Consider a circuit with two inductances in parallel and connected to an ac source of voltage v
as shown in Fig. 2.15(a). Let i be the current supplied by the source and i 1 and i2 be the currents
through L1 and L 2 , respectively. Since the inductances are parallel to the source, the voltage
across them will be the same.
i i
i1 i2
+ + + + +
v
E
~ v
E
L1 v
E
L2 v
E
~ v
E
Leq
1 L L
Leq a a 1 2
1 1 L1 C L 2
C
L1 L 2
Fig. a : Inductance in parallel. Fig. b : Equivalent circuit of Fig. a.

Fig. 2.15 : Inductance in parallel.
We know that,
i1 = 1
L1 # ν dt and i2 = 1
L2 # ν dt .....(2.9)
By Kirchhoff’s Current Law, we can write,

i = i 1 + i2
= 1
L1 # ν dt + 1
L2 # ν dt Using equation (2.9)
= e 1 + 1 o # ν dt
L1 L2
On differentiating the above equation, we get,
eL L2 o
di = 1 + 1 ν ⇒ ν = 1 di
dt 1 1 + 1 dt
L1 L2
Let, ν = Leq di
dt .....(2.10)
1 L1 L2
where, Leq = =
1 + 1 L1 + L2 .....(2.11)
L1 L2
Also, 1 = 1 + 1
Leq L1 L2 .....(2.12)
From equation (2.10), we can say that the parallel-connected inductances L 1 and L 2 can be
replaced with an equivalent inductance given by equation (2.11). From equation (2.12), we can
say that the inverse of the equivalent inductance of parallel-connected inductances is equal to the
sum of the inverse of individual inductances.
A A
1 L L
L1 L2 Þ Leq = = 1 2
1 1 L1 + L 2
+
L1 L 2
B B
A A
L1 L2 L3 1
Þ Leq =
1 1 1
+ +
L1 L 2 L 3
B B
A A
1
L1 L2 L3 Ln Þ Leq =
1 1 1 1
+ + +...+
L1 L 2 L 3 Ln
B B
Fig. 2.16 : Inductances in parallel and their equivalents.
This concept can be extended to any number of inductances in parallel. Therefore, we can
say that inductances in parallel can be replaced with an equivalent inductance whose value is given
by the inverse of sum of the inverse of individual inductances.
“When n number of identical inductances of value L are connected in parallel, the equivalent
inductance Leq = L ".
n
2.1.5 Capacitances in Series and Parallel
Equivalent of Series-connected Capacitances
Consider a circuit with series combination of two capacitances C 1 and C2 connected to an ac
source of voltage, v as shown in Fig. 2.17(a). Let the current through the circuit be i and voltages across
C1 and C2 be v1 and v2, respectively.
C1 C2 Ceq
+v E +v E + E
1 2
1 C1 C2
Ceq a a
1 1 C1 C C2
C
C1 C2
i i
~
+ v E + ~E
v
Fig. a : Capacitances in series. Fig. b : Equivalent circuit of Fig. a.

Fig. 2.17 : Capacitances in series.
We know that,
ν1 = 1
C1 # i dt and ν2 = 1
C2 # i dt .....(2.13)
With reference to Fig. 2.17(a) using Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, we can write,
v = v 1 + v2
v = 1
C1 # i dt + 1
C2 # i dt Using equation (2.13)
= e 1 + 1 o # i dt
C1 C2
Let, ν = 1
Ceq # i dt .....(2.14)
1 C1 C2
where, C eq = = .....(2.15)
1 + 1 C1 + C2
C1 C2
Also, 1 = 1 + 1 .....(2.16)
C eq C1 C2
From equation (2.14), we can say that the series-connected capacitances C 1 and C2 can be
replaced with an equivalent capacitance given by equation (2.15). From equation (2.16), we can
say that the inverse of the equivalent capacitance of series-connected capacitances is equal to the
sum of the inverse of individual capacitances.
This concept can be extended to any number of capacitances in series. Therefore, we can
say that capacitances in series can be replaced with an equivalent capacitance whose value is given
by the inverse of sum of the inverse of individual capacitances.
“When n number of identical capacitances of value C are connected in series, the equivalent
capacitance, C eq = C/n”.
C1 C2 Ceq
1 C C
Þ Ceq = = 1 2
1 1 C1 + C2
A B +
A B C1 C2
C1 C2 C3 Ceq
1
Þ Ceq =
1 1 1
A B + +
A B C1 C2 C3
C1 C2 C3 Cn Ceq
1
Þ Ceq =
1 1 1 1
A + + +...+
B A B C1 C2 C3 Cn
Fig. 2.18 : Capacitances in series and their equivalents.
Equivalent of Parallel-connected Capacitances

Consider a circuit in which two capacitances in parallel are connected to an ac source of
voltage, v as shown in Fig. 2.19(a). Let i be the current supplied by the source and i1 and i2 be
the currents through C1 and C2, respectively. Since the capacitances are parallel to the source, the
voltage across them will be the same.
i i
i1 i2
+ + + + +
v
E
~ v
E
C1 v
E
C2 v
E
~ v
E
Ceq = C1 + C2
Fig. a : Capacitances in parallel. Fig. b : Equivalent circuit of Fig. a.

Fig. 2.19 : Capacitances in parallel.
We know that,
i1 = C1 dν and i2 = C2 dν .....(2.17)
dt dt
i = i 1 + i2
Using equation (2.17)
= C1 dν + C2 dν
dt dt
= ` C1 + C2 j dν
dt
Let, i = Ceq dν .....(2.18)
dt
where, Ceq = C 1 + C2
From equation (2.18), we can say that the parallel-connected capacitances C 1 and C2 can be
replaced with an equivalent capacitance Ceq given by the sum of individual capacitances C1 and C2 .
This concept can be extended to any number of capacitances in parallel. Therefore, we can
say that capacitances in parallel can be replaced with an equivalent capacitance whose value is
given by the sum of individual capacitances.
“When n number of identical capacitances of value C are connected in parallel, the equivalent
capacitance C eq = nC”.
A A
C1 C2 Þ Ceq = C1 + C2
B B
A A
C1 C2 C3 Þ Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3
B
B
A A
C1 C2 C3 Cn Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 +....+ Cn
Þ
B B
Fig. 2.20 : Capacitances in parallel and their equivalents.

2.1.6 Impedances in Series and Parallel

Equivalent of Series-connected Impedances
Consider a circuit with series combination of two impedances Z1 and Z2 connected to an ac
source of voltage V volts rms value as shown in Fig. 2.21(a). Let the current through the elements be I .
Now, by Ohm’s law the voltage across Z1 and Z2 are I Z1 and I Z2 , respectively.
I Z1 I Z2 I Zeq
I+ E + E I + E
Z1 Z2 Zeq a Z1 C Z2
+ ~E
V
+ ~E
V
Fig. a : Impedances in series. Fig. b : Equivalent circuit of Fig. a.
Fig. 2.21 : Impedances in series and their equivalent.
By Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, we can write,
V = I Z1 + I Z2
= I ` Z1 + Z2 j
Let, V = I Zeq .....(2.19)
where, Zeq = Z1 + Z2
From equation (2.19), we can say that the series-connected impedances Z1 and Z2 can be
replaced with an equivalent impedance Zeq given by the sum of individual impedances Z1 and Z2 .
This concept can be extended to any number of impedances in series. Therefore, we can say
that impedances in series can be replaced with an equivalent impedance whose value is given by
the sum of individual impedances.
“When n number of identical impedances of value Z are connected in series, the equivalent
impedance, Z eq = nZ".
Z1 Z2 Zeq = Z1 + Z2
Þ
A B A B
Z1 Z2 Z3
Zeq = Z1 + Z2 + Z3
Þ
A B A B
Z1 Z2 Z3 Zn Zeq = Z1 + Z2 + Z3 +.....+ Zn
Þ
A B A B
Fig. 2.22 : Impedances in series and their equivalents.
Equivalent of Parallel-connected Impedances

Consider a circuit in which two impedances in parallel are I
connected to an ac source of V volts rms value as shown in I1 I2

+ +
Fig. 2.23(a). Let I be the current supplied by the source and +
I1 and I2 be the currents through Z1 and Z2 , respectively. Since E
V ~ V Z1 V Z2
E E
the impedances are parallel to the source, the voltage across them
will be the same as that of the source voltage. Fig. a : Impedances in parallel.
By Ohm’s law, we can write, I
I1 = V and I2 = V .....(2.20) + +
Z1 Z2 V
E
~ V Zeq
E
1 Z1 Z2
I = I1 + I2 Zeq a
1 1
a
C Z1 C Z2
Z1 Z2
= V + V Using equation (2.20) Fig. b : Equivalent circuit of Fig. a.

Z1 Z2
Fig. 2.23 : Impedances in parallel
and their equivalent.
= Ve 1 + 1 o
Z1 Z2
f p
` V = I 1
1 + 1
Z1 Z2
Let, V = I Zeq .....(2.21)
where, Zeq = 1 = Z1 Z2 ..... (2.22)

1 + 1 Z1 + Z2
Z1 Z2
Also, 1 = 1 + 1
Zeq Z1 Z2 .....(2.23)
From equation (2.21), we can say that the parallel impedances Z1 and Z2 can be replaced
with an equivalent impedance given by equation (2.22). From equation (2.23), we can say that the
inverse of the equivalent impedance of parallel-connected impedances is equal to the sum of the
inverse of individual impedances.
This concept can be extended to any number of impedances in parallel. Therefore, we can
say that impedances in parallel can be replaced with an equivalent impedance whose value is given
by the inverse of sum of the inverse of individual impedances.
“When n number of identical impedances of value Z are connected in parallel, the equivalent
impedance Z eq = Z /n".
A A
1 Z1 Z2
Z1 Z2 Þ Zeq = =
1 1 Z1 + Z2
+
Z1 Z2
B B
A A
Z1 Z2 Z3 1
Þ Zeq =
1 1 1
+ +
Z1 Z2 Z3
B B
A A
Z3 1
Z1 Z2 Zn Þ Zeq =
1 1 1 1
+ + +...+
Z1 Z2 Z3 Zn
B B
Fig. 2.24 : Impedances in parallel and their equivalents.
2.1.7 Reactances in Series and Parallel

The reactances in series and parallel combinations can be combined to give an equivalent
reactance similar to that of impedance. In fact, the reactances are impedances with imaginary part alone.
The equivalent reactances of series and parallel combinations of reactances are diagrammatically
illustrated in Fig. 2.25.
jX1 jX2 c
j X eq = j X1 + X 2 h
Þ
A B A B
jX1 jX2 jXn c
j X eq = j X1 + X 2 +......+ Xn h
Þ
A B A B
A A
F I
G
jX eq = j G
1 J X1 X2
GG 1 + 1 JJJ = j X1 + X2
jX1 jX2 Þ
H X1 X2 K
B B
A A
F I
GG 1 J
GG 1 + 1 +...+ 1 JJJ
jX1 jX2 jXn Þ j Xeq = j
H X1 X2 Xn K
B B
Fig. 2.25 : Series and parallel combinations of reactances and their equivalents.
2.1.8 Conductances in Series and Parallel

Equivalent of Series-connected Conductances
V1 V2
Consider a circuit with series combination of two + E + E
I G1 G2
conductances G 1 and G 2 connected to a dc source of voltage V volts
as shown in Fig. 2.26(a). Let I be the current through the conductances
and V1 and V2 be the voltages across G1 and G 2 , respectively.
+E
From Fig. 2.26, we can write, V

Fig. a : Conductances in series.
V1 = I and V = I
G1 2
G2 ..... (2.24) V
+ E
Geq
By Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, we can write, I
V = V1 + V2
+E
= I + I V
G1 G2 Using equation (2.24) 1 G1 G2
Geq a a
1 1 G1 C G2
C
G1 G2
= Ie 1 + 1 o
G1 G2 Fig. b : Equivalent circuit of Fig. a.
Fig. 2.26 : Conductances in series
f p
` I = V 1 and their equivalent.
1 + 1
G1 G2
Let, I = VGeq ..... (2.25)
1 G1 G2
where, Geq = =
1 + 1 G1 + G2 ..... (2.26)
G1 G2
Also, 1 = 1 + 1
Geq G1 G2 .....(2.27)
From equation (2.25), we can say that the series-connected conductances G 1 and G 2 can
be replaced with an equivalent conductance given by equation (2.26). From equation (2.27), we
can say that the inverse of the equivalent conductance of series-connected conductances is equal
to sum of the inverse of individual conductances.
This concept can be extended to any number of conductances in series. Therefore, we can
say that conductances in series can be replaced with an equivalent conductance whose value is
given by the inverse of sum of the inverse of individual conductances.
“When n number of identical conductances of value G are connected in series, the equivalent
conductance Geq = G/n”.
G1 G2 Geq
1 G1 G2
Þ Geq = =
1 1 G
+ 1 + G2
A B A B G1 G2
G1 G2 G3 Geq
1
Geq =
Þ 1
+
1
+
1
A B A B G1 G2 G3
G1 G2 G3 Gn Geq
1
Þ Geq =
1 1 1 1
+ + + ... +
A G1 G2 G3 Gn
A B B
Fig. 2.27 : Conductances in series and their equivalents.
Equivalent of Parallel-connected Conductances

Consider a circuit with two conductances in parallel and connected to a source of voltage
V volts as shown in Fig. 2.28(a). Let I be the current supplied by the source and I1 and I 2 be the
current through G 1 and G 2 , respectively. Since the conductances are parallel to the source, the
voltage across them will be the same as that of the source.
I I
I1 I2
+ + +
V + V +
E V G1 V G2 E V Geq = G1 + G2
E E E
Fig. a : Conductances in parallel. Fig. b : Equivalent circuit of Fig. a.

Fig. 2.28 : Conductances in parallel and their equivalent.
From Fig. 2.28, we can write,
I 1 = VG1 and I2 = VG2 ..... (2.28)

I = I 1 + I2
= VG 1 + VG 2 Using equation (2.28)
= V(G 1 + G 2 )
Let, I = VG eq ..... (2.29)

where, G eq = G 1 + G 2
From equation (2.29), we can say that the parallel-connected conductances G 1 and G2 can
be replaced with an equivalent conductance Geq given by the sum of individual conductances
G 1 and G 2 .
This concept can be extended to any number of conductances in parallel. Therefore, we can
say that conductances in parallel can be replaced with an equivalent conductance whose value is
given by the sum of individual conductances.
“When n number of identical conductance of value G are connected in parallel, the equivalent
conductance G eq = nG”.
A A
G1 G2 Þ Geq = G1 + G2
B B
A A
G1 G2 G3 Þ Geq = G1 + G2 + G3
B B
A A
G1 G2 G3 Gn Þ Geq = G1 + G2 + G3 +....+ Gn
B B
Fig. 2.29 : Conductances in parallel and their equivalents.
2.1.9 Admittances in Series and Parallel

Equivalent of Series-connected Admittances
Consider a circuit with series combination of two admittances Y1 and Y2 connected to an ac
source of voltage V volts rms value as shown in Fig. 2.30(a). Let I be the current through the
admittances and V1 and V2 be the voltages across Y1 and Y2 , respectively.
V1 V2
I + E +
From Fig. 2.30, we can write, E
Y1 Y2
V1 = I and V2 = I
Y1 Y2 .....(2.30)
By Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, we can write,

+ ~E
V
V = V1 + V2 Fig. a : Admittances in series.
V
I + E
= I + I
Using equation (2.30) Yeq
Y1 Y2
= Ie 1 + 1 o
Y1 Y2
+ ~E
f p
1 V
` I = V Fig. b : Equivalent circuit of Fig. a.
1 + 1
Y1 Y2 Fig. 2.30 : Admittances in series
and their equivalent.
.....(2.31)
Let, I = V Yeq
where, Yeq = 1 = Y1 Y2
1 + 1 Y1 + Y2 ..... (2.32)
Y1 Y2
Also, 1 = 1 + 1 ..... (2.33)
Yeq Y1 Y2
From equation (2.31), we can say that the series-connected admittances Y1 and Y2 can
be replaced with an equivalent admittance given by equation (2.32). From equation (2.33), we can
say that the inverse of the equivalent admittance of series-connected admittances is equal to the
sum of the inverse of individual admittances.
This concept can be extended to any number of admittances in series. Therefore, we can
say that admittances in series can be replaced with an equivalent admittance whose value is given
by the inverse of sum of the inverse of individual admittances.
“When n number of identical admittances of value Y are connected in series, the equivalent
admittance Y eq = Y /n ”.
Y1 Y2 Yeq
1 Y1 Y2
Þ Yeq =
1 1
=
+ Y1 + Y2
A B A B Y1 Y2
Y1 Y2 Y3 Yeq
1
Yeq =
Þ 1 1 1
+ +
Y1 Y2 Y3
A B A B
Y1 Y2 Y3 Yn Yeq
1
Þ Yeq =
1 1 1 1
+ + + ... +
B A B Y1 Y2 Y3 Yn
A
Fig. 2.31 : Series combination of admittances and their equivalents.
Equivalent of Parallel-connected Admittances

Consider a circuit with two admittances in parallel and connected to an ac source of voltage
V volts rms value as shown in Fig. 2.32(a). Let I be the current supplied by the source and I1 and I2
be the currents through Y1 and Y2 , respectively. Since the admittances are parallel to the source,
the voltage across them will be the same as that of the source.
I I
I1 I2
+ + +
+ +
V ~
E
V Y1 V Y2 V ~
E
V
E
Yeq a Y1 C Y2
E E
Fig. a : Admittances in parallel. Fig. b : Equivalent circuit of Fig. a.

Fig. 2.32 : Admittances in parallel and their equivalent.
From Fig. 2.32, we can write,
I1 = V Y1 and I2 = V Y2 .....(2.34)
I = I1 + I2
= V Y1 + V Y2
= V ` Y1 + Y2 j
Let, I = V Yeq ..... (2.35)
where, Yeq = Y1 + Y2
From equation (2.35), we can say that the parallel-connected admittances Y1 and Y2 can be
replaced with an equivalent admittance Yeq given by the sum of individual admittances Y1 and Y2 .
A A
Y1 Y2 Þ Yeq = Y1 + Y2
B B
A A
Y1 Y2 Y3 Þ Yeq = Y1 + Y2 + Y3
B B
A A
Y1 Y2 Y3 Yn Þ Yeq = Y1 + Y2 + Y3 + ... + Yn
B B
Fig. 2.33 : Admittances in parallel and their equivalents.
This concept can be extended to any number of admittances in parallel. Therefore, we can
say that admittances in parallel can be replaced with an equivalent admittance whose value is given
by the sum of individual admittances.
2.1.10 Susceptances in Series and Parallel

The susceptances in series and parallel combination can be combined to give an equivalent
susceptance similar to that of admittance. In fact, the susceptances are admittances with imaginary
part alone. The equivalent susceptances of series and parallel combinations of susceptances are
diagrammatically illustrated in Fig. 2.34.
jB1 jB2 jBeq

1 B B
jBeq = j =j 1 2
Þ 1 1 B1 + B2
+
A B A B1 B2
B
jB1 jB2 jBn jBeq
1
jBeq = j
Þ 1 1 1
+ +...+
B A B B1 B2 Bn
A
A A
jB1 jB2 jBeq = j(B1 + B2)

Þ
B B
A A
jB1 jB2 jBn jBeq = j(B1 + B2 +...+ Bn)

Þ
B B
Fig. 2.34 : Series and parallel combinations of susceptances and their equivalents.
2.1.11 Generalised Concept of Reducing Series/Parallel-connected Parameters

In order to generalise the concept of reducing the series/parallel-connected parameters, they
can be classified into two groups.
Let the parameters Resistance (R), Inductance (L), Reactance (X) and Impedance (Z) be
group-1 parameters. Let the parameters Conductance (G), Capacitance (C), Susceptance (B) and
Admittance (Y) be group-2 parameters.
The equivalent of series-connected group-1 parameters will be given by the sum of individual
parameters. The equivalent of parallel-connected group-1 parameters will be given by the inverse of
the sum of individual inverses. The equivalent of series and parallel-connected group-1 parameters
are summarised in Table 2.1.
The equivalent of series-connected group-2 parameters will be given by the inverse of the
sum of individual parameters. The equivalent of parallel-connected group-2 parameters will be
given by the sum of individual parameters. The equivalent of series and parallel-connected group-2
parameters are summarised in Table 2.2.
Table 2.1 : Summary of Equivalent of Series/Parallel-Connected Group-1 Parameters
Group-1 Parameter Series connection of parameters Parallel connection of parameters
and their equivalent and their equivalent
Resistance
R R1 R2 Rn Req
Þ R1 R2 Rn Þ Req
Req = R1 + R2 + ..... + Rn
1
Req =
1 1 1
+ + ..... +
R1 R2 Rn
Inductance
L L1 L2 Ln Leq
Þ L1 L2 Ln Þ Leq
Leq = L1 + L2 + ..... + Ln
1
L eq =
1 1 1
+ + ..... +
L1 L 2 Ln
Reactance
Chapter 2 - Network Theorems for DC and AC Circuits
±jX ±jX1 ±jX 2 ±jXn ±jX eq

Þ ±jX1 ±jX 2 ±jXn Þ ±jX eq
± jX eq = ± jX1 ± jX 2 ± ..... ± jX n
1
± jX eq =
1 1 1
+ + ..... +
± jX1 ± jX 2 ± jXn
Impedance
Z Z1 Z2 Zn Zeq
Þ Z1 Z2 Zn Þ Zeq
Zeq = Z1 + Z2 + ..... + Zn
1
Zeq =
1 1 1
+ + ..... +
Zn
2. 23
Z1 Z2
Table 2.2 : Summary of Equivalent of Series/Parallel-Connected Group-2 Parameters 2. 24
Group-2 Parameter Series connection of parameters Parallel connection of parameters

Conductance
G G1 G2 Gn Geq
Þ G1 G2 Gn Þ Geq
1
Geq =
1 1 1
+ + ..... +
G1 G2 Gn
Geq = G1 + G2 + ..... + Gn
Capacitance
C C1 C2 Cn Ceq
Þ C1 C2 Cn Þ Ceq
1
Ceq =
1 1 1
+ + ..... +
C1 C2 Cn
Ceq = C1 + C2 + ..... + Cn
Susceptance
±jB ±jB1 ±jB2 ±jBn ±jBeq
Þ ±jB1 ±jB2 ±jBn Þ ±jBeq
1
± jBeq =
1 1 1
+ + ..... +
± jB1 ± jB2 ± jBn
± jB eq = ± jB1 ± jB 2 ± ..... ± jBn
Admittance
Y Y1 Y2 Yn Yeq
Þ Y1 Y2 Yn Þ Yeq
1
Yeq =
1 1 1
+ + ..... +
Y1 Y2 Yn
Yeq = Y1 + Y2 + ..... + Yn
Circuit Analysis
2.2 Voltage and Current Division

2.2.1 Voltage Division in Series-connected Resistances
I R1 R2
Consider two resistances R1 and R2 in series which are
+ E + E
connected to a dc source of V volts as shown in Fig. 2.35. Let I be V1 V2
the current supplied by the source and V1 and V2 be the voltages

across R1 and R2, respectively. Since the resistances are in series,
the current through them will be I amperes. +E
V
Equations (2.36) and (2.37) given below can be used to Fig. 2.35 : Resistances in series.
determine the voltages in series-connected resistances in terms of the total voltage across the
series combination and the value of individual resistances. Hence, these equations are called the
voltage division rule.
R1
V1 = V # ..... (2.36)
R1 + R2
R2 ..... (2.37)
V2 = V #
R1 + R2
The following equation will be helpful to remember the voltage division rule.
In two series-connected resistances,
Total voltage across
# Value of the resistance
series combination
Voltage across one of the resistances =
Sum of individual resistances
Proof for Voltage Division Rule

With reference to Fig. 2.35, by Ohm’s law, we can write,
V1 = IR 1 ..... (2.38)
V2 = IR2 ..... (2.39)
By Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, we get,
V = V1 + V2 ..... (2.40)
On substituting for V1 and V2 from equations (2.38) and (2.39) in equation (2.40), we get,
V = IR 1 + IR 2 = I (R 1 + R 2 )
` I = V ..... (2.41)
R1 + R2
On substituting for I from equation (2.41) in equation (2.38), we get,
V R1
V1 = # R1 = V #
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
On substituting for I from equation (2.41) in equation (2.39), we get,
V R2
V2 = # R2 = V #
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
2.2.2 Voltage Division in Series-connected Impedances

Consider two impedances Z1 and Z2 in series which are connected to an ac source of V volts
as shown in Fig. 2.36. Let I be the current supplied by the source and V1 and V2 be the voltages
across Z1 and Z2 , respectively. Since the impedances are in series, the current through them will
be I amperes.
Equations (2.42) and (2.43) can be used to solve the voltages in series-connected impedances
in terms of the total voltage across the series combination and the value of individual impedances.
Hence, these equations are called the voltage division rule. Z1 Z2
+ E + E
Z1 V1 V2
V1 = V # .....(2.42)
Z1 + Z2
V2 = V # Z2 .....(2.43) I
Z1 + Z2 + ~E
V
The following equation will be helpful to remember the Fig. 2.36 : Impedances in series.
voltage division rule.
In two series-connected impedances,
Total voltage across Value of the
series combination # impedance
Voltage across one of the impedances =
Sum of individual impedances
2.2.3 Current Division in Parallel-connected Resistances

I
Consider two resistances R 1 and R2 in parallel are connected I1 I2
to a dc source of V volts as shown in Fig. 2.37. Let I be the current + +
+ V
supplied by the source and I1 and I2 be the current through R1 and R 2, V E R1 V R2
E
respectively. Since the resistances are parallel to the source, the voltage E
across them will be V volts.

Fig. 2.37 : Resistances in
Equations (2.44) and (2.45) given below can be used to parallel.
determine the currents in parallel-connected resistances in terms of
the total current drawn by the parallel combination and the values of individual resistances. Hence,
these equations are called the current division rule.
R2
I1 = I # ..... (2.44)
R1 + R2
R1 ..... (2.45)
I2 = I #
R1 + R2
In two parallel-connected resistances,
Total current drawn by
# Value of the other resistance
parallel combination
Current through one of the resistances =
Sum of individual resistances
Proof for Current Division Rule

With reference to Fig. 2.37, by Ohm’s law we can write,
I1 = V
R1 ..... (2.46)
I2 = V ..... (2.47)
R2
By Kirchhoff’s Current Law, we get,

I = I1 + I2
R + R1
= V + V = Vc 1 + 1 m = Vc 2 m Using equations (2.46) and (2.47)
R1 R2 R1 R2 R1 R2
R1 R2
` V = I# ..... (2.48)
R1 + R2
On substituting for V from equation (2.48) in equation (2.46), we get,
R1 R2 R2
I1 = I # # 1 = I #
R1 + R2 R1 R1 + R2
On substituting for V from equation (2.48) in equation (2.47), we get,
R1 R2 R1
I2 = I # # 1 = I #
R1 + R2 R2 R1 + R2
2.2.4 Current Division in Parallel-connected Impedances

Consider two impedances Z1 and Z2 in parallel are connected to an ac source of V volts as
shown in Fig. 2.38. Let I be the current supplied by the source and I1 and I2 be the current through
Z1 and Z2 , respectively. Since the impedances are parallel to the source, the voltage across them
will be V volts.
Equations (2.49) and (2.50) can be used to solve the I
currents in parallel-connected impedances in terms of the total I1 I2

+ + +
current drawn by the parallel combination and the value of
individual impedances. Hence, these equations are called the V V~
E
Z1 V Z2
current division rule. E E
I1 = I # Z2 Fig. 2.38 : Impedances in parallel.

Z1 + Z 2 .....(2.49)
I2 = I # Z1
.....(2.50)
Z1 + Z 2
In two parallel-connected impedances,
Total current drawn by Value of the
#
parallel combination other impedance
Current through one of the impedances =
Sum of individual impedances
2.3 Source Transformation

“A practical voltage source can be converted into an equivalent practical current source and
vice versa, with the same terminal behaviour”. In these conversions, the current and voltage at the
terminal of the equivalent source will be the same as that of the original source, so that the power
delivered to the load connected at the terminals of the original and equivalent source will be the same.
The voltage source with series resistance can be converted into an equivalent current source
with parallel resistance as shown in Fig. 2.39. Similarly, the current source with parallel resistance
can be converted into an equivalent voltage source with series resistance as shown in Fig. 2.40.
Rs A
A
+ Ish + I
+ - I
IRs
+ Is Is = E / Rs Rs V RL
E - V RL Þ
- -
B B
Fig. a : Voltage source. Fig. b : Equivalent current source of the

voltage source in Fig. a.
Fig. 2.39 : Conversion of voltage source to current source.
A Rs A
V + I
+ - + I
Rs IRs
Is V RL Þ +
Rs E - E = Is Rs V RL
- -
B
B
Fig. a : Current source. Fig. b : Equivalent voltage source of the

current source in Fig. a.
Fig. 2.40 : Conversion of current source to voltage source.
Proof for Conversion of Voltage Source to Current Source
Consider a voltage source with source resistance R s delivering a current I to a load resistance R L as shown
in Fig. 2.39(a).
In Fig. 2.39(a), using KVL, we can write,
E = IR s + V ..... (2.51)
On dividing equation (2.51) throughout by R s , we get,
E = I+ V
Rs Rs ..... (2.52)
Let, E = Is and V = Ish ..... (2.53)
Rs Rs
From equations (2.52) and (2.53), we can write,
Is = I + I s h ..... (2.54)
Equation (2.54) represents a current source with generated current Is and delivering a load current I to the
load resistance RL. The Ish is the current drawn by a parallel resistance of value Rs connected across the current
source. Hence, equation (2.54) can be used to construct an equivalent current source as shown in Fig. 2.39(b). It can
be observed that the current source of Fig. 2.39(b) is equivalent to the voltage source of Fig. 2.39(a) with respect to the
terminals A-B.
Proof for Conversion of Current Source to Voltage Source

Consider a current source with source resistance R s delivering a current I to a load resistance RL as shown in
Fig. 2.40(a).
In Fig. 2.40(a), using KCL, we can write,
Is = V + I .....(2.55)
Rs
On multiplying equation (2.55) by R s, we get,
IsRs = V + I Rs ..... (2.56)
Let, Is Rs = E ..... (2.57)
E = V + I Rs ..... (2.58)
Equation (2.58) represents a voltage source with generated voltage E and delivering a load current I to the
load resistance R L . The IR s is the voltage across a series resistance of value Rs. Hence, equation (2.58) can be used to
construct an equivalent voltage source as shown in Fig. 2.40(b). It can be observed that the voltage source of Fig. 2.40(b)
is equivalent to the current source of Fig. 2.40(a) with respect to the terminals A-B.
2.4 Star-Delta Conversion

2.4.1 Resistances in Star and Delta
The star-connected resistances can be converted into equivalent delta-connected resistances
and vice versa. The conversion is valid if the ratio of voltage to current at any two terminals of the
equivalent network is the same as that in the original network. This means that the looking back
resistance at any two terminals of the original network is the same as that of the equivalent network.
Delta to Star Transformation
Consider three delta-connected resistances R 12, R23 and R31 as shown in Fig. 2.41(a). These
resistances can be converted into equivalent star-connected resistances R1, R2 and R3 of Fig. 2.41(b).
The equations used to determine the star equivalent of delta-connected resistances are given
below:
R12 R31
R1 =
R12 + R23 + R31
R12 R23
R2 =
R12 + R23 + R31
R23 R31
R3 =
R12 + R23 + R31
From the above equations, we can say that when the three resistances in delta are equal to
the value R, their equivalent star-connected resistances will consist of three equal resistances of
value R/3. 1 1
R31 R1
R12
Þ
R3 R2
2 2
R23
3 3
Fig. a : Delta-connected resistances. Fig. b : Star-connected resistances.
Fig. 2.41 : Delta to star transformation.
The following equation will be helpful to remember the delta to star conversion equations.
The product of resistances connected to
Star equivalent resistance at one terminal = the terminal in the delta network
Sum of three resistances in the delta network
Star to Delta Transformation

Consider three star-connected resistances R 1, R2 and R3 as shown in Fig. 2.42(a). These
resistances can be converted into equivalent delta-connected resistances R12, R23 and R31 of
Fig. 2.42(b).
1 1
R1
R31 R12
R3 R2
Þ
2 2
R23
3 3
Fig. a : Star-connected resistances. Fig. b : Delta-connected resistances.

Fig. 2.42 : Star to delta transformation.
The equations used to determine the delta equivalent of star-connected resistances are
given below:
R1 R2
R12 = R1 + R2 +
R3
R23 = R2 + R3 + R2 R3
R1
R31 = R3 + R1 + R3 R1
R2
From the above equations we can say that when the three resistances in star are equal to the
value R, their equivalent delta-connected resistances will consist of three equal resistances
of value 3R.
The following equation will be helpful to remember the star to delta conversion equations.
Product of the resistances

Sum of resistances connected to the two
terminals in the star network
Delta equivalent resistance between the two terminals = connected to the +
two terminals in The third resistance in
the star network the star network
2.4.2 Impedances in Star and Delta

The star-connected impedances can be converted into equivalent delta-connected
impedances and vice versa. The conversion is valid if the ratio of voltage to current at any two
terminals of the equivalent network is the same as that in the original network. This means that
the looking back impedance at any two terminals of the original network is the same as that of
the equivalent network.
Consider three delta-connected impedances Z12, Z23 and Z31 as shown in Fig. 2.43(a).
These impedances can be converted into equivalent star-connected impedances Z1, Z2 and Z3
of Fig. 2.43(b) using the equations given below:
Z1 = Z12 Z31 ; Z2 = Z12 Z23 ; Z3 = Z23 Z31

Z12 + Z23 + Z31 Z12 + Z23 + Z31 Z12 + Z23 + Z31
1 1
Z1
Z31 Z12
Þ Z3 Z2
2 2
Z23
3 3
Fig. a : Delta-connected impedances. Fig. b : Star-connected impedances.
Fig. 2.43 : Delta to star transformation.

Consider three star-connected impedances Z1, Z2 and Z3 as shown in Fig. 2.44(a). These
impedances can be converted into equivalent delta-connected impedances Z12, Z23 and Z31 of
Fig. 2.44(b) using the equations given below:
Z12 = Z1 + Z2 + Z1 Z2 ; Z23 = Z2 + Z3 + Z2 Z3 ; Z31 = Z3 + Z1 + Z3 Z1

Z3 Z1 Z2
1
1
Z1 Z31 Z12
Z3 Z2
Þ
2 2
Z23
3 3
Fig. a : Star-connected impedances. Fig. b : Delta-connected impedances.

Fig. 2.44 : Star to delta transformation.
2.5 Solved Problems in Network Reduction 82 W 18 W

100 W
EXAMPLE 2.1 60 W
76 W
+
In the circuit shown in Fig. 1, find the total resistance across the E -
supply voltage. 40 W
Fig. 1.
SOLUTION ß
The step-by-step reduction of the given network is shown in Figs 2 to 5.

100 W 82 + 18 = 100 W
Step-1 :
E + 76 W
-
The series-connected 82 W and 18 W resistances in Fig. 1 are combined to
60 ´ 40
form a single equivalent resistance as shown in Fig. 2. Also the parallel-connected = 24 W
60 + 40
60 W and 40 W in Fig. 1 are combined to form a single equivalent resistance as
Fig. 2.
shown in Fig. 2.
ß
Step-2 : 100 W 100 W
The series-connected 24 W and 76 W resistances in Fig. 2 are combined to +

- E
form a single equivalent resistance as shown in Fig. 3.
24 + 76 = 100 W
Step-3 :
Fig. 3.
ß
100 W
The two parallel-connected 100 W resistances in Fig. 3 are combined to form
100 ´ 100
a single equivalent resistance as shown in Fig. 4. = 50 W
100 + 100
+
- E
Step-4 : Fig. 4.
The series-connected 100 W and 50 W resistances in Fig. 4 are combined to ß

form a single equivalent resistance as shown in Fig. 5.
100 + 50 = 150
+
E E
RESULT
With reference to Fig. 5, we can say that, Fig. 5.
Total resistance across supply = 150 W
2W A
EXAMPLE 2.2
+
Find the total resistance as seen by the source in the circuit shown 2W V
4W _
in Fig. 1. 4W
B
SOLUTION Fig. 1.
3W 1W
The step-by-step reduction of the given circuit is shown in Figs 2 to 5. ß

A
Step-1 : 2W 3W
+
4W V 4W
_
The given circuit is redrawn as shown in Fig. 2.
2W 1W
Fig. 2.
B
Step-2 :
ß
A
The two series-connected 2 W resistances in Fig. 2 are
combined to form a single equivalent resistance as shown in +
2+2 3+1
4W V 4W
Fig. 3. Similarly, the 3 W and 1 W in series are converted into a = 4W _ = 4W
single equivalent reisistance.

Fig. 3.
B
ß
Step-3 : A
+
The circuit of Fig. 3 is redrawn as shown in Fig. 4.
V 4W 4W 4W 4W
_
Fig. 4. B
Step-4 :
ß
The four parallel-connected 4 W resistances in Fig. 4 are combined to form a single equivalent resistance
as shown in Fig. 5. A
+
RESULT V
4
a 1
4
With reference to Fig. 5, we can say that,
B
Total resistance across supply = 1 W
Fig. 5.
A
90
Find the equivalent resistance of the network shown in Fig. 1.
75 15
B
Fig. 1.
SOLUTION A
1
30 W R1 60 W
The step-by-step reduction of the given network is shown in Figs 2 to 6. R2 R3
2 3
90 W
75 W 15 W
Step-1 :
B
Fig. 2.
The delta-connected 30 W, 90 W and 60 W resistances in Fig. 2 are
converted into equivalent star-connected resistances as shown in Fig. 3. The ß
1
resistances R1, R2 and R3 connected by dotted lines in Fig. 2 are the star A
R1 = 10 W
equivalent resistances.
R2 = 15 W R3 = 30 W
R1 = 30 # 60 = 10 Ω
30 + 90 + 60 2 3
R2 = 30 # 90 = 15 Ω
30 + 90 + 60 75 W 15 W
B
R3 = 90 # 60 = 30 Ω Fig. 3.
30 + 90 + 60
ß
Step-2 :
A
The series-connected 15 W and 75 W resistances in Fig. 3 are combined to 10 W
form a single equivalent resistance as shown in Fig. 4. Similarly, the 30 W and 15 W

in series are converted into a single equivalent reisistance.
15 + 75 30 + 15
= 90 W = 45 W
Step-3 : B
Fig. 4.
The parallel-connected 90 W and 45 W resistances in Fig. 4 are combined ß
to form a single equivalent resistance as shown in Fig. 5. A
10 W
Step-4 : 90 ´ 45
90 + 45
= 30 W
The series-connected 10 W and 30 W resistances in Fig. 5 are combined to B
form a single equivalent resistance as shown in Fig. 6. Fig. 5.

ß
A
RESULT 10 + 30
= 40
Equivalent resistance across A-B, RAB = 40 W B

Fig. 6.
EXAMPLE 2.4 2W
Find the equivalent input resistance across terminals A and B of the

1W 3W
bridged-T network shown in Fig. 1. A
2W 1W
SOLUTION
B
The step-by-step reduction of the bridged-T network is shown Fig. 1.
in Figs 2 to 5. ß
2W
Step-1 : R1 R3
The delta-connected resistances 1 W, 3 W and 2 W in Fig. 2 are R2

1W 3W
converted into equivalent star-connected resistances as shown in Fig. 3. A
1 2 3
The resistances R1, R2 and R3 connected by dotted lines in Fig. 2 are star 2W 1W
equivalent resistances.
B
2 # 1 Fig. 2.
R1 = = 2 = 1 Ω
2 + 1+ 3 6 3
ß
R2 = 1# 3 = 3 = 1 Ω 1
R1 = W R3 = 1 W
2 + 1+ 3 6 2 3
A
R3 = 2 # 3 = 6 = 1Ω 1
2 + 1+ 3 6 R2 = W
2
1W
Step-2 :
2W
The series-connected two 1 W resistances in Fig. 3 are combined to form
B
W
a single equivalent resistance as shown in Fig. 4. Similarly, the 1/2 W and 2 W in Fig. 3.
series are converted into a single equivalent reisistance.
ß
1
Step-3 : W
3
A
The parallel-connected 5/2 W and 2 W resistances in Fig. 4 are converted into

1 + 1 = 2W
a single equivalent resistance as shown in Fig. 5. 1 5

+2= W
2 2
Step-4 : B
Fig. 4.
The series-connected 1/3 W and 10/9 W resistances in Fig. 5 are combined to
ß
form a single equivalent resistance as shown in Fig. 6. 1
W
3
A A
RESULT 5
´2
10
1 10 13 2 = 2
C a 5 9
With reference to Fig. 6, we can say that, 3 9 9 Þ +2
a 1.4444 2 2
10
= W
Equivalent resistance across A - B = 13 Ω = 1.4444Ω
9
B
9 B
Fig. 6. Fig. 5.
EXAMPLE 2.5 C
Find the equivalent resistance across terminals A-B in the network

shown in Fig. 1. All the resistances are 3 W.
F
SOLUTION
The step-by-step reduction of the network is shown in Figs 2 to 7.
E
Step-1 :
D
The innermost delta-connected resistances in Fig. 2 are A B
converted into an equivalent star-connected resistance in Fig. 3. Since Fig. 1.
the delta-connected resistances are of equal value, the equivalent
star-connected resistances will also have equal value, which is one-third ß
of the delta-connected resistance.
C
Step-2 :
The series-connected 3 W and 1 W resistances in each branch of 3W
the star-connection in Fig. 3 are combined to form a single equivalent F
resistance of 3 W + 1 W = 4 W in each branch, as shown in Fig. 4. 3W 3W
3W 3W
Step-3 :
E 3W
The star-connected resistances in Fig. 4 are converted into an 3W D 3W
equivalent delta-connected resistance as shown in Fig. 5. Since the
A B
star-connected resistances are of equal value, the delta-connected 3W
resistances will also have equal value, which is three times the star-
Fig. 2.
connected resistance.
ß
C C C
3W
F
3+1=4 W
3W 3W 3W 3/3 = 1 W
3W 3W
4´
Þ
W
3W
Þ
12
3=
W
3=
1 =4
12
3+ 3+
4´
1=
W
4 ´ 3 = 12 W 4W W 3/3 E 3W
3W =1 =
D 3/3 3W
1W
A B
A 3W B A B
3W
Fig. 5. Fig. 3.
Fig. 4.
ß
C 4.8 ´ 2.4
2.4 + 2.4 = 4.8 W = 1.6 W
4.8 + 2.4
2.4 W Þ
3 ´ 12
3 + 12 Þ 2.4 W A B
= 2.4 W
A B Fig. 8.
A
2.4 W B Fig. 7.
Fig. 6.
Step-4 :
The network of Fig. 5 has three similar parallel connections of 12 W and 3 W resistances. Each parallel
connection is converted into a single equivalent resistance as shown in Fig. 6.
Step-5 :
Since we need resistance across nodes A and B, we can eliminate node C by combining the two
series-connected resistances in the path ACB to a single equivalent resistance as shown in Fig. 7.
Step-6 :
The parallel-connected 4.8 W and 2.4 W resistances in Fig. 7 are converted into a single equivalent
resistance in Fig. 8.
RESULT
Resistance across A-B = 1.6 W
EXAMPLE 2.6 2
B
Determine the equivalent resistance at A-B in the network 2 2
2
shown in Fig. 1.
2
SOLUTION 2
Method-I
2 2
Let us connect a voltage source of value V volts across A-B
2
as shown in Fig. 2. Let I be the current delivered by the source. Let 2
2 2
RAB be the resistance across A-B. Now, RAB is given by, A
R AB = V Fig. 1.
I
Due to the symmetry of the network, when a current I
2W
enters a node it will divide equally in the outgoing path. T 3 S I B
2W 2W
Similarly, the currents entering a node from incoming I I I
2W
branches will also be equal. The currents that will flow in the 3 3
-
6
various paths are shown in Fig. 2. I I
Q I R ´2 2W
2W 3
With reference to Fig. 2, by KVL in the path 6 I +
6 I
AMNOSBA, we get, 2W 2W _
6
V = c I # 2m + c I # 2m + c I # 2m = c 2 + 2 + 2 m I
P O
2W V
3 6 3 3 6 3 I
2W
-
I
I +
3 3 2W 2W I
+
I 6 ´2
= c 4 + 2 + 4 m I = 10 I = 5 I
6
A + I -
6 6 3 M I N 6
I ´2
3 3 I
` V = 5
I 3
` R AB = V = 5 Ω
I 3
Method-II Fig. 2.
The given network can be redrawn as shown in Fig. 3, in which two of the resistive branches are
considered as the parallel combination of two 4 W resistances.
2W 2W B1 B2
B B
2W 2W 2W 2W
2W 2W
2W 4W 4W
2W 2W
Þ
2W 2W 4W 4W 2W
2W
2W
Fig. 1. Fig. 3. 2W
2W
2W 2W 2W 2W
A A
A1 A2
The network of Fig. 3 can be considered as the parallel combination of two identical networks as shown in
Figs 4 and 5.
Let RA1B1 be the single equivalent resistance of the network shown in Fig. 4 and RA2B2 be the single
equivalent resistance of the network shown in Fig. 5. Now, the equivalent resistance RAB at A-B of the original
network is given by the parallel combination of RA1B1 and RA2B2. Since, the networks of Figs 4 and 5 are
identical, RA1B1 will be equal to RA2B2 and so R AB = R A1B1 2 or R AB = R A2B2 2 .
Therefore, it is sufficient if we reduce the network of Fig. 4 into a single equivalent resistance. The
step-by-step reduction of the network of Fig. 4 is shown in Figs 6 to 10.
2
B1 B2
2 2
2
2 4 4
4 2 4 2
2 2 2
A1 A2
Step-1 : Fig. 4. Fig. 5.

1
The series-connected 4 W and 2 W resistances in Fig. 4 are

combined to form a single equivalent resistance as shown in Fig. 6. 6W 2W
Step-2 : R1
R3
The delta-connected resistances 2 W, 2 W and 6 W in A1 2W B1
3
Fig. 6 are converted into an equivalent star-connected resistance R2
as shown in Fig. 7.
2W 6W
R1 = 2 # 6 = 12 = 6 Ω
2+2+6 10 5
2
R2 = 2 # 2 = 4 = 2Ω
2+2+6 10 5 Fig. 6.
R3 = 2 # 6 = 12 = 6 Ω ß
2+2+6 10 5 1
6 16 6
+2= W W 2W
5 5 5
6 6 R1
W W
5 5
A1 B1 Þ A1 B1
3 R3
2 32 R2
+6= W 2 6W
5 5 W
5
Fig. 8.
2
ß A1 B1 Fig. 7.
A1 B1 Þ 6 32 18 C 32
6 C a
W 16 32 5 15 15
5 ´
5 5 = 512 ´ 5 50 10
16 32 a a
+ 25 48 15 3
5 5
32 1 32 Fig. 10.
= ´ = W
5 3 15
Fig. 9.
Step-3 :
The series-connected 6 W and 2 W resistances in Fig. 7 are combined to form a single equivalent resistance
5
as shown in Fig. 8. Similarly, the series-connected 2 W and 6 W resistances are converted into a single equivalent.
5
Step-4 :
The parallel-connected 16 W and 32 W in Fig. 8 are combined to form a single equivalent resistance
5 5
as shown in Fig. 9.
Step-5 :
The series-connected 6 W and 32 W resistances in Fig. 9 are combined to form a single equivalent
5 15
as shown in Fig. 10.
RESULT
R A1B1 = 10 Ω
3
Let, RAB be the equivalent resistance at A-B in the network of Fig. 1.
R A1B1
Now, R AB = = 10 # 1 = 5 Ω
2 3 2 3
IT
EXAMPLE 2.7 (AU Dec’16, 8 Marks) A
13
Find the equivalent resistance and total current IT in the 24 10

20
network shown in Fig. 1.
+
100 V E
SOLUTION 50
30
The step-by-step reduction of the given network is shown
in Figs 2 to 6. B
Fig. 1.
IT 13 W
Step-1 : A
The delta-connected 30 W, 20 W and 50 W resistances in 10 W

24 W
Fig. 2 are converted into equivalent star-connected resistances 20 W
1 2
as shown in Fig. 3. The resistances R1, R2 and R3 connected by +
100 V -
R1 R2
dotted lines in Fig. 2 are the star equivalent resistances.
30 W 50 W
R3
R1 = 20 # 30 = 6Ω
20 + 30 + 50
B 3
Fig. 2.
20 # 50
R2 =
20 + 30 + 50
= 10 Ω ß
IT 13
A
R3 = 30 # 50 = 15 Ω
20 + 30 + 50 10
24
Step-2 : R2=10
+
100 V E
The series-connected 24 W and 6 W resistances in Fig. 3 are R1 = 6
combined to form a single equivalent resistance as shown in Fig. 4. R3 =15
Similarly, the 10 W and 10 W in series are converted into a single

B
equivalent reisistance. Fig. 3.
IT 13 W
A
Step-3 :
24 + 6 10 + 10
The parallel-connected 30 W and 20 W resistances in = 30 W = 20 W
Fig. 4 are combined to form a single equivalent resistance as +

100 V -
shown in Fig. 5.
15 W
Step-4 :
B
Fig. 4.
The series-connected 13 W,12 W and 15 W resistances ß
in Fig. 5 are combined to form a single equivalent resistance as IT 13 W
A
shown in Fig. 6. 30 ´ 20
30 + 20
Let, RAB be the resistance across A and B. = 12 W
+
100 V -
15 W
RAB = 40 W
B
Fig. 5.
To find the total current drawn from the source
IT
ß
Let, IT be the total current drawn from the source. A
Now, by Ohm’s law, we get, 13+12+15

+
100 V E = 40
Total current, I T = 100 = 100 = 2.5 A
R AB 40
B
Fig. 6.
4 k
EXAMPLE 2.8
When a 6 V source is connected across A and B in the A 3 k
network shown in Fig. 1, find a) the total resistance between 10 k
terminals A and B, b) the total current drawn from the source, B 5 k

4.7 k
c) the voltage across 3 kΩ resistance and d) the current through
4.7 kΩ resistance. Fig. 1.
SOLUTION
a) To find the resistance between A and B 4 kW

A
The step-by-step reduction of the given network to a
single equivalent resistance is shown in Figs 2 to 4.
10 k W 3 kW
Step-1 :
B
The parallel-connected 5 kΩ and 4.7 kΩ resistances Fig. 2. 5 ´ 4.7
= 2.4227 k W
5 + 4.7
in Fig. 1 are converted into a single equivalent resistance as
shown in Fig. 2
Step-2 : A
= 6.4227 kW
4 + 2.4227
The series-connected 4 kΩ and 2.4227 kΩ resistances 10 k W 3 kW
in Fig. 2 are converted into a single equivalent resistance as
shown in Fig. 3. B
Step-3 : Fig. 3.
ß
The parallel-connected 10 k Ω, 3 k Ω and 6.4227 k Ω
A
resistances in Fig. 3 are converted into a single equivalent
1
resistance as shown in Fig. 4. 1 1
C C
1
10 3 6.4227
Let, RAB be the resistance across A and B. RAB a 1.6977 k
B
With reference to Fig. 4, we get, Fig. 4.
R AB = 1.6977 kΩ
IT
b) To find the total current drawn from the source A
The given network can be represented by a single +

RAB
6V
equivalent resistance as shown in Fig. 4. Let us connect a 6 V
E 1.6977 k
source across A and B as shown in Fig. 5. Let, IT be the total
current drawn from the source. B
Now, by Ohm’s law, we get,

Fig. 5.
Total current, I T = 6 = 6 = 3.5342 # 10- 3 A = 3.5342 mA

R AB 1.6977 # 103
c) To find the voltage across 3 kW resistance 4 k
In the network of Fig. 1, connect a 6 V source across A IT +

A 6V 3 k
and B as shown in Fig. 6. Now, by inspection we can say that the + +
6 V source and 3 kW resistance are in parallel. Since the voltages 10 k 6V 6V
5 k
are the same in parallel connection, the voltage across 3 kW is 6 V. 4.7 k
B
∴ Voltage across 3 kΩ resistance = 6 V
Fig. 6.
d) To find current through 4.7 kW resistance
The voltages and currents that will exist in various resistances when a 6 V source is connected across
A and B of the network of Fig. 1 are shown in Fig. 7. For convenience, the circuit of Fig. 7 is redrawn as shown
iin Fig. 8. I 4 kW I 4 kW
+ - V = V1 + V 2 + -
IT + V1 I = I1 + I2 IT V1
A V = 6V 3 kW I A
+ _ + +
+ - V2 + I 1 + +
5 ´ 4.7
10 k W 6V 10 k W 6V 3 kW V = 6V V2
_
_
6V I2 Þ _
_
6V _ _ 5 + 4.7
5 kW = 2.4227 kW
+
B 4.7 k W V2 B
_
Fig. 7.
Fig. 8.
With reference to Fig. 8, by voltage division rule, we get,
V2 = V # 2.4227 = 6 # 2.4227 = 2.2633 V

4 + 2.4227 4 + 2.4227
With reference to Fig. 7, by Ohm’s law, we get,
V2
I2 = = 2.2633 3 = 0.4816 # 10- 3 = 0.4816 mA
4.7 # 103 4.7 # 10
\ Current through the 4.7 kΩ resistance = I2 = 0.4816 mA
RESULT
Total resistance between A and B, R AB = 1.6977 kΩ
Total current, I T = 3.5342 mA
Voltage across the 3 kΩ resistance = 6 V
Current through the 4.7 kΩ resistance = 0.4816 mA
EXAMPLE 2.9
1.
W
5
.5
+
j0
j1
+
.5
5
W
0.
Find the equivalent impedance of the network shown in Fig. 1.
-j2 W
1W 3W
SOLUTION
j4 W
Fig. 1. A B
The step-by-step reduction of the given network to a single
ß
equivalent impedance is shown in Figs 2 to 5. 0.5 + j0.5 + 1.5 + j1.5
= 2 + j2 W
Step-1 :
The series-connected 0.5 + j0.5 W and 1.5 + j1.5 W impedance in -j2 W

1W 3W
Fig.1 are converted into a single equivalent impedance as shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. j4 W
A B
ß
Step-2 : b2 + j2g ´ b- j2g = 2 - j2 W
2 + j2 + b - j2g
The parallel-connected 2 + j2 W impedance and –j2 W capacitive
reactance are converted into a single equivalent impedance as shown in 1W 3W
Fig. 3.
j4 W
Fig. 3. A B
ß
Step-3 : 1 + 2 E j2 + 3 = 6 E j2
The series-connected 1 W and 3 W resistances and 2 – j2 W

impedance in Fig. 3 are converted into a single equivalent impedance
as shown in Fig. 4. j4
Fig. 4. A B
Step-4 : b6 - j2g ´ j4 = 2.4 + j3.2 W
6 - j2 + j4
The parallel-connected 6 – j2 W impedance and j4 W inductive reactance
are converted into a single equivalent impedance as shown in Fig. 5.
Fig.5.
A B
RESULT
With reference to Fig. 5, the equivalent impedance Z AB at terminals A-B is,
Z AB = 2.4 + j3.2 W
EXAMPLE 2.10
10 10
1 2
Obtain the single delta-connected equivalent of the network shown in
Fig. 1. j10 j10
SOLUTION j5 5
The given network has two star networks between nodes 1, 2 and 3. 3
We can convert the star networks one by one into delta. Fig. 1.
Consider the star-connections of 10 Ω, 10 Ω and 5 Ω shown in Fig. 2. The equivalent delta network is
shown in Fig. 3.
1 10 W 10 W 2 R12
1 2
R1 R2 40 W
5W R3 Þ 20 W 20 W
R31 R23
3 3
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
The star-connected resistances are denoted by R 1 , R 2 and R 3 . The equivalent delta-connected
resistances are denoted by R 12 , R 23 and R 31 and they are computed as shown below:
R1 R 2
R12 = R1 + R 2 + = 10 + 10 + 10 # 10 = 40 Ω
R3 5
R 2 R3
R 23 = R 2 + R3 + = 10 + 5 + 10 # 5 = 20 Ω
R1 10
R3 R1
R31 = R3 + R1 + = 5 + 10 + 5 # 10 = 20 Ω
R2 10
Consider the star connections of j10 Ω, j10 Ω and j5 Ω shown in Fig. 4. The equivalent delta network
is shown in Fig. 5.
1 j10 W j10 W 2 j40 W 2
1
X1 X2 X12
Þ j20 W j20 W
X3 j5 W X31 X23
3 3
Fig. 4. Fig. 5.
The star-connected reactances are denoted by X1, X 2 and X3 . The equivalent delta-connected
reactances are denoted by X12, X23 and X31 and they are computed as shown below:
j10 # j10
X12 = X1 + X 2 + X1 X 2 = j10 + j10 + = j40 Ω
X3 j5
j10 # j5
X 23 = X 2 + X3 + X 2 X3 = j10 + j5 + = j20 Ω
X1 j10
j5 # j10
X31 = X3 + X1 + X3 X1 = j5 + j10 + = j20 Ω
X2 j10
Using the delta equivalent shown in Figs 3 and 5, the network of Fig. 1 can be transformed into the type
shown in Fig. 6 and we can observe that R12 and X12 are in parallel in Fig. 6. Similarly, R23 and X 23 are in parallel
and R31 and X31 are in parallel. The parallel combination of resistance and reactance can be combined to give
a single equivalent impedance as shown below:
Let, Z12 = Parallel combination of R 12 and X12
Z 23 = Parallel combination of R 23 and X 23
Z31 = Parallel combination of R31 and X31
R12 X12 40 # j40

Z12 = = = 20 + j20 Ω
R12 + X12 40 + j40
R 23 X 23 20 # j20
Z 23 = = = 10 + j10 Ω
R 23 + X 23 20 + j20
R31 X31 20 # j20

Z31 = = = 10 + j10 Ω
R31 + X31 20 + j20
The single delta equivalent of the network of Fig. 1 is shown in Fig. 7.
X12 = j40 W
10 W 10 W Z12 = 20 + j20 W
1 2 1 2
1 2
j10 W j10 W Þ Þ
R12 = 40 W
R 31
W
20
=
Z31 = 10 + j10 W
=
20
Z23 = 10 + j10 W
23
j5 W 5W
W
R
X31 = j20 W X23 = j20 W
3 3 3
Fig. 1. Fig. 6. Fig. 7.

5 mF 60 mF
Find the equivalent capacitance of the network shown in Fig. 1.
A
SOLUTION
20 mF 6 mF 20 mF
The step-by-step reduction of the given circuit is shown in

B
Figs 2 to 4.
Fig. 1.
60 mF
Step-1 :
A
The series-connected 20 mf and 5 mf capacitances in Fig. 1 are 5 ´ 20
5 + 20
combined to form a single equivalent capacitance as shown in Fig. 2. 6 mF 20 mF
= 4 mF
Step-2 :
B
Fig. 2.
The parallel-connected capacitances 4 mf, 6 mf and 20 mf in
Fig. 2 are combined to form a single equivalent capacitance as shown ß
60 mF
in Fig. 3. A
4 + 6 + 20
Step-3 : = 30 mF
The series-connected capacitances 30 mf and 60 mf in Fig. 3 are

Fig. 3. B
combined to form a single equivalent capacitance as shown in Fig. 4.
ß
A
RESULT
30 ´ 60
30 + 60
= 20 mF
Equivalent capcitance A-B, Ceq = 20 mF
Fig. 4. B
C
EXAMPLE 2.12 A
C C
Find the equivalent capacitance across terminals A-B in the network
C C
shown in Fig. 1.
C C
SOLUTION B
C
Let us consider the capacitances as capacitive reactances
Fig. 1.
as shown in Fig. 2 for convenience in applying reduction -jXC
techniques. A
The step-by-step reduction of capacitive reactances

-jXC -jXC
into a single equivalent is shown in Figs 2 to 7. -jXC -jXC
-jXC -jXC
Step-1 :
The delta-conected capacitive reactances in Fig. 2 are Fig. 2. B

converted into star-connected capacitive reactances as shown -jXC
in Fig. 3. Since the delta-connected reactances are of equal ß

value, the equivalent star-connected reactances will also have XC X
A Ej Ej C
3 3
equal value, which is one third of the delta-connected reactances.
X
Step-2 : Ej C
3
EjXC EjXC
X
The series-connected capacitive reactances – jXC/3, Ej C
3
– jXC and – jXC/3 in Fig. 3 are converted into a single equivalent
reactance as shown in Fig. 4. Similarly, the two – jXC/3 reactances Fig. 3. B X X
Ej C Ej C
in series are converted into a single equivalent. 3 3
Step-3 : X
Ej C
3
The parallel-connected capacitive reactances – A
j2XC /3 and –j5XC /3 in Fig.4 are converted into a single

equivalent capacitive reactance as shown in Fig.5. EjXC E jXC
FG 1 C 1 IJ E jXC
FG 1 C 1C 1 IJ
H 3 3K H 3 3K
2X C 5X C
Step-4 : a Ej a Ej
3 3
B
The series-connected capacitive reactances –jXC /3, X
Ej C
3
–j10XC /21, and –jXC /3 in Fig.5 are converted into a single Fig. 4.
equivalent reactance as shown in Fig. 6.
X
Step-5 : -j C
3
A 2 5F I
The parallel-connected capacitive reactances –jXC and –j8XC /7 ´
GG JJ
- jXC 3 3
2 5
in Fig. 6 are converted into a single equivalent reactance as shown in + GH JK
3 3
-jXC
Fig. 7. 10 3
= - jXC ´
9 7
RESULT = -j
10X C
B 21
X
Let, CAB = Equivalent capacitance across terminals A-B -j C
3
XCAB = Equivalent capacitive reactance across terminals A-B Fig. 5.

A
With reference to Fig. 7, we get, E jXC
LM 1 C 10 C 1 OP
N 3 21 3 Q
8XC EjXC 24XC
XCAB = .....(1) a Ej
15 21
8X C
We know that, a Ej
7
B
XC = 1 .....(2) Fig. 6.
2πfC
Using equation (2), equation (1) can be written as,
A 8LM OP
XCAB = 8 # 1 .....(3) - jX C 7
´1
MM PP
15 2πfC 8
+1
1 7 MN PQ
Let, XCAB = .....(4)
2πfC AB = - jX C ´
8
´
7
7 15
On equating equations (3) and (4), we get, 8X C
B = -j
15
8 # 1 = 1 & C AB = 15 C = 1.875 C
15 2πfC 2πfC AB 8 Fig. 7.
∴ Equivalent capacitance at A-B, CAB = 1.875 C farad.

3 + j2
EXAMPLE 2.13 A
Find the equivalent admittance of the network shown in Fig. 1.

1

+
j2
3 E j3
j5
4 + j4
1 + j4

2
B
Fig. 1.
W
SOLUTION 3 + j2
A
The step-by-step reduction of the given network
1
b2 + j4g ´ b4 + j4g
W
W
+
j2
into a single equivalent admittance is shown in Figs 2 to 5.
3 - j3
j5
1 + j4
W
2 + j4 + 4 + j4
2
W
= 1.44 + j2.08
Step-1 : B
Fig. 2.
The series-connected 2 + j4 M and 4 + j4 M ß
admittances in Fig. 1 are converted into a single equivalent W
3 + j2
+ 1 + j5 + 1.44 + j2.08
admittance as shown in Fig. 2. A
W
W
= 7.44 + j6.08
2 + j2 + 3 - j3
Step-2 :
1 + j4
The parallel-connected 2 + j2 M , 3 – j3 M , 1 + j5 M and 1.44 + j2.08 M
admittances in Fig. 2 are converted into a single equivalent admittance as B

ß
Step-3 : A
The series-connected 3 + j2 M and 7.44 + j6.08 M are b3 + j2g ´ b7.44 + j6.08g

W
1 + j4
converted into a single equivalent admittance as shown in Fig. 4. 3 + j2 + 7.44 + j6.08
W
= 2 .1441 + j1.513
Step-4 : B
Fig. 4.
The parallel-connected 1 + j4 M and 2.1441 + j1.513 M admittances ß
are converted into a single equivalent admittance as shown in Fig. 5.
1 + j4 + 2.1441 + j1.513
A

= 3.1441 + j5.513
RESULT
With reference to Fig. 5, the equivalent admittance YAB at terminals A-B is,
B
YAB = 3.1441 + j5.513 M Fig. 5.
EXAMPLE 2.14

j0.5
Determine the equivalent susceptance for the circuit shown in

Fig. 1. j0.2
SOLUTION j0.2

The step-by-step reduction of the given network is shown in

A B
Figs 2 to 6. Let, jBAB be the equivalent susceptance across A-B. j0.4 j0.4

j0.2
Fig. 1.
jB AB = j0.7 M
W
j0.5
W W W
j0.2 j0.5 j0.5
W W
W j0.2 j0.2
j0.2
Þ Þ
A W W B A W W W B A W W B
j0.4 j0.4 j0.4 j0.4 j(0.2 + 0.2) j0.4 j0.4
W = j0.2
W = j0.4 2
j0.2
Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
j0.5
W ß
W
j0.5
Þ Þ
A B
A B A B W W
W j0.4 W j0.4 j(0.2 + 0.2)
W
j(0.2 + 0.5) = j0.7 = j0.2 = j0.4
2
Fig. 6. Fig. 5. Fig. 4.

5V 1
E+
Using source transformation technique, find the current
Io
Io, through the 7 W resistor shown in Fig. 1.
6 5A 3 7 3A 4
SOLUTION
The parallel-connected resistances 6 W and 3 W are
converted into a single equivalent resistance as shown in Fig. Fig. 1.
2. Similarly, the series-connected resistances 1 W and 4 W are converted into a single equivalent resistance
as shown in Fig. 2.
Let us convert the 5 A source into a voltage source as shown in Fig. 3.
5V 5V
-+ -+
Io
Io
3´6 2W
5A 3+6 7W 3A 1+4 3A 5W 7W
=2W = 5W Þ +
5´2 -
= 10 V
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
The voltage sources 10 V and 5 V in series are combined to form a single source as shown in Fig. 4.
Let us convert the 5 V source in series with the 2 W resistance into an equivalent current source in
parallel with 2 W resistance as shown in Fig. 5.
2W
Io Io
+ Þ 5
10 - 5 - 3A 5W 7W 2W 3A 5W 7W
2
=5V = 2.5 A
Fig. 4. Fig. 5.
The current sources in parallel in Fig. 5 can be combined to form Io

a single source as shown in Fig. 6. Also, the resistances 2 W and 5 W can
be combined to form a single resistance. 2´5
3 + 2.5 7W
= 5.5 A 2+5
With reference to Fig. 6, by the current division rule, 10
= W
7
10 10
I o = 5.5 # 7 = 5.5 # 7 = 5.5 # 10 Fig. 6.
10 + 7 10 + 7 # 7 59
7 7
= 0.9322 A
2.6 Network Theorems

Theorems are useful tools for analysing circuits with less effort. They are derived
from fundamental laws and concepts. A given circuit can be analysed by different methods,
namely, KCL/KVL, mesh/node method, theorems, etc. In most cases, the analysis of circuits
using theorems is much easier as compared to other methods. Remember that theorems
do not always simplify the task of analysis, sometimes it may become more tough than
other methods.
2.6.1 Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorems

Thevenin’s theorem will be useful to find the response of an element in a circuit by replacing
the complicated part of the circuit by a simple equivalent voltage source. Similarly, Norton’s
theorem will be useful to find the response of an element in a circuit by replacing the complicated
part of the circuit by a simple equivalent current source.
Consider a load impedance Z L connected to two terminals A and B of a circuit represented as
a box in Fig. 2.45(a). Using Thevenin’s theorem, the circuit can be replaced with a voltage source
in series with an impedance as shown in Fig. 2.45(b). Using Norton’s theorem, the circuit can be
replaced with a current source in parallel with an impedance as shown in Fig. 2.45(c).
Z th A
+
A
Vth ZL
Þ
~
-
Circuit with
sources and Fig. b : Thevenin’s equivalent.
ZL
impedances B
A
B Þ
In Zn ZL
Fig. a : Original circuit.
~
Fig. c : Norton’s equivalent.
B
Fig. 2.45 : Thevenin’s and Norton’s equivalent of a circuit.
These theorems can also be used to analyse a part of a circuit by replacing the complicated
part of the circuit with a simple equivalent circuit.
Consider two parts of a circuit N1 and N2 connected through resistance-less wires as shown in
Fig. 2.46(a). Now, one part of the circuit can be replaced with a simple equivalent circuit using
Thevenin’s/Norton’s theorem for the analysis of the other part of the circuit.
Using Thevenin’s theorem, the circuit N1 is replaced with a voltage source in series with
an impedance as shown in Fig. 2.46(b). Using Norton’s theorem, the circuit N1 is replaced with a
current source in parallel with an impedance as shown in Fig. 2.46(c).
Z th
A
+
Vth Circuit N2
~
_
Þ B
A Fig. b : Thevenin’s equivalent.
Circuit N1 Circuit N2
B
Þ A
Fig. a : Original circuit.
In Zn Circuit N2
~
B
Fig. c : Norton’s equivalent.
Fig. 2.46 : Thevenin’s and Norton’s equivalent of a circuit.
Thevenin’s Theorem
Thevenin’s theorem states that a circuit with two terminals can be replaced with an equivalent circuit,
consisting of a voltage source in series with a resistance (or impedance).
The voltage source is called Thevenin’s voltage source and its value is given by the voltage
across the two open terminals of the circuit.
The series resistance (or impedance) is called Thevenin’s resistance (or impedance)
and it is given by looking back resistance (or impedance) at the two open terminals of the
network. The looking back resistance (or impedance) is the resistance (or impedance) measured
at the two open terminals of a circuit after replacing all the independent sources with zero
value sources.
Rth
A
A A A
Circuit Circuit + Circuit with
with dc with dc zero value
sources and Þ Vth +- sources and
Vth
sources and
resistance resistances _ resistances
Rth
B B B
B
Fig. a : Original Fig. b : Thevenin’s Fig. c : To find Fig. d : To find
circuit. equivalent. Thevenin’s voltage. Thevenin’s resistance.
Fig. 2.47 : Thevenin’s equivalent of a DC circuit.
A
A Zth A A
Circuit Circuit + Circuit with
with ac +
with ac zero value
sources and Þ Vth sources and Vth sources and
impedances
~
- impedances _ impedance
B B B Z th
B
Fig. a : Original Fig. b :Thevenin’s Fig. c : To find Fig. d : To find
Circuit. equivalent. Thevenin’s voltage. Thevenin’s impedance.
Fig. 2.48 : Thevenin’s equivalent of an AC circuit.
In order to calculate Thevenin’s resistance (or impedance), all the sources are replaced
with zero value sources and the circuit is reduced to a single equivalent resistance (or impedance)
with respect to two open terminals. The zero value sources are represented by their internal
resistance (or impedance). For an ideal voltage source, the internal resistance (or impedance) is zero
and so it is replaced with a short circuit. For an ideal current source, the internal resistance
(or impedance) is infinite and so it is replaced with an open circuit.
Norton’s Theorem
Norton’s theorem states that a circuit with two terminals can be replaced with an equivalent circuit,
consisting of a current source in parallel with a resistance (or impedance).
The current source is called Norton’s current source and its value is given by the current
flowing when the two terminals of the circuit are shorted. The parallel resistance (or impedance) is
called Norton’s resistance (or impedance) and it is given by looking back resistance (or impedance)
at the two terminals of the circuit. The looking back resistance (or impedance) is the resistance
(or impedance) measured at the two open terminals of a circuit after replacing all the independent
sources by zero value sources.
A
A A A
Circuit Circuit Circuit with
with dc with dc zero value
sources and Þ In Rn sources and In
sources and
resistances resistances resistances
Rn
B B B
B
Fig. a : Original Fig. b : Norton’s Fig. c : To find Fig. d : To find
circuit. equivalent. Norton’s current. Norton’s resistance.
Fig. 2.49 : Norton’s equivalent of a DC circuit.
A
A A A
Circuit Circuit Circuit with
with ac with ac zero value
Þ In
sources and In Zn sources and sources and
impedances
~ impedances impedance
Zn
B B B
B
Fig. a : Original Fig. b : Norton’s Fig. c : To find Fig. d : To find
Circuit. equivalent. Norton’s current. Norton’s impedance.
Fig. 2.50 : Norton’s equivalent of an AC circuit.
In order to calculate Norton’s resistance (or impedance), all the sources are replaced by
zero value sources and the circuit is reduced to a single equivalent resistance (or impedance) with
respect to two open terminals. The zero value sources are represented by their internal resistance
(or impedance). For an ideal voltage source, the internal resistance (or impedance) is zero and so it
is replaced with a short circuit. For an ideal current source, the internal resistance (or impedance)
is infinite and so it is replaced with an open circuit.
Relation Between Thevenin’s and Norton’s Equivalents
Consider Thevenin’s equivalent of a given circuit as shown in Fig. 2.51.
Rth
A
A
Circuit N Þ Vth +-
B
B
Fig. a : Original circuit. Fig. b : Thevenin’s equivalent.

Fig. 2.51 : A circuit and its Thevenin’s equivalent.
Let us find Norton’s equivalent of the circuit N from its Thevenin’s equivalent. To find
Norton’s current In, the terminals A and B are short-circuited as shown in Fig. 2.52(a). Now, In is
the current flowing through the short circuit. By Ohm’s law, we get, In = Vth / Rth.
To find Norton’s resistance, the voltage source Vth is replaced with a short circuit as shown
in Fig. 2.52(b). With reference to Fig. 2.52(b), we can say that Norton’s resistance Rn is the same
as that of Thevenin’s resistance Rth. Norton’s equivalent of the circuit N is shown in Fig. 2.52(c).
Rth Rth
A A A
Vth Vth
Vth +E In a SC In a Rn = Rth
R th R th
B B B
Rn = Rth
Fig. a : To find Fig. b : To find Fig. c : Norton’s

Norton’s current. Norton’s resistance. equivalent.
Fig. 2.52 : Norton’s equivalent of circuit N.
Norton’s equivalent of a circuit can also be directly obtained from its Thevenin’s equivalent
(or vice versa) using source transformation technique as shown in Fig. 2.53. In fact, “Thevenin’s
equivalent is the voltage source model and Norton’s equivalent is the current source model of a
circuit”.
From the above discussion it is evident that R th = R n (or Z th = Z n) and also that Thevenin’s
resistance (or impedance) is given by the ratio of Thevenin’s voltage and Norton’s current.
Vth
` R th = R n =
In .....(2.59)
Z th = Z n = Vth .....(2.60)
In
Equations (2.59) and (2.60) can be used to determine the looking back resistance (or
impedance) from the knowledge of open circuit voltage (Vth ) and short circuit current (In ).
Rth = Rn
A A
Vth
Vth = InRn + Þ
Þ In = Rn = Rth
- R th
B B
Zth = Zn
A A
+
Vth
Zn = Zth
Þ
Vth = In Z n ~ Þ In =
~
_ Zth
B B
Fig. 2.53 : Conversion of Thevenin’s equivalent to Norton’s equivalent

(or vice versa) using source transformation technique.
5A
EXAMPLE 2.16 A
Determine Thevenin’s and Norton’s equivalents of the circuit
shown in Fig. 1 with respect to terminals A and B.
12 A 12 4 3A
SOLUTION
To find Thevenin’s voltage Vth B
Fig. 1.
Thevenin’s voltage Vth is the voltage across terminals A and
B as shown in Fig. 2. The polarity of Vth is assumed such that terminal-A is positive and terminal-B is negative.
5A 5A
A A
+ + +
(4 ´ 5) V 4W
12 A 12 4 3A Vth 12 A 12 W _ Vth
I = 5A
+
_ 4´3
_ _
= 12 V
B B
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
The 3 A current source in parallel with the 4 W resistance is converted into a voltage source in series
with the 4 W resistance as shown in Fig. 3. Now, the 5 A source is in series with the 4 W resistance and 12 V
source.
Vth = (4 ´ 5) + 12 = 32 V
To find Thevenin’s resistance Rth (and Norton’s resistance Rn)
The current sources are replaced with an open circuit as shown in Fig. 4. With reference to Fig. 5,
Thevenin’s resistance, Rth = 4 W
\ Rth = Rn = 4 W
OC
A A
OC 12 W 4W OC 12 W 4W
Þ
B B
Rth Rth
Fig. 4. Fig. 5.
To find Norton’s current In
The terminals A and B are shorted as shown in Fig. 6. Now, the 4 W resistance is short-circuited
and so no current will flow through it. Hence, the 4 W resistance is removed and the circuit is redrawn as
shown in Fig. 7. With reference to Fig. 7, by KCL at node-A, we can say that the current through the
short circuit is 5 + 3 = 8 A.
\ In = 8 A
5A 5A
A A
I=0 7A
12 W In = 5 + 3 = 8 A
12 A 12 W 4W 3A In 12 A 3A
Þ
7A
(7 + 5) A 5A 3A
B B
8A
Fig. 6. Fig. 7.
Thevenin’s and Norton’s equivalent
Rth = 4
A A
Vth = 32 V +E In = 8 A +E Rn = 4
B B
Fig. 8 : Thevenin’s equivalent. Fig. 9 : Norton’s equivalent.

EXAMPLE 2.17
+ E +
8
Find the current through the 10 W resistance of the circuit 20 V 12 V
shown in Fig. 1 using Thevenin’s theorem. Confirm the result by mesh E
analysis. 2 10
5
SOLUTION
Let us remove the 10 W resistance and mark the resulting open
terminals as A and B as shown in Fig. 2. Fig. 1.
Now, Thevenin’s voltage is the voltage measured across A and B A
and Thevenin’s resistance is the resistance measured between A and B. + E + +
8
20 V 12 V
The polarity of Vth is assumed such that terminal-A is at a higher potential E
than terminal-B. 2 Vth
5
To find Thevenin’s voltage Vth
_
With reference to Fig. 3, by Ohm’s law, we get, B

Rth
20 = 2.8571 A Fig. 2.
I =
5+2 8 12 V
E +
A
With reference to Fig. 3, by KVL, we can write, + +
No voltage
20 V +
Vth= 2I + 12 ⇒ Vth = 2 ´ 2.8571 + 12 = 17.7142 V E 2
2I
E Vth
To find Thevenin’s resistance Rth 5
I _
The voltage sources are replaced with a short circuit as shown in Fig. 4.
B
In Fig. 4, the 5 W and 2 W resistances are in parallel and the parallel Fig. 3.
combination is in series with the 8 W resistance.
` R th = b 5 | | , 2 l + 8 = 5 # 2 + 8 = 9.4286 Ω SC
A
5+2
8
SC
Thevenin’s equivalent at A-B
2
Rth= 9.4286
A
5
B
Vth=17.7142 V +E Rth
Fig. 4.
Fig. 5 : Thevenin’s equivalent.

A
To find current through 10 W resistance 9.4286 IL
The 10 W resistance is connected to terminals A and B as shown in Fig. 6.

+ 10
E 17.7142 V
Let, IL be the current through the 10 W resistance.
B
IL = 17.7142 = 0.9118 A
9.4286 + 10 Fig. 6.
Cross-Check by Mesh Analysis

Let us assume mesh currents as shown in Fig. 7. The mesh basis matrix equation is,
> H > I1 H > 12 H

5+2 −2 I 20
=
− 2 2 + 8 + 10 2 12 V
8 E +
A
+
> −2 H > I12 H > 12 H

7 −2 I 20 IL
20 V
=
20 E
2 10
5
7 −2
∆ = = 7 # 20 − (− 2) 2 = 136 I1 I2
− 2 20
B
7 20 Fig. 7.
∆2 = = 7 # 12 − (− 2 # 20) = 124
− 2 12
∆2
` I2 = = 124 = 0.9118 A
∆ 136
EXAMPLE 2.18 10
20
Find Thevenin’s and Norton’s equivalents of the circuit shown in
Fig. 1 with respect to terminals A and B.
A
SOLUTION 10 V +E +
E 50 V
B
With reference to Fig. 2, in the closed path DACBD, by KVL we can write,
10I + 20I + 10 = 50 ⇒ 30I = 50 – 10 Fig. 1.

20 10
I A I
` I = 50 − 10 = 1.3333 A C _ _
D
30 20I + 10I +
With reference to Fig. 2, in the path DABD, we get, A+

10 V +E Vth + 50 V
10I + Vth = 50 ⇒ Vth = 50 – 10 I _
E
B
\ Vth = 50 – 10 ´ 1.3333 = 36.667 V
To find Thevenin’s resistance Rth I B I
The voltage sources are replaced with a short circuit as shown in Fig. 3.
Fig. 2.
With reference to Fig. 4,
R th = 20 | | , 10 = 20 # 10 = 6.6667 Ω
20 + 10
20 W 10 W
A
A
SC SC Þ 20 W 10 W
B
Rth Rth
B
Fig. 3. Fig. 4.
Rth = 6.6667 A
A
In = 5.5 A Rn = 6.6667
Vth = 36.667 V +E
B
B
Fig. 6 : Norton’s equivalent.
Using source transformation technique, Norton’s equivalent is obtained from Thevenin’s equivalent
as shown in Fig. 5.
Vth
In = = 36.667 = 5.5 A
R th 6.6667
Rn = R th = 6.6667 Ω
Alternatively, Norton’s current can be directly determined by 20 10
shorting the terminals A and B and measuring the current through

the short. A
10 V +E In +
E 50 V
I1 I2
With reference to the circuit shown in Fig. 7, we can write, B
In = I1 + I 2 = 10 + 50 = 5.5 A Fig. 7.
20 10

Obtain the Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits for the active 3
A
network shown in Fig. 1.
3 6
E 10
20 V +E + V
B
SOLUTION Fig. 1.
With reference to Fig. 2, by KVL we can write, 3

A
E C +
No voltage
3I + 6I = 20 + 10 ⇒ 9I = 30 ⇒ I = 30 = 10 A 3I 3 6I 6
9 3 C E Vth
I
With reference to Fig. 2, we get, 20 V +E E 10 V
+
_
B
Vth + 10 = 6I ⇒ Vth = 6I - 10 = 6 # 10 − 10 = 10 V Fig. 2.

3
To find Thevenin’s resistance Rth 3

A
The voltage sources are replaced with a short circuit as shown in Fig. 3. 6
3
R th = 3 # 6 + 3 = 5 Ω SC SC
Rth
3+6
B
Fig. 3.
Rth = 5
A A
In = 2A
Vth = 10 V +E Rn = 5
B B
Fig. 4 : Thevenin’s equivalent. Fig. 5 : Norton’s equivalent.
Using source transformation technique, Norton’s equivalent is obtained from Thevenin’s equivalent
as shown in Fig. 4.
Vth
In = = 10 = 2 A
R th 5
R n = R th = 5 Ω
EXAMPLE 2.20 10
IL
Using Thevenin’s theorem, find the current IL in the

circuit shown in Fig. 1. + 10 V +
E E 4V
SOLUTION 3 3
Let us remove the 10 W resistance and mark the 2 1
resulting open terminals as A and B as shown in Fig. 2.
Now, we have to determine Thevenin’s equivalent Fig. 1.
of the circuit shown in Fig. 2, with respect to terminals A and
Rth
B. Let us assume Vth as shown in Fig. 2 with terminal-A as
A B
positive and terminal-B as negative. + E
+ +
To find Thevenin’s voltage Vth E 10 V E 4V
In Fig. 3, by voltage division rule, we can write, 3 3
2 1
Va = 10 # 3 = 6V
3+2
Fig. 2.
Vc = 4 # 3 = 3V
3+1 A B
+ E
With reference to Fig. 3, using KVL in the path Vth
ABCA, we can write, 10 V +E I1 I2
+
E 4V
+ +
_ 3 Va Vc 3
Vth + Vc = Va _
_ _
2 Vb Vd 1
\ Vth = Va – Vc = 6 – 3 = 3 V + +
C Fig. 3.
To find Thevenin’s resistance Rth

The voltage sources are replaced with a short circuit as shown in Fig. 4. With reference to Fig. 5, we get,
R th = b 3 | | , 2 l + b 3 | | , 1 l
= 3 # 2 + 3 # 1 = 1.95 Ω
3+2 3+1
Rth Rth
A B
A B
SC SC
3W 3W Þ 3W 3W
2W 1W
2W 1W
Fig. 4. Fig. 5.
Rth=1.95
A
Vth=3 V +E

A
To find IL 1.95 IL
Connect the 10 W resistance between terminals A and B as shown in Fig. 7. +

E 3V 10
With reference to Fig. 7, by Ohm’s law,
IL = 3 = 0.251 A
B
1.95 + 10 Fig. 7.

1 9V
Using Thevenin’s theorem, find the current IL, + E
through the 20 W resistor shown in Fig. 1.

50 V IL 20
+ E
SOLUTION
Let us remove the 20 W resistance and mark the +
20 V +E 10 5 10 V 2
resulting open terminals as A and B as shown in Fig. 2. E
Now, we have to determine Thevenin’s equivalent

of the circuit shown in Fig. 2, with respect to terminals A
and B. Let us assume Vth as shown in Fig. 2 with terminal-A Fig. 1.
as positive and terminal-B as negative.
1 9V 1 9V
+ E + E
Rth
50 V B A 50 V A
+ E + E B
EV + E Vth+
th
+ + +
+ 20 V +E
10 5 10 V 2 20 V 10 10 V 5 10 V 2
20 V +E E E
E E
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
With reference to Fig. 3, using KVL, we can write,

20 + Vth = 50 + 10
∴ Vth = 50 + 10 - 20 = 40 V
The voltage sources are replaced with a short circuit as shown in Fig. 5. With reference to Fig. 6, we get,
Rth = 0 W
1W SC 1W
A
SC B A B A
Rth Rth
Rth Þ
SC 10 W 5W SC 2W Þ
Rth = 0 W
B
Fig. 4. Fig. 5. Fig. 6.
+ Rth = 0
Vth=40V E
Fig. 7 : Thevenin’s equivalent
To find IL current through 20W A

IL
Connect the 20 W resistance between terminals A and B as shown in Fig. 8.
+
Vth=40V E
With reference to Fig. 8, by Ohm’s law, 20
IL = 40 = 2 A B
20
Fig. 8.
Cross-Check I1=1A 1 9V
+ E
+ V E
With reference to Fig. 9, by KVL 1
IS1=1A A B
we get, 50 V 20 I20=2A
+ E IS2=8A
10 =5A
E + 10 =2A 2
20 =2A
10 V20=40V 5
20 + V20 = 50 + 10
+ + + + +
20 V 10 10 V 5 10 V 10 V 2
E 20 V E
∴ V20 = 60 - 20 = 40 V E E E
IS2=8A
IS1=1A
V
` I20 = 20 = 40 = 2 A I2=1A
20 20
C D 5A
Fig. 9.
By KVL ,
V1 + 9 + V20 = 50
∴ V1 = 50 - 9 - V20 = 50 - 9 - 40 = 1 V
V1
` I1 = = 1 = 1A
1 1
By KCL, at node-A,
IS1 + I 20 = I1 + 2 ⇒ IS1 = I1 + 2 − I 20 = 1 + 2 − 2 = 1 A
By KCL, at node-B,
IS2 + I1 = I 20 + 5 + 2 ⇒ IS2 = I 20 + 5 + 2 − I1 = 2 + 5 + 2 − 1 = 8 A
By KCL, at node-C,
I 2 + IS1 = 2 ⇒ I 2 = 2 − IS1 = 2 − 1 = 1 A
By KCL, at node-D,
I 2 + 2 + 5 = IS2 ⇒ I 2 = IS2 − 2 − 5 = 8 − 2 − 5 = 1 A

A
Find Thevenin’s equivalent of the circuit shown in
Fig. 1 with respect to terminals A and B. 2 2
5A
10 V +E 5A
SOLUTION E
+ 10 V
To find Thevenin’s voltage Vth B

Fig. 1.
Let us convert the 10V source in series with the 3 W
resistance to an equivalent current source in parallel with 3 W resistance as shown in Fig. 2.
Also, the 5 A current source in parallel with the 1 W resistance is converted into an equivalent voltage
source in series with the 1 W resistance as shown in Fig. 3, and the modified circuit is shown in Fig. 4.
3W 1W 5V 1W
-+ A
2W
3.3333 A
+ 10 V
Þ 10
3W
5A
3W 5A 2W
- 3
= 3.3333 A ß -
+ 10 V
1W
-+ B
5 ´ 1 = 5V
Fig. 2 : Conversion of voltage Fig. 3 : Conversion Fig. 4 : Modified circuit.

source to current source. of current source
to voltage source. 5V 1W
The current sources in parallel in Fig. 4 can be combined -+ A
to form a single source as shown in Fig. 5. Also, the resistances
= 8.3333 A
2W
5 + 3.3333
3 W and 2 W can be combined to form a single resistance. 3´2
3+2
The current source in Fig. 5 is converted into a voltage = 1.2 W -
+ 10 V
source in Fig. 6.
B
Fig. 5.
1.2I + I + 2I = 10 + 5 + 10 ⇒ 4.2I = 25
5V 1W A
` I = 25 = 5.9524 A -+
_ +
4.2 _ +
I
+
1.2 W 1.2I 2I 2W
Also, Vth + 10 = 2I I
+ _ Vth
\ Vth = 2I – 10 +
8.3333 ´ 1.2
-
+ 10 V
-
= 10 V _
= 2 ´ 5.9524 – 10 = 1.9048 V
B
To find Thevenin’s resistance Rth Fig. 6.
In the given circuit, the voltage sources are replaced with a short circuit and the current sources
are replaced with an open circuit as shown in Fig. 7. Thevenin’s resistance Rth is obtained by using
network reduction technique as shown below:
Rth = 1.0476 W
3W 1W 3W 1W
A A
OC 2W
SC OC 2W
Þ 2W 2W
SC
B Rth B Rth
Fig. 7. Fig. 8.
ß
1W
A A A
2.2 ´ 2 Þ 1.2 + 1 Þ 3´2

2W 2W
2.2 + 2 = 2.2 W 3+2
= 1.0476 W = 1.2 W
B Rth B Rth B Rth
Fig. 11. Fig. 10. Fig. 9.

Rth=1.0476
A
+
Vth=1.9048 V E
B
Alternate Method to Find Vth

The voltage sources in Fig. 1 are converted into current sources as shown in Fig. 13. The node basis matrix
equation is formed using the circuit of Fig. 13, as shown below. Now, Vth = V2
R V R V R V V1 1 V2 A
S1 1 1 1 W S V1 W S 10 + 5 − 5 W +
S 3 2 1
+ + −
1 WS W S 3 W
S WS W= S W
S − 1 1 + WS
1 W S W 10
5A
5A 10
Vth
A 3 2
S 1 2 1 W S V2 W S 5 − 5 W 3
2
2
T X T X T X a 5A
> − 1 1.5 H > V2 H = > 0 H

1.8333 − 1 V1 3.3333 _
B
Fig. 13.
1.8333 − 1
∆l = = 1.8333 # 1.5 − (− 1) 2 = 1.74995
− 1 1.5
1.8333 3.3333
∆l2 = = 0 − (− 1) # 3.3333 = 3.3333
−1 0
∆l 2
` Vth = V2 = = 3.3333 = 1.9048 V
∆l 1.74995
EXAMPLE 2.23 5A
Determine Thevenin’s and Norton’s equivalents at P-Q for the circuit

2A
shown in Fig. 1.
SOLUTION 4 2V
E+
Thevenin’s and Norton’s equivalents can be obtained by using source Q P
4
transformation techniques as shown below:
The 5 V source in series with the 2 W resistance is converted into 5V 2
a current source as shown in Fig. 2. The 2 A source in parallel with the +E
4 W resistance is converted into a voltage source as shown in Fig. 3. The Fig. 1.

modified circuit is shown in Fig 4.
5A
-+
5V 2W 2A
ß 4W 4W 2V 8V 4W
-+ -+
Q P
5
ß 2.5 A
= 2.5 A
2 2 ´ 4 = 8V 4W
-+ 2W
2W
Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4.
The series-connected voltage sources in Fig. 4 are combined to form a single source as shown in
Fig. 5. Also, the 4 W resistances in series are represented by a single equivalent resistance.
5A 5A
-+
10 V 8W
1.25 A
2 + 8 = 10 V 4 + 4 = 8W
ß Q P
Q P 10
-+ = 1.25 A
8 8W
2.5 A
2.5 A
2W 8W
2W
Fig. 5. Fig. 6.
Fig. 7.
The 10 V voltage source in series with the 8 W resistance can be converted into a current source as
shown in Fig. 6. The modified circuit is shown in Fig. 7.
In Fig. 7, three current sources are in parallel and they can be combined to form a single current source
as shown in Fig. 8. Similarly, the resistances 8 W and 2 W in parallel are also represented by a single equivalent
resistance in Fig. 8.
5 + 1.25 - 2.5 = 3.75 A 3.75 ´ 1.6 = 6 V 1.6 W
-+
Q P Q P
8´2
8+2
= 1.6 W Fig. 9.
Fig. 8.
Here, Fig. 8 is Norton’s equivalent which can be transformed into Thevenin’s equivalent shown in
Fig. 9, using source transformation technique.
Rth=1.6
P P
Vth=6 V +E In=3.75 A Rn=1.6
Q Q
Fig. 10 : Thevenin’s equivalent at P-Q. Fig. 11 : Norton’s equivalent at P-Q.
EXAMPLE 2.24
Using Norton’s theorem, determine the current through an ammeter 1 3
connected across A and B of the circuit shown in Fig. 1. Take the resistance of
A
the ammeter as 0.5 W.
B
SOLUTION
3 1
The terminals A and B are shorted as shown in Fig. 2. The direction of
Norton’s current is assumed such that it flows from terminal-A to terminal-B. The
Fig. 1.
+ E
circuit of Fig. 2 is redrawn as shown in Fig. 3. 12 V
In the circuit of Fig. 3, the 3 W and 1 W resistances are in parallel
and so they are represented as a single equivalent resistance as shown in 1 3
Fig. 4.
A
In Fig. 4, the two equal resistances are in series with the 12 V source In
and so the source voltage 12 V divides equally between them. Since the B
voltage across the parallel resistances 1 W and 3 W is 6 V, the voltage
3 1
across each resistance is also 6 V. By using Ohm’s law, the current through
each resistance is calculated and marked in Fig. 3.
With reference to Fig. 3, at node A using KCL, we can write, Fig. 2.
+ E
12 V
In + 2 = 6
∴ In = 6 – 2 = 4 A
6 6
= 6A = 2A 3 ´1
1 1W A 3 3W 3 ´1 = 0.75 W
= 0.75 W
_ _ 3 +1 3 +1
+ +
6V In = 4A 6V _ _
+ +
12 12
= 6V = 6V
6 6 2 2
= 2A = 6A
3 3W 1 1W
_ + _
+ B
6V 6V
+ -
12 V
+ - Fig. 4.
12 V
Fig. 3.
To find Norton’s resistance Rn
The voltage source is replaced with a short circuit as shown in Fig. 5. Norton’s resistance is determined
using network reduction techniques as shown below:
A A
1W 3W A
1W
0.75 + 0.75 = 1.5 W
3W
A 0.75 W
B Þ Þ Þ
Rn
3W 1W 0.75 W
Rn
Rn Rn
3W 1W
B B
SC B 1´ 3
= 0.75 W
1+ 3
Fig. 5. Fig. 6. Fig. 7. Fig. 8.
Norton’s resistance, Rn = 1.5 W
Norton’s equivalent
A
In=4 A Rn=1.5
Fig. 9 : Norton’s equivalent at A-B.

To find current through ammeter
Connect the ammeter across terminals A and B as shown in Fig. 10. The ammeter can be represented
by its internal resistance as shown in Fig. 11.
In
A
I1 I2
4A 1.5 W A Þ 4A 1.5 W 0.5 W
B
Fig. 10. Fig. 11.
Let, I2 be the current through the ammeter. Now, by current division rule,
Current through ammeter, I 2 = 4 # 1.5 = 3A

1.5 + 0.5
EXAMPLE 2.25 4 12 5
A
In the circuit shown in Fig. 1, determine the power
delivered to the 15 W resistance using Norton’s theorem.
SOLUTION 120 V 12 30 15
Let us remove the 15 W resistance and determine

Norton’s equivalent with respect to terminals A and B.
Norton’s equivalent of the circuit of Fig. 2 is obtained by B
source transformation technique as shown below: Fig. 1.
4W 12 W 5W 12 W 5W
A A
120
120 V
12 W 30 W Þ 4W 12 W 30 W
4
= 30 A
B B
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
12 W 5W A 12 W 5W A
3W
4 ´ 12
30 A
4 + 12
= 3W 30 W Þ 30 W
+
- 30 ´ 3 = 90 V
B B
Fig. 4. Fig. 5.
5W A 5W A
3 + 12
= 15 W
90
30 W Þ 15
15 W 30 W
+ = 6A
90 V -
B B
Fig. 6. Fig. 7.
5W A 10 W 5W A
15 ´ 30
+
6A 15 + 30 Þ - 6 ´ 10
= 60 V
= 10 W
B B
Fig. 8. Fig. 9.
10 + 5 = 15 W
A A
60
60 V +- Þ 15
15 W
= 4A
B B
Fig. 10. Fig. 11.
Here, Fig. 11 is Norton’s equivalent with respect to terminals A-B of the circuit of Fig. 2.
In=4 A Rn=15
B A
Fig. 12 : Norton’s equivalent. 2A 2A
To find current through 15 W resistance

4A 15 15
Connect the 15 W resistance to terminals A-B of Norton’s equivalent
as shown in Fig. 13. Now, the current 4 A divides equally between the
parallel resistances.
B
` Current through the 15 Ω resistance = 4 = 2 A Fig. 13.
2
Power through the 15 W resistance = Current2 ´ Resistance = 22 ´ 15 = 60 W
I R
EXAMPLE 2.26 _
+
In the network shown in Fig. 1, the resistance R is variable V
from zero to infinity. The current I through R can be expressed as 2 2 2
I = a + bV where, V is the voltage across R with polarity as shown 2
in Fig. 1 and a and b are constants. Determine a and b.
10 V 10 V 10 V
SOLUTION
Case i : Let R = 0 (zero) Fig. 1.
When R = 0, the resistance can be represented as a short I=0
SC
circuit as shown in Fig. 2. + _
V=0
Given that, I = a + bV 2 2 2
Since, R = 0, V is also equal to zero. 2
\ a=I 10 V 10 V 10 V
The voltage sources in the circuit of Fig. 2 are converted
into current sources as shown in Fig. 3 and the modified circuit is
I
A
2W
10 2W
= 5A 5A 2W 2W 2W 5A 2W 5A
Þ 2
10 V
B
Fig. 3. Fig. 4.
The current sources in parallel in Fig. 4 are combined to form a single equivalent source as shown in
Fig. 5. Similarly, the resistances in parallel are combined to form a single equivalent resistance.
I I
+ -
1W I I 1W
- +
5A 1W 1W 10 A
Þ I
+ +
5 ´ 1 = 5V - - 10 ´ 1 = 10 V
Fig. 5. Fig. 6.
The current sources of Fig. 5, are converted into equivalent voltage sources as shown in Fig. 6. With
reference to Fig. 6, by KVL, we can write,
5 + I + I = 10 I=0
B OC E
_ + _
5 = 2.5 A _
∴ 2I = 10 –5 ⇒ 2I = 5 ⇒ I = V +
2 2 2I1 2 2I2 2I2 2
+ _
+ +
Since, I = 2.5, a = 2.5 2I1 2
A D F
_
Case ii : Let R = ¥ (infinity) I1 I2
10 V 10 V 10 V
When R = ¥, the resistance can be represented as C C

an open circuit as shown in Fig. 7. Fig. 7.
Given that, I = a + bV
Since, R = ¥, I is equal to zero.
∴ a + bV = 0 ⇒ b = −a
V
With reference to Fig. 7, we can write the following KVL equations.
In the closed path ABCA, using KVL, we can write,
2I1 + 2I1 = 10
4I1 = 10 I1 = 10 = 2.5 A
⇒
4
In the closed path DEFCD, we can write,
10 = 10 + 2I2 + 2I2
\ 4I2 = 10 – 10 ⇒ 4I2 = 0 ⇒ I2 = 0
In the path BEDCB,
V + 2I2 + 10 = 2I1
\ V = 2I1 – 2I2 – 10
= 2 ´ 2.5 – 2 ´ 0 – 10
= –5 V
Since, V = − 5, b = − a = − 2.5 = 0.5
V −5
RESULT
a = 2.5 ; b = 0.5
\ I = a + bV = 2.5 + 0.5 V
B
EXAMPLE 2.27
Find the current through the galvanometer shown in Fig. 1, using 2 6
500
Thevenin’s theorem.
A C
SOLUTION
G
Let us remove the galvanometer and denote the resultant open terminals
8 4
as P and Q. The source is represented as an ideal source with its internal
resistance (3.2 W) connected external to the source in series as shown in Fig. 1.
D
Let us represent the circuit of Fig. 2 by Thevenin’s equivalent with respect +E
100 V, 3.2
to terminals P and Q. The polarity of Thevenin’s voltage is assumed as shown in
Fig. 2, with terminal P as positive. Fig. 1.
B
2
500
The circuit of Fig. 2 is redrawn as shown in Fig. 3. 6
Since the 500 W resistance is left open, the potential at node-P will be the
same as that of node-B. Also the nodes Q and D are at the same potential. Hence, A C
+ P
the circuit of Fig. 3 is redrawn as shown in Fig. 4. Now, Vth is the voltage across Vth
B and D. E QRth
8 4
Let Is be the current supplied by the source and this current divides into I1 3.2
D
and I2 between two parallel paths as shown in Fig. 4.
+E
The series resistances and their parallel combinations are represented as 100 V
a single resistance in Fig. 5. Fig. 2.
2W B 6W I2 2W B 6W
+
500 W
+ P Vth
Vth Þ
8W - Q 4W I1 8W _ 4W
A C A C
D D
3.2 W 100 V Is 3.2 W 100 V
+- +-
Fig. 3. Fig. 4.
(2 + 6) ´ (8 + 4) 8 ´ 12
= = 4.8 W
With reference to Fig. 5, by Ohm’s law, we can write, (2 + 6) + (8 + 4) 8 + 12
4.8 W
Is = 100 = 12.5 A
3.2 + 4.8 Is 3.2 W 100 V
+-
With reference to Fig. 4, by current division rule, we get, Fig. 5.

(2 + 6)
I1 = Is # = 12.5 # 8 = 5A 2
(8 + 4) + (2 + 6) 12 + 8 I2 B
+ E +
2I2
` I 2 = Is − I1 = 12.5 − 5 = 7.5 A
Vth
With reference to Fig. 6, by KVL, we can write,
2I2 + Vth = 8I1 8I1

+ E E
A
I1 D
\ Vth = 8I1 – 2I2 8
= 8 ´ 5 – 2 ´ 7.5 = 25 V Fig. 6.

The ideal voltage source of Fig. 2 is replaced with a short circuit as shown in Fig. 7. The network of
Fig. 7 is redrawn as shown in Fig. 8, and it is reduced to a single equivalent resistance with respect to P-Q.
The step-by-step reduction of the network is shown in Figs 9 to 14.
B
B 500 W
P
2W 6W
500 W
2W 6W
A C
P
A C
Þ 3.2 W
8W Q Rth 4W
8W Rth
4W
D
Q
3.2 W SC D
Fig. 7. Fig. 8.
R1 R 2
R12 = R1 + R 2 + = 2 + 3.2 + 2 # 3.2 = 6 Ω
R3 8
R 2 R3
R 23 = R 2 + R3 + = 3.2 + 8 + 3.2 # 8 = 24 Ω
R1 2
R3 R1
R31 = R3 + R1 + = 8 + 2 + 8 # 2 = 15 Ω
R2 3.2
1 500 W 1 500 W
P P
R12 R12
6W 6W
2W R1 6W
R2
R31 2 R31 15 W 2
3.2 W Þ
8W R3 Rth 24 W Rth
4W 4W
R23 R23
Q Q
3 3
Fig. 9. Fig. 10.
500 W 500 W
P P
6´6
= 3W
6+6
15 W Þ 15 W 3 + 3.4286 W
= 6.4286 W
24 ´ 4
= 3.4286 W
24 + 4
Q Q
Fig. 11. Fig. 12.
500 W
P P
15 ´ 6.4286 500 + 4.5

15 + 6.4286
Þ = 504.5 W
= 4.5 W
Rth Rth
Q Q
Fig. 13. Fig. 14.
With reference to Fig. 14, Thevenin’s resistance, Rth = 504.5 W
Thevenin’s equivalent at P-Q
Rth=504.5
P
Vth=25 V +
E
Fig. 15 : Thevenin’s equivalent at P-Q.

504.5 W 504.5 W
To find current through galvanometer P P
IG
Connect the galvanometer across P-Q as IG
shown in Fig. 16. The galvanometer has negligible 25 V +- G Þ 25 V +- SC
resistance and so it can be represented as a short

circuit as shown in Fig. 17.
Q Q
Let, IG be the current through a Galvanometer. Fig. 16. Fig. 17.
IG = 25 = 0.0496 A = 49.6 # 10- 3 A = 49.6 mA

504.5
EXAMPLE 2.28
IL
Determine the current through ZL in the circuit of Fig. 1, 4W
10 W
using Thevenin’s theorem.
10Ð0o A
2W
SOLUTION ~ j6 W
j8 W + -j2 W
Let us remove the load impedance and denote the 10Ð0 V
o
resultant open terminals as A and B as shown in Fig. 2. Now, ~ - ZL

we have to determine Thevenin’s equivalent of the circuit
shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 1.
A

10Ð0o A = 10 A
4W
10 W
Let us convert the 10 V voltage source into a current
source. The modified circuit is shown in Fig. 3. ~ j6 W
j8 W +
With reference to Fig. 3, using KCL, we can write, 10Ð0o V =10 V
~ -
Vth + Vth = 10 + 10 B
10 + j8 4 + j6 4 + j6 Fig. 2.
c m Vth = 10 +
1 + 1 10 Vth
10 + j8 4 + j6 4 + j6 A
+
Vth Vth
^0.1379 − j0.1642h Vth = 10.7692 − j1.1538 10 4
10 C j8 4 C j6
10
10 A
~ A Vth
` Vth =
10.7692 − j1.1538 4 C j6 ~
0.1379 − j0.1642 j8 j6
_
= 36.4201 + j34.9992 V = 50.5111Ð43.9o V B
Fig. 3.
To find Thevenin’s impedance Z th
A
The current source is represented by an open circuit
and the voltage source is represented by a short circuit as shown 4
10
in Fig. 4.
OC j6
j8
SC Zth
^10 + j8h # ^4 + j6h
Z th = = 3 + j3.5714 Ω
10 + j8 + 4 + j6 B
= 4.6642Ð50o W Fig. 4.
Zth
A
Vth = 50 .5111Ð43 .9oV
+ = 36.4201 + j34.9992V
Vth +-
Z th = 4 .6642 Ð50o W
-
= 3 + j3.5714 W
B
Fig. 5 : Thevenin’s equivalent at A-B. Zth
A
To find current through ZL IL
Connect the load impedance ZL across terminals A and B of Thevenin’s
+
equivalent as shown in Fig. 6. 2
Vth
~ ZL
Now, by Ohm’s law, _
Ej2
Vth 36.4201 + j34.9992
IL = =
Z th + ZL 3 + j3.5714 + 2 − j2 B
= 8.6314 + j4.2872 A Fig. 6.
= 9.6375+26.4 o A
EXAMPLE 2.29
+
Find the current flowing in the 5 W resistance connected across -j10 W j20 W
~ 20Ð0o V
terminals A and B of the circuit shown in Fig. 1, using Thevenin’s theorem. _
SOLUTION
4W 4W
Let us remove the 5 W resistance and denote the resultant open
terminals as A and B as shown in Fig. 2. Now, the circuit of Fig. 2 should 5W
be replaced with Thevenin’s equivalent at terminals A and B. The polarity A B
of Thevenin’s voltage is assumed as shown in Fig. 2, with terminal-A as Fig. 1.
positive.
To find Thevenin’s voltage Vth +
-j10 W 20Ð0 V
o
j20 W
With reference to Fig. 3, the voltage across the series combination ~ _
of –j10 W and 4 W is 20Ð0o V. Hence, by voltage division rule,
Vb = 20+0 o # 4 4W 4W
4 − j10
+ _
Vth
= 20 # 4 = 2.7586 + j6.8966 V A B
4 − j10 Zth
Fig. 2.
With reference to Fig. 3, the voltage across the series combination
of j20 W and 4 W is 20Ð0o V. Hence, by voltage division rule,
+
+
Vd = 20+0 o # 4 = 20 # 4 = 0.7692 − j3.8462 V ~ _

20Ð0o V
+
4 + j20 4 + j20 +
-j10 W 20Ð0 V
o
20Ð0o V V j20 W
Va c
With reference to Fig. 3, by KVL, we can write, _ _
Vth + Vd = Vb Vb _ _ Vd +
_
_
+
` Vth = Vb − Vd 4W 4W
= 2.7586 + j6.8966 − ^0.7692 − j3.8462h
+ _
= 1.9894 + j10.7428 V = 10.9255+79.5 o V Vth
Fig. 3.

The voltage source 20Ð0o V in the circuit of Fig. 2 is replaced with a short circuit as shown in Fig. 4, and is
Z th determined by reducing the network of Fig. 4 to a single equivalent impedance across A and B as shown below:
-j10 W j20 W
- j10 ´ 4 j20 ´ 4
-j10 W SC j20 W
- j10 + 4 j20 + 4
= 3.4483 - j1.3793 W = 3.8462 + j0.7692 W
4W 4W
4W 4W Þ Þ
A Zth B A B A B
Fig. 4. Fig. 5. Fig. 6.

Z th = 3.4483 − j1.3793 + 3.8462 + j0.7692
= 7.2945 − j0.6101 Ω = 7.32+ − 4.8 o Ω
Zth
A
+
Vth = 1.9894 + j10.7428 V = 10.9255+79.5 o V
Vth Z th = 7.2945 − j0.6101 Ω = 7.32+ − 4.8 o Ω
~
_
Fig. 7 : Thevenin’s equivalent at A-B.

To find current through 5 W resistance
Connect the 5 W resistance across A and B of Thevenin’s equivalent as shown in Fig. 8. Let, IL be the
current through 5 W resistance.
Zth
Now, IL = Vth A
Z th + 5
IL 5
1.9894 + j10.7428 +
= = 0.1182 + j0.8797 A
7.2945 − j0.6101 + 5 Vth
~
o _
= 0.8876+82.3 A
RESULT B
Current through the 5 W resistance = 0.8876Ð82.3o A Fig. 8.
EXAMPLE 2.30 A
8W
B
Determine the voltage across terminals A and B in the circuit of
Fig. 1, using Norton’s theorem. 2W 4W
20Ð30o A
SOLUTION ~
j5 W -j12 W
Let us remove the 8 W resistance and denote the resultant open
terminals as A and B as shown in Fig. 2. Now, the circuit of Fig. 2 should
be replaced by Norton’s equivalent at terminals A and B. Fig. 1.

Let us short circuit the terminals A and B in the circuit of Fig. 2 as shown in Fig. 3. The current flowing
through the short circuit is Norton’s current. Let us assume the direction of Norton’s current as A to B.
A B A SC B
In
2W 4W 2W 4W
20Ð30o A
20Ð30o A
~ ~
j5 W -j12 W j5 W -j12 W
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
With reference to Fig. 3, by current division rule, we can write,
2 + j5
Norton's current, In = 20+30 o # = − 9.8632 + j6.26 A
2 + j5 + 4 − j12
o
= 11.6821+147.6 A
To find Norton’s impedance Zn

Let us replace the current source in Fig. 2, with an open circuit as shown in Fig. 4. Zn is determined
by reducing the network of Fig. 4 to a single equivalent impedance as shown below:
Zn
Zn
A B A B
2W 4W 2W 4W
OC Þ
j5 W -j12 W j5 W -j12 W
Fig. 4. Fig. 5.
Norton's impedance, Zn = 2 + j5 − j12 + 4 = 6 − j7 Ω
= 9.2195+ − 49.4 o Ω
Norton’s equivalent at A-B
In ~ Zn
Fig. 6 : Norton’s equivalent at A-B.
In = − 9.8632 + j6.26 A = 11.6821+147.6 o A

Zn = 6 − j7 Ω = 9.2195+ − 49.4 o Ω
To find voltage across 8 W resistance VL A
Let us connect the 8 W resistance across A and B of Norton’s VL VL
equivalent as shown in Fig. 7. Let, VL be the voltage across the 8 W Zn +
8
resistance. With reference to Fig. 7, by KCL we can write, In Zn VL 8

~ _
VL + VL = I VL c 1 + 1 m = In
n ⇒
Zn 8 Zn 8
B
Fig. 7.
In In − 9.8632 + j6.26
` VL = = -1
=
1 +1 Zn + 8 -1 ^6 − j7h- 1 + 8- 1
Zn 8
= – 31.3876 + j45.2219 V
= 55.0473Ð124.8o V
RESULT
Voltage across terminals A and B = 55.0473Ð124.8o V
2.6.2 Superposition Theorem

The superposition theorem states that the response in a circuit with multiple sources is given by the
algebraic sum of responses due to individual sources acting alone. The superposition theorem is also referred
to as the principle of superposition.
The superposition theorem is a useful tool for analysis of linear circuits with multiple sources.
A linear circuit is a circuit composed entirely of independent sources, linear dependent sources and
linear elements. A circuit element is said to be linear, if the voltage-current relationship is linear,
i.e., n a i or n = ki, where k is a constant.
The responses that can be determined by the superposition theorem are listed below:
i) Current in resistance, inductance and capacitance.

ii) Voltage across resistance, inductance and capacitance.
iii) Current delivered by independent voltage sources.
iv) Voltage across independent current sources.
v) Voltage and current of linear dependent sources.
While calculating the response due to an individual source, all other sources are made
inactive or replaced by zero value sources (Sometimes the term ‘killed’ is used). A zero value
source is represented by its internal resistance (or impedance). “In an ideal voltage source, the
internal resistance (or impedance) is zero, and in an ideal current source, the internal resistance
(or impedance) is infinite”.
Therefore, while calculating the response due to one source, all other ideal voltage sources
are replaced with a short circuit (or by their internal impedance) and all other ideal current sources
are replaced with an open circuit (or by their internal impedance).
Procedure for Analysis Using Superposition Theorem
1. When the internal impedances of sources are specified, represent them as an external
impedance and so the sources will become ideal sources. For a voltage source, the
internal impedance is represented as an impedance in series with the ideal voltage source.
For a current source, the internal impedance is represented as an impedance in parallel
with the ideal current source.
2. The response is either voltage or current in the elements. The response when all the
sources are acting is called the total response. If the polarity of the total voltage response
or direction of the total current response are not specified in the problem, then assume a
polarity for the total voltage response and direction for the total current response
when all the sources are acting together.
3. Determine the response due to each independent source by allowing one source to
act at a time. While determining the response due to one source, replace all other
independent ideal voltage sources by a short circuit (SC) and all other independent
ideal current sources by an open circuit (OC).
4. Denote the voltage response due to each source as Vl , Vll , Vlll ... and the current response
as Il , Ill , Illl .... While determining the response due to each source, maintain the polarity of
voltage response the same as that of the total response. Similarly, maintain the direction of
current response the same as that of the total response.
5. Determine the total response by taking the sum of individual responses.
Note : 1. Power cannot be directly determined from the superposition theorem. Hence,
determine the power only using the total current and voltage response.
2. When all independent sources are deactivated, there will not be any current or
voltage in any part of the circuit. Hence, dependent sources will not contribute
to the response when all independent sources are deactivated (i.e., the
response due to a dependent source acting alone will be zero).
1
EXAMPLE 2.31
Find the current through the 5 W resistor in the circuit shown in Fig. 1 1 1
using the superposition theorem.
10 A 5 20 A
Fig. 1.
1
SOLUTION
Let IL be the current through the 5 W resistance when both the current 1 1
sources are acting together as shown in Fig. 2.
IL
Let, IlL = Current through 5 W in the direction of IL when the 10 A source 5 20 A
10 A
alone is acting.
IllL = Current through 5 W in the direction of IL when the 20 A source

alone is acting. Fig. 2.
Now, by the superposition theorem,
IL = IlL + IllL
To find the response IlL when the 10 A source is acting alone
The 20 A current source is replaced by an open circuit as shown in Fig. 3. The circuit of Fig. 3 is
redrawn as shown in Fig. 4.
In Fig. 4, the 5 W resistance is in series with the 10 A source and so the current through 5 W is also 10 A.
` IlL = 10 A
1W 1W
1W 1W 1W 1W
I’L Þ I¢L
10 A 5W OC 10 A 5W
Fig. 3. Fig. 4.
To find the response IllL when the 20 A source is acting alone
The 10 A current source is replaced by an open circuit as shown in Fig. 5. The circuit of Fig. 5 is redrawn
as shown in Fig. 6.
In Fig. 6, the 5 W resistance is in series with the 20 A source and so the current through 5 W is also 20 A.
` IllL = 20 A
1W 1W
1W 1W 1W 1W
I’’L I’’L
Þ
OC 5W 20 A 5W 20 A
Fig. 5. Fig. 6.
To find the total response IL when both the sources are acting
By the superposition theorem,
IL = IlL + IllL
` IL = 10 + 20 = 30 A
Cross-Check by Node Analysis 1

With reference to Fig. 7, the node basis matrix equation is,
R V R V R V 1 V 1
S1 + 1 −1 − 1 W S V1 W S 10 W V1 2 V3
S1 1 1 1 W S W S W IL
S 1 1 1 1 1 W S W S W
S − 1 1 + 1 + 5 − 1 W S V2 W = S 0 W 10 A 5 20 A
S 1 1 +1W W S W S W
SS − −1 S 20 W
1 1 1 1 W S V3 W
T X T X T X 0
V
R V R V R V IL a 2
S 2 − 1 − 1 W S V1 W S10 W 5
S − 1 2.2 − 1 W S V2 W = S 0 W
S W S W S W Fig. 7.
S − 1 − 1 2 W S V3 W S20 W
T X T X T X
2 −1 −1
∆l = − 1 2.2 − 1 = 2 # 9 2.2 # 2 − (− 1) 2 C − (− 1) # 9 − 1 # 2 − (− 1) 2 C + (− 1) # 9(− 1) 2 − (− 1) # 2.2 C
−1 −1 2
= 6.8 − 3 − 3.2 = 0.6
2 10 − 1
∆l 2 = − 1 0 − 1 = 2 # 90 − 20 # (− 1) C − 10 # 9 − 1 # 2 − (− 1) 2 C + (− 1) # 9 − 1 # 20 − 0 C
− 1 20 2
= 40 + 30 + 20 = 90
∆l 2
V2 = = 90 = 150 V
∆l 0.6
V2
` IL = = 150 = 30 A
5 5
EXAMPLE 2.32
IL
Using the superposition theorem, find the current through the 3 W
resistance in the circuit shown in Fig. 1. 10 V, +
3 + 20 V,
1 E E 2
SOLUTION
The internal resistances of the voltage sources are represented
as a series resistance external to the source and the voltage sources are Fig. 1.
represented as ideal sources as shown in Fig. 2.
1 2
Let, IlL = Current through 3 W in the direction of IL when the10 V source
alone is acting. IL
IllL = Current through 3 W in the direction of IL when the 20 V source 10 V +E 3 + 20 V

E
alone is acting.
IL = IlL + IllL Fig. 2.
To find the response IlL when the 10 V source is acting alone
The 20 V source is replaced with a short circuit as shown in Fig. 3. Let Is1 be the current supplied by
the 10 V source. In Fig. 3, at node-A, the current Is1 divides between the parallel resistances 2 W and 3 W.
The parallel-connected resistances 2 W and 3 W are combined to form a single equivalent as shown
in Fig. 4.
1W A 2W 1W
I’L Is1
Is1
+ +
2´3
10 V 3W SC Þ 10 V
2+3
- -
= 1.2 W
Fig. 3. Fig. 4.
Is1 = 10 = 4.5455 A
1 + 1.2
With reference to Fig. 3, by current division rule,
IlL = Is1 # 2 = 4.5455 # 2 = 1.8182 A

2+3 2+3
To find the response IllL when the 20 V source is acting alone
The 10 V source is replaced with a short circuit as shown in Fig. 5. Let Is2 be the current supplied by
the 20 V source. In Fig. 5, at node-A, the current Is2 divides between the parallel resistances 1 W and 3 W.
The parallel-connected resistances 1 W and 3 W are replaced with a single equivalent as shown in Fig. 6.
1W A 2W 2W
I’’L Is2 Is2
+ +
3W Þ 1´3
SC 20 V 20 V
1+ 3
- -
= 0.75 W
Fig. 5. Fig. 6.
Is2 = 20 = 7.2727 A
2 + 0.75
IllL = Is2 # 1 = 7.2727 # 1 = 1.8182 A

1+3 1+3
To find the response IL when both the sources are acting

IL = IlL + IllL
= 1.8182 + 1.8182 = 3.6364A

Cross-Check by Mesh Analysis 1 2
With reference to Fig. 7, the mesh basis matrix equation is,

IL
> H > H = > H

1+3 1 I1 10 + I2 +
10 V 3 20 V
1 1 + 2 I2 10 − 20
E I1 E
> H > H = > H

4 1 I1 10
1 3 I2 − 10 IL = I 1
Fig. 7.
4 1
∆ = = 4 # 3 − 1 # 1 = 11
1 3
10 1
∆1 = = 10 # 3 − (− 10) # 1 = 40
− 10 3
∆1
` I L = I1 = = 40 = 3.6364 A
∆ 11

Using the superposition theorem, find the current through the 5W
resistor in the circuit shown in Fig.1.
10 2
+ 2A
50 V
E
I5
SOLUTION 5 1
Let , I5 = Current through the 5 W resistance shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1.
Let, Il5 = Current through the 5 W resistance in the direction of I5
when the 50 V source alone is acting.
Ill = Current through the 5 W resistance in the direction of I5

5
when the 2 A source alone is acting.
I5 = Il5 + Ill5
To find the response Il5 when the 50 V source is acting alone
The 2 A source is replaced with an open circuit as shown in Fig. 2. 10 2

+ OC
With reference to Fig. 2, by Ohm’s law, 50 V
E I’5
I'5 = 50 = 50 = 10 A 5 1
10 + 5 15 3
To find the response Ill when the 2 A source is acting alone

Fig. 2.
5
The 50 V source is replaced with a short circuit as shown in Fig. 3. In the circuit of Fig. 4, the 2 A source
current divides between parallel resistances 10 W and 5 W.
Therefore, by current division rule,
I''5 = 2 # 10 = 20 = 4 A
10 + 5 15 3
10 W 2W 2W
2A 10 W
2A
SC Þ 5W
I’’5
1W 1W
5W I’’5
Fig. 3. Fig. 4.
To find the total current I5 when both the sources are acting
By superposition theorem,
I5 = I'5 + I''5 = 10 + 4 = 14 = 4.6667 A

3 3 3
10
Using the superposition theorem, find the power delivered by the 20 V source
22

in the circuit shown in Fig. 1.
68
SOLUTION + 10 V
E
Let, IS = Current in the series branch with the 20 V source and 33 W in series.
47

10

IlS = Current in the series branch when the 20 V source alone is acting.
20 V 33
IllS = Current in the series branch when the 10 V source alone is acting. +E
Now, by the superposition theorem, Fig. 1.
IS = IlS + IllS
Note : Since power is proportional to the square of voltage, it is not a linear quantity. So, power
cannot be determined directly by the superposition theorem.
To find the response IlS when the 20 V source is acting alone
The 10 V source is replaced with a short circuit as shown in Fig. 2.
The delta-connected resistances 22 W, 47 W and 68 W in Fig. 2 are converted into a star-connected

resistance as shown in Fig. 3.
1
R1
10
10
W
W
22
W
R1 R2
68 W
2
R2
R3
Þ
SC R3 W
10
47
0W
W
1
I’s 20 V 33 W
20 V 3 33 W +-
+-
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
R1 = 22 # 68 = 10.9197 Ω
22 + 47 + 68
R2 = 22 # 47 = 7.5474 Ω
22 + 47 + 68
R3 = 47 # 68 = 23.3285 Ω
22 + 47 + 68
20.9197 ´ 33.3285
R1+10 = 20.9199 W
20.9197 + 33.3285
R2 7.5474 W = 12.8524 W
7.5474 W
R3+10 = 33.3285 W Þ
I’s 20 V 33 W I’s 20 V 33 W
+- +-
Fig. 4. Fig. 5.
IlS = 20 = 0.3745 A
7.5474 + 12.8524 + 33
To find the response IllS when the 10 V source is acting alone
The 20 V source is replaced with a short circuit as shown in Fig. 6. Now the
10

22

current I’’S is solved by mesh analysis.
68
With reference to Fig. 6, the mesh basis matrix equation is, I2 I3
R V R V R V + 10 V
E
S 47 + 10 + 33 − 47 − 10 W S I1 W S 0 W
47

S W SI W = S − 10 W 10

− 47 22 + 68 + 47 − 68
S W S 2 W S W I1
S − 10 − 68 68 + 10 + 10 W S I3 W S 10 W I’’s SC 33
T X T X T X
R V R V R V Fig. 6.
S 90 − 47 − 10 W S I1 W S 0 W
S − 47 137 − 68 W S I W = S − 10 W
S WS 2W S W
S − 10 − 68 88 W S I3 W S 10 W
T X T X T X
Let us define two determinants D and D1 as shown below and mesh current I1 is solved by Cramer’s rule.
90 − 47 − 10
T = − 47 137 − 68 = 90 # 7137 # 88 − (− 68) 2 A − (− 47) # 7 − 47 # 88 − (− 10) # (− 68) A
− 10 − 68 88
+ (− 10) # 7(− 47) # (− 68) − (− 10) # 137 A
= 668880 - 226352 - 45660 = 396868

0 − 47 − 10
T1 = − 10 137 − 68 = 0 − (− 47) # 7 − 10 # 88 − 10 # (− 68) A
− 10 − 68 88
+ (− 10) # 7 − 10 # (− 68) − 10 # 137) A
= - 9400 - 6900 = - 16300

T1
` IllS = I1 = = − 16300 = − 0.0411 A
T 396868
To find the total response IS and power
IS = IlS + IllS
= 0.3745 + (-0.0411) = 0.3334 A
Power delivered by 20 V source = 20 # I1 = 20 # 0.3334
= 6.668 W
EXAMPLE 2.35 3V
+E
Using the superposition theorem, find the voltage VL and the power consumed
by the 6 W resistor in the circuit shown in Fig. 1. 1 2
+
4 2 A VL 6
SOLUTION _
Let, VlL = Voltage across the 6 W resistance with polarity same as that of VL
when the 3 V source alone is acting. Fig. 1.
VllL = Voltage across the 6 W resistance with polarity same as that of VL

when the 2 A source alone is acting.
VL = VlL + VllL
VL2
Power consumed by the 6 W resistor, PL =
6
Note : Since power is proportional to the square of voltage, it is not a linear quantity. So, power
cannot be determined directly by the superposition theorem.
To find the response VlL when the 3 V source is acting alone
The 2 A current source is replaced with an open circuit as shown in Fig. 2. The circuit of Fig. 2 is
redrawn as shown in Fig. 3.
In Fig. 3, the voltage across series combination of 4 W and 6 W is 3 V. This 3 V divides into V1 and V2
and so by voltage division rule, we get,
VlL = − V2 = − 3 # 6 = − 1.8 V
6+4
3V 3V
+- +-
1W 2W 1W 2W
+ _
+ Þ 3V
4W OC V’L 6W
_ + V2 _
+ V1 _ _ V’L +
Fig. 2. 4W 6W
Fig. 3.
To find the response VllL when 2 A source is acting alone

The 3 V source is replaced with a short circuit as shown in Fig. 4. The circuit of Fig. 4 is redrawn as shown in
Figs. 5 and 6.
In the circuit of Fig. 6, the current 2 A divides between the parallel resistances 6 W and 4 W.
Hence, by current division rule,
I1 = 2 # 4 = 0.8 A
6+4
By Ohm’s law,
VllL = I1 # 6 = 0.8 # 6 = 4.8 V
SC I2 I1
2A
1W 2W 1W 2W 1´ 2
+ +
1 + 2 V’’
+ Þ 4W V’’L 6W Þ 4W L 6W
_ 2 _
4W 2 A V’’L 6 W = W
3
_ 2A 2A
Fig. 4. Fig. 5. Fig. 6.
To find VL and power in the 6 W resistor

VL = VlL + VllL = − 1.8 + 4.8 = 3 V
VL2 2
Power consumed by the 6 Ω resistor, PL = = 3 = 1.5 W
6 6
Cross-Check
(VlL) 2 (− 1.8) 2
Let, PlL = = = 0.54 W
6 6
(VllL) 2 2
PllL = = 4.8 = 3.84 W
6 6
Let, PL, sup = PlL + PllL = 0.54 + 3.84 = 4.38 W
Here, PL, sup ¹ PL. So we can say that the power calculated directly by the superposition theorem is not equal
to the actual power.
EXAMPLE 2.36
Find the voltage across the 2 W resistance in the circuit of Fig. 1 using the 5V
E +
principle of superposition.
SOLUTION 3 1
Let VL be the voltage across the 2 W resistance when both the voltage +
sources are acting together as shown in Fig. 2. 1 10 V 2
_
Let, VlL = Voltage across the 2 W resistance with polarity same as that of VL
Fig. 1.
VllL = Voltage across the 2 W resistance with polarity same as that of VL
Now, by the superposition theorem, 5V
E +
VL = VlL + VllL
3 1
To find the response VlL when the 5 V source is acting alone
+ +
The 10 V source is replaced with a short circuit as shown in Fig. 3. The circuit 1 10 V VL 2
of Fig. 3 is redrawn as shown in Figs 4 and 5. _ _
The parallel combinations of resistances are replaced with a single equivalent

as shown in Fig. 5. Fig. 2.
5V 5V
- + - +
5V
- +
3W 1W 3W 1W
_ + _ +
Þ V2 V1 Þ V1 = V’L
+ _ V2 + _ +
1W SC V’L 2W
_ 3 ´1 1´ 2
V1 = V’L
_ V2 + _ + 3 +1 1+ 2
= 0.75 W = 0.6667 W
Fig. 3. 1W 2W
Fig. 4. Fig. 5.
In Fig. 5, the source voltage 5 V divides between the series-connected resistances 0.6667 W
and 0.75 W. Let, these voltages be V1 and V2. Since 1 W and 2 W are in parallel, the voltage across them will
be the same and so V1 = VlL .
With reference to Fig. 5, by voltage division rule,
VlL = V1 = 5 # 0.6667 = 2.353 V

0.6667 + 0.75
To find the response VllL when the 10 V source is acting alone
The 5 V source is replaced with a short circuit as shown in Fig. 6. The circuit of Fig. 6 is redrawn as shown in
Figs. 7 and 8.
Figure 7 is the same as Fig. 4, except the 5 V source, which is now 10 V.
Therefore, by voltage division rule,
VllL = 10 # 0.6667 = 4.706 V

0.6667 + 0.75
SC
3 ´1
3W 1W 3W 1W 3+1
+ +
=0.75 W
+ + Þ 10 V Þ 10 V
_ + _ + 1´ 2
1W 10 V V’’L 2W
_ 1W V’’L 2W V’’L 1+ 2
- _ _ =0.6667 W
Fig. 6. Fig. 7. Fig. 8.
To find the response VL when both the sources are acting

VL = VlL + VllL
= 2.353 + 4.706 = 7.059 V
EXAMPLE 2.37 8
Use the principle of superposition to find the current IL through the 8 W IL

resistance in the circuit shown in Fig. 1. 10 V, +
4 5 A,
2 E
SOLUTION 2
The internal resistance of the voltage source is represented as a series

resistance external to the source and the internal resistance of the current source Fig. 1.
is represented as a parallel resistance external to the source as shown in Fig. 2.
Now, the sources can be treated as ideal sources.
2 8
Let, IlL = Current through the 8 W resistance in the direction
of IL when the 10 V source alone is acting. IL
IllL = Current through the 8 W resistance in the direction 10 V +E 4 2 5A
of ILwhen the 5 A source alone is acting.

IL = IlL + IllL Fig. 2.
The 5 A source is replaced with an open circuit as shown in Fig. 3. Let, Is1 be the total current supplied
by the 10 V source. This current divides into I1 and I2 and flows through the two parallel paths as shown in Fig. 3.
2W I1 8W 2W
Is1 I2 I’L Is1

+ +
4 ´ (8 + 2)
10 V 4W 2W OC 10 V
-
Þ - 4 + (8 + 2)
= 2.8571W
Fig. 3. Fig. 4.
Is1 = 10 = 2.0588 A
2 + 2.8571
IlL = I1 = Is1 # 4 = 2.0588 # 4 = 0.5882 A

4 + (8 + 2) 4 + 10
To find the response IllL when the 5 A source is acting alone
The 10 V source is replaced with a short circuit as shown in Fig. 5. The parallel combination of 2 W and
4 W is replaced with a single equivalent as shown in Fig. 6. With reference to Fig. 6, we can say that the 5 A
current divides between the parallel resistances 2 W and (8 + 1.3333) W.
IllL = − I 4 = − 5 # 2 = − 0.8824 A
2 + (8 + 1.3333)
2W 8W 8W I4
I3
I’’L I’’L
4´2
SC 4W 2W 5A Þ 4+2
2W 5A
= 1.3333 W
Fig. 5. Fig. 6.
To find the response IL when both the sources are acting
IL = IlL + IllL
= 0.5882 + (-0.8824 ) = –0.2942 A

4
Compute the current I L in the circuit of Fig. 1 using the
superposition theorem. IL
47
SOLUTION
27 20 A 23
Let, IlL = Current through the 23 W resistance in the direction
+
E 200 V
of IL when the 200 V source alone is acting.
IllL = Current through the 23 W resistance in the direction
Fig. 1.
of ILwhen the 20 A source alone is acting.
IL = IlL + IllL
The 20 A source is replaced by an open circuit as shown in Fig. 2. Let, Is1 be the total current supplied
by the 200 V source. This current divides equally between parallel-connected resistances 27 W and (4 + 23) W.
I2 I1 4W
I1 = I’L
Is1 I’L I2
Is1 Is1
47 W 4W 47 W
47 W 27
27 W OC 23 W Þ 27 W Þ = 13.5 W
2
+ 200 V 200 V +- 23 W 200 V +-
-
Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4.

Is1 = 200 = 3.3058 A
47 + 13.5

I
IlL = I1 = s1 = 3.3058 = 1.6529 A
2 2
To find the response IllL when 20 A source is acting alone
The 200 V source is replaced with a short circuit as shown in Fig. 5. The parallel resistances 27 W and
47 W are replaced with a single equivalent as shown in Fig. 6. In the circuit of Fig. 6, the 20 A source current divides
between parallel resistances 23 and (4 + 17.1486) W.
Therefore, by current division rule,
(4 + 17.1486)
IllL = I3 = 20 # = 9.5806 A
23 + (4 + 17.1486)
4W 4W
I’’L I3 I’’L
I4
47 W
27 ´ 47
27 W 20 A 23 W Þ 27 + 47
20 A 23 W
SC = 17.1486 W
Fig. 5. Fig. 6.
To find the total current IL when both the sources are acting
IL = IlL + IllL
= 1.6529 + 9.5806 = 11.2335 A
EXAMPLE 2.39
Determine the current in the 5 W resistance in the circuit 2 5 2
shown in Fig. 1 using the superposition theorem.
IL
SOLUTION + E
25 V 4 2 50 V
Let, IlL = Current through the 5 W resistance in the E +
direction of IL when the 25V source alone is acting.
IllL = Current through the 5 W resistance in the
direction of ILwhen the 50V source alone is acting.
Fig. 1.
IL = IlL + IllL
The 50 V source is replaced with a short circuit as shown in Fig. 2. The 2 W resistances in parallel are
replaced by a single equivalent and then I’L is solved using mesh analysis.
> H > I1 H > H ⇒ > −4 H > I1 H > H

2+4 −4 I 25 6 −4 I 25
= =
−4 4 + 5 + 1 2 0 10 2 0
6 −4 6 25
∆ = = 6 # 10 − (− 4) 2 = 44 ; ∆2 = = 0 − (− 4) # 25 = 100
− 4 10 −4 0
2W 5W 2W
2W 5W
I’L I’L
+
+
25 V 4W 2W SC Þ 25 V I1 4W I2
2´2
= 1W
- 2+2
-
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
∆
` IlL = I 2 = 2 = 100 = 2.2727 A
∆ 44
To find the response IllL when 50 V source is acting alone
The 25 V source is replaced with a short circuit as shown in Fig. 4. The parallel-connected resistances 2 W
and 4 W are replaced with a single equivalent as shown in Fig. 5 and then IllL is solved using mesh analysis.
The mesh basis matrix equation is,
> H > I1 H > 50 H ⇒ > H > I1 H > 50 H

5 + 2 + 1.3333 − 2 I 0 8.3333 − 2 I 0
= =
−2 2+2 2 −2 4 2
8.3333 − 2 = 8.3333 # 4 − (− 2) 2 0 −2 = 0 − 50 # (− 2)
∆ = ; ∆1 =
−2 4 = 29.3332 50 4 = 100
2W 5W 2W 5W 2W
I’’L I’’L
- -
4´2
SC 4W 2W 50 V Þ 4+2
4W 2W 50 V
I1 I2
+ +
= 1.3333 W
Fig. 4. Fig. 5.
∆ 100
` IllL = I1 = 1 = = 3.4091 A
∆ 29.3332
To find the total response IL when both the sources are acting
IL = IlL + IllL
= 2.2727 + 3.4091 = 5.6818
EXAMPLE 2.40 (AU Dec’16, 16 Marks) 24 V

8
+E
Using the superposition theorem, find the current through the 3W
resistor in the circuit shown in Fig.1. 4 4
IL
SOLUTION 12 V
+
E
3A
3
Let, IlL = Current through 3 W in the direction of IL when the 12 V source
alone is acting. Fig. 1.
IllL = Current through 3 W in the direction of IL when the 24 V source alone is acting.
IlllL = Current through 3 W in the direction of IL when the 3 A source alone is acting.
IL = IlL + IllL + IlllL
The 24 V source is replaced with a short circuit and the 3 A source is replaced with an open circuit as
shown in Fig. 2.
4 ´ (4 + 8)
4 + (4 + 8)
SC 8W = 3W
I’L
4W 4W
Þ
+
I’L 12 V - 3W
12 V + OC
- 3W
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
I'L = 12 = 2 A
3+3
To find the response Ill when the 24 V source is acting alone

L
The 12 V source is replaced with a short circuit and the 3 A source is replaced with an open circuit as
shown in Fig. 4.
The series-connected resistances 8 W and 4 W are replaced with a single equivalent and
parallel-connected resistances 4 W and 3 W are replaced with a single equivalent in Fig. 5.
24 V 24 V
8W
+- +-
4W 4W
+
V1
_
I’’L
Þ
+ V’’1 _ + V’’2 _
+ OC
SC
V2 3W
_ 4´3 8 + 4 = 12 W
4+3
Fig. 4. = 1.7143 W
Fig. 5.
V1'' = 24 # 1.7143 = 3V
1.7143 + 12
Vll1
IllL = = 3 = 1A
3 3
To find the response Illl when the 3 A source is acting alone

L
The 12 V and 24 V are replaced with a short circuit as shown in Fig. 6.
The parallel-connected resistances 4 W and 3 W are replaced with a single equivalent in Fig. 7.
SC 8W
8W
I
4W 4 W Is1 s2 Is2
Is1
I’’’L Þ
SC 3A 4´3 4W
3W 3A
4+3
= 1.7143 W
Fig. 6.
Fig. 7.
Is1 = 3 # 8 = 1.75 A
(4 + 1.7143) + 8
Illl = Is1 # 4 = 1.75 # 4 = 1 A

L 4+3 7
To find the total current IL when all the sources are acting
By superposition theorem,
IL = IlL + IllL + IlllL = 2 + 1 + 1 = 4 A
4
Use the principle of superposition to find the current IL
through the 5 W resistance in the circuit shown in Fig. 1. 32 V 2
+E
SOLUTION IL
Let, IlL = Current through 5 W in the direction of IL when 9A 5 10 4A

the 9 A source alone is acting.
IllL = Current through 5 W in the direction of IL when

the 4 A source alone is acting. Fig. 1.
IlllL = Current through 5 W in the direction of IL when the 32 V source alone is acting.
IL = IlL + IllL + IlllL

To find the response IlL due to the 9 A source
The 32 V source is replaced with a short circuit and the 4 A source with an open circuit as shown in
Fig. 2. The parallel combination of 2 W and 4 W is replaced with a single equivalent as shown in Fig. 3. With
reference to Fig. 3, we can say that the 9 A current divides between the parallel resistances 5 W and 11.3333 W.
I 'L = 9 # 11.3333 = 6.2449 A

5 + 11.3333
4W
SC 2W
I’L I’L
9A 4 ´ 2 + 10 = 113333
.
9A 5W 10 W OC Þ 5W 4+2
W
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
To find the response IllL due to the 4 A source
The 32 V source is replaced with a short circuit and 9 A source with an open circuit as shown in Fig. 4.
The parallel combination of 2 W and 4 W is replaced with a single equivalent in Fig. 5. With reference to Fig. 5,
we can say that the 4 A current divides between the parallel resistances 10 W and (5+1.3333) W.
I''L = 4 # 10 = 2.449 A
10 + (1.3333 + 5)
4W
4 ´ 2 = 1..3333 W
SC 2W 4+2
I’’L I’’L
OC 5W 10 W 4A Þ 4A
5W 10 W
Fig. 4. Fig. 5.
To find the response IlllL due to the 32 V source
The current sources 9 A and 4A are replaced with an open circuit as shown in Fig. 6. Let us assume
two mesh currents I1 and I2 as shown in Fig. 6. Now, IllL = I 2 . The mesh basis matrix equation is,
> H > I1 H > 32 H >2 H > I1 H > 32 H

4
4+2 +2 I 32 6 2 I 32
= & =
+ 2 5 + 2 + 10 2 17 2
I1
6 2 32 V 2
∆ = = 6 # 17 − 2 # 2 = 98 +E
2 17
I’’’L
6 32
∆2 = = 6 # 32 − 2 # 32 = 128
2 32 OC 5 I2 10 OC
∆2
I''' L = I 2 = = 128 = 1.3061 A
∆ 98
To find the total response IL when all the sources are acting
Fig. 6.
IL = I'L + I'' L + I''' L = 6.2449 + 2.449 + 1.3061 = 10 A
EXAMPLE 2.42 1.5 A
In Fig. 1, find the component of Vx caused by each source acting

alone. What is the value of Vx when all the sources are acting together? 20
_ E+
SOLUTION +
Vx 10 V
Let, Vlx = Voltage across the 20 W resistance when the16 V source
is acting alone. 16 V +E 3A 80
Vllx = Voltage across the 20 W resistance when the 3 A source

is acting alone.
Vlllx = Voltage across the 20 W resistance when the10 V
Fig. 1.
source is acting alone.
Vllllx = Voltage across the 20 W resistance when the 1.5 A source is acting alone.
The polarity of voltages Vlx , Vllx , Vlllx and Vllllx are chosen the same as that of Vx. Now, by the
superposition theorem,
Vx = Vlx + Vllx + Vlllx + Vllllx
To find the response Vlx due to the 16 V source
The 10 V source is replaced with a short circuit and the current sources are replaced with an open
Vlx = 16 # 20 = 3.2 V
20 + 80
OC
20 W 20 W
+ _ + _
SC V’x
V’x
+ 16 V
- OC 80 W Þ 16 V +- 80 W
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
To find the response Vllx due to the 3 A source
The voltage sources are replaced with a short circuit and the 1.5 A source is replaced with an open
I2 = 3 # 80 = 2.4 A
20 + 80
By Ohm’s law,
Vllx = − 20 # I2 = − 20 # 2.4 = − 48 V
OC
20 W 20 W I2 I1
+ _ + _
SC
V’’x V’’x
SC 3A 80 W Þ 3A 80 W
Fig. 4. Fig. 5.
To find the response Vlllx due to the 10 V source
The 16 V source is replaced with a the short circuit and the current sources are replaced with an open
Vlllx = 10 # 20 = 2V
20 + 80
OC
20 W 20 W
_ -+ _ -+
+ +
V’’’x 10 V V’’’x 10 V
SC OC 80 W Þ 80 W
Fig. 6. Fig. 7.
To find the response Vllllx due to the 1.5 A source

The voltage sources are replaced with a short circuit and the 3 A source is replaced with an open
With reference to Fig. 9, we can say that the current source is shorted and so no current will flow
through the 20 W resistance.
` Vllllx = 0
1.5 A 1.5 A
I = 1.5 A
I1 = 0
20 W 20 W
+ _ + _
V’’’’x SC V’’’’x SC
I1 = 0
SC OC 80 W Þ
80 W
Fig. 8. Fig. 9.
To find the response Vx due to all the sources
Vx = Vlx + Vllx + Vlllx + Vllllx = 3.2 + (–48) + 2 + 0 = –42.8 V
RESULT
Component of Vx when the 16 V source alone is acting, Vlx = 3.2 V
Component of Vx when the 3 A source alone is acting, Vllx = – 48 V
Component of Vx when the 10 V source alone is acting, Vlllx = 2 V
Component of Vx when the 1.5 A source alone is acting, Vllllx = 0 V
The value of Vx when all the sources are acting, Vx = – 42.8 V
EXAMPLE 2.43 10 W 5W
Using the superposition theorem, find the current through 2 + j2 W

impedance of the circuit shown in Fig. 1. 2W -j5 W
+
20Ð0oV
SOLUTION _
~
j2 W 10Ð30 A
o
Let IL be the current through 2 + j2 W impedance branch as

~
shown in Fig. 2.
Let, I lL = Component of IL due to 20∠0o V source acting alone.
Fig. 1.
I llL = Component of IL due to 10∠30o A source acting alone.

Now, by the superposition theorem, 10 W 5W
IL = I lL + I llL
IL 2W -j5 W
To find the response IlL due to the 20Ð0o V source +
20Ð0oV
The 10Ð30o A current source is replaced with an open circuit _

~
as shown in Fig. 3. j2 W
~ 10Ð30 A
o

I lL = 20+0 o = 20 = 1.6216 − j0.2703 A Fig. 2.
10 + 2 + j2 12 + j2
10 W 5W 10 W
IL¢ 2W -j5 W IL¢ 2W

+ +
o
20Ð0 V ~ Þ 20Ð0 V
o
~
_ _
j2 W OC j2 W
Fig. 3. Fig. 4.
To find the response I llL due to the 10Ð30o A source 10 W 5W
o
The 20Ð0 V voltage source is replaced with a short circuit as
shown in Fig. 5. IL¢¢ 2W -j5 W
With reference to Fig. 5, by current division rule, we get, SC
o j2 W
I llL = 10+30 o # 10 = 100+30 = 7.6975 + j2.8837A ~ 10Ð30 A
o
10 + 2 + j2 12 + j2
To find the response IL due to both the sources Fig. 5.
IL = IlL + I llL = 1.6216 − j0.2703 + 7.6975 + j2.8837
= 9.3191 + j2.6134 A = 9.6786+15.7 o A
Cross-Check V 5W
V V IL
The 20∠0o V voltage in series with the 10 W is 10 2 + j2 -j5 W
converted into a current source as shown in Fig. 6. 2W
20
= 2A ~ 10 W
10
With reference to Fig. 6, by KCL at node A, we get,
j2 W 10Ð30 A
o
V + V = 2 + 10+30 o
~
10 2 + j2
Fig. 6.
` Vf 1 +
2 + j2 p
1 = 2 + 10+30 o ⇒ b 0.35 − j0.25 l V = 2 + 10+30 o
10
o
` V = 2 + 10+30 = 13.4113 + j23.8652
0.35 − j0.25
IL = V = 13.4113 + j23.8652 = 9.3191 + j2.6135 A

2 + j2 2 + j2
= 9.6786+15.7 o A
EXAMPLE 2.44 o
5Ð90 A
Using the superposition theorem, find the voltage V1 across the ~

capacitance in the circuit shown in Fig. 1.
j5 W
SOLUTION
Let, Vl1 = Voltage across capacitance when the 10Ð0o A source +
V1 -j4 W 4W
alone is acting. 10Ð0 A
o
~ -
Vll1 = Voltage across capacitance when the 5Ð90 A source o
alone is acting.
Fig. 1.
V1 = Vl1 + Vll1
To find the response Vl1 due to the 10Ð0o A source

The 5Ð90o A source is replaced with an open circuit as shown in Fig. 2. The circuit of Fig. 2 is redrawn
as shown in Fig. 3.
4 + j5
I1 = 10 # = 12.3529 + j9.4118 A
− j4 + 4 + j5
Vl1 = − j4 # I1 = − j4 # a12.3529 + j9.4118 k = 37.6472 – j49.4116 V

OC
I2
j5 W
I1
+ j5 W
+ V1¢ -j4 W
4W
Þ 10 A ~
10Ð0 A
o V1 -j4 W -
~ -
4W
I1 + I2 = 10 A
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
To find the response Vll1 due to the 5Ð90o A source
The 10Ð0o A source is replaced with an open circuit as shown in Fig. 4. The circuit of Fig. 4 is redrawn
as shown in Fig. 5.
j5
I 4 = j5 # = − 5.8824 + j1.4706 A
j5 + (4 − j4)
Vll1 = − (− j4 # I4)
= j4 # a− 5.8824 + j1.4706 k = − 5.8824 − j23.5296 V
o
5Ð90 A
o
5Ð90 A = j5 A
~ ~
j5 W
I3
+ Þ j5 W
OC V1¢¢ -j4 W 4W
-
I4
-j4 W 4W
Fig. 4. + - Fig. 5.
V1¢¢
To find the total response V1 when both the sources are acting
V1 = Vl1 + Vll1
= (37.6472 – j49.4116) + (–5.8824 – j23.5296)
= 31.7648 – j72.9412 V
= 79.5577∠– 66.5o V
Cross-Check by Node Analysis o

5Ð90 A = j5 A
With reference to Fig. 6, the node basis matrix equation is, ~

R V R V R V
S 1 + 1 − 1 W S V1 W S 10 − j5 W
S j5 − j4 j5 SW W S W V1 j5 W
S WS W= S W V2
S − 1 1 + 1 WS W S W
S j5 4 j5 W S V2 W S j5 W +
T X T X T X 10Ð0o A = 10 A V1 -j4 W 4W
~ -
> H > V1 H > H

j0.05 j0.2 V 10 − j5
=
j0.2 0.25 − j0.2 2 j5
Fig. 6.
j0.05 j0.2 = j0.05 # (0.25 − j0.2) − (j0.2) 2
∆l =
j0.2 0.25 − j0.2 = 0.05 + j0.0125
10 − j5 j0.2 = (10 − j5) # (0.25 − j0.2) − (j5) # (j0.2)

∆l1 =
j5 0.25 − j0.2 = 2.5 − j3.25
∆l1 2.5 − j3.25

V1 = = = 31.7647 − j72.9412 V = 79.5576+ − 66.5 o V
∆l 0.05 + j0.0125
2.6.3 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

All practical sources have internal resistance or impedance. When a source delivers current to
a load, the current flows through the internal impedance also and so a part of the power is consumed
by the internal impedance of the source. Hence, when a load is connected to a source, the power
generated by the source is shared between the internal impedance and the load.
In certain applications, it is desirable to have a maximum power transfer from the source
to the load. The maximum power transfer to the load is possible only if the source and the load
have matched impedance. This situation arises in electronics, communication and control circuits.
For example, an antenna used in a TV/radio receives a signal from the atmosphere and the
power level of the signal is very low. This weak signal should be transferred to the input section of
an amplifier to which it is connected. For good reception, the maximum power should be transferred
from the antenna to the amplifier. This is possible only if the input impedance of the amplifier is
matched with the antenna impedance.
The sources may be dc or ac and the loads may be resistive or reactive. Hence, the matched
impedance for maximum power will be different for different combinations of source and load.
The following important six combinations of source and load are discussed in this book.
Case i : DC source with internal resistance connected to a resistive load.
Case ii : AC source with internal resistance connected to a resistive load.
Case iii : AC source with internal impedance connected to a resistive load.
Case iv : AC source with internal impedance connected to a load with variable resistance and
variable reactance.
Case v : AC source with internal impedance connected to a load with variable resistance and fixed
reactance.
Case vi : AC source with internal impedance connected to a load with fixed resistance and variable
reactance.
Case i : DC source with internal resistance connected to a resistive load
Theorem: (AU Dec’14, 2 Marks)
“Maximum power is transferred from source to load, when load resistance is equal to source resistance”.
Consider a dc source of emf E and internal resistance Rs connected to a variable load resistance R.
Now, the condition for maximum power transfer from source to load is,
R = Rs
The maximum power Pmax is,
2
Pmax = E
4R
Proof:
Consider a dc source of emf E and internal resistance Rs connected to a load resistance R as shown in
Fig. 2.54. Let, I be the current through the circuit. With reference to Fig. 2.54, by Ohm’s law, we can write,
I = E
Rs + R ..... (2.61)
Rs
Let, P = Power delivered to load
SOURCE
LOAD
Now, P = I2R ..... (2.62) I R
Using equation (2.61) in equation (2.62), we get, E +E
2
P = c E m R = E2 R
Rs + R ^Rs + Rh2 ..... (2.63) Fig. 2.54.
The condition for maximum power can be obtained by differentiating P with respect to R and equating (dP/dR) = 0
On differentiating equation (2.63) with respect to R, we get, du = du # v − u # dv
dv v2
2 2 2
dP = E # ^Rs + Rh − E R # 2^Rs + Rh
dR ..... (2.64)
^Rs + Rh4
For (dP/dR) = 0, the numerator of equation (2.64), should be zero.
\ E2(Rs + R)2 – 2E2R(Rs + R) = 0 ⇒ 2 E2 R(Rs + R) = E2 (Rs + R)2 .... (2.65)
On dividing equation (2.65) throughout by E2(Rs + R), we get,
2R = Rs + R ⇒ 2R – R = Rs ⇒ R = Rs ..... (2.66)
Equation (2.66) is the condition for maximum power transfer to load, which states that the maximum power
is transferred from source to load when load resistance is equal to source resistance.
On substituting R for Rs in equation (2.63), we can get an expression for maximum power.
` Maximum power, Pmax = P = E2 R = E2 R = E2 R = E2

Rs = R
^R + Rh2 (2R) 2 4R 2 4R ..... (2.67)
Case ii : AC source with internal resistance connected to a resistive load

Theorem:
“Maximum power is transferred from source to load, when load resistance is equal to source resistance.”
Consider an ac source of emf E and internal resistance Rs connected to a variable load
resistance R.
R = Rs
Proof:
Consider an ac source of emf E and internal resistance Rs connected to a load Rs
resistance R as shown in Fig. 2.55. Let, I be the current through the circuit. With
SOURCE
LOAD
reference to Fig. 2.55, by Ohm’s law, we can write, I R
+
I = E
E ~
Rs + R _
` I = I = E = E
Rs + R Rs + R Fig. 2.55.
Now, P = I 2 R = E2 R
^Rs + Rh2 ..... (2.68)
Equation (2.68) is the same as equation (2.63) and so the condition for maximum power transfer will be the
same as that of case (i). But here, I is rms value of current and E is rms value of source emf.
Case iii : AC source with internal impedance connected to a resistive load

Theorem:
“Maximum power is transferred from source to load, when load resistance is equal to magnitude of
source impedance.”
Consider an ac source of emf E and internal impedance Zs ^ Zs = Rs + jXsh connected to a
variable load resistance R.
R = Zs = Rs2 + Xs2
Proof:
Consider an ac source of emf E and internal impedance Z s connected to a load Zs
SOURCE
resistance R as shown in Fig. 2.56.
LOAD
I R
Let, Z s = Rs + jXs +
E ~
_
` Magnitude of source impedance, Zs = Z s = R s2 + X s2 .....(2.69)
With reference to Fig. 2.56, by Ohm’s law, we can write, Fig. 2.56.
I = E E E
= = ..... (2.70)
Zs + R Rs + jXs + R ^Rs + Rh + jXs
E E
Magnitude of current, I = I = = ..... (2.71)
^Rs + Rh + jXs ^Rs + Rh2 + X s2

2
Now, P = I R = I 2 R ..... (2.72)
Using equation (2.71) in equation (2.72), we can write,
P = E2 R ..... (2.73)
^Rs + Rh2 + X s2
The condition for maximum power can be obtained by differentiating P with respect to R and equating (dP/dR) = 0.
On differentiating equation (2.73) with respect to R, we get, du = du # v − u # dv
dv v2
2
dP = E # 6^Rs + Rh2 + X s2 @ 2
− E R # 2^Rs + Rh
..... (2.74)
dR 6^Rs + Rh + X s2 @
2 2
For dP = 0, the numerator of equation (2.74) should be zero.

dR
` E 2 6^Rs + Rh2 + X s2 @ − E 2 R # 2^Rs + Rh ⇒ 2E 2 R^Rs + Rh = E 2 6^Rs + Rh2 + X s2 @
On dividing the above equation throughout by E2 we get,

2R^Rs + Rh = ^Rs + Rh2 + X s2
2RRs + 2R 2 = R s2 + R 2 + 2RRs + X s2
2RRs + 2R 2 − R 2 − 2RRs = R s2 + X s2
R 2 = R s2 + X s2
` R = R s2 + X s2 .....(2.75)
Here, R s2 + X s2 = Zs = Magnitude of source impedance

Equation (2.75) is the condition for maximum power transfer. From equation (2.75) we can say that, maximum
power is transferred to load when load resistance is equal to magnitude of source impedance.
Case iv : AC source with internal impedance connected to a load with variable resistance
and variable reactance
Theorem:
”Maximum power is transferred from source to load, when load impedance is equal to complex
conjugate of source impedance.”
load impedance Z, where Z = R + jX with R and X are individually variable.
Z = Zs ⇒ ⇒
*
R + jX = ^Rs + jXsh* R + jX = Rs − jXs
Proof :
Consider an ac source of emf E and internal impedance Z s connected to a
load impedance Z as shown in Fig. 2.57. Zs R
Z = R + jX
SOURCE
LOAD
Let, Z s = Rs + jXs ⇒ Z s = Rs − jXs

) I
+
E ~ jX
I = Current through the circuit _
Now, I = E = E = E
Zs + Z Rs + jXs + R + jX ^Rs + Rh + j^Xs + X h Fig. 2.57.
E
Magnitude of current, I = I =
^Rs + Rh + j^Xs + X h
= E
^Rs + Rh2 + ^Xs + X h2 .....(2.76)

2
Now, P = I R = I2 R .....(2.77)
Note : In reactive loads, power is consumed only by resistance and active power in the reactance is zero.
Using equation (2.76) in equation (2.77), we can write,

.....(2.78)
P = E2 R
^Rs + Rh2 + ^Xs + X h2
The condition for maximum power can be obtained by partially differentiating P with respect to X and then
with respect to R and equating (∂P/∂X) = 0 and (∂P/∂R) = 0.
On partially differentiating equation (2.78) with respect to X, we get,
2 2 2
2P = 0 # [^Rs + Rh + ^Xs + X h ] − E R # 2^Xs + X h du = du # v − u # dv
2X dv v2
[^Rs + Rh2 + ^Xs + X h2] 2
− 2E 2 R^Xs + X h
=
[^Rs + Rh2 + ^Xs + X h2] 2 .....(2.79)
For 2P = 0 , the numerator of equation (2.79) should be zero.

2X
∴ -2E2 R (X s + X) = 0 ..... (2.80)
In equation (2.80), E ≠ 0 and R ≠ 0, hence,
Xs + X = 0 ..... (2.81)
∴ X = -Xs ..... (2.82)

On partially differentiating equation (2.78) with respect to R, we get,
2 2 2 2
2P = E # [^Rs + Rh + ^Xs + X h ] − E R # 2^Rs + Rh
2R 2 2 2
[^Rs + Rh + ^Xs + X h ] ..... (2.83)
For 2P = 0, the numerator of equation (2.83) should be zero.

2R
∴ E2 [(R s + R)2 + (X s + X) 2 ] - 2E2 R(R s + R) = 0
2E2 R(R s + R) = E2 [(R s + R)2 + (X s + X) 2 ]
On dividing throughout by E2 , we get,
2 R (R s + R) = (R s + R)2 + (X s + X) 2 ..... (2.84)
From equation (2.81) we know that Xs + X = 0, hence equation (2.84) can be written as,
2 R (Rs + R) = (R s + R)2 ⇒ 2 R = R s + R ⇒ 2 R-R = R s ⇒ R = R s .....(2.85)
Equations (2.82) and (2.85) are the conditions for maximum power transfer. From these two equations, for
maximum power transfer, we can say that, R + jX = Rs - jXs.
*
Here, Rs − jXs = Z s = Conjugate of source impedance
Hence, for maximum power transfer, load impedance should be equal to conjugate of source impedance. An
interesting observation is that when maximum power transfer condition is met, the circuit will behave as a purely
resistive circuit and so the circuit will be in resonance.
Case v :AC source with internal impedance connected to a load with variable resistance and fixed reactance
Theorem:
“Maximum power is transferred from source to load, when load resistance is equal to absolute value
of the rest of the impedence of the circuit”.
load impedance Z, where Z = R + jX with variable R and fixed X.
R = R2s + ^ Xs + Xh2
Proof :
The statement of case (v) can be proved by proceeding similar to that of case (iv) and differentiating
equation (2.79) with respect to R and equating (dP/dR) = 0.
From equation (2.84) we get,
2 R (R s + R) = (Rs + R)2 + (X s + X) 2
2RRs + 2R 2 = R s2 + R 2 + 2RRs + ^Xs + X h 2
2RRs + 2R 2 − R 2 − 2RRs = R s2 + ^Xs + X h 2 ⇒ R 2 = R s2 + ^Xs + X h 2
` R = R s2 + ^Xs + X h 2 .....(2.86)
Equation (2.86) is the condition for maximum power transfer in case (v).
Case vi : AC source with internal impedance connected to a load with fixed resistance
and variable reactance
Theorem:
“Maximum power is transferred from source to load, when load reactance is equal to conjugate of
source reactance”.
load impedance Z, where Z = R + jX with fixed R and variable X.
Now, the condition for maximum power transfer is,
jX = –jXs
Proof :
The statement of case (vi) can be proved by proceeding similar to that of case (iv) and differentiating
equation (2.79) with respect to X and equating (dP/dX) = 0.
From equation (2.82) we get,
X = - Xs ..... (2.87)
The equation (2.87) is the condition for maximum power transfer in case (vi).
Table 2.3 : Summary of Conditions for Maximum Power Transfer (AU June’16, 2 Marks)
Case Source Source Load Variable Condition for
emf impedance impedance element of maximum
load impedance power transfer
i dc Rs R R R = Rs
ii ac Rs R R R = Rs
iii ac Rs + jXs R R R = R2s + X2s
iv ac Rs + jXs R + jX R, X R + jX = Rs − jXs
v ac Rs + jXs R + jX R R = R2s + ^ Xs + Xh2
vi ac Rs + jXs R + jX X jX = − jXs
Applying maximum power transfer theorem to circuits

Generally it is desirable to have maximum power transfer to a particular element of a
circuit. In this case remove the concerned element and create two open terminals. Then the circuit
is represented by Thevenin’s equivalent with respect to open terminals. Now, consider Thevenin’s
equivalent as the voltage source for load and apply the maximum power transfer theorem.
A A
A A
R th = R s Rs
Circuit
with dc
source R Þ Circuit Þ Þ R
and + +
resistances Vth = E +_ E _+
B B _ _
B B
Fig. a : Circuit with dc source and resistances.
A A
Circuit A A
with ac Z th = Z s Zs
source
Z = R + jX Circuit
and Þ Þ Þ Z = R + jX
resistances + +
and Vth = E ~ E ~
reactances B B _ _
B B
Fig. b : Circuit with ac source and resistances and reactances.

Fig. 2.58 : Applying maximum power transfer theorem to an element of a circuit.
Sometimes, it is desirable to have maximum power transfer to load by varying some parameter
of a circuit. In this case, determine an expression for power, P delivered to load by relating the
variable parameter to P. Let, Y be the variable parameter. Now differentiate P with respect to Y to
get dP . Then form an equation by equating dP = 0 and solve the equation to get the condition
dY dY
for maximum power transfer. [Refer to Examples 2.58 and 2.59.]
EXAMPLE 2.45 15 20
In the circuit of Fig. 1, find the value of the adjustable resistor R for maximum
power transfer to R. Also, calculate the maximum power. + 100 V
E 10 R
SOLUTION
Let us remove the adjustable resistance R and denote the two open
terminals by A and B, as shown in Fig. 2. Now, the circuit of Fig. 2 should be replaced Fig. 1.
by Thevenin’s equivalent. Let us assume the polarity of Vth as shown in Fig. 2. 15 20
A
+
In Fig. 3, the 20 Ω resistance is open and so no current will flow through it. + 100 V 10 Vth
E
Hence, the voltage across the 20 Ω resistance is zero.
Rth
With reference to Fig. 3, by voltage division rule, we can write, E
B
Vth = 100 # 10 = 1000 = 40 V Fig. 2.
15 + 10 25 15 20
A
no voltage +
The 100 V voltage source in the circuit of Fig. 2 is replaced with a short +
circuit and the resulting network is reduced to a single equivalent resistance 100 V +E Vth 10 Vth
as shown below: E
15 W 20 W 20 W
A A E
B
Fig. 3.
10 ´ 15
SC 10 W = 6W
Þ 10 + 15
Rth Rth
Fig. 4. B
Fig. 5. B
Rth = Rs = 26
A
Rth = 20 + 6 = 26 Ω
Vth = E = 40 V
To find R for maximum power and Pmax

+
E
Thevenin’s equivalent of Fig. 2 is shown in Fig. 6. Now, Thevenin’s equivalent is
the voltage generator for load resistance R. Rth
∴ Vth = E ; R th = Rs B
Fig. 6.
Let us connect the adjustable resistance R across A and B of Thevenin’s equivalent
as shown in Fig. 7. Rs = 26
A
With reference to Fig. 7, by maximum power transfer theorem, for maximum power
E = 40 V
in R the value of R should be equal to Rs.

+
E I R
∴ R = 26 Ω
B
Fig. 7.
2
We know that, maximum power, Pmax = E
4R
2
= 40 = 15.3846 W
4 # 26
2
Also, Pmax = I 2 R = c 40
m # 26 = 15.3846 W
26 + 26
RESULT
The value of R for maximum power transfer = 26 Ω
The maximum power in R, Pmax = 15.3846 W
68 V
EXAMPLE 2.46 (AU Dec’16, 8 Marks) 3
+E
In the circuit of Fig. 1, find the value of R for maximum power transfer.
Also, calculate the maximum power.
6A R
10
SOLUTION
Let us remove the resistance R and denote the two open terminals by 2
A and B as shown in Fig. 2. Fig. 1.
3 68 V
To find Thevenin’s voltage Vth A
+E
+
The circuit of Fig. 2 should be replaced by Thevenin’s equivalent. Let
us assume the polarity of Vth as shown in Fig. 2. The current source in parallel 6A Vth
with the 10 W is converted to a voltage source in series as shown in Fig. 3. 10
Rth
With reference to Fig. 3, by KVL, we can write, E
B
Vth + 68 + 60I = 0 2
Fig. 2.
∴ Vth = - 128 V
10 W 3W 68 V
A
+-
To find Thevenin’s resistance Rth +
no voltage
Let us replace the voltage source with a short circuit and the current
6´10 Vth
source with an open circuit as shown in Fig. 4. +
= 60 V -
With reference to Fig. 4, no voltage

-
R th = 3 + 10 + 2 = 15 Ω B
2W
To find R for maximum power and Pmax Fig. 3.

3 SC A
Thevenin’s equivalent of Fig. 2 is shown in Fig. 5. Now, the Thevenin’s
equivalent is the voltage generator for load resistance R.
∴ Vth = E ; R th = Rs
10
OC
Let us connect the resistance R across A and B of Thevenin’s equivalent Rth
as shown in Fig. 6.
B
With reference to Fig. 6, by maximum power transfer theorem, for 2
maximum power transfer to R the value of R should be equal to Rs. Fig. 4.

Rth = Rs = 15 Rs = 15
Vth = E = (10I + 68) V

A A
E = (10I + 68) V
+ +
E E I R
Rth
B B
Fig. 5. Fig. 6.
∴ R = 15 Ω
2 (− 128) 2
Maximum power, Pmax = E = = 273.0667 W
4R 4 # 15
15 10
EXAMPLE 2.47
In the circuit of Fig. 1, find the value of R for maximum power
transfer. Also, calculate the maximum power.
12 V +E 2A
R
SOLUTION
Let us remove the resistance R and denote the two open Fig. 1.
terminals by A and B, as shown in Fig. 2. Now, the circuit of Fig. 2,
15 10
should be replaced by Thevenin’s equivalent. Let us assume the polarity
of Vth as shown in Fig. 2.
+ A
To find Thevenin’s voltage Vth 12 V +E Vth 2A
_ B
Fig. 2.
Vth = 2 × 15 + 12
15 W 2 A 10 W 2A
∴ Vth = 42 V _ +
2 ´ 15
To find Thevenin’s resistance Rth + A
12 V +- Vth 2A
Let us replace the voltage source with a short circuit and the _ B
current source with an open circuit as shown in Fig. 4.
10 W
Fig. 3.
15 W 10 W 15 W
A
A
SC OC
Þ Rth
B
Rth
B
Fig. 4. Fig. 5.
Rth = Rs = 15
With reference to Fig. 5, A
R th = 15 Ω
Vth = E = 42 V
To find R for maximum power and Pmax

+
E
Thevenin’s equivalent of Fig. 2 is shown in Fig. 6. Now, the Thevenin’s
equivalent is the voltage generator for load resistance R.
∴ Vth = E ; R th = Rs B Fig. 6.
Let us connect the resistance R across A and B of Thevenin’s equivalent Rs = 15
as shown in Fig. 7. A
With reference to Fig. 7, by maximum power transfer theorem, for maximum
E = 42 V
power transfer to R the value of R should be equal to Rs. +
E R
∴ R = 15 Ω
2 2
Maximum power, Pmax = E = 42 = 29.4 W B Fig. 7.
4R 4 # 15

2 4 5V
Determine the value of resistance that may be connected A
E+
across terminals A and B so that maximum power is transferred
from the circuit to the resistance. Also, estimate the maximum
power transferred to the resistance.
20 V 8 10
SOLUTION
The circuit of Fig. 1 should be replaced by Thevenin’s
equivalent as shown below: B
Fig. 1.
To find Thevenin’s voltage Vth 2 5V
4 A
E+
With reference to Fig. 2, the mesh basis matrix equation is, +
> H > H = > H

2+8 −8 I1 20 +
− 8 8 + 4 + 10 I2 0 20 V I1
8 I2
10I2 10 Vth
E
> H > H = > H

10 − 8 I1 20
− 8 22 I2 0 _
B
10 − 8 Fig. 2.
∆ = = 10 # 22 − (− 8) 2 = 156
− 8 22
10 20
∆2 = = 10 # 0 − (− 8) # 20 = 160
−8 0
∆2
` I2 = = 160 = 1.0256 A
∆ 156
With reference to Fig. 2 by KVL, we can write,
Vth = 5 + 10 I 2 = 5 + 10 × 1.0256
∴ Vth = 15.256 V
Let us replace the voltage sources with a short circuit and reduce the resulting network to a single
equivalent resistance as shown below:
2W 4W SC A 4W A A
4 + 1.6 = 5.6 W
2´8
SC 8W 10 W Þ 2+8 10 W Þ 10 W
Rth = 1.6 W Rth Rth
B B B
Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Fig. 5.
With reference to Fig. 5, Rth = Rs = 3.5897
A
R th = 5.6 # 10 = 3.5897 Ω
Vth = E = 15.256 V
5.6 + 10
To find the value of R for maximum power transfer and Pmax +
E
Thevenin’s equivalent of the given circuit is shown in Fig. 6. Now,
Thevenin’s equivalent is the voltage generator for the load that may be
connected across A and B. B Fig. 6.
∴ E = Vth ; Rs = R th
Let us connect a load resistance R across A and B of Thevenin’s A
equivalent as shown in Fig. 7. Now, for maximum power transfer, the value of Rs = 3.5897
E = 15.256 V
R should be equal to Rs.
+ R
∴ R = 3.5897 Ω E
2
Maximum power, Pmax = E
4R
2 B Fig. 7.
= 15.256 = 16.2093 W
4 # 3.5897
EXAMPLE 2.49 (AU June’16, 16 Marks) 220 RL 200
In the circuit shown in Fig. 1, determine the maximum

power delivered to RL, where RL = 100 W using Norton’s theorem.
Also, determine the value of RL for maximum power transfer. 10 V +E 470 380 + 5V
E
SOLUTION
Let us remove the resistance RL and denote the two open Fig. 1.
terminals by A and B as shown in Fig. 2. The voltage sources in
the circuit of Fig. 2 are converted into current sources as shown in Fig. 3. The parallel resistances in
Fig. 3 are converted into a single equivalent resistance as shown in Fig. 4.
The current sources in Fig. 4 are converted into voltage sources in Fig. 5. Now short circuit the
terminals A and B and the current through this short circuit is Norton’s circuit IN.
220 W A 200 W A
B B
380 W
220 W
470 W
200 W
+ 10 5
10 V
+ 470 W 380 W
5V
- - Þ 220 200
= 0.0455 A = 0.025 A
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
ß
149.8551 W A 131.0345 W
B A B
+ - + -
0.025´131.0345
0.0455´149.8551
= 3.2759 V
0.0455 A
0.025 A
= 6.8184 V
220 ´ 470 380 ´ 200

+
-
+
- Ü 220 + 470 380 + 200
= 149.8551 W = 131.0345 W
Fig. 5. Fig. 4.
149.8551 IN + 131.0345 IN + 3.2759 = 6.8184
IN(149.8551 + 131.0345) = 6.8184 - 3.2759
` IN = 6.8184 − 3.2759 = 0.0126 A

149.855 + 131.0345
To find Norton’s resistance Rn

The voltage sources are replaced with a short circuit as shown in Fig. 6. Norton’s resistance is determined
by using network reduction techniques as shown below:
Rn Rn
220 W A 200 W
B A B
220 W 200 W
SC
470 W 380 W
S.C. Þ
470 W 380 W
Fig. 6. Fig. 7.
ß
Rn Rn
A B A B
Ü 220 ´ 470 200 ´ 380

149.8551+131.0345 220 + 470 200 + 380
= 280.8896 W = 149.8551 W = 131.0345 W
Fig. 9. Fig. 8.

Norton’s resistance, Rn = 280.8896 W
A
In = 0.0126 A Rn = 280.8896
B
Fig. 10.
To find maximum power transfer

Norton’s equivalent of the given circuit is shown in Fig. 11. Let us connect a load resistance R across
A and B of Norton’s equivalent as shown in Fig. 12.
A A
IL
280.8896 W
0.0126 A
In = 0.0126 A Rn = 280.8896 W Þ RL = 100 W
B B
Fig. 11. Fig. 12.
RN 280.8896
IL = IN # = 0.0126 # = 9.292 # 10- 3 A
RN # RL 280.8896 + 100
Power, PL = IL2 RL = (9.292 × 10-3)2 × 100 = 8.6341 × 10-3 W = 8.6341 mW
Now, for maximum power transfer the value of RL should be equal to Rn.
IN 2
` Maximum power, Pmax = d n Rn = d 0.0126 n # 280.8896
2
2 2
= 11.1485 × 10-3 m = 11.1485 mW
Note: When RL = Rn, the Norton’s current will divide equally between Rn and RL and so current through
RL is IN/2
4 4 4 2
EXAMPLE 2.50
Determine the value of R for maximum power
transfer to it and the maximum power. +
12 V +E 4 R 2 E 10 V
SOLUTION
The given circuit can be reduced to a single
voltage source with a resistance in series with Fig. 1.
respect to terminals of load resistance R, by source
transformation technique, as shown below:
4W 4W 4W 2W 4W 4W
+ + 4W 2W 10
12
Þ
10 V
12 V
4W R 2W
]
R 2
-
4
- 4W 2W = 5A
= 3A
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
ß
4W 4W
4W 4W
2W 1W Þ 4 2
3A R 5A
R 2 2
+ + = 2W = 1W
- 3 ´ 2 = 6V - 5 ´ 1 = 5V
Fig. 5.
Fig. 4.
4 + 2 = 6W 4 + 1 = 5W
Þ
6 V +- R + 6 5
- 5V = 1A 6W R 5W = 1A
6 5
Fig. 6.
Fig. 7.
ß
2.7273 W
A
Rs
1A + 1A = 2 A
Þ 5´6 Þ 1A 1A 6W 5W R
2 ´ 2.7273 + E R R
= 5.4546 V - 5+6
= 2.7273 W
B
Fig. 10. Fig. 9. Fig. 8.
In Fig. 10, the given circuit has been reduced to the form of a voltage generator with respect to
terminals of R. With reference to Fig. 10,
The value of R for maximum power transfer = R s = 2.7273 Ω
The maximum power, Pmax = E 2 = 5.4546 2 = 2.7273 W

4#R 4 # 2.7273
10
EXAMPLE 2.51
Determine the value of R in the circuit of Fig. 1 for maximum power
transfer to R from the rest of the circuit. 3 4
SOLUTION
The given circuit should be replaced by Thevenin’s equivalent with 2 R
+ 20 V
E
respect to terminals of R as shown below:
Now, for maximum power transfer to R, the value of R should be equal
to Rth. Hence, we have to find the value of Thevenin’s resistance Rth.
Fig. 1.
10 W 10 W
Rth Rth
A A
3W 4W 3W 4W
A Þ A Þ Vth +- Þ Vth +- R
+ 20 V + 20 V
2W R - 2W -
B B B B
Fig. 4. Fig. 5.
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
To find Thevenin’s resistance R th
Let us replace the voltage source with a short circuit and remove the resistance R and denote the
resulting open terminals as A and B as shown in Fig. 6. The network of Fig. 6 is reduced to a single equivalent
resistance as shown below:
10 W
A
3W 4W
3W 4W
10 W
A Þ
Rth
2W SC 2W
Rth B
B
Fig. 6. Fig. 7.
ß
A A 3W 4W
3 + 1.6667 4W
Þ
4W
Þ
3W
= 4.6667 W 10 W
Rth Rth Rth
B B
10 ´ 2
= 1.6667 W 2W
Fig. 10. 10 + 2 B
Fig. 9.
Fig. 8.
R th = 4.6667 # 4 = 2.1539 Ω
4.6667 + 4
RESULT
The value of R for maximum power transfer = 2.1539 Ω
5
EXAMPLE 2.52
Determine the value of R in the circuit of Fig. 1 for maximum 10
power transfer to R from the rest of the circuit. + E
20 V
SOLUTION
5 5
The given circuit should be replaced by Thevenin’s equivalent 12 A R
with respect to terminals of R as shown below: 4
Now, for maximum power transfer to R, the value of R should be 8

equal to Rth. Hence, we have to find the value of Thevenin’s resistance
Fig. 1.
Rth.
5W 5W
10 W 10 W
- A + - A
+
20 V 20 V
5W 5W 5W 5W
12 A R Þ 12 A
4W 4W
8W 8W
B B
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
ß
A A
Rth Rth
Vth +-
Þ
R Vth +-
B B
Fig. 5. Fig. 4.
To find Thevenin’s resistance R th
Let us replace the voltage source with a short circuit and the current source with an open circuit as
shown in Fig. 6. Remove the resistance R and denote the resulting open terminals as A and B as shown in
Fig. 6. Now, the network of Fig. 6 is reduced to a single equivalent resistance as shown below:
5W
10 W
A A A
SC
5W 5W 5
= 2.5 W
2
5W 5W
OC
4W
Þ Þ
Rth 4W Rth Rth
4W
8W 8W 8W
B B B
Fig. 6. Fig. 7. Fig. 8.

R th = 2.5 + 4 + 8 = 14.5 Ω
RESULT
10 W
EXAMPLE 2.53 A
j2 W 4W
Determine the load impedance that can be connected
across terminals A and B for maximum power transfer to load 5Ð0o A ~
impedance. Also, calculate the maximum power transferred to load. 2W j4 W
B
Fig. 1.
SOLUTION
Let us convert the given circuit into Thevenin’s equivalent with respect to terminals A and B by using
source transformation technique as shown below:
10 W 2 + j2 W 10 W
A A
Convert current
j2 W 4W source to 4W
+
5Ð0 ´ (2 + j2)
o
voltage source
5Ð0 A
o
= 5 ´ (2 + j2)
~ Þ = 10 + j10 V
~
-
2W j4 W j4 W
B B
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
Combine series
ß impedance
12 + j2 W
A A
Convert voltage
4W source to + 4W
10 + j10 current source
12 + j2 W 10 + j10 V
12 + j2 ~ Þ ~
-
= 0.9459 j4 W j4 W
+ j0.6757 A
B B
Fig. 5. Fig. 4.
Combine parallel
ß impedance
3.3425 + j2.2466 W
A A
Zth = Zs
Convert current +
0.9459 (12 + j2) ´ (4 + j4) (0.9459 + j0.6757)
source to
+ j0.6757 A ~ 12 + j2 + 4 + j4 voltage source ´ (3.3425 + j2.2466)
= 1.6436 + j4.3836 V
~-
Vth = E
= 3.3425 + j2.2466 W
Þ
B B
Fig. 6. Fig. 7.
Now, the circuit of Fig. 7 is Thevenin’s equivalent of the given circuit with respect Zs
A
to terminals A and B. Thevenin’s source is the voltage source for load connected across
terminals A and B and Thevenin’s impedance is the source impedance.
+
` E = 1.6436 + j4.3836 V E Z
Zs = 3.3425 + j2.2466 Ω
~
E
I
Let us connect a load impedance Z across terminals A and B of Thevenin’s B

equivalent as shown in Fig. 8. Fig. 8.
Now, for maximum power transfer,
* *
Z = _Zs i = _3.3425 + j2.2466i Ω = 3.3425 − j2.2466 Ω = 4.0273+ − 33.9 o Ω
E 1.6436 + j4.3836
I = =
Zs + Z _3.3425 + j2.2466 i + _3.3425 − j2.2466i
1.6436 + j4.3836
= = 0.2459 + j0.6557 = 0.7003+69.4 o A
2 # 3.3425
2
Maximum power delivered to load, Pmax = I # Real part of Z
= 0.70032 # 3.3425 = 1.6392 W
RESULT
Load impedance across A and B for maximum power transfer = 3.3425 − j2.2466 Ω = 4.0273∠-33.9o W
Maximum power transferred to load = 1.6392 W
EXAMPLE 2.54 2W 4W j2 W
In the circuit of Fig. 1, determine the value of R so that

maximum power is transferred to it.
100Ð45o V
+
~ j4 W -j10 W R
SOLUTION -
Let us remove the resistance R and denote the resulting

open terminals by A and B as shown in Fig. 2. The circuit of Fig. 2
Fig. 1.
should be converted into Thevenin’s equivalent with respect to
terminals A and B, as shown in Fig. 3. Let us connect the load resistance R across A and B as shown in Fig. 4.
Now, by maximum power transfer theorem, the value of R should be equal to magnitude of source impedance
Zs , for maximum power transfer. Here, Zs = Z th .
2W 4W j2 W Zth Zth = Zs
A A A
100Ð45o V
+ + +
~ j4 W -j10 W Þ Vth Þ Vth = E R
-
~ -
~
-
B B B
R = Zth = Zs
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
Fig. 4.
To find Z th and the value of R for maximum power
Let us replace the voltage source in the circuit of Fig. 2 with a short circuit as shown in Fig. 5. The
network of Fig. 5 is reduced to a single equivalent impedance as shown below:
2W 4W j2 W 4W j2 W
A A A
(4 + j2)
2 ´ j4 -j10 W
SC j4 W -j10 W -j10 W + (1.6 + j0.8)
Þ 2 + j4 Þ = 5.6 + j2.8
Zth = 1.6 + j0.8 Z th Zth
B B B
Fig. 5. Fig. 6. Fig. 7.

_5.6 + j2.8 i # _− j10 i

Z th =
_5.6 + j2.8 i + _− j10 i
= 6.7308 − j1.3462 Ω
= 6.8641+ − 11.3 o Ω
Now, by maximum power transfer theorem,
R = Z th = 6.8641 Ω
RESULT
EXAMPLE 2.55
In the circuit of Fig. 1, the load impedance Z has a fixed 4W Z = 2 + jX 4W
resistance of 2 Ω and a variable reactance jX. Determine the
value of the reactance jX for maximum power transfer to load.
+
50Ð90o V
+
SOLUTION 50Ð0o V ~ j6 W -j4 W ~
- -
Let us remove the load impedance Z and denote the
resulting open terminals by A and B as shown in Fig. 2. The
circuit of Fig. 2 should be reduced to Thevenin’s equivalent with Fig. 1.
respect to terminals A and B as shown in Fig. 3. Let us connect the
load impedance Z across terminals A and B as shown in Fig. 4.
Zth = Rs + jX s Rs + jXs
4W A B 4W
A A
+ + +
50Ð90o V
+
50Ð0o V
~ j6 W -j4 W ~ Þ Vth ~ Þ Vth ~ Z = 2 + jX

- - - -
B B
Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4.
Now, by maximum power transfer theorem, for maximum power transfer to load, jX = − jX s.
To find Z th and the value of jX for maximum power
Let us replace the voltage sources in the circuit of Fig. 2 with a short circuit as shown in Fig. 5. The
network of Fig. 5 is reduced to a single equivalent impedance as shown below:
Zth Zth
4W A B 4W A B
4 ´ j6
Þ 4 + j6 4 ´ (- j4)
SC j6 W -j4 W SC = 2 - j2 W
= 2.7692 4 + (- j4)
+ j1.8462 W
Fig. 5. Fig. 6.
Z th = _2.7692 + j1.8462 i + _2 − j2 i
= 4.7692 − j0.1538 Ω
Here, Z th = Rs + jXs = 4.7692 − j0.1538

` jXs = − j0.1538
For maximum power transfer to load,
jX = − jX s = − (− j0.1538) = +j0.1538 Ω
∴ jX = j0.1538 Ω
RESULT
For maximum power transfer to load, the value of jX = j0.1583 Ω
EXAMPLE 2.56
In the circuit of Fig. 1, determine the impedance that can be
10Ð45o A
connected across terminals A and B for maximum power transfer. Also, 4W j2 W

estimate the maximum power.
~
4W
A
SOLUTION
Let us determine Thevenin’s equivalent of the given circuit with 2W j2 W
respect to terminals A and B as shown below:
B
Fig. 1.
In the given circuit, 4 Ω resistance is open and so no current will
flow through it. Hence, there is no voltage across the 4 Ω resistance. The given circuit is redrawn as shown
in Fig. 3. I 2
I2
I1
o
10Ð45 A 4W j2 W j2 W
~ 4W 4W
4W A
A I2 +
+
+ No voltage + 10Ð45o A
~ j2 W Vth Vth
2W Vth j2 W Vth _
_
- B
_ I2
B
2W
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3.
o
I2 = 10+45 o # 4 = 40+45 = 40+45 o
4 + _2 + j2 + j2 i 6 + j4 7.2111+33.7 o
= 5.547+11.3 o A
Vth = I 2 # j2 = 5.547+11.3 o # j2 = 5.547+11.3 o # 2+90 o

= 11.094+101.3 o V

Let us replace the current source in the given circuit by an open circuit as shown in Fig. 4. The network
of Fig. 4 is reduced to a single equivalent impedance as shown below:
OC 4W j2 W 4W j2 W 4W
A
4W 4W
A Þ A Þ
6 + j2 j2 W
2W j2 W 2W j2 W Z th
Z th Z th
B
B B
Fig. 4. Fig. 5. Fig. 6.
Z th = > H + 4 = 70.4615 + j1.6923 A + 4

_6 + j2 i # j2
_6 + j2 i + j2
= 4.4615 + j1.6923 Ω
To find Z for maximum power and Pmax
Zth a Zs
Thevenin’s equivalent of the given circuit is shown in Fig. 7. Now, Thevenin’s A
equivalent is the voltage generator for the load that may be connected across A and B.
+
` E = Vth = 11.094+101.3 o V Vth a E ~
E
Zs = Z th = 4.4615 + j1.6923 Ω
B
Let us connect a load impedance Z across A and B of Thevenin’s equivalent
Fig. 7.
as shown in Fig. 8. Now, for maximum power transfer to load, the load impedance Z
should be equal to the complex conjugate of source impedance Zs .
*
Zs
*
` Z = Zs = _4.4615 + j1.6923 i = 4.4615 − j1.6923 Ω A
With reference to Fig. 8, we can write, +

E I Z
I = E = 11.094+101.3 o ~
E
Zs + Z 4.4615 + j1.6923 + 4.4615 − j1.6923
o B
= 11.094+101.3 = 1.2433+101.3 o A Fig. 8.
2 # 4.4615
2
Maximum power in the load, Pmax = I # Real part of Z
= 1.24332 # 4.4615
= 6.8966 W
RESULT
The load impedance for maximum power transfer, Z = 4.4615 − j1.6923 Ω
Maximum power transferred to load, Pmax = 6.8966 W
EXAMPLE 2.57 (AU May’17, 16 Marks) A

Find the current flowing in the 20 W resistance connected across o Io
~ 3Ð0 A
terminals A and B of the circuit shown in Fig. 1 using Norton’s theorem. 5W
8W -j2 W 20 W
SOLUTION
10 W
Let us remove the 20 + j5 W and denote the resultant open terminals j15 W
40Ð90oV
+
as A and B as shown in Fig. 2. Now, the circuit of Fig. 2 should be replaced ~ j4 W
_
by Norton’s equivalent at terminals A and B. B
Fig. 1.
Let us short circuit the terminals A and B in the circuit of Fig. 2 as shown in Fig. 3. The current flowing
through the short circuit is Norton’s current. Let us assume the direction of Norton’s current as A to B.
A A
3Ð0oA ~ 3Ð0oA
5W
8W
~
-j2 W
5W
8W -j2 W
SC In
10 W 10 W
40Ð90oV
+ +
= j40 V
j4 W j40 V j4 W
~
_
~
_ B
B
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
Let us calculate Norton’s current by superposition theorem.
Let, I ln = Current when the j40 V source alone is acting.
I lln = Current when the 3 A source alone is acting.
To find the response I ln when j40 V source is acting alone
The 3 A current source is replaced with a short circuit as shown in Fig. 4. Now the 10 + j4 W impedance
is short-circuited and so it is removed and the circuit is redrawn as shown in Fig. 5.
5
A
SC A
5
8 Ej2
8 Ej2
In‘
10 In‘
+ +
j40V E
j40V j4
_
~ B
B
Fig. 4. Fig. 5.
With reference to Fig. 6, by Ohm’s law we get, A

5 ´ (8 - j2)
j40 5 + 8 - j2 In‘
I ln = = − 1.1764 + j12.7058 A j40V -
+
= 3.1214 - j0.289 W
3.1214 − j0.289
B
To find the response I lln when the 3 A source is acting alone Fig. 6.
The j40 V source is replaced with a short circuit as shown in Fig. 7. The circuit of Fig. 7 is redrawn as
shown in Fig. 8. The 5 W resistance is short-circuited and so entire current 3 A flows through short circuit as
shown in Fig. 8.
I=0 In‘‘ = 3 A
~ 3Ð0oA
5W o
3Ð0 A
8W -j2 W 5W ~
In‘‘
10 W In‘‘
SC 8W 10 W
j4 W
-j2 W j4 W
Fig. 7.
Fig. 8.
` I lln = 3 A
A
To find the response In when both the sources are acting
5
By the superposition theorem, 8 Ej2
In = I ln + I lln = − 1.1764 + j12.7058 + 3 10

Zn
SC
= 1.8236 + j12.7058 A j4
B
Fig. 9.
To find Norton’s impedance Zn
A
Let us replace the voltage source with a short circuit and the current source
with an open circuit as shown in Fig. 9.
With reference to Fig. 9, we can write, In

Zn
(8 − j2) # (10 + j4)

Norton's impedance, Zn = 5 + = 5 + 4.9024 + j0.122
8 − j2 + 10 + j4
B
= 9.9024 + j0.122 W
Fig. 10.
A
Io
Norton’s equivalent at A-B and current Io
20
In
The Norton’s equivalent is shown in Fig. 10. Zn
j15
Let us connect the 20 + j15 W impedancce across A and B as shown in
Fig. 11.
B
Fig. 11.
By current division rule, we get,
Zn
I o = In #
Zn + 20 + j5
9.9024 + j0.122
= (1.8236 + j12.7058) #
9.9024 + j0.122 + 20 + j15
= (1.8236 + j12.7058) # (0.2654 − j0.1301) = 2.137 + j3.1349 A
= 3.794 ∠ 55.7o A
EXAMPLE 2.58
10 W
In the circuit of Fig. 1, the load impedance Z has a fixed
reactance of +j2 Ω and a variable resistance R. Determine the
10Ð45 A
+
20Ð30 V
o
o
value of R for maximum power transfer. 4W
~
-
Z ~
SOLUTION
The 20 ∠ 30 o V voltage source in series with 10 Ω is

Fig. 1.
converted to an equivalent current source in Fig. 2.
The circuit of Fig. 2 is redrawn as shown in
10Ð45 A
Fig. 3. In this circuit, the current sources in parallel
o
20Ð30o 10 W Z 4W
can be combined to give a single equivalent current 10 ~ ~
o
source and the 10 Ω and 4 Ω resistances in parallel = 2Ð30 A
can be combined to give a single equivalent

resistance as shown in Fig. 4. Fig. 2.
The current source in parallel with ß

2.8571 Ω resistance in the circuit of Fig. 4 is
converted to a voltage source as shown in Fig. 5.
10Ð45 A
2Ð30 A
o
o
~ ~ 10 W 4W Z
o
I = 34.1229+42.5
2.8571 + R + j2
Fig. 3.
ß
2.8571W
+
11.9431Ð42.5o ´ 2.8571 2Ð30o + 10Ð45o 10 ´ 4
~ Z = R + j2 ~
Þ
= 34.1226Ð42.5o V I = 11.9431Ð42.5o A 10 + 4
Z
-
= 2.8571W
Fig. 5. Fig. 4.
o
` I = I = 34.1226+42.5 = 34.1226 = 34.1226
2.8571 + R + j2 2
_2.8571 + R i + 22
2
_2.8571 + R i + 4
Let, P = Power delivered to load.
2
Now, P = I # Real part of Z
= 34.1226 2 #R = 1164 R
2 2
_2.8571 + R i + 4 _2.8571 + R i + 4
The condition for maximum power can be obtained by differentiating P with respect to R and equating (dP/dR) = 0.
9_2.8571 + Ri2 + 4 C # 1164 − 1164 R # 2 _2.8571 + Ri

` dP = d (uv) = v du −2 u dv
dR 2 v
9_2.8571 + Ri2 + 4 C
For dP = 0, the numerator of dP should be equal to zero.

dR dR
2
∴ 1164[ (2.8571 + R) + 4] − 2 × 1164 R (2.8571 + R) = 0
2
2 × 1164 R (2.8571 + R) = 1164[ (2.8571 + R) + 4]
On dividing either side by 1164, we get,

2
2 R (2.8571 + R) = (2.8571 + R) + 4
2 2
5.7142 R + 2R = 8.163 + 5.7142 R + R + 4
2 2
∴ 5.7142 R + 2R − 5.7142 R − R = 8.163 + 4
∴ R2 = 12.163 ⇒ R = 12.163 = 3.4875 Ω

Note : Here, the value of R for maximum power transfer is also given by,
R = 2.85712 + 22 = 3.4875 Ω
RESULT
EXAMPLE 2.59
-j8 W j8 W
In the circuit of Fig. 1, the phase angle θ of the voltage source, +
+
5∠θo V is continuously variable. Find the value of θ for maximum power o
10 W
o
10Ð0 V
5Ðq V ~ ~
transfer to 10 Ω resistance. - -
SOLUTION 5W 5W
Let us assume two mesh currents as shown in Fig. 2. Fig. 1.

Let, 5∠θ V = 5 cosθ + j5 sinθ V
o
j8 W
10∠0 o V = 10 cos 0 o + j10 sin 0 o = 10 V -j8 W
I
+ +
o
With reference to Fig. 2, the mesh basis matrix equation is, o
5Ðq V 10 W 10Ð0 V
~
-
~
-
= 10V
I1 I2
> H > H = > H
15 − j8 10 I1 5 cos θ + j5 sin θ
5W 5W
10 15 + j8 I2 10
Fig. 2.
15 − j8 10 2 2
∆ = = _15 − j8 i # _15 + j8 i − 10 # 10 = 15 + 8 − 100 = 189
10 15 + j8
5 cos θ + j5 sin θ 10 = ^5 cos θ + j5 sin θh # ^15 + j8h − 10 # 10

∆1 =
10 15 + j8 = 75 cos θ + j40 cos θ + j75 sin θ − 40 sin θ − 100
= ^75 cos θ − 40 sin θ − 100h + j^40 cos θ + 75 sin θh
15 − j8 5 cos θ + j5 sin θ = _15 − j8 i # 10 − _5 cos θ + j5 sin θ i # 10

∆2 =
10 10 = 150 − j80 − 50 cos θ − j50 sin θ
= _150 − 50 cos θ i + j _− 50 sin θ − 80 i
∆1 ∆2
Now, I1 = ; I2 =
∆ ∆
Let, I = current through 10 Ω resistance.
With reference to Fig. 2, by KCL, we can write,
∆1 ∆
I = I1 + I 2 = + 2 = 1 7 ∆1 + ∆2 A
∆ ∆ ∆
= 1 7_75 cos θ − 40 sin θ − 100 i + j _40 cos θ + 75 sin θ i + _150 − 50 cos θ i + j _− 50 sin θ − 80 iA
189
= 1 7_25 cos θ − 40 sin θ + 50 i + j _40 cos θ + 25 sin θ − 80 iA

189
= 25 7_cos θ − 1.6 sin θ + 2i + j _1.6 cos θ + sin θ − 3.2iA

189
= 25
2 2
` I = I _cos θ − 1.6 sin θ + 2 i + _1.6 cos θ + sin θ − 3.2 i
189
Let, P = Power delivered to 10 Ω resistance.

2
Now, P = I2 # 10 = 10 # 25
2
9_cos θ − 1.6 sin θ + 2i2 + _1.6 cos θ + sin θ − 3.2i2 C
189
= 0.175 9_cos θ − 1.6 sin θ + 2i + _1.6 cos θ + sin θ − 3.2i C
2 2
The condition for maximum power transfer can be obtained by differentiating P with respect to θ and
solving the equation obtained by equating (dP/dθ) = 0.
` dP = 0.175 72 _cos θ − 1.6 sin θ + 2i # _− sin θ − 1.6 cos θ i + 2 _1.6 cos θ + sin θ − 3.2 i # _− 1.6 sin θ + cos θ iA
dθ
= 0.175 # 2 [− cos θ sin θ − 1.6 cos2 θ + 1.6 sin2 θ + 2.56 cos θ sin θ − 2 sin θ − 3.2 cos θ
− 2.56 cos θ sin θ + 1.6 cos 2 θ − 1.6 sin 2 θ + cos θ sin θ + 5.12 sin θ − 3.2 cos θ]
= 0.35 73.12 sin θ − 6.4 cos θ A
On equating dP = 0, we get,
dθ
0.35 [3.12 sin θ – 6.4 cos θ] = 0
∴ 3.12 sin θ – 6.4 cos θ = 0

sin θ = 6.4
` 3.12 sin θ = 6.4 cos θ ⇒ cos θ 3.12 ⇒ tan θ = 2.0513
–1
∴ θ = tan (2.0513) = 64 o
RESULT
The value of θ for maximum power transfer = 64 o
2.6.4 Reciprocity Theorem (AU June’14, ’16 & Dec’16, 2 Marks)

The reciprocity theorem states that in a linear, bilateral, single source circuit, the ratio of excitation
to response is constant when the position of excitation and response are interchanged.
Here, the excitation is either a voltage source or current source and the response is either a
current or voltage in an element (R, L or C).
“The reciprocity theorem will be satisfied only by circuits or networks which do not have
dependent sources”. In circuits without dependent sources, the Z and Y matrices formed for mesh
and node basis analysis will be symmetric, i.e., the element of matrices Z jk = Z kj and Yjk = Ykj .
The networks which satisfy the reciprocity theorem are called reciprocal networks.
2.6.5 Reciprocity Theorem Applied to Mesh Basis Circuit
Consider a mesh basis circuit with a single voltage source E as shown in Fig. 2.59. Let I be
the current in mesh-j when the source is in mesh-k as shown in Fig. 2.59(a). The reciprocity theorem
implies that the same current I will be produced in mesh-k, if the source is shifted to mesh-j as
shown in Fig. 2.59(b). It must be noted that currents in other parts of the circuit may not be the same.
R1 R1
R2 R3 R2 R3
1 2 1 2
I I
RL
E +E R4 RL R4
Mesh-k Mesh-j Mesh-k Mesh-j + E
R5 R5 E
1’ 2’ 1’ 2’
Fig. a : Source in mesh-k and Fig. b : Source in mesh-j and

response in mesh-j. response in mesh-k.
Fig. 2.59 : Mesh basis circuit to demonstrate the reciprocity theorem.
Proof by mesh analysis :
Consider a 2-port resistive network without sources shown in Two-port
Port-1 resistive Port-2
Fig. 2.60. In order to prove the reciprocity theorem we can connect a voltage network
source at port-1 and short circuit port-2 to observe the current response. Then
the source can be shifted to port-2 and the same current response can be observed
in short-circuited port-1. Fig. 2.60.
Case i : Excitation in port-1 and response at port-2
Let us connect a voltage source E to port-1 and short circuit the I
Mesh-k Two-port Mesh-j
terminals of port-2 as shown in Fig. 2.61. Let I be the current through short + resistive
E E SC
circuit, which is the response due to excitation, E. Ik network Ii
In the circuit of Fig. 2.61, the response I due to excitation E can be Port-1 Port-2
solved by mesh analysis. Let us consider two meshes mesh-k and mesh-j as Fig. 2.61.
shown in Fig. 2.61. Now the response, I = Ij.
In mesh analysis, the current in jth mesh Ij is given by (Refer to equation 1.23 in Chapter 1),
∆1j ∆2j ∆3j ∆kj

Ij = E + E + E + ..... + E + ..... .....(2.88)
∆ 11 ∆ 22 ∆ 33 ∆ kk
Since the circuit of Fig. 2.61, has only one source in mesh-k,
E11 = E22 = E33 = ..... = 0 and Ekk = E
Hence, equation (2.88) can be written as,

∆kj ∆kj
Ij = E = E
∆ kk ∆
∆kj
` The response, I = I j = E
∆ ..... (2.89)
From equation (2.89), the ratio of excitation to response is,

E = ∆
.....(2.90)
I ∆kj
Case ii : Excitation in port-2 and response at port-1

I
Let us change the excitation source E to mesh-j as shown in Fig. 2.62, Two-port Mesh-j
Mesh-k
and estimate the current in mesh-k. [In mesh-k the voltage source is replaced resistive +
SC E E
with its internal impedance. Since the source is ideal, the internal impedance IK network Ij
is zero and so it is replaced with a short circuit.] Now the response, I = Ik.
Port-1 Port-2
th
In mesh analysis the current in k mesh, I k is given by (Refer to Fig. 2.62.
equation 1.23 in Chapter 1),
∆1k ∆ ∆ ∆ jk
Ik = E + 2k E22 + 3k E33 + ..... + E + ..... .....(2.91)
∆ 11 ∆ ∆ ∆ jj
Since the circuit of Fig. 2.62 has only one source in mesh-j,
E 11 = E22 = E33 = ..... = 0 and Ej j = E

∆ jk ∆ jk
Ik = E = E
∆ jj ∆
∆ jk
` The response, I = Ik = E
∆ ..... (2.92)
From equation (2.92), the ratio of excitation to response is,

E = ∆ ..... (2.93)
I ∆ jk
Conclusion
When the two-port network does not have dependent sources ∆ kj = ∆jk , equations (2.90) and (2.93) are the
same. Hence, the reciprocity theorem is proved.
2.6.6 Reciprocity Theorem Applied to Node Basis Circuit

Consider a node basis circuit with a single current source I s as shown in Fig. 2.63. Let, V be
the voltage in node-j when the current source is connected between node-k and reference as shown
in Fig. 2.63(a) . The reciprocity theorem implies that the same voltage V will exist in node-k if
the source is shifted to node-j as shown in Fig. 2.63(b). It must be noted that the voltages in other
parts of the circuit may not be the same.
Node-k Node-j Node-k Node-j

1 2 1 2
R1 R2 R3 + + R1 R2 R3
Is R4 R5 R6 R4 R5 R6 Is
V V
_ _
1’ 2’ 1’ 2’
Fig. a : Source in node-k and response in node-j. Fig. b : Source in node-j and response in node-k.
Fig. 2.63 : Node basis circuit to demonstrate the reciprocity theorem.
Proof by node analysis:
Consider a two-port resistive network without sources shown in Two-port
Fig. 2.64. In order to prove the reciprocity theorem we can connect a current Port-1 resistive Port-2
network
source at port-1 and observe the open circuit voltage at port-2. Then the source can
be shifted to port-2 and the same open circuit voltage can be observed in port-1.
Case i : Excitation in port-1 and response at port-2 Fig. 2.64.
Let us connect a current source, I s to port-1 as shown in Fig. 2.65. Node-k Node-j
Let the voltage across the terminals of port-2 be V, which is the response due
to excitation Is.
+ Two-port + +
In the circuit of Fig. 2.65, the response V due to excitation I s can be Is Vk resistive Vj V
network
solved by node analysis. Let us consider two nodes, node-k and node-j as shown E E E
in Fig. 2.65. Now the response, V = Vj. Port-2
Port-1
In node analysis, the voltage in jth node Vj is given by (Refer to Fig. 2.65.
equation 1.37 in Chapter 1),
∆l 1j ∆l 2j ∆l 3j ∆l kj
Vj = I + I + I + ..... + I + ..... ..... (2.94)
∆l 11 ∆l 22 ∆l 33 ∆l kk
Since the circuit of Fig. 2.65, has only one source in node-k,
I11 = I22 = I33 = ..... = 0 and Ikk = Is

∆l kj ∆l kj Node-k Node-j
Vj = I = I
∆l kk ∆l s
∆l kj + + Two-port +
` The response, V = Vj = Is resistive Is
∆l V Vk Vj
network
From the above equation the ratio of excitation to response is, E E E
Is ..... (2.95) Port-1 Port-2

= ∆l
V ∆l kj Fig. 2.66.
Let us change the excitation source to node-j as shown in Fig. 2.66, and estimate the voltage at node-k. [In node-k
the current source is replaced with its internal impedance. Since the source is ideal, the internal impedance is infinity
and so it is replaced with an open circuit.] Now the response, V = Vk.
In node analysis the voltage in node-k, Vk is given by (Refer to equation 1.37 in Chapter 1),
∆l 1k ∆l ∆l ∆l jk
Vk = I + 2k I22 + 3k I33 + ..... + I + ..... ..... (2.96)
∆l 11 ∆l ∆l ∆l jj
Since the circuit of Fig. 2.66, has only one source in node-j,
I11 = I22 = I33 = ... = 0 and Ijj = Is
∆l jk ∆l jk
Vk = I = I
∆l jj ∆l s
∆l jk
` The response, V = Vk = I
∆l s
From the above equation the ratio of excitation to response is,
Is ..... (2.97)
= ∆l
V ∆l jk
Conclusion
When the two-port network does not have dependent sources ∆l kj = ∆l jk , equations (2.95) and (2.97) are the
same. Hence, the reciprocity theorem is proved.
EXAMPLE 2.60 2
Prove the reciprocity theorem for the two-port network of Fig. 1.

1 4
SOLUTION 1 2
Method-I : Proof by mesh analysis

Port-1 5 Port-2
Let us connect a voltage source of E volts to port-1 and short circuit 1’ 2’
the port-2 as shown in Fig. 2. Let, I be the current through short circuit which Fig. 1.
is the response due to excitation E.
2
Let us assume three mesh currents I1, I2 and I3 as shown in Fig. 2. Now,
the response I = I2. With reference to Fig. 2, the mesh basis matrix equation is, I3
1 4
R V R V R V
S1 + 5 − 5 − 1 W SI1 W SE W I
S −5 4 + 5 − 4 W SI 2 W = S 0 W
S − 1 − 4 1 + 2 + 4 W SI W S0 W
3 E +E I1 5 I2 SC
T X T X T X
R V R V R V
S 6 − 5 − 1 I
W S 1W E
S W
S − 5 9 − 4 W SI 2 W = S 0 W
S − 1 − 4 7 W SI W S0 W Fig. 2.
3
T X T X T X
6 −5 −1
= 6 # 9_9 # 7 i − _− 4 i C − _− 5 i # 7_− 5 # 7 i − _− 1 # _− 4 iiA
2
∆ = −5 9 −4
−1 −4 7 + _− 1 i # 7_− 5 # _− 4 ii − _− 1 # 9 iA
= 282 − 195 − 29 = 58
6 E −1
= 0 − E # 7_− 5 # 7i − _− 1 # _− 4iiA + 0
∆2 = − 5 0 − 4
−1 0 7 = 39E
∆2
` The response, I = I2 = = 39E
∆ 58
The ratio of excitation to response = E = 58

I 39
2
Let us interchange the positions of source and response as shown
Ic
in Fig. 3. Let us assume mesh currents I a , I b and I c as shown in Fig. 3.
1 4
Now the response, I = I b. With reference to Fig. 3, the mesh basis matrix I
equation is,
R V R V R V SC Ib 5 Ia
+
E E
S5 + 4 − 5 − 4 W SIa W SE W
S −5 5 + 1 − 1 W SIb W = S 0 W
S − 4 − 1 1 + 4 + 2 W SI W S0 W
c
T X T X T X
R V R V R V
Fig. 3.
S 9 − 5 − 4 W SIa W SE W
S − 5 6 − 1 W SIb W = S 0 W
S − 4 − 1 7 W SI W S0 W
c
T X T X T X
9 −5 −4
= 9 # 9_6 # 7 i − _− 1 i C − _− 5 i # 7_− 5 # 7i − _− 4 # _− 1iiA
2
∆ = −5 6 −1
−4 −1 7 + _− 4i # 7_− 5 # _− 1ii − _− 4 # 6iA
= 369 − 195 − 116 = 58
9 E −4
= 0 − E # 7_− 5 # 7i − _− 4 # _− 1iiA + 0
∆b = − 5 0 − 1
−4 0 7 = 39E
∆b
` The response, I = Ib = = 39E
∆ 58
The ratio of excitation to response = E = 58

I 39
Conclusion
It is observed that the ratio of excitation to response is the same when the positions of excitation and
response are interchanged. Hence, the reciprocity theorem is proved.
Method II : Proof by node analysis 2
Let us connect a current source of I s amperes to port-1 and open V1 1 V3 4 V2

circuit the port-2 as shown in Fig. 4. Let, V be the voltage across the open +
terminals of port-2, which is the response due to excitation Is .

Is 5 V
Let us assume three node voltages V 1, V2 and V3 as shown in
Fig. 4. Now the response, V = V2. With reference to Fig. 4, the node basis E
matrix equation is, Reference node
R V R V R V Fig. 4.
S1 + 1 −1 − 1 W S V1 W S Is W
S1 2 2 1W S W S W
S −1 1 + 1 − 1 W SV2 W = S 0 W
S 2 4 2 4W S W S W
S −1 − 1 1 +1 +1W S W S W
S 1 4 1 4 5 W V3 S W S0 W
T X T X T X
R V R V R V
S 1. 5 − 0. 5 − 1 V
W S W
1 I
S Ws
S − 0.5 0.75 − 0.25 W S V2 W = S 0 W
S − 1 − 0.25 1.45 W S V W S0 W
3
T X T X T X
1.5 − 0.5 −1
= 1.5 # 9_0.75 # 1.45 i − _− 0.25 i C − _− 0.5 i # 7_− 0.5 # 1.45 i
2
∆l = − 0.5 0.75 − 0.25
− 1 − 0.25 1.45 − _− 1 # _− 0.25 iiA + _− 1 i # 7_− 0.5 # _− 0.25 ii − _− 1 # 0.75 iA
= 1.5375 − 0.4875 − 0.875 = 0.175
1.5 Is −1
= 0 − Is # 7_− 0.5 # 1.45 i − _− 1 # _− 0.25 iiA + 0
∆l2 = − 0.5 0 − 0.25
0.975 Is
− 1 0 1.45 =
∆l 2 0.975 Is
` The response, V = V2 = =
∆ 0.175
The ratio of excitation to response = Is = 0.175 = 0.1795

V 0.975

2
Let us interchange the positions of source and response as shown
in Fig. 5. Let us assume node voltages Va, Vb and Vc as shown in Fig. 5.
Vb 1 Vc 4 Va
Now the response, V = Vb. With reference to Fig. 5, the node basis matrix +
equation is,
R V R V R V V Is
S1 + 1 −1 − 1 W S Va W S Is W 5
S4 2 2 4W S W S W
S −1 1 + 1 − 1 W S Vb W = S 0 W
S 2 1 2 1W S W S W E
S −1 − 1 1 + 1 + 1 WW SS V WW S W Reference node
S 4 1 1 4 5 c S0 W Fig. 5.
T X T X T X
R V R V R V
S 0.75 − 0.5 − 0.25 W S Va W SIs W
S − 0.5 1.5 − 1 W S Vb W = S 0 W
S − 0.25 − 1 1.45 W S V W S0 W
c
T X T X T X
0.75 − 0.5 − 0.25

= 0.75 # 9_1.5 # 1.45i − _− 1 i C − _− 0.5 i # 7_− 0.5 # 1.45 i
2
∆l = − 0.5 1.5 −1
− 0.25 − 1 1.45 − _− 0.25 # _− 1 iiA + _− 0.25 i # 7_− 0.5 # _− 1 ii − _− 0.25 # 1.5 iA
= 0.88125 − 0.4875 − 0.21875
= 0.175
0.75 Is − 0.25
= 0 − Is # 7_− 0.5 # 1.45 i − _− 0.25 # _− 1 iiA + 0
∆lb = − 0.5 0 −1
− 0.25 0 1.45 = 0.975 Is
∆lb 0.975 Is
` The response, V = Vb = =
∆l 0.175
The ratio of excitation to response = Is = 0.175 = 0.1795

V 0.975
Conclusion
It is observed that the ratio of excitation to response is the same when the positions of excitation and
response are interchanged. Hence, the reciprocity theorem is proved.
3
EXAMPLE 2.61
2
In the circuit of Fig. 1, calculate I x. Prove the reciprocity theorem by
interchanging the position of the 10 V source and Ix. 4 4
SOLUTION 10 V +
E Ix
5
Case i : To solve Ix in the given circuit
7
Let us assume three mesh currents as shown in Fig. 2. Now the
response, I x = I1 − I2 Fig. 1.
3
R V R V R V 2
S2 + 4 + 5 −5 −4W SI1 W S10 W I3
S −5 5 + 4 + 7 −4W SI 2 W = S 0 W
S −4 −4 3 + 4 + 4W SI W
3
S 0W 4 4
T X T X T X +
R V R V R V 10 V E Ix
S 11 − 5 − 4 I
W S W
1 10
S W 5
S − 5 16 − 4 W SI 2 W = S 0 W I1 I2
S − 4 − 4 11 W SI W S 0W ..... (1)
3
T X T X T X
7
11 − 5 − 4 Fig. 2.
= 11 # 7(16 # 11) − (− 4) 2 A − (− 5) # 7(− 5 # 11) − (− 4) 2 A
∆ = − 5 16 − 4
+ (− 4) # 7(− 5 # (− 4)) − (− 4 # 16) A
− 4 − 4 11
= 1760 − 355 − 336 = 1069
10 − 5 − 4
= 10 # 7(16 # 11) − (− 4) 2 A − 0 + 0
∆1 = 0 16 − 4
0 − 4 11 = 1600
11 10 − 4
= 0 − 10 # 7(− 5 # 11) − (− 4) 2 A + 0
∆2 = − 5 0 − 4
− 4 0 11 = 710
∆1 ∆2
I1 = = 1600 ; I2 = = 710
∆ 1069 ∆ 1069
` The respone, I x = I1 − I2 = 1600 − 710 = 1600 − 710 = 890 = 0.8326 A

1069 1069 1069 1069
Case ii : To prove the reciprocity theorem by interchanging the positions of source and response
Let us interchange the positions of source and response as shown in Fig. 3. Let us assume mesh
currents I a , I b and Ic as shown in Fig. 3. 3
Now, the response, I x = Ia. 2

With reference to Fig. 3, the mesh basis matrix equation is, Ix Ic
R V R V R V 4 4
S2 + 4 + 5 −5 − 4 W SIa W S 10 W
S −5 5 + 4 + 7 − 4 Ib = − 10 W
W S W S
S −4 − 4 3 + 4 + 4 W SIc W S 0W + 10 V
E
T X T X T X
R V R V R V Ia
5
Ib
S 11 − 5 − 4 I
W S Wa S 10 W
S − 5 16 − 4 W SIb W = S − 10 W ..... (2)
S − 4 − 4 11 W SI W S 0W
c 7
T X T X T X Fig. 3.
On comparing equations (2) and (1), we can say that the ∆ is same in both the case.
∴ ∆ = 1069
10 − 5 − 4
= 10 # 7(16 # 11) − (− 4) 2 A − (− 5) # 7(− 10 # 11) − 0) A
∆a = − 10 16 − 4
0 − 4 11 − 4 # 7(− 10 # (− 4)) − 0 A
= 1600 − 550 − 160 = 890
∆a
Now the response, I x = Ia = = 890 = 0.8326 A
∆ 1069
Here, the response I x remains the same after interchanging the positions of source and response.
Hence, the reciprocity theorem is proved.
2
EXAMPLE 2.62
In the circuit of Fig. 1, calculate Vx. Prove the reciprocity
theorem by interchanging the positions of the 12 A source 4 5
and V x.
+
SOLUTION 12 A 10 Vx 1 2
E
Case i : To solve Vx in the given circuit Fig. 1.
Let us assume three node voltages as shown in Fig. 2. Now the response, Vx = V2. With reference to
Fig. 2, the node basis matrix equation is,
2
R V R V R V
S1 + 1 + 1 −1 −1 W S V1 W S 12 W
S 4 10 2 4 2W S W S W
S −1 1 +1 +1 −1 W S W = S W V1 4 V2 5
S 4 4 1 5 5W S V2 W S 0 W V3
S − 1 −1 1 +1 +1W S W S W
S 2 5 5 2 2W S V3 W S 0 W +
T X T X T X 12 A 10 Vx 1 2
E
R V R V R V
S 0.85 − 0.25 − 0.5 W S V1 W S12 W
S − 0.25 1.45 − 0.2 W S V2 W = S 0 W
S − 0.5 − 0.2 1.2 W S V W
3
S 0W ..... (1) Fig. 2.
T X T X T X
0.85 − 0.25 − 0.5

= 0.85 # 9_1.45 # 1.2i − _− 0.2i C − _− 0.25i # 7_− 0.25 # 1.2i − (− 0.5 # (− 0.2)) A
2
∆l = − 0.25 1.45 − 0.2
− 0.5 − 0.2 1.2 + _− 0.5i # 7_− 0.25 # _− 0.2ii − _− 0.5 # 1.45iA
= 1.445 − 0.1 − 0.3875
= 0.9575
0.85 12 − 0.5
= 0 − 12 # 7_− 0.25 # 1.2i − (− 0.5 # (− 0.2)) A + 0
∆l2 = − 0.25 0 − 0.2
− 0.5 0 1.2 = 4.8
∆l 2 4.8
` The response, Vx = V2 = = = 5.0131V
∆l 0.9575
Case ii : To prove the reciprocity theorem by interchanging the positions of source and response
Let us interchange the positions of source and response as shown in Fig. 3. Let us assume node voltages
as shown in Fig. 3. Now the response, Vx = Va. With reference to Fig. 3, the node basis matrix equation is,
R V R V R V 2
S1 + 1 + 1 −1 − 1 W S Va W S 0 W
S 4 10 2 4 2W S W S W
S −1 1 +1 + 1 − 1 W S Vb W = S 12 W
S 4 4 1 5 5W S W S W 4 Vb 5
S −1 − 1 1 + 1 + 1 WW SS V WW S
S
W Va Vc
S 2 5 5 2 2 c 0 W
T X T X T X +
R V R V R V
S 0 . 85 − 0 . 25 − 0 . 5 V
W S aW 0
S W Vx 10 1 2
S − 0.25 1.45 − 0.2 W S Vb W = S12 W ..... (2)
E 12 A
S − 0.5 − 0.2 1.2 W S V W S 0W
c
T X T X T X
On comparing equations (1) and (2), we can say that the ∆’ remains the same. Fig. 3.
∴ ∆’ = 0.9575
0 − 0.25 − 0.5
= 0 − (− 0.25) # 712 # 1.2 − 0 A + (− 0.5) # 712 # (− 0.2) − 0 A
∆la = 12 1.45 − 0.2
0 − 0.2 1.2 = 3.6 + 1.2 = 4.8
∆l a 4.8
` The response, Vx = Va = = = 5.0131V
∆l 0.9575
Here, the response Vx remains the same after interchanging the positions of source and response.
Hence, the reciprocity theorem is proved.
8W 8W
EXAMPLE 2.63
Ix
In the circuit of Fig. 1, compute I x . Demonstrate the
50Ð30 V
+
reciprocity theorem by interchanging the positions of the source
o
~ j4 W -j8 W 3W
and I x . -
SOLUTION
Case i : To solve I x in the given circuit Fig. 1.
Let us assume three mesh currents I1, I 2 and I3 as 8W 8W
shown in Fig. 2. Now, the response, I x = I3 . Ix

50Ð30 V
+
o
R V R V R V ~ j4 W -j8 W 3W
S8 + j4 − j4 0 W SI1 W S50+30 o W -
S − j4 8 + j4 − j8 − (− j8) W SI 2 W = S 0 WW I1 I2 I3
S W S W S
0 − (− j8) 3 − j8 I3 S 0 W
T X T X T X
Here, 50∠30o = 50 cos30o + j50sin30o = 43.3013 + j25 V Fig. 2.
R V R V R V
S8 + j4 − j4 0 W SI1 W S 43.3013 + j25 W
S − j4 8 − j4 j8 W SI 2 W = S 0W
S j8 3 − j8 W SI3 W S 0W
.....(1)
0
T X T X T X
8 + j4 − j4 0 = (8 + j4) # 7(8 − j4) # (3 − j8) − (j8) 2 A − (− j4) # 7 − j4 # (3 − j8) − 0 A + 0
∆ = − j4 8 − j4 j8 = 752 − j384 + 48 − j128
0 j8 3 − j8 = 800 − j512
8 + j4 − j4 43.3013 + j25
= 0 − 0 + (43.3013 + j25) # 7 − j4 # j8 − 0 A
∆3 = − j4 8 − j4 0
0 j8 0 = 1385.6416 + j800
∆3 1385.6416 + j800
` The response, I x = I3 = =
∆ 800 − j512
= 0.7747 + j1.4958 A
= 1.6845+62.6 o A
Case ii : To demonstrate the reciprocity theorem by interchanging the positions of source and response
Let us interchange the position of source and response as shown in Fig. 3. Let us assume mesh currents
as shown in Fig. 3. 8W 8W
50Ð30 V
Now, the response, I x = Ia . Ix +
o
~ -
j4 W -j8 W
R V R V R V
S8 + j4 − j4 0W SIa W S 0 W
Ia Ib Ic 3W
S − j4 8 + j4 − j8 − (− j8) W SI b W = S 0 W
S S W S50+30 o W
0 − (− j8) 3 − j8 W Ic
T X T X T X
R V R V R V
Fig. 3.
S8 + j4 − j4 0 W SIa W S 0W
S − j4 8 − j4 j8 W SIb W = S 0W
S ..... (2)
0 j8 3 − j8 W SIc W S 43.3013 + j25 W
T X T X T X
On comparing equations (1) and (2), we can say that the value of ∆ remains the same in both the cases.
∴ ∆ = 800 − j512
0 − j4 0
= 0 − (− j4) # 70 − (43.3013 + j25) # j8 A + 0
∆a = 0 8 − j4 j8
43.3013 + j25 j8 3 − j8 = 1385.6416 + j800
∆a 1385.6416 + j800
` The response, I x = Ia = =
∆ 800 − j512
= 0.7747 + j1.4958 A
= 1.6845+62.6 o A
It is observed that the response remains the same after interchanging the positions of source and
response, which demonstrates the validity of the reciprocity theorem.
EXAMPLE 2.64 j5 W
In the circuit of Fig. 1, compute Vx . Demonstrate

2W 4W
the reciprocity theorem by interchanging the positions
10Ð60 A
+
o
of the source and response. ~ Vx 8W

-
j4 W j6 W
SOLUTION
Fig. 1.
Case i : To solve Vx in the given circuit
Let us assume two node voltages V1 and V2 as shown in Fig. 2. Now, the response, Vx = V2 .
With reference to Fig. 2, the node basis matrix equation is, V1 j5 W V2
R V R V R V
S 1 + 1 −1 W
o
S V1 W S 10+60 W
S 2 + j4 j5 j5 W S W = S W 2W 4W
10Ð60 A
+
S −1 1 +1 + 1 W S W S W
o
S j5 j5 8 4 + j6 W S V2 W S 0 W ~ Vx 8W
T X T X T X -
j4 W j6 W
o o o
Here, 10∠60 = 10cos 60 + j10 sin60 = 5 + j8.6603 A
> H > H = > H

0.1 − j0.4 j0.2 V1 5 + j8.6603 Fig. 2.
j0.2 0.2019 − j0.3154 V2 0
..... (1)
0.1 − j0.4 j0.2 = 7(0.1 − j0.4) # (0.2019 − j0.3154) A − (j0.2) 2

∆l =
j0.2 0.2019 − j0.3154 = − 0.06597 − j0.1123
0.1 − j0.4 5 + j8.6603 = 0 − 7 j0.2 # (5 + j8.6603) A

∆l 2 =
j0.2 0 = 1.73206 − j
∆l 2 1.73206 − j
` The response, Vx = V2 = =
∆l − 0.06597 − j0.1123
= − 0.1158 + j15.3555 V
= 15.3559+90.4 o V
Case ii : To demonstrate the reciprocity theorem by interchanging the positions of source and response
Let us interchange the positions of source and response Va j5 W Vb

as shown in Fig. 3. Let us assume node voltages Va and Vb as
+
shown in Fig. 3. 2W 10Ð60 A 4W
Now, the response, Vx = Va
o
Vx 8W
~
With reference to Fig. 3, the node basis matrix equation is, j4 W j6 W
R V R V R V
S 1 + 1 −1 W
-
S Va W S 0 W
S 2 + j4 j5 j5 W S W = S W Fig. 3.
S −1 1 +1 + 1 W S W S W
S j5 j5 8 4 + j6 W S Vb W S 10+60o W
T X T X T X
> H > H = > H

0.1 − j0.4 j0.2 Va 0
j0.2 0.2019 − j0.3154 Vb 5 + j8.6603 ..... (2)
On comparing equations (1) and (2), we can say that the value of D’ remains the same.
∴ D’ = –0.06597 – j0.1123
0 j0.2 = 0 − 7(5 + j8.6603) # j0.2 A

∆l a =
5 + j8.6603 0.2019 − j0.3154 = 1.73206 − j
∆l a 1.73206 − j
` The response, Vx = Va = =
∆l − 0.06597 − j0.1123
= − 0.1158 + j15.3555 V
= 15.3559+90.4 o V
It is observed that the response remains the same after interchanging the positions of source and
response, which demonstrates the validity of the reciprocity theorem.
2.6.7 Millman’s Theorem

Millman’s theorem will be useful to combine a number of voltage sources in parallel into
a single equivalent source.
Millman’s theorem states that if n number of voltage sources with internal impedance are in parallel
then they can be combined to give a single voltage source with an equivalent emf and internal impedance.
Consider n number of parallel connected voltage sources with internal impedance in series
with an ideal source as shown in Fig. 2.67. Now by Millman’s theorem, the voltage sources in
parallel can be converted into a single source as shown in Fig. 2.68.
A A
Z1 Z2 Z3 Zn Z eq
+ + + + +
E1 E2 E3 En Eeq
_ _ _ _ _
B B
Fig 2.67 : Voltage source in parallel. Fig 2.68 : Millman’s equivalent
voltage source.
Here, E1, E2, E3 ... E n = Emf of voltage sources in parallel
Z1, Z2, Z3 ... Z n = Internal impedance of voltage sources.
Let, Eeq = Emf of equivalent voltage source
Zeq = Internal impedance of equivalent voltage source.

Now, by Millman’s theorem,
Eeq = d E1 + E2 + E3 + ... + E n n Zeq

Z1 Z2 Z3 Zn ..... (2.98)
Zeq = 1
1 + 1 + 1 + ... + 1
Z1 Z2 Z3 Zn ..... (2.99)
Since the admittance, Y = 1 , equations (2.98) and (2.99) can be written in terms of
Z
admittance as shown below:
Eeq = E1 Y1 + E2 Y2 + E3 Y3 + ... + E n Yn
Yeq ..... (2.100)
Yeq = Y1 + Y2 + Y3 + ... + Yn ..... (2.101)
where, Yeq = 1 ; Y1 = 1 ; Y2 = 1 ; Y3 = 1 and so on.

Z eq Z1 Z2 Z3
In case of dc sources with internal resistance, the impedance will become resistance and
admittance will become conductance. Hence, equations (2.98) to (2.101) can be expressed as shown
ahead for parallel connected dc sources.
Eeq = d + ... + n n R eq
E1 E2 E3 E
+ +
R1 R2 R3 Rn ..... (2.102)
Req = 1
1 + 1 + 1 + ... + 1
R1 R2 R3 Rn ..... (2.103)
E1 G1 + E2 G2 + E3 G3 + ... + E n G n
Eeq =
G eq ..... (2.104)
G eq = G1 + G2 + G3 + ... + G n ..... (2.105)
Proof :
The voltage sources in Fig. 2.69 can be converted into current sources as shown in Fig. 2.70.
A
E1 E2 E3 En
Z1 Z2 Z3 Zn
Z1 Z2 Z3 Zn
B
Fig 2.69.
E1 E2 E3 En
Z1 Z2 Z3 Zn
Z1 Z2 Z3 Zn
B
Fig 2.70.
The parallel current sources in Fig. 2.70 can be added to give a single equivalent current source I eq . The parallel
impedances in Fig. 2.70 can be combined to give a single equivalent impedance Z eq .
Here,
I eq = E 1 + E 2 + E 3 + ... + E n ..... (2.106)

Z1 Z 2 Z 3 Zn
Z eq = 1
1 1 1 ... 1
+ + + + ..... (2.107)
Z1 Z 2 Z 3 Zn
Therefore, the parallel connected current sources in Fig. 2.70 can be represented as shown in Fig. 2.71.
A A
Z eq
Ieq Z eq
+
Eeq
_
B B
Fig 2.71. Fig 2.72.
Again, by source transformation technique, the current source I eq in parallel with Z eq can be converted into
a voltage source in series with Z eq as shown in Fig. 2.72. Here the voltage source in series with Z eq is the Millman’s
equivalent source of the parallel connected voltage sources of Fig. 2.67.
Here,
Z eq = 1
1 1 1 ... 1
+ + + +
Z1 Z 2 Z 3 Zn ..... (2.108)
E eq = I eq Z eq ..... (2.109)
On substituting for I eq from equation (2.106), we get,
E eq = d E 1 + E 2 + E 3 + ... + E n n Z eq
Z1 Z 2 Z 3 Zn ..... (2.110)
EXAMPLE 2.65
8 2 10
In the circuit of Fig. 1, use Millman’s theorem to find current through
4
the 4 Ω resistance. + + +
20V 10V 5V_
_ _
SOLUTION
The given circuit can be redrawn as shown in Fig. 2. In the circuit of Fig 1.
Fig. 2 each voltage source has a series resistance which can be considered
as internal resistance of the source. Hence, the parallel connected voltage
sources with internal resistance can be converted into a single equivalent 8 R1 2 R2 10 R3
source using Millman’s theorem. 4
+ + +
Let, E eq = Equivalent emf of parallel connected sources 20V E1 10V E2 5V E3
_ _ _
R eq = Equivalent internal resistance.

Fig 2.
Req = 1 = 1 = 1 = 1.3793 Ω
1 + 1 + 1 1 +1 + 1 0.725
R1 R 2 R3 8 2 10
E1 E 2 E3
Eeq = d + + n Req
R1 R 2 R3
= d 20 + 10 + 5 n # 1.3793 = 11.0344 V
8 2 10
I
Req 1.3793
The circuit of Fig. 2 can be redrawn as shown in Fig. 3. Let, I be the current through
4 Ω resistance. With reference to Fig. 3, by Ohm’s law we can write, +
4
Eeq 11.0344V
Eeq _
I = = 11.0344 = 2.0513 A
Req + 4 1.3793 + 4
Fig 3.
RESULT
Current through 4 Ω resistance = 2.0513 A
EXAMPLE 2.66 4 1.4 +
In the circuit of Fig. 1, determine V0 using Millman’s theorem. +

10V E 8 4 5 V0
_
SOLUTION
Fig 1.
In the given circuit the parallel branches with 8 Ω and 1.4
+
4 Ω resistances can be assumed to have a zero value voltage source
as shown in Fig. 2. In the circuit of Fig. 2, each source has a series 4 R1 8 R2 4 R3
resistance, which can be considered as internal resistance of the 5 V0
+
source. Therefore, the parallel connected voltage sources with 10V E E1 0V +
E E2 0V +
E E3
internal resistance can be converted into a single equivalent source _
using Millman’s theorem. Fig 2.

Let, E eq = Equivalent emf of parallel connected source
Req = Equivalent internal resistance.
Req = 1 = 1 = 1 = 1.6 Ω
1 + 1 + 1 1 +1 +1 0.625
R1 R 2 R3 4 8 4
1.4
+
E E E
Eeq = d 1 + 2 + 3 n Req = d 10 + 0 + 0 n # 1.6 = 4 V Req 1.6
R1 R 2 R3 4 8 4 5 V0
Eeq +
4V
E
The circuit of Fig. 2, can be redrawn as shown in Fig. 3. With reference to
_
Fig. 3, by voltage division rule, we can write,
Fig 3.
V0 = Eeq # 5 = 4 # 5 = 2.5 V
5 + _1.6 + 1.4 i 8
EXAMPLE 2.67 4W j4W 2W -j6W
In the circuit of Fig. 1, apply Millman’s theorem to find Thevenin’s A

+
12Ð90 V
equivalent at A-B. Hence, find Z L for maximum power transfer. +

20Ð0oV
ZL
_
_
SOLUTION B
Let us remove Z L and redraw the circuit of Fig. 1 as shown in

Fig 1.
Fig. 2. In the circuit of Fig. 2, each voltage source has a series impedance
which can be considered as internal impedance of the source.
Therefore, the parallel connected voltage sources with internal impedance can be converted into a
single equivalent source using Millman’s theorem.
Let, Eeq = Equivalent emf of parallel connected sources
Zeq = Equivalent internal impedance.

Now by Millman’s theorem, A
4W 2W
Zeq = 1 = 1
Z1 Z2
1 + 1 1 + 1
j4W -j6W
Z1 Z 2 4 + j4 2 − j6
+
-1
= :_ 4 + j4 i + _2 − j6 i D
-1 -1 20Ð0oV E1 12Ð90oV E2
= 5.6 − j0.8 Ω _
B
= f 1 + 2 p Zeq = d 20+0 + 12+90 n # _5.6 − j0.8 i

E E o o
Fig 2.
Eeq
Z1 Z 2 4 + j4 2 − j6
= f 20 + p # _5.6 − j0.8 i = _0.7 − j1.9 i # _5.6 − j0.8 i

j12
4 + j4 2 − j6
= 2.4 − j11.2 = 11.4543+ − 77.9 o V

Now, the parallel connected sources in Fig. 2 can be represented as shown in Fig. 3 by Millman’s theorem.
A
A A
Z eq 5.6- j0.8W Z th 5.6-j0.8 W Z th

ZL
+ + +
Eeq 11.4543Ð-77.9oV Eth 11.4543Ð-77.9oV Vth
_ _ _
B B
B
Fig 3. Fig 4 : Thevenins’s Fig 5.
equivalent at A-B.
Here, Eeq = Vth ; Zeq = Z th
` Vth = 2.4 − j11.2 V = 11.4543+ − 77.9 o V
Z th = 5.6 − j0.8 Ω
The Thevenin’s equivalent of the given circuit at terminals A-B is shown in Fig. 4. Let us connect the
load impedance Z L at terminals A-B of Thevenin’s equivalent as shown in Fig. 5. Now, by maximum power
transfer theorem, for maximum power transfer to Z L , the value of Z L should be conjugate of Z th .
* *
` ZL = Z th = _5.6 − j0.8 i = 5.6 + j0.8 Ω

1. Resistances in series can be replaced with an equivalent resistance whose value is given by
the sum of individual resistances.
2. When n number of identical resistances of value R are connected in series, they can
be replaced with a single equivalent resistance of value nR.
3. Voltage division rule: When a voltage V exists across a series combination of two
resistances R1 and R2, the voltages V1 across R1 and V2 across R2 are given by,
R1 R2
V1 = V # ; V2 = V #
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
Similarly, voltages in two impedances Z1 and Z2 in series are,
V1 = V # Z1 ; V2 = V # Z2
Z1 + Z 2 Z1 + Z 2
4. Resistances in parallel can be replaced with an equivalent resistance whose value is given
by the inverse of sum of the inverse of individual resistances.
5. When n number of identical resistances of value R are connected in series, they can
be replaced with a single equivalent resistance of value R/n.
6. Current division rule : When a total current I flows through a parallel combination of
two resistances R1 and R2, the currents I1 through R1 and I2 through R2 are given by,
R2 R1
I1 = I # ; I2 = I #
R1 + R 2 R1 + R 2
Similarly, currents in two impedances Z1 and Z2 in parallel are,
I1 = I # Z2 ; I2 = I # Z1
Z1 + Z 2 Z1 + Z 2
7. When three resistances R12, R23 and R31 are in delta-connection with respect to terminals
1, 2 and 3, their equivalent star-connected resistances R1, R2 and R3 with respect to
the same terminals are given by,
R12 R31 R12 R 23 R 23 R31
R1 = ; R2 = ; R3 =
R12 + R 23 + R31 R12 + R 23 + R31 R12 + R 23 + R31
Similarly, the star equivalent of delta-connected impedances are given by,
Z1 = Z12 Z31 ; Z2 = Z12 Z23 ; Z3 = Z 23 Z31

Z12 + Z 23 + Z31 Z12 + Z 23 + Z31 Z12 + Z 23 + Z31
8. When three equal resistances of value R are in delta-connection, their equivalent
star-connected resistances will consist of three equal resistances of value R/3.
9. When three resistances R1, R2, and R3 are in star-connection with respect to terminals
1, 2 and 3, their equivalent delta-connected resistances R12, R23 and R31 with respect
to same terminals are given by,
R1 R 2 R2 R 3 R3 R1
R12 = R1 + R 2 + ; R 23 = R2 + R3 + ; R31 = R3 + R1 +
R3 R1 R2
Similarly, the delta equivalent of star-connected impedances are given by,
Z12 = Z1 + Z 2 + Z1 Z 2 ; Z 23 = Z 2 + Z3 + Z 2 Z3 ; Z31 = Z3 + Z1 + Z3 Z1
Z3 Z1 Z2
10. When three equal resistances of value R are in star-connection, their equivalent
delta-connected resistances will consist of three equal reisistances of value 3R.
11. A voltage source E with a resistance RS in series can be converted into current source IS,
(where IS = E/RS) with the resistance RS in parallel.
12. A current source IS with a resistance RS in parallel can be converted into voltage source E,
(where E = IS RS) with the resistance RS in series.
13. Sources are connected in series for higher voltage ratings and connected in parallel for
higher current ratings.
14. In group-1 parameters (resistance / inductance / impedance / reactance), the series
combination of parameters can be replaced with an equivalent parameter whose value is
given by the sum of individual parameters.
15. In group-1 parameters (resistance / inductance / impedance / reactance), the parallel
given by the inverse of sum of the inverse of individual parameters.
16. In group-2 parameters (conductance / capacitance / admittance / susceptance), the series
combination of parameters can be replaced with equavalent parameter whose value is
given by the inverse of sum of the inverse of individual parameters.
17. In group-2 parameters (conductance / capacitance / admittance / susceptance), the parallel
given by the sum of individual parameters.
18. Thevenin’s theorem states that a circuit with two terminals can be replaced with an equivalent
circuit consisting of a voltage source in series with a resitance (or impedance).
19. Thevenin’s voltage is given by the voltage across the two open terminals of a circuit.
20. Thevenin’s impedance is given by looking back impedance at the two open terminals of a
network.
21. The looking back impedance is the impedance measured at the two open terminals of a
circuit after replacing all the sources by zero value sources.
22. Norton’s theorem states that a circuit with two terminals can be replaced with an equivalent
circuit consisting of a current source in parallel with a resistance (or impedance).
23. Norton’s impedance is given by looking back impedance at the two open terminals of a
network.
24. Thevenin’s equivalent is the voltage source model and Norton’s equivalent is the current
source model of a circuit.
25. Thevenin’s and Norton’s impedances are the same and given by the ratio of Thevenin’s
voltage and Norton’s current.
26. The superposition theorem states that the response in a circuit with multiple sources is
given by the algebraic sum of responses due to individual sources acting alone.
27. The superposition theorem is also referred to as the principle of superposition.
28. A circuit element is said to be linear, if the voltage-current relationship is linear.
29. The principle of superposition is a combination of additivity property and homogeneity
property.
30. The property of additivity says that the response in a circuit due to a number of sources is
given by the sum of the responses due to individual sources acting alone.
31. The property of homogeneity says that if all the sources are mutiplied by a constant then
the respones are also multiplied by the same constant.
32. While calculating the response due to one source, all other sources are made inactive or
replaced by zero value sources.
33. A zero value source is represented by its internal impedance.
34. For an ideal voltage source, the internal impedance is zero and for an ideal current source, the
internal impedance is infinite.
35. While calculating the response due to one source, all other ideal voltage sources are replaced
with a short circuit and all other ideal current sources are replaced with an open circuit.
36. The maximum power transfer to load is possible only if the source and load has matched
impedance.
37. In a dc source connected to resistive load, the maximum power transfer theorem states that
maximum power is transferred from the source to load, when the load resistance is equal to
the source resistance.
38. In an ac source connected to reactive load, where resistance and reactance are independently
variable, the maximum power transfer theorem states that maximum power is transferred
from the source to load, when the load impedance is equal to the complex conjugate of
source impedance.
39. In general, the maximum power transfer theorem states that maximum power is
transferred to a load impedance if the absolute value of the load impedance is equal to the
absolute value of the looking back impedance of the circuit from the terminals
of the load.
40. The reciprocity theorem states that in a linear, bilateral, single source circuit, the ratio of
excitation to response is constant when the positions of excitation and response are
interchanged.
41. The networks which satisfy the reciprocity theorem are called reciprocal networks.
42. The reciprocity theorem will be satisfied only by circuits or networks which do not have
dependent sources.
2.8 Short-answer Questions (AU Dec’15, ‘16, 2 Marks) I1 I2
Q2.1 Determine the currents I1 and I2 in the circuit shown in Fig. Q2.1. 10 A 8 12
Solution
I1 = 10 # 12 = 6 A Fig. Q2.1.
8 + 12
8 4 6
I 2 = 10 # = 4A
8 + 12 + V E + V E
1 2
Q2.2 Determine the voltages V1 and V2 in the circuit shown in Fig. Q2.2.
Solution
By voltage division rule, 20 V
Fig. Q2.2.
V1 = 20 # 4 = 8V
4+6 6
V2 = 20 # 6 = 12 V 8
4+6 4
Q2.3 Determine the resistance across A-B in the circuit shown in A B

Fig. Q2.3.1.
6
2
Solution 3
The given network can be redrawn as shown in Fig. Q2.3.2. Fig. Q2.3.1.
A
8 2
6 3
6 4
B
Fig. Q2.3.2.
With reference to Fig. Q2.3.2, we get,
R AB = 1 = 1.3548 Ω
1 + 1 + 1 +1 10
6 8+6 2+4 3
Q2.4 Determine the resistance across A-B in the circuit shown 10
in Fig. Q2.4.1. (AU Dec’14, 2 Marks) 5 10

A B
Solution
Fig. Q2.4.1.
The given network can be redrawn as shown in Fig. Q2.4.2
⇓
10
10 W A B
10
A B A B
10 ´ 10 10
= 5W
5+5 = 10 ⇐ 5W
10+10 ⇐ 10
5
Fig. Q2.4.4.
Fig. Q2.4.3. Fig. Q2.4.2.
RAB = 10 = 5 W
2
Q2.5 The equivalent resistance of four resistors joined in parallel is 30 W. The current flowing
through them are 0.5, 0.4, 0.6 and 0.1 A. Find the value of each resistor.
Solution (AU Dec’16, 2 Marks)
IT IT RT = 30 W
Let R1, R2, R3 and R4 be the
resistances in parallel. 0.5 0.4 0.6 0.1 +V I -
TT
Let, RT = Equivalent resistance of V -

+ R1 R2 R3 R4 Þ V -
+
parallel combination.
Given that, RT = 30 W
Fig. Q2.5.1. Fig. Q2.5.2.
With reference to Fig. Q2.5.2
IT = 0.5 + 0.4 + 0.6 + 0.1 = 1.6 A
V = ITRT = 1.6 × 30 = 48 V
R1 = V = 48 = 96 Ω ; R 2 = V = 48 = 120 Ω
0.5 0.5 0.4 0.4
R3 = V = 48 = 80 Ω ; R 4 = V = 48 = 480 Ω
0.6 0.6 0.1 0.1
2
Q2.6 Determine the resistance across A-B in the circuit shown A
in Fig. Q2.6.1. (AU June’14, 2 Marks)
2
1.2
2

Solution
B
The given network can be redrawn as shown in Fig. Q2.6.4. 1
Fig. Q2.6.1.
A
⇓
A A
2 ´ 3.2
⇐
2W
1.2308 + 1 ⇐ 2 + 3.2
2
2
2 + 1.2
2
= 2.2308

= 12308
. W = 3.2
B
B 1W B
Fig. Q2.6.4. Fig. Q2.6.3.
1
Fig. Q2.6.2.
R AB = 2 # 2.2308 = 1.0546 Ω
2 + 2.2308
1 3.2
Q2.7 Determine the resistance across A-B in the circuit shown in A B
Fig. Q2.7.
(AU Dec’15, 2 Marks) 4.27
Solution
Fig. Q2.7.
In the given network, 3.2 W and 4.27 W resistances are in parallel
and the parallel combination is in series with 1 W resistance.
∴ RAB = 1 + 3.2 # 4.27 = 1 + 1.829 = 2.829 W

3.2 + 4.27
R
Q2.8 Determine the value of R in the circuit shown in Fig Q2.8.1. +

+
Solution (AU May’17, 2 Marks) 16 V 8 4 4V
E
The voltage and current in the various resistances are shown
in Fig. 2.8.1 E
With reference to Fig. Q2.8.2, by KVL, Fig. Q2.8.1.

V8 = 16 V
IR R
V8 = VR + 4 + E I4
VR
+
On equating equations (1) and (2), we get, + +
16 V 8 V8 4 V4= 4 V
VR + 4 = 16 .....(1) E E E
VR = 16 - 4 = 12 V .....(2)
Fig. Q2.8.2.
With reference to Fig. Q2.8.2, by Ohm’s law,
V4
I4 = = 4 = 1A
4 4
VR V
` R = = R = 12 = 12 Ω
IR I4 1
2
Q2.9 In the circuit shown in Fig. Q2.9, find the total A
resistance across A-B.
Solution
5 5 5 5 5 5
In Fig. Q2.9, the parallel combination of six

numbers of 5 Ω resistances is equivalent to a
B
single resistance of 5 W.
6 Fig. Q2.9.
` R AB = 2 + 5 = 2.8333 Ω
6
I
Q2.10 Seven bulbs, each rated at 75 W, 120 V, are
connected in parallel. Calculate the power and
V = 120 V
current consumed by them. +
75 W
75 W
75 W
75 W
75 W
75 W
75 W
E
Solution
The parallel connection of seven bulbs is equivalent
to seven resistances in parallel as shown
in Fig Q2.10. Fig. Q2.10.
Now, the total power is given by sum of power consumed by each bulb/resistance.
\ Total power = 7 ´ 75 = 525 W

We know that, in purely resistive loads, P = VI
` Total current, I = P = 525 = 4.375 A

V 120 (AU June’16, 8 Marks)
IT
Q2.11 In the circuit shown in Fig. Q2.11, the power in
resistance RA is 9.6 kW, current through RB is 60 A and IA IB IC
the value of resistance RC is 4.8 W. Determine the value +
240 V
of RA, RB, total current, total power and equivalent E RA RB RC
resistance.
Solution
Fig. Q2.11.
Given that, PA = 9.6 kW = 9.6 × 103 W
Here, PA = V × IA
PA 3
` IA = = 9.6 # 10 = 40 A
V 240
By Ohm’s law,
IC = V = 240 = 50 A
RC 4.8
By KCL,
Total Current, IT = IA + IB + IC = 40 + 60 + 50 = 150 A
∴ Total Power, PT = V × IT = 240 × 150 = 36000 W = 36 kW
` Equivalent resistance, Req = V = 240 = 1.6 Ω

IT 150
50
Q2.12 Calculate the voltage across the terminals A-B for the circuit
shown in Fig. Q2.12. 10
+ A
Solution
100 V
_ 4
By voltage division rule,
20
VAB = 100 # 20 + 4 = 28.5714 V
50 + 10 + 4 + 20 B
Fig. Q2.12.
Q2.13 Determine the resistance of each wire when the resistance of two wires is 25 W when connected
in series and 6 W when connected in parallel. (AU June’16, 2 Marks)
Solution
Let R1 and R2 be the resistance of two wires.
Equivalent resistance in series = R1 + R2 = 25 .....(1)

R1 R 2
Equivalent resistance in parallel = =6 .....(2)
R1 + R 2
R2 = 25 - R1 .....(3)
On substituting for R2 from equation (3) in equation (1), we get,
R1 (25 − R1)
= 6 ⇒ 25R1 − R12 = 150 ⇒ R12 − 25R1 + 150 = 0
R1 + 25 − R1
− (− 25) ! (− 25) 2 − 4 # 150

` R1 = = 25 ! 5 = 15,10
2 2
If, R1 = 15 W, then R2 = 25 - 15 = 10 W
If, R1 = 10 W, then R2 = 25 - 10 = 15 W
∴ R1 = 15 W,
R2 = 10 W
Q2.14 A star-connected network consists of three resistances 3 W, 6 W and 10 W . Convert the

star-connected network into an equivalent delta-connected network.
1 1 1 1
Solution
W18
R1 = 3 W
L e t R 1, R 2 a n d R 3 b e t h e
31 =
R12 = 10.8 W
Þ
resistances in star connection
R
R3 = 10 W R2 = 6 W
as shown in Fig. Q2.14.1 and R12 3 2
2 2
2
3
R23 and R31 be the resistances in R23 = 36 W
3 3
equivalent delta connection as
shown in Fig. Q2.14.2. Fig. Q2.14.1. Fig. Q2.14.2.
R1 R 2
R12 = R1 + R 2 + = 3 + 6 + 3 # 6 = 10.8 Ω
R3 10
R 2 R3
R 23 = R 2 + R3 + = 6 + 10 + 6 # 10 = 36 Ω
R1 3
R3 R1
R31 = R3 + R1 + = 10 + 3 + 10 # 3 = 18 Ω
R2 6
Q2.15 A delta-connected network consists of three resistances 5 W, 6 W and 9 W . Convert the

delta-connected network into an equivalent star-connected network.
Solution 1 1 1 1
Let R12, R23 and R31 be the R1 = 2.25 W

R31 = 9 W R12 = 5 W
resistances in delta connection Þ . 7W
as shown in Fig. Q2.15.1 =2 R2 = 1.5 W
R3
3 2 2
and R 1 , R 2 and R 3 be the 2 3 2
R23 = 6 W
resistances in star connection 3 3
as shown in Fig. Q2.15.2.
Fig. Q2.15.1. Fig. Q2.15.2.
R12 R31
R1 = = 5 # 9 = 2.25 Ω
R12 + R 23 + R31 5+6+9
R12 R 23
R2 = = 5 # 6 = 1.5 Ω
R12 + R 23 + R31 5+6+9
R 23 R31
R3 = = 6 # 9 = 2.7 Ω 0.1 H
R12 + R 23 + R31 5+6+9 A
Q2.16 What will be the equivalent inductance across A-B in the 0.5 H
0.4 H 0.2 H
network shown in Fig. Q2.16.1.
Solution B
0.6 H
First, the parallel combination of 0.4 H, 0.5 H and Fig. Q2.16.1.
0.2 H has been reduced to a single equivalent as
shown in Fig. Q2.16.2. ⇓
0.1 H
A
In the network of Fig. Q2.16.2, all the inductances 1
1 1 1
are in series. C C
0.4 0.5 0.2
a 0.1053 H
Hence, the equivalent inductance LAB across A-B is given by,
B Fig. Q2.16.2.
LAB = 0.1 + 0.1053 + 0.6 = 0.8053 H 0.6 H
A
Q2.17 What will be the equivalent capacitance across A-B in the network
shown in Fig. Q2.17. 2 mF 8 mF
Solution 10 mF
B
In the given network 2 µF and 8 µF capacitances are in
parallel and the parallel combination is in series with 10 µF Fig. Q2.17.
capacitance. Hence, the equivalent capacitance CAB across
A-B is given by,
^2 + 8h # 10
C AB = = 5 µF
^2 + 8h + 10
Q2.18 Determine the currents I 1 and I 2 in the circuit shown in I1 I2

Fig. Q2.18. 0
10Ð0 A ~ 2 + j4 W 1 - j5 W
Solution
By current division rule, Fig. Q2.18.

1 − j5
I1 = 10+0 o # = 8 − j14 A = 16.1245+ − 60.3 o A
2 + j4 + 1 − j5
2 + j4
I2 = 10+0 o # = 2 + j14 A = 14.1421+81.9 o A
2 + j4 + 1 − j5
Q2.19 Determine the voltages V 1 and V 2 in the circuit shown in Fig. Q2.19. 2 + j4 W 1 - j5 W
+ - + -
V1 V2
Solution
V1 = 10+0 o #
2 + j4
= 2 + j14 V = 14.1421+81.9 o V + ~-
2 + j4 + 1 − j5 10Ð0 V
0
Fig. Q2.19.
1 − j5
V2 = 10+0 o # = 8 − j14 V = 16.1245+ − 60.3 o V
2 + j4 + 1 − j5
Q2.20 The resistance of each branch of a star-connected circuit is 5 W. What will be the branch
resistance of equivalent delta-connected circuit? (AU May’17, 2 Marks)
When three equal resistances are in star, equivalent delta resistance of each branch will
be three times the star impedance.
Given that, Rstar = 5 W
∴ Rdelta = 3 × Rstar = 3 × 5 = 15 W
Q2.21 The impedance of each branch of a delta-connected circuit is 3 Z . What will be the branch
impedance of equivalent star-connected circuit?
Solution
When three equal impedances are in delta, equivalent star impedance of each branch will
be 1/3 times the delta impedance.
Given that, Zdelta = 3Z
` Zstar = 1 # Zdelta = 1 # 3 Z = Z
3 3 3
A
A
3Z Z
=
3Z 3Z Þ 3 3
C B Z Z
C B
3Z 3 3
Fig. Q2.21.1. Fig. Q2.21.2.

Q2.22 Find the equivalent admittance at A-B in the network shown inFig Q2.22.
1 + j
Solution A
Let, Z AB = Equivalent impedance at A - B
2 + j2 2 E j3
(2 + j2) # (1 + j + 2 − j3)
Now, Z AB = = 2 + j0.4 Ω
(2 + j2) + (1 + j + 2 − j3) B
Fig. Q2.22.
` Equivalent admittance at A - B , YAB = 1 = 1
Z AB 2 + j0.4
= 0.4808 − j0.0962 M
Q2.23 Find the equivalent admittance and impedance at A-B in the network shown inFig Q2.23.

1+j
Solution A
Let, YAB = Equivalent admittance at A - B

2 E j2
3+j
(1 + j) # (2 − j2 + 3 + j)
Now, YAB = = 1 + j0.6667 M B
(1 + j ) + (2 − j 2 + 3 + j )
Fig. Q2.23.
` Equivalent impedance at A - B , Z AB = 1 = 1
YAB 1 + j0.6667
= 0.6923 − j0.4615 Ω
Q2.24 State the superposition theorem.

The superposition theorem states that the response in a linear circuit with multiple sources is given by
the algebraic sum of the responses due to individual sources acting alone.
Q2.25 What are the properties of additivity and homogeneity?

The property of additivity says that the response in a circuit due to a number of sources is given
by the sum of the response due to individual sources acting alone.
The property of homogeneity says that if all the sources are multiplied by a constant, the response
is also multiplied by the same constant.
4 2.5
Q2.26 Find the current through the ammeter shown in Fig. Q2.26.1
by using the superposition theorem. I
Since the resistance of ammeter is not specified it can be 10 V +E A

E
+ 5V
represented by a short circuit. The condition of the given circuit
when each source is acting separately is shown in
Figs Q2.26.2 and Q2.26.3.
Fig. Q2.26.1.
4W 2.5 W 4W
I’
10 V +- SC SC Þ 10 V +- I’
Fig. Q2.26.2.
4W 2.5 W 2.5 W
I’’ I’’
SC SC
-
+ 5V Þ +
- 5V
Fig. Q2.26.3.
With reference to Figs Q2.26.2 and Q2.26.3, we can write,
Response due to 10 V source, Il = 10 = 2.5 A

4
Response due to 5 V source, Ill = − 5 = − 2 A
2.5
4 2
Total response, I = Il + Ill = 2.5 + (− 2) = 0.5 A
Q2.27 Find the voltage VL in the circuit shown in Fig. Q2.27.1 using the +
24 V +E 4 VL 4A
principle of superposition.
E
The condition of the circuit when each source is acting

separately is shown in Figs Q2.27.2 and Q2.27.3.
Fig. Q2.27.1.
4W 2W 4W 2A 2W
+ -
12 V 2A
+ +
+ 4W
24 V - 4W V’L = 12 V OC SC V’’L = 4 ´ 2 4A
- - = 8V
Fig. Q2.27.2. Fig. Q2.27.3.

With reference to Figs Q2.27.2 and Q2.27.3, we can write,
VlL = 12 V ; VllL = 8 V ; ` VL = VlL + VllL = 12 + 8 = 20 V 2 2
Q2.28 In the circuit shown in Fig. Q2.28, the power in resistance R is

9 W when V1 is acting alone and 4W when V2 is acting alone. What
V1 +E + V
is the power in R when V1 and V2 are acting together ? R 1 E 2
Current through R when V1 is acting, Il = 9 = 3A

1
Current through R when V2 is acting, Ill = 4 = 2A
1 Fig. Q2.28.
Total current when V1 and V2 are acting, I = I’ + I’’ = 3 + 2 = 5 A
2 P
Power in R when V1 and V2 are acting = I2 R = 5 × 1 = 25 W P = I2 R ` I =
R
Q2.29 State Thevenin’s theorem.
Thevenin’s theorem states that a circuit with two terminals can be replaced with an equivalent
circuit consisting of a voltage source in series with a resistance (or impedance).
Q2.30 State the applications of thevenin’s theorem. (AU Dec’15, 2 Marks)
1. Thevenin’s theorem can be used to represent a complicated part of a circuit by an equivalent
voltage source by performing two simple measurements namely, open circuit voltage
and short circuit current.
2. Thevenin’s theorem can be used to estimate the matched resistance or impedance for
implementing maximum power transfer condition between any two parts of a circuit.
Q2.31 State Norton’s theorem.

Norton’s theorem states that a circuit with two terminals can be replaced with an equivalent
circuit consisting of a current source in parallel with a resistance (or impedance).
A
+
Q2.32 Find Thevenin’s voltage across terminals A and B in the circuit shown 5 V +E 5
in Fig. Q2.32.
Vth
Thevenin’s voltage, Vth = 5 + 10 = 15 V
+
5A E 10 V
Note : Voltage across 5 Ω is 5 V .
E
B
Q2.33. Find the value of In for the circuit shown in Fig. Q2.33.1 Fig. Q2.32.
Let us remove the resistance RL and mark the resulting open (AU Dec’14, 2 Marks)
20
terminals as A and B as shown in Fig. Q2.33.2.
The terminals A and B are shorted as shown in Fig. Q2.33.3. + 100
12 V
The 360 W resistance is short-circuited and so no current will flow E
In
through it. Hence, the circuit of Fig. Q2.33.3 is redrawn as shown in
360 RL
Fig. Q2.33.4.
Fig. Q2.33.1.
20 20 20
+ 100 + 100 + 100

12 V 12 V 12 V
E A E A E A
In In
360 360 SC SC
B B B
Fig. Q2.33.2. Fig. Q2.33.3. Fig. Q2.33.4.
With reference to Fig. Q2.33.4, by Ohm’s law, we can write,
In = 12 = 0.1 A
20 + 100 A
Q2.34 Find Norton’s equivalent of the circuit shown 5 10 10 A 2 1 5A

in Fig. Q2.34.1.
Norton’s current, In = 10 − 5 = 5 A B
Fig. Q2.34.1.
A
Norton’s resistance,
Rn = 1 = 0.5556 Ω 5A 5.5556
1 + 1 +1 +1
5 10 2 1
B
Q2.35 Determine Thevenin’s equivalent of the circuit shown Fig. Q2.34.2 : Norton’s equivalent.
in Fig. Q2.35.1.
5 10
A
Thevenin’s voltage is the voltage across 20 Ω resistance.
By voltage division rule, +
200 V 20
Thevenin's voltage, Vth = 200 # 20 = 160 V E
20 + 5
To find Thevenin’s resistance, the 200V source is replaced with a B
short circuit as shown in Fig. Q2.35.2. Fig. Q2.35.1.
With reference to Fig. Q2.35.2, we can write,
Thevenin's resistance, R th = 5 # 20 + 10 = 14 Ω
5 + 20
5 10 14
A A
SC 20 160 V +E
Rth
B B
Fig. Q2.35.2. Fig. Q2.35.3 : Thevenin’s equivalent.

A
Q2.36 In the circuit shown in Fig. Q2.36.1, using
Thevenin’s theorem, determine the voltage across +
90 W resistance after the switch is closed. ~ 100 V 90 70

E
Since the load is balanced when the switch B
0V E 90
10 E
is open, the voltage across 90 Ω is 100 V. This is + ~ ~ 90
also Thevenin’s voltage at terminals A-B. 100 V
+
To find Thevenin’s resistance, the voltage sources

are replaced with a short circuit. When the voltage
sources are shorted, the three 90 Ω resistances
are in parallel. Fig. Q2.36.1.
30 A
` Thevenin's resistance, R th = 90 = 30 Ω
3
+
The Thevenin’s equivalent at A-B is shown in Fig. Q2.36.2. With reference 100 V +E VL 70
to Fig. Q2.36.2 by voltage division rule, E
70 B
Voltage across 70 Ω resistance, VL = 100 # = 70 V
70 + 30
Fig. Q2.36.2.
Q2.37 Find Thevenin’s equivalent of the circuit shown in Fig. Q.2.37.1.

To find Thevenin’s voltage, the current source is converted 4 2A
A
into a voltage source as shown in Fig. Q2.37.2.
By voltage division rule, V1 = 8 # 4 = 4V 3

+
4+4 8V E 4
By KVL, Vth = V1 + 6 = 4 + 6 = 10 V
To find Thevenin’s resistance, the voltage source is replaced with B
a short circuit and the current source is opened as shown in Fig. Q2.37.1.
Fig. Q2.37.3.
R th = 4 + 3 = 5 Ω
2
Thevenin’s equivalent is shown in Fig. Q2.37.4.
2 ´ 3 = 6V 4W 5W
4W 3W OC
A A
-+ A
+
+
3W
+ 4W V1 SC 4W 10 V +-
8V - Vth
- Rth
- B
B B
Fig. Q2.37.2. Fig. Q2.37.3. Fig. Q2.37.4 : Thevenin’s

equivalent.
Q2.38 Find V th at terminals A-B in the circuit shown in Fig. Q2.38. 4W
A
In the given circuit the voltage across series combination of +
4 Ω and j3 Ω elements is 60∠0o V. Hence, by voltage +

60Ð0 V
o
~ j4 W -j8 W j3 W Vth
division rule,
-
j3
Vth = 60+0 o # = 21.6 + j28.8 V = 36+53.1 o V -
B
4 + j3
Fig. Q2.38.
Q2.39 State maximum power transfer theorem.
(AU May’15, 2 Marks)
In purely resistive circuits, maximum power transfer theorem states that maximum power is
transferred from source to load when load resistance is equal to source resistance.
In general, the maximum power transfer theorem states that maximum power is transferred
to a load impedance if the absolute value of the load impedance is equal to the absolute value
of the looking back impedance of the circuit from the terminals of the load.
Q2.40 Determine the maximum power transfer to the load where the load is connected to a network of
the terminals for Rth = 10 W and Vth = 40 V
Given that Rth = 10 W and Vth = 40 V
For maximum power transform,
Load resistance, RL = Rth = 10 W
2
Maximum power , Pmax = V th = 40 2 = 40 W
4RL 4 # 10
Q2.41 The VI characteristics of a network are shown in I A I 20 V V
Network with
Fig. Q2.41. Determine the maximum power linear resistors
+
V
that can be supplied by the network to a and independent
sources E E5 A
resistance connected across A-B. B
When V = 0, I = −5 A Fig. Q2.41.
The condition V = 0 is equivalent to short circuiting terminals A−B and the current flowing through the
short circuit is Norton’s current.
∴ Norton’s current, I n = −I = − (−5) = 5 A
When I = 0, V = 20 V
The condition I = 0 is equivalent to open terminals A-B and the voltage across the open terminals is
Thevenin’s voltage.
∴ Thevenin’s voltage, Vth = 20 V
Vth
Thevenin's resistance, R th = = 20 = 4 Ω
In 5
The resistance, R to be connected for maximum power transfer across terminals A-B is R th. .
2 2 2
Maximum power transferred to R, Pmax = V th = V th = 20 = 25 W
4R 4R th 4#4
Q2.42 Determine the value of R in the circuit shown in Fig. Q2.42.1 for

4k
k
maximum power transfer. 3

+
The value of R for maximum power transfer is given by the looking back E E
R
resistance (or Thevenin’s resistance) from the terminals of R, which

6k
is determined as shown below: k

R = R th = 3 # 6 + 4 = 4 kΩ
3+6 2 Fig. Q2.42.1.
W
k k
4k
4k
3
3 kW
W
4 kW
Rth
A B A B
SC Þ Þ
A B
6kW 4 kW
6k
W
6k
k k
W
W
Fig. Q2.42.2. Fig. Q2.42.3. Fig. Q2.42.4.

5 4
Q2.43 Determine the value of R in the circuit shown in Fig. Q2.43.1
for maximum power transfer.
+
The value of R for maximum power transfer is given by the 20 R
25 V 3A
looking back resistance (or Thevenins’s resistance) from the E
terminals of R, which is determined as shown below:
R = R th = 5 # 20 + 4 = 8 Ω
5 + 20 Fig. Q2.43.1.
5W 4W A 4W A
SC 20 W OC Þ 5W 20 W
Rth Rth
B B
Fig. Q2.43.2. Fig. Q2.43.3.
Q2.44 Find the value of R for maximum power transfer in the circuit shown 8 0.06 H
in Fig. Q2.44.
Em sin100t
For maximum power transfer, the value of R should be equal to the +
~ R
absolute value of the looking back impedance from the terminals of R. E
Here, Em sin ωt = Em sin 100t ; ∴ ω = 100 rad/s
` R = 82 + (ω # 0.06) 2 = 82 + (100 # 0.06) 2 = 10 Ω

Fig. Q2.44.
Q2.45 State the reciprocity theorem.

The reciprocity theorem states that in a linear, bilateral, single source circuit, the ratio of excitation to
the response is constant, when the positions of excitation and response are interchanged.
Q2.46 Two conditions of a passive, linear network are shown in Figs Q2.46.1 and Q2.46.2. Using the
superposition and the reciprocity theorems, find Ix.
4A Ix
+ + +
5V N 1A 10 V N 10 V
E E E
Port-1 Port-2 Port-1 Port-2
Fig. Q2.46.1. Fig. Q2.46.2.
Let us replace the 10 V source in port-1 with a short circuit as shown I’x
in Fig. Q2.46.3. +
SC N 10 V
On comparing Figs Q2.46.1 and Q2.46.3 using the reciprocity E
theorem we can write, Port-1 Port-2

Ilx
= 1A & Ilx = 1 # 10 = 2 A
10 V 5V 5 Fig. Q2.46.3.
Let us replace the 10 V source in port-2 with a short circuit as I’’x
shown in Fig. Q2.46.4. On comparing Figs Q2.46.1 and Q2.46.4, +

10 V N SC
using homogeneity property we can write, E
Imx = − 4 × 2 = −8 A Port-1 Port-2
By the principle of superposition, Fig. Q2.46.4.

I x = Ilx + Illx = 2 + (− 8) = − 6 A
Q2.47 State Millman’s theorem.

Millman’s theorem states that if n number of voltage sources with internal impedance are in
parallel then they can be combined to give a single voltage source with an equivalent emf and
internal impedance.
Q2.48 Write the expression for Millman’s equivalent source of n number of parallel connected voltage
sources.
Eeq = f + ... + n p Zeq

E1 E 2 E3 E
+ +
Z1 Z 2 Z3 Zn
Zeq = 1
1 + 1 + 1 + .... + 1
Z1 Z 2 Z3 Zn
where, E1, E2, E3 ... = Emf of voltage sources in parallel.
Z1, Z 2, Z3 ... = Internal impedance of voltage sources.
Q2.49 In the circuit shown in Fig. Q2.49.1 find the current I using 4 6
Millman’s theorem. I
+ +
The circuit can be redrawn as shown in Fig. Q2.49.2. 8V 1.8 9V
_ _
Using Millman’s theorem, the parallel connected voltage sources
can be converted into a single source as shown in Fig. Q2.49.3.
Fig Q2.49.1.
I I
4 6 Req
1.8 1.8
+ + +
8V 9V _ Eeq
_ _
Fig Q2.49.2. Fig Q2.49.3.
R eq = 1 = 2.4 W ; Eeq = d 8 + 9 n × 2.4 = 8.4 V

1 +1 4 6
4 6
With reference to Fig. Q2.49.3,

Eeq 8.4
I= = = 2A
Req + 1.8 2.4 + 1.8
2 IL 0.8 3
Q2.50 Find the current IL in the circuit shown in Fig. Q2.50.1
using Millman’s theorem. + +
12V 8 2 6V
The circuit can be redrawn as shown in Fig. Q2.50.2 _ _
and then the parallel connected voltage sources can be

converted into a single source as shown in Fig. Q2.50.3. Fig Q2.50.1.
IL 0.8 IL 1.8
2 8 2 3 Req1 Req2
+ + + +
Eeq1 + +
12V 0V 0V 6V E E Eeq2
_ _ _
_
Fig Q2.50.3.
Fig Q2.50.2.
R eq1 = 1 = 1.6 W ; Eeq1 = d 12 + 0 n × 1.6 = 9.6V

1 +1 2 8
2 8
R eq2 = 1 = 1.2 W ; Eeq2 = d 0 + 6 n × 1.2 = 2.4V

1 +1 2 3
2 3
With reference to fig Q2.50.3,
Eeq1 − Eeq2 9.6 − 2.4

IL = = = 2A
Req1 + 0.8 + Req2 1.6 + 0.8 + 1.2
2.9 Exercises
I. Fill in the Blanks with Appropriate Words
1. When n number of resistances of value R are connected in series, the equivalent resistance is
given by ___________.
2. When n number of resistances of value R are connected in parallel, the equivalent resistance is
given by ___________.
3. When three equal resistances of value R are in star-connection, its equivalent delta-connection
will have three equal resistances of value ___________.
4. When n number of capacitances of value C are connected in series, the equivalent capacitance
is equal to ___________.
5. The equivalent admittance of three identical parallel-connected admittances of value Y is equal
to ________.
6. The ________ impedance is the looking back impedance from the open terminals of a network.
7. The ________ equivalent is the voltage generator model of a network.
8. Norton’s equivalent is the ________ generator model of a network.
9. The principle of superposition is a combination of ________ and ________ property.
10. While finding response due to one source, all other sources are replaced with their ________ .
11. While finding response due to one source, all other ideal ________ sources are replaced with
a short circuit.
12. While finding response due to one source, all other ideal current sources are replaced with ________.
13. When load resistance and reactance are independently variable, maximum power transfer is
achieved if load impedance is equal to ________ impedance.
14. In purely resistive circuits ________ is transferred to load when load resistance is equal to source
resistance.
15. If a load impedance, R + jX with R alone variable is connected to a source with internal impedance
Rs + jXs then the condition for maximum power transfer is ________ .
16. If a variable resistance R is connected to a source with impedance Rs + jXs then the condition for
maximum power transfer is ________ .
17. The networks which satisfy the reciprocity theorem are called ________ networks.
ANSWERS
1. nR 6. Thevenin’s / Norton’s 11. voltage 16. R = Rs2 + Xs2
2. R 7. Thevenin’s 12. open circuit 17. reciprocal

n
3. 3R 8. current 13. conjugate of source
4. C 9. additivity, homogeneity 14. maximum power

n
5. 3Y 10. internal impedances 15. R = Rs2 + (Xs + X) 2

1. When star-connected resistances are converted into a equivalent delta-connected resistances,
the power consumed by the resistances remains the same.
2. Inductances connected in series can be replaced by an equivalent inductance whose value is
given by the sum of individual inductances.
3. Capacitances connected in parallel can be replaced with an equivalent capacitance whose value
is given by the inverse of sum of the inverse of individual capacitances.
4. Inductive susceptance is always negative and capacitive susceptance is always positive.
5. When the voltage requirement of a load is higher, the voltage sources should be connected in
parallel.
6. Thevenin’s equivalent can be determined only for the linear part of a circuit.
7. A circuit with a non-linear resistance can be analysed using Thevenin’s theorem by replacing
the rest of the circuit with Thevenin’s equivalent.
8. Thevenin’s and Norton’s impedances are the same.
9. The superposition theorem can be extended to non-linear circuits by piecewise linear approximation.
10. The superposition theorem can be used to estimate power directly.
11. The superposition theorem is applicable to any network containing linear dependent sources.
12. The superposition theorem is applicable to any network containing a time varying resistor.
13. In reactive circuits with variable reactance, the maximum power transfer is achieved at resonance.
14. A reactive circuit with fixed reactance will behave as a purely resistive circuit when the maximum
power transfer condition is satisfied.
15. The reciprocity theorem will be satisfied by a circuit with dependent sources.
16. The reciprocity theorem can be applied only to a circuit with a single source.
17. Ideal voltage sources in parallel cannot be converted into a single equivalent source using
Millman’s theorem.
ANSWERS
1. True 6. True 11. True 16. True
2. True 7. True 12. False 17. True
3. False 8. True 13. True
4. True 9. True 14. False
5. False 10. False 15. False

1. When n number of identical resistances of value R are connected in parallel, the equivalent
value of the parallel combination is,
a) nR b) R c ) 2R d) R
n n 2n
2. The star equivalent of three identical resistances in delta of value R will be three identical
resistances of value,
2
a) R b) 3R c) R d) 3R 2
3 3
3. In the network shown in Fig. 3, if the value of all the resistances
are 1 W then what will be the equivalent resistance at A-B?
a) 1 W
A B
b) 0.5 W
c) 0.4 W
d) 0.2 W Fig. 3.
B
4. In the network shown in Fig. 4, if the value of all the resistances are
2 W then the equivalent resistances at AC and BD respectively are,
a) 0 W, 0.8 W
A C
b) 0.8 W, 0 W
c) 0 W, 0.4 W
d) 0.8 W, 0.8 W D Fig. 4.

5. The equivalent values of two inductances 3 H and 6 H when connected in series and in parallel
respectively are,
a) 9 H, 3 H b) 9 H, 2 H c) 18 H, 2 H d) 2 H, 3 H
6. In the network shown in Fig. 6, if the value of all the inductance is 2 H,

then what is the equivalent inductance at A-B? B
a) 4 H
b) 3 H
c) 2 H A
d) 1 H Fig. 6.
7. The equivalent values of two capacitances 6 mF and 12 mF when connected in series and
in parallel respectively are,
a) 6 mF, 18 mF b) 18 mF, 4 mF c) 4 mF, 18 mF d) 72 mF, 18 mF
A
8. In the network shown in Fig. 8, if the values of all the capacitances is
2 mF then what is the equivalent capacitance at A-B?
a) 4 mF
C D
b) 3 mF
c) 2 mF
d) 1 mF Fig. 8.
B
9. The equivalent reactance with respect to terminals A-B in the j10
network shown in Fig. 9 is, j10
a) j10 W
j5
b) j7.5 W
A B
c) j5 W j5 j7.5
j5
d) j2.5 W
Fig. 9.
10. The equivalent value of two impedances 8 + j3 W and 2 – j3 W when connected in parallel is,
a) 10 + j0 W b) 6 + j6 W c) 10 + j6 W d) 2.5 - j1.8 W
11. In the network shown in Fig. 11, what is the equivalent impedance 3 + j4
at A-B?
j2 Ej3
a) 3 + j3 W 3 + j3
A B
b) 1 + j W Ej2 j9
c) 3 – j4 W
3 E j4
d) 1 + j2 W
Fig. 11.
12. In the network shown in Fig. 12, if the values of all the conductances
are 3 M then what is the value of equivalent conductance at A-B?
B
a) 18 M
b) 2 M
c) 0.5 M A
d) 0.25 M Fig. 12.

A
13. In the network shown in Fig. 13, what is the equivalent

conductance at A-B? 4

2
3
6 5
a) 0.9083 M b) 15.5 M 4

3 2
d) 20 M B
c) 29 M Fig. 13.

14. In the network shown in Fig. 14, what is the equivalent susceptance Ej6
at A-B?
A

a) j0.5 M Ej6

j4 j4
b) j3 M

Ej6
c) j6 M B
Fig. 14.
d) j12 M Ej6

2 + j2
15. In the network shown in Fig. 15, what is the equivalent admittance atA
A-B?
2E Ej2
a) 0 + j4 M j2

j2
b) 4 + j4 M 2+ j2

c) 4 + j0 M B

2 E j2
d) 4 - j4 M Fig. 15.
d) 20 M
16. The current through the ideal ammeter in the circuit shown in 2 1.5
Fig. 16 is,
+ E
a) 1 A 4V E A + 3V
b) 1.5 A
c) 2 A Fig. 16.
d) 4 A
17. The voltage across the ideal voltmeter in the circuit shown in Fig. 17 is,
a) 10 V
b) 8 V 3A 2 V 2 5A
c) 6 V
d) 4 V Fig. 17.
18. The voltage VL in the circuit shown in Fig. 18 is, 2 2
a) 5 V
+
6 V +E VL 2 2A
b) 6 V
c) 9 V
d) 12 V Fig. 18.
19. The current I2 in the circuit shown in Fig. 19 is, 2A
a) 8 A 1 1
I2
b) 7 A
1
3A 5A
c) 4 A
Fig. 19.
d) 2 A
20. The value of Vth and Rth in the circuit shown in Fig. 20 is, 15 6
A
a) 20 V, 30 W +
25 V 10
b) 5 V, 10 W
Rth
c) 25 V, 4 W B
d) 10 V, 12 W Fig. 20.
A
21. The value of Vth in the circuit shown in Fig. 21 is, +
5 V +E 5
a) 7 V
Vth
b) 5 V
3 E
+ 2V
c) 3 V E
B
d) 2 V Fig. 21.
22. The value of Rth in the circuit shown in Fig. 22 is, E 5V +
A
a) 6 W
3 2A
b) 7 W 6
Rth
c) 13 W B
4
d) 22 W Fig. 22.
23. The value of RN in the circuit shown in Fig. 23 is, 10 3
A
a) 4 W
5A 5 2
b) 1.6 W
Rth
c) 1.33 W B
d) 1.2 W Fig. 23.

2A
24. The value of IN in the circuit shown in Fig. 24 is,
a) 2 A A
2 2
b) 3.5 A
3A IN
c) 1 A
B
d) 5 A Fig. 24.
3 4
25. The value of IN in the cirucit shown in Fig. 25 is, A
a) 1.5 A
1 3A IN
b) 3 A
c) 0.5 A B
Fig. 25.
d) 1 A
26. In the two-terminal linear circuit shown in Fig. 26, the open circuit voltage measured
across AB is 10 V and short circuit current through AB is 5 A. The value of resistance that
can be connected across AB for maximum power transfer is,
A
a) 10 W Linear
circuit
b) 5 W B
c) 50 W Fig. 26.
d) 2 W
27. The value of R for maximum power transfer in the circuit shown in Fig. 27 is,
2 0.04 H
a) 8 W
b) 10 W +
em = sin 200t V R
c) 8.25 W ~
d) –j0.06 W Fig. 27.

2W j4 W A
28. The value of impedance that can be connected
across AB for maximum power transfer in the
IPQ
+ 3W R
circuit shown in Fig. 28 is,
Vm sin wt
~
_ Z
a) 2.4 + j1.2 W b) 2.4 – j1.2 W j6 W jX
Fig. 28.
c) 1.2 + j2.4 W d) 1.2 – j2.4 W B
29. The positions of source and response in the circuit shown in Fig. 29a are changed as shown
in Fig. 29b. What is the value of IX ?
a) 2 A b) 4 A c) 1 A R1 d) 8 A
R1
R2 R3 R2 R3
2A + 20 V
E
+ IX
10 V R4 R5 R4
E
R5
Fig. 29a. Fig. 29b.
30. The positions of source and response in the circuit shown in Fig. 30a are changed as shown
in Fig. 30b. What is the value of VX ?
a) 6 V R1
b) 3 V c) 2.4 V R1
d) 2 V
R2 R3 R2 R3
+ +
5A R4 R5 6V R6 VX R4 R5 R6 2A
E E
Fig. 30a. Fig. 30b.
ANSWERS
1. b 7. c 13. b 19. d 25. a
2. a 8. a 14. d 20. d 26. d
3. c 9. c 15 c 21. c 27. c
4. a 10. d 16. d 22. a 28. d
5. b 11. b 17. b 23. b 29. b
6. d 12. a 18. a 24. b 30. c
IV. Unsolved Problems A

2 1.6
E2.1 Find the equivalent resistance with respect to terminals A-B in the 4
6 6
network shown in Fig. E2.1.
E2.2 Find the equivalent resistance across the source terminals A-B of the
B
circuit shown in Fig. E2.2 and calculate the current delivered by the 1.2
source. Fig. E2.1.
R
2 B
R R
R
R
18 6
A
R
1
R R
+ 12 V 6 12 18
E R
R
R R
A
B
Fig. E2.2. Fig. E2.3.
E2.3 Determine the equivalent resistance at A-B for the circuit shown in Fig. E2.3.
E2.4 Determine the equivalent resistance for the circuit shown in Fig. E2.4.
18 4 8
10 16
10
A 12
+ 18 2
20 V 20 20 4 B
E 6
Fig. E2.5.
Fig. E2.4.
E2.5 In the network shown in Fig. E2.5, find the equivalent resistance between A and B.
E2.6 For the network shown in Fig. E2.6, find the equivalent resistance across A-B.
C 9 12
3
16 18
1 3
12 5
9
5
A 15
B
A B
Fig. E2.6. Fig. E2.7.
E2.7 In Fig. E2.7, find the equivalent resistance across A-B.
E2.8 In circuit shown in Fig. E2.8, find the equivalent resistance across A-B.
2
8 C 3
10 6

16
16
A B
20
4 6
14 5 18
A B
12
8 12 5 7
4
Fig. E2.9.
Fig. E2.8.
E2.9 In Fig. E2.9, find the equivalent resistance RAB .
E2.10 Convert the circuit shown in Fig.E2.10 with multiple sources into a single equivalent current
source at terminal A-B, with a single equivalent resistance in parallel. Also, calculate the
voltage across the equivalent resistance.
A
3H 1.5 H
10 V + 4 3A 9H
E 2
8
2 2A
6H 2H
8 E
+ 1V 4 5A
B A B
Fig. E2.10. Fig. E2.11.
E2.11 Find the equivalent inductance across terminals A-B in the network shown in Fig. E2.11.
E2.12 In Fig. E2.12, find the equivalent reactance across A-B.
E2.13 Find the equivalent capacitance across terminals A-B in the network shown in Fig. E2.13.
6 mF
j0.2 j0.6
A
j2.4
3 mF 3 mF
j0.6 j3
A B 6 mF 6 mF
3 mF 3 mF
j1
j2.3 j0.8 j3 B
6 mF
j0.2 Fig. E2.13.

Fig. E2.12.
Note : Consider 6 mF capacitor as reactance –jX and so reactance of 3mF capacitor is –j2X. Reduce the
network by treating all the capacitors as reactances and finally convert the reactance to capacitor.
E2.14 In Fig. E2.14, find the equivalent capacitive reactance across A-B.
E2.15 Find the equivalent impedance across A-B in the circuit shown in Fig. E2.15.
2 + j2 W
Ej2
Ej12 5 - j3 W
Ej6 Ej9
4 + j2 W
3 + j6 W
A Ej4 B
5 - j4 W
Ej2 Ej6
A B
Ej3.2
Fig. E2.14. + ~-
24Ð0 V
o
Fig. E2.15.
E2.16 In the circuit shown in Fig. E2.16, determine I L using Thevenin’s theorem.
E2.17 In the circuit shown in Fig. E2.17, determine VL using Norton’s theorem.
4 3A
IL
2 5
2 3V 1 4
+E + A
+E +E 5 10 VL
5 3
10 V 5V E
10 V +E
4 6
4 8 2A +
E 5V
+E
B
12 V
Fig. E2.16. Fig. E2.17. Fig. E2.18.
E2.18 Find Thevenin’s and Norton’s equivalents of the circuit shown in Fig. E2.18 with respect to
terminals A and B.
E2.19 In the circuit shown in Fig. E2.19, determine the current I L using Norton’s theorem.
o
10Ð0 A
~
-j10 W
j20 W -j10 W
+ 2W 2W
200Ð0 V
5W +
o
4W 5W
~
- IL j4 W VL
+
60Ð0 V
20 W -j10 W
o
~ j3 W
- -
Fig. E2.19. Fig. E2.20.

E2.20 In the circuit shown in Fig. E2.20, determine the voltage across 5 + j3 W impedance using
Thevenin’s theorem.
E2.21 Using the superposition theorem, determine the current I L in the circuit shown in Fig. E2.21.
5A
3 IL 3 VL
+ E
2 3
4
2 + E E +
+ + 4V 6V
5V 10 20 10 V 2
1 1
E E
2A 4A 6 2A
+ V Iy
x
E
4
+ E 5
5 10 V Fig. E2.22.
Fig. E2.23.
Fig. E2.21.
E2.22 Determine the voltage VL in the circuit shown in Fig. E2.22 using the superposition theorem.
E2.23 Calculate the current I y and voltage Vx in the circuit shown in Fig. E2.23 using the superposition
theorem.
E2.24 Determine the current I y and voltage V x in the circuit shown in Fig. E2.24 using the
superposition theorem.
o
Iy 3Ð0 A
Vx
+ -
1W 1.5 W
~
IL
2W 4W 5W
2W -j3 W
j1 W -j4 W -j3 W 4W 5W
10Ð30 V
+ +
20Ð0 V
+ +
o
o
5Ð90 V ~ 2Ð0 A
o
~ ~ 10Ð-90 V
o
~
-
j2 W j3 W ~ -
- -
Fig. E2.24. Fig. E2.25.
E2.25 In the circuit shown in Fig. E2.25, determine I L using the superposition theorem and estimate
the active and reactive power in 2 - j3 W impedance.
E2.26 Determine the value of R in the circuit shown in Fig. E2.26 for maximum power transfer. Also
find the value of the maximum power.
E2.27 Determine the value of Z L in the circuit shown in Fig. E2.27 for maximum power transfer.
j1 W 2W
4W 5A
+
V2Ðq2 1W j5 W
2W ~
- 2W 4W
R -j4 W -j3 W
+ 10 V
-
+ +
5W ZL Vx 10 W 5W 8W
V1Ðq1 ~ 3W
- -
3W
Fig. E2.26. Fig. E2.27. Fig. E2.28.
E2.28 In the circuit of Fig. E2.28, calculate Vx . Prove the reciprocity theorem by interchanging the
positions of the 5 A source and Vx .
E2.29 In the circuit of Fig. E2.29, calculate Ix . Prove the reciprocity theorem by interchanging the
positions of the 10 V source and Ix .
Ix -j2 W
2W 5W
j3 W 4W -j4 W 4W
-+
10 V 4W Ix
+
+
10Ð0 V
5Ð0 A
o
3W 6W -j5 W
o
1W 5W ~ Vx j2 W
3W ~
- -
Fig. E2.29. Fig. E2.30. Fig. E2.31.

E2.30 In the circuit of Fig. E2.30, demonstrate the reciprocity theorem by interchanging the
positions of the source and response, I x .
E2.31 Demonstrate reciprocity theorem in the circuit shown in Fig. E2.31 by interchanging the
positions of the source and response.
E2.32 In the circuit shown in fig E2.32, apply Millman’s theorem to find Thevenin’s equivalent at A-B.
Also, find the value of resistance R for maximum power transfer.
4W A 1W
j5W -j4W
+ 2W + IL
4Ð90 V
R
5Ð0oV
10 V
o
5W + 8V 5W 4W
_
_
6V
_ 2W
Fig E2.32. Fig E2.33.
E2.33 In the circuit shown in Fig. E2.33, find the current IL using Millman’s theorem.
ANSWERS
E2.1 RAB = 5.6 Ω
E2.2 RAB = 3.75 Ω , I = 3.2 A
E2.3 R AB = 5 R Ω
6
E2.4 Req = 19 Ω
E2.5 RAB = 1.5686 Ω
E2.6 RAB = 1.9637 Ω
E2.7 RAB = 2.9084 Ω
E2.8 RAB = 6.4478 Ω
E2.9 RAB = 4.6663 Ω
E2.10 Ieq = 2.75 A, Req = 0.8 W, V = 2.2 V
E2.11 LAB = 2.875 H
E2.12 jXAB = j0.3522 Ω
E2.13 CAB = 9.6432 mF
E2.14 –jXAB = −j16.92 Ω
E2.15 Z AB = 5.3021 − j1.2792 Ω = 5.4542+ − 13.6 o Ω
E2.16 Vth = 10 V ; Rth = 1 Ω ; IL = 1.6667 A
E2.17 In = 1.8 A ; Rn = 5 Ω ; VL = 6 V
E2.18 Vth = 13.25 V ; Rth = Rn = 1.875 Ω ; In = 7.0667 A
E2.19 In = − 4 − j8 A = 8.9443+ − 116.6 o A ; Zn = 10 + j5 Ω = 11.1803+26.6 o Ω

IL = − 2 − j6 A = 6.3246+ − 108.4 o A
E2.20 Vth = 44.6152 − j63.0768 V = 77.2606+ − 54.7 o V
Z th = 3.8462 − j7.2308 Ω = 8.1901+ − 62o Ω

VL = 45.9196 + j1.44 V = 45.9422+1.8 o V
E2.21 IL = IlL(2 A) + IllL(4 A) + IlllL(10 V) = 2 + 4 + 0 = 6 A
E2.22 VL = VlL(5 V) + VllL(10 V) = 2 + (− 4) = − 2 V
E2.23 Vx = Vlx(4 V) + Vllx(6 V) + Vlllx(2 A) + Vllllx(5 A) = 1 + (− 1.5) + 4.5 + (− 6.25) = − 2.25 V
I y = Ily(4 V) + Illy(6 V) + Illly(2 A) + Illlly(5 A) = 0.25 + (− 0.375) + (− 0.875) + (− 1.5625) = − 2.5625 A
E2.24 I y = I ly(5 V) + I lly(10 V) + I llly(2 A) = (− 0.1061 + j0.504) + (− 0.2122 + j1.008) + (0.5623 + j0.3289)
= 0.244 + j1.8409 = 1.857+82.4 o A
Vx = Vlx(5 V) + Vllx(10 V) + Vlllx(2 A) = (− 0.1061 + j0.504) + (− 0.2122 + j1.008) + (− 1.4377 + j0.3289)

= − 1.756 + j1.8409 = 2.5441+133.6 o V
E2.25 IL = IlL(20 V) + IllL(10 V) + IlllL(3 A) = (3.0769 + j4.6154) + (− 0.1785 − j2.7678) + 0

= 2.8984 + j1.8476 A = 3.4372+32.5 o A
P = 23.6287 W ; Q = −35.443 VAR
E2.26 R = 3.1429 Ω , Pmax = 0.6492 W
E2.27 ZL = 4.6432 + j3.443 Ω = 5.7804+36.6 o Ω
E2.28 Vx = 10.2273 V
E2.29 Ix = 0.1176 A
E2.30 I x = 0.3554 + j0.3928 A = 0.5297+47.9 o A
E2.31 Vx = 1.5529 + j2.1887 V = 2.6836+54.6 o V
E2.32 Vth = 6.9228 V ; Rth = R = 0.5128 W
E2.33 Eeq = − 2.439 − j1.9512 V = 3.1234 + − 141.3 o V

Zeq = 2.1951 − j0.2439 Ω A = 2.2086 + − 6.3 o Ω
IL = − 0.5525 − j0.4972 A = 0.7433 + − 138 o A
Chapter 3
AC CIRCUITS, RESONANCE AND

COUPLED CIRCUITS
3.1 AC Circuits
The sources in which the current/voltage sinusoidally varies with time are called sinusoidal
sources. In sinusoidal sources, the voltage/current undergoes cyclic changes and the number of
cycles per second is called frequency. The time for one cycle is called time period.
In ac circuits, the current and voltage varies with time and so all the three basic parameters,
i.e., resistance, inductance and capacitance exist in ac circuits.
In ac sources, when the rms value of voltage is maintained constant and the rms value of
current is allowed to vary, the source is called a voltage source. When the rms value of current is
maintained constant and the rms value of voltage is allowed to vary, the source is called a current
source.
+
E = EÐq ~ I s = Is Ðq ~
-
Fig. a : AC voltage source. Fig. b : AC current source.

Fig. 3.1 : Symbols for ac source.
3.2 Sinusoidal Voltage

y
A sinusoidal voltage can be considered as a vector of length Vm
rotating in space with a uniform angular speed ω rad/s as shown in Fig. 3.2. ycomp
w
At any time instant, the vector can be resolved into xcomp and ycomp. Now, Vm
ycomp gives the value of sinusoidal voltage at any time instant. Therefore,
the instantaneous value (i.e., the value at any particular time instant) of a xcomp
x
sinusoidal voltage is given by,
Fig. 3.2.
v = Vm sin ωt
Since sinusoidal voltage is a rotating vector, the value of the voltage repeats after an angular
rotation of 2π radians or 360 o. The number of revolutions (or rotations) per second is called
frequency and it is denoted by f. The unit of frequency is Hertz and denoted by Hz (or cycles
per second). One rotation of the voltage vector is also called a cycle because the value of voltage
repeats in every revolution.
One revolution is equal to an angular motion of 2π radians. Hence, frequency can also
be expressed in radians per second (rad/s) which is denoted by ω and popularly called angular
frequency.
The relation between angular frequency (ω) and frequency (f ) is,
ω = 2πf
The time taken for one revolution or cycle is called time period (or simply period), and it
is denoted by T. The unit of time period (T) is seconds.
We know that,
Frequency, f = Number of cycles per second.
Hence, Time for one cycle = 1
f
` Time period, T = 1 seconds

f
3.2.1 Average Value

The average value of a time varying quantity is the average of the instantaneous value for
a particular time period. Usually, for periodic waveforms, the average is taken for one time period.
In alternating quantities, the average value for one time period is zero because in one period it has
equal positive and negative values. Therefore, for alternating quantities, the average is taken over
half a period.
The instantaneous value of sinusoidal voltage is expressed by, v = Vmsinωt = Vmsin q,

where, q = ωt. The total value over half a period (π) is obtained by integrating the instantaneous value
between limits 0 to π. Then the average is obtained by dividing this total value by half a period (π).
Let, Vave = Average value of sinusoidal voltage or alternating voltage.
Now, by definition of average value, we can write,
r r
Average value of sinusoidal voltage, Vave = 1

π # ν dθ = 1
π # V sin θ dθ
m = 2Vm
π
0 0
3.2.2 RMS Value (AU June’14, 2 Marks)

The rms value of a time varying quantity is the equivalent dc value of that quantity. (The
rms value is also known as effective value.) For example, a 5 V dc is equivalent to 5 V rms value
of ac. The rms stands for root-mean-square, which means that the value is obtained by taking the
root of the mean of the squared function. Hence, to obtain the rms value, a function is squared and
the mean (average) of the squared function is determined. And the root of this mean value is taken.
For periodic waveforms, the rms value is computed for one period. For alternating quantities, the
rms value will be the same if it is computed for half a period or one period.
The instantaneous value of sinusoidal voltage is expressed by, v = Vmsinωt = Vmsin q,
where, q = ωt. The total value of the squared function over half a period (π) is obtained by integrating
v 2 between limits 0 to π . The mean (average) is obtained by dividing the total value of the squared
function by half a period (π). The rms value is obtained by taking the square root of this mean value.
Chapter 3 - AC Circuits, Resonance and Coupled Circuits 3. 3
Let, V = Rms value of sinusoidal voltage or alternating voltage.

Now, by definition of rms value, we can write,
r r
Rms value of sinusoidal voltage, V = 1

π # ν dθ 2
= 1
π # (V sin θ) dθ
m
2
= Vm
2
0 0
3.2.3 Form Factor and Peak Factor

Form factor is defined as the ratio of rms value and average value of a periodic waveform.
Peak factor is defined as the ratio of peak value (or maximum value) and the rms value of a
periodic waveform.
` Form factor, k f = rms value ` Peak factor, k p = Maximum value

Average value rms value
The form and peak factors for sinusoidal voltage can be estimated using equations (3.1)
and (3.2) as shown below:
Vm 2
Form factor, k f = = π = 1.111 ^For full sine waveh ..... (3.1)
2Vm π 2 2
Peak factor, k p = Vm = 2 = 1.414 ^For full sine waveh ..... (3.2)

Vm 2
The form factor and peak factor of equations (3.1) and (3.2) are applicable for full
sinusoidal waveform of voltage or current or any other quantity.
3.3 Sinusoidal Current

The instantaneous value of sinusoidal current is given by,
i = I m sin ωt = Im sin q, where, q = ωt

r r
Average value of sinusoidal current, Iave = 1

π # i dθ = 1
π #I m sin θ dθ = 2I m
π
0 0
r r
rms value of sinusoidal current, I = 1

π #i 2
dθ = 1
π # (I m sin θ) 2 dθ = I m
2
0 0
Form factor, k f = I m / 2 = π = 1.111

2 I m /π 2 2
Peak factor, k p = Im = 2 = 1.414

1m / 2
3.4 Inductance
Inductance is the property of an element (or matter) by which it opposes any change in
flux or current.
Note : Flux and current are inseparable in nature. Whenever flux exists in an element, it
is due to motion of electrons (i.e., current). Whenever current flows in an element, flux is created
in the element.
i
The unit of inductance is Henry and denoted by H. The inductance of a coil +
is defined as the ratio of flux linkages (weber-turns) and current through the coil. The L v
weber-turns refers to the product of flux φ and number of turns N of a coil. Hence, the E
inductance of a coil with N turns and carrying a current of I amperes is given by,
Nφ Fig. 3.3.
Inductance, L = ..... (3.3)
I
Equation (3.4) gives the voltage-current relation in an inductance.
ν = L di .....(3.4)
dt
L #
` i = 1 ν dt .....(3.5)
Energy is stored as magnetic field in an inductor and it can be calculated using

equation (3.6).
` Energy, W = 1 LI2 ..... (3.6)

2
Equation (3.6) can be used to compute the energy stored in an inductance when a steady
current I flows through it.
3.5 Capacitance
Capacitance is the property of an element (or matter) by which it opposes any i
+
change in charge or voltage. C v, q
The unit of capacitance is farad and it is denoted by F. The capacitance of a E
capacitor is defined as the ratio of stored charge and the potential difference across
its plates. The capacitance of a capacitor with a charge of Q coulombs and a potential Fig. 3.4.
difference of V volts across its plate is given by,
Q
Capacitance, C = ..... (3.7)
V
Equation (3.8) gives the voltage-current relation in a capacitance.
i = C dν ..... (3.8)
dt
` ν = 1
C # i dt ..... (3.9)
Energy is stored as electric field in a capacitor and it can be calculated using

equation (3.10).
` Energy, W = 1 CV2 ..... (3.10)

2
Equation (3.10), can be used to compute the energy stored in a capacitance when a steady
voltage V exists across it.
3.6 Voltage-Current Relation of R, L and C in Various Domains
The circuit variables like voltage, current, power and energy are functions of time t. Time
domain is a practical domain where we can physically realise any system or phenomena or activity.
The voltage-current relations of fundamental parameters in time domain are differential equations.
The solutions of differential equations are tedious when compared to algebraic equations. Hence,
it will be convenient if we transform the differential equation into algebraic equations. One
such transform is Laplace transform. A brief discussion about Laplace transform is presented in
Appendix 3.
Let, i = i(t) = Current in time domain
v = v(t) = Voltage in time domain
L{v(t)} = V(s) = Voltage in s-domain or Laplace domain
L{i(t)} = I(s) = Current in s-domain or Laplace domain.
3.6.1 Voltage-Current Relation of Resistance

Consider a resistance R connected to a source of voltage v(t) as shown in Fig. 3.5.
i(t) I(s) I
+
v(t) + + +
~
E R v(t) R V(s) R V
E E E
Fig. a : Resistance in Fig. b : Resistance in Fig. c : Resistance in

time domain. s-domain. frequency domain.
Fig. 3.5 : Voltage-current relation of resistance in various domains.
Let, i(t) = Current through the resistance
v(t) = Voltage across the resistance.
By Ohm’s law, we can write
v(t) = R i(t)
For simplicity
v = Ri ..... (3.11)
On taking Laplace transform of equation (3.11), we get,

V(s) = R I(s) ..... (3.12)
On substituting s = jω in equation (3.12), we get,

For simplicity
V^ jωh = R I^ jωh V = RI
In Summary,
v = Ri ; Voltage-current relation of resistance in time domain.
V(s) = R I(s) ; Voltage-current relation of resistance in s-domain.
V = RI ; Voltage-current relation of resistance in frequency domain.
3.6.2 Voltage-Current Relation of Inductance

Consider an inductance L connected to a source of voltage v(t) as shown in Fig. 3.6.
i(t) I(s) I
+
v(t) + + +
~
- L v(t) sL V(s) jwL V
- - -
Fig. a : Inductance in Fig. b : Inductance in Fig. c : Inductance in

Fig. 3.6 : Voltage-current relation of inductance in various domains.
Let, i(t) = Current through the inductance

v(t) = Voltage across the inductance
By Faraday’s Law, we can write,
ν ( t) = L d i ( t ) ν = L di
For simplicity
.....(3.13)
dt dt
On taking Laplace transform of equation (3.13) with zero initial conditions, we get,
V(s) = L sI(s)
∴ V(s) = sL I(s) .....(3.14)
where, sL = Inductive reactance in s-domain
For simplicity
V^ jωh = jωL I^ jωh V = jωL I
where, ωL = XL = Inductive reactance
In summary,
v = L di ; Voltage-current relation of inductance in time domain.

dt
V(s) = sL I(s) ; Voltage-current relation of inductance in s-domain.
V = jωLI ; Voltage-current relation of inductance in frequency domain.

3.6.3 Voltage-Current Relation of Capacitance

Consider a capacitance C connected to a source of current i(t) as shown in Fig. 3.7.
i(t) I(s) I
i(t) + + +
~ 1 1
C v(t) V(s) V
sC - jwC -
-
Fig. a : Capacitance in Fig. b : Capacitance in Fig. c : Capacitance in

Fig. 3.7 : Voltage-current relation of capacitance in various domains.
Let, i(t) = Current through the capacitance
v(t) = Voltage across the capacitance.
dν ( t )
i = C dν
For simplicity
Now, i (t) = C ..... (3.15)
dt dt
On integrating and rearranging equation (3.15), we get,
ν = 1
C # i dt
On taking Laplace transform of equation (3.15) with zero initial conditions, we get,
I (s) = CsV (s)
` V (s ) = 1 I ( s) ..... (3.16)
sC
where, 1 = Capacitive reactance in s- domain
sC
V ( jω ) = 1 I ( jω) For simplicity

V = 1 I = −j 1 I
jω C jω C ωC
where, 1 = X C = Capacitive reactance

ωC
In summary,
v = 1
C
# i dt ; Voltage-current relation of capacitance in time domain.
V (s) = 1 I (s) ; Voltage-current relation of capacitance in s-domain.

sC
V = −j 1 I ; Voltage-current relation of capacitance in frequency domain.
ωC
Table 3.1 : R, L, C Representation in Various Domains
S.No. Parameter Time domain s-domain Frequency

domain
i + v - I(s) + V(s) - I + V -
1. Resistance, R R R R
i + v - I(s) + V(s) - I + V -
2. Inductance, L
L sL jwL
i + v - I(s) + V(s) - I +
V
3. Capacitance, C -
C 1 1
sC jwC
3.7 Sinusoidal Voltage and Current in Frequency Domain

The instantaneous value of sinusoidal voltage in time domain is represented as,
v(t) = Vmsin(ωt ± φ)
In frequency domain, the rms value of sinusoidal voltage can be represented as,
For simplicity
V ^ j ω h = V+ ! φ V = V+ ! φ
where, V = Vm / 2
∴ Vm sin ^ωt ! φh ⇒ V = Vm + ! φ = V+ ! φ .....(3.17)
2
The instantaneous value of sinusoidal current in time domain is represented as,
i(t) = I m sin(ωt ± φ)
In frequency domain, the rms value of sinusoidal current can be represented as,
For simplicity
I ^ jω h = I + ! φ I = I+ ! φ
where, I = I m / 2 .
∴ I m sin ^ωt ! φh ⇒ I = I m + ! φ = I+ ! φ .....(3.18)
2
3.8 Power, Energy and Power Factor
Power is the product of voltage and current. In circuits excited by dc sources, voltage and
current are constant and so power is also constant. This constant power is called average power
or power and it is denoted by P.
∴ In dc circuits,
Power, P = V I
In circuits excited by ac sources, voltage and current are sinusoidal quantities which vary
with time. When voltage and current are time varying quantities, power is also a time varying
quantity.
For time varying quantities, power is defined as the average over a period of time. Since
the average values of sinusoidal voltage and current are zero, we can take the rms values of voltage
and current. We know that the rms values of voltage and current are complex and so power is also
complex. “Complex power is denoted by S and it is defined as the product of rms voltage and the
conjugate of rms current”.
` Complex power, S = V I*
where, I* = Conjugate of I
Let, V = V+δ
I = I+γ
*
then, I = I+ − γ
where, δ is phase of voltage and γ is phase of current.
*
` S = V I = V+δ # I+ − γ = VI+ (δ − γ)
Let, δ − γ = φ
where, φ = Phase difference between V and I
` S = VI+φ
Let, S = S = VI
where, S = Apparent power and expressed in Volt-Ampere, i.e., VA.
(The larger units of S are kVA and MVA).
“Apparent power S is defined as the product of the magnitude of rms voltage and rms current”.
Since S is complex, it can be expressed as a vector in a complex plane as shown in Fig. 3.8.
In Fig. 3.8, the triangle formed by P, Q and S is also called a power triangle.
Imaginary Imaginary Imaginary
axis axis axis
Complex plane Complex plane Complex plane
P = S cos f
Q = S sin f
S
Q P
S -f Real
axis
f S S
P Real P=S P Real P = S cos f
Q S
axis axis Q = -S sin f
Q=0
Fig. a : Vector of S when f Fig. b : Vector of S when f Fig. c : Vector of S when f

is positive. is zero. is negative.
Fig. 3.8 : Vector of complex power S for various values of f.
The real part of S is called active power or simply power. The imaginary part of S is called
reactive power. Power is denoted by P and expressed in watts, W. Reactive power is denoted by
Q and expressed in volt-ampere-reactive, VAR.
With reference to Fig. 3.8, we can write,
S = S cos φ + j S sin φ
Let, S = P + jQ
` P = S cos φ
Q = S sin φ
We know that, S = S = VI
∴ P = VI cos φ in W
∴ Q = VI sin φ in VAR
The larger units of power P is kW or MW and larger units of reactive power Q is kVAR or MVAR.
VI cos φ VI cos φ
` P = VI cos φ in W = in kW = in MW
103 106
VI sin φ VI sin φ
Q = VI sin φ in VAR = in kVAR = in MVAR
103 106
In dc circuits, V and I are constants and there is no phase difference between V and I. Hence,
φ = 0 and so, cos φ = 1 and sin φ = 0. Therefore, in dc circuits, complex power or apparent power
is equal to active power, and reactive power is zero.
Power is rate of work done and energy is the total work done. Hence, “energy is given by
the product of power and time”. When time is expressed in seconds, the unit of energy is watt-
second and when time is expressed in hours, the unit of energy is watt-hour.
∴ Energy, E = Pt in W-s or W-h
The larger unit of energy is kWh and commercially one kWh of electrical energy is called one unit.
“The ratio of active power and apparent power is defined as power factor”. Power factor is
a measure of active power in the apparent power.
Active power
` Power factor = = P
Apparent power S
From the power triangle of Fig. 3.8, we get,

P = S cos φ
S cos φ
` Power factor = P = = cos φ
S S
Here, φ is the phase difference between voltage and current. Hence, from the above
equation we can say that, “ power factor is also defined as cosine of the phase difference
between voltage and current”.
3.9 Impedance
“Impedance is defined as the ratio of (sinusoidal) voltage and current”. It is a frequency
domain parameter but not a sinusoidal quantity. “Impedance is also defined as the total opposition
offered to flow of (sinusoidal) current”. Hence, impedance is measured in Ohms (same as the unit
of resistance).
Impedance is a complex quantity and denoted by Z. The real part of impedance is resistance
and the imaginary part of impedance is reactance. The unit of resistance, reactance and impedance
are Ohm. There are two types of reactances, namely, the inductive reactance and capacitive
reactance. Inductive reactance is denoted by XL and equal to ω L. Capacitive reactance is denoted by
XC and equal to 1/ωC. Inductive and capacitive reactances have the exact opposite behaviours.
Therefore, when expressed as a complex quantity, inductive reactance takes a positive value and
capacitive reactance takes a negative value
∴ Impedance, Z = R + jX ..... (3.19)
where, R = Resistance
X = Reactance
Also, Z = R + jX = R + jXL ; when reactance is inductive.
Z = R + jX = R − jXC ; when reactance is capacitive.
Z = R + jX = R + j(XL – XC) ; when reactance is the sum of inductance and
capacitance.
The symbol used to represent impedance is a rectangle as shown
in Fig. 3.9. Impedance is connected to other parts of circuits using Z a R C jX
resistance-less wires.
The magnitude of impedance is denoted by Z (i.e., without an
Fig. 3.9 : Symbol
overbar). The argument of impedance is called impedance angle and it is for impedance.
denoted by q.
In equation (3.19), complex impedance is expressed in rectangular form. It can be expressed
in polar form as shown below:
Z = R + jX = R2 + X2 + tan- 1 X = Z +θ ..... (3.20)

R
where, Z = Z = R2 + X2 and θ = +Z = tan- 1 X

R
` Magnitude of impedance, Z = Z = R2 + X2
Impedance angle, θ = +Z = tan- 1 X

R
Since impedance is a complex quantity it can be represented Imaginary
axis
as a point in a complex plane with polar coordinates Z and q, as
shown in Fig. 3.10. The line joining the origin and Z will be a
Z
vector of length Z and making an angle q with the reference.
Z
Now, the vector Z can be resolved into horizontal and vertical X
q real
components. The horizontal component is resistance R and vertical R axis
component is reactance X. The right-angled triangle formed Fig. 3.10 : Impedance triangle.
by R, X and Z is called the impedance triangle.
3.10 Solved Problems in AC Circuits

EXAMPLE 3.1
5W j2 W
Determine the current I 2 in the circuit shown in Fig. 1. I2
+ 2W
SOLUTION 100Ð450V ~ -j4 W
-
j2 W
Let, I T be the total current supplied by the source. This current
I T divides into I1 and I 2 and flows through parallel impedances −j4 Ω
Fig. 1.
and 2 + j2 Ω as shown in Fig. 2. The current I T is given by the ratio
of source voltage and total impedance at the source terminals.
IT 5W j2 W IT
I2
I1
+ 2W
+
o
100Ð45 V -j4 W
~
-
j2 W
Þ 0
100Ð45 V ~
-
ZT = 9 + j 2 W
Fig. 2.
The total impedance Z T at the source terminal is given by the parallel combination of −j4 Ω
and 2 + j2 Ω in series with 5 + j2 Ω.
^− j4h # ^2 + j2h
` Z T = ^5 + j2h + 6 − j4 | | , ^2 + j2h@ = ^5 + j2h + ; E
− j4 + 2 + j2
= 5 + j2 + 4 + j0 = 9 + j2 Ω
o 100 ^cos 45 o + j sin 45 oh

Now, I T = 100+45 = = 9.1508 + j5.8232 A
9 + j2 9 + j2
− j4 ^9.1508 + j5.8232h # ^− j4h

I2 = IT # =
− j4 + 2 + j2 2 − j2
= 14.974 − j3.3276 = 15.3393∠−12.5o A

5W
EXAMPLE 3.2
Determine the current IL in the circuit shown in Fig. 1. +
IL 2W -
10Ð0 V
0
5Ð450V
SOLUTION -
~ ~ +
j2 W
Let us mark the nodes of the circuit as A, B, C and D as Fig. 1.

o
j5 W
shown in Fig. 2. Let, I1 and I 2 be the current delivered by 10∠0 V and
5W I1 B I2
5∠45 o V sources, respectively, from their positive ends as shown A
in Fig. 2. I1 IL
+ 2W -
By KCL at node-B, we can write, 0
10Ð0 V ~ I2 ~ 5Ð450 V
- +
-j2 W
IL + I 2 = I1 ..... (1)
Fig. 2.
The currents I1 and I 2 can be solved by writing KVL equations D j5 W C
in the closed paths ABDA and BCDB.
Consider the closed path ABDA shown in Fig. 3. By KVL, we can write,
5I1 + ^2 − j2h IL = 10+0 o 5W

A B
+ - +
5ÎL + I 2h + ^2 − j2h IL = 10 I1 5 I1
e
I L = I1 - I 2 j
+
5I 2 + ^7 - j2h IL = 10 10Ð00V b 2 - j 2g I L 2W
~
-
` 5I 2 = 10 − ^7 − j2h IL -j2 W
-
7 − j2 D
10 Using equation (1) Fig. 3.
` I2 = − IL
5 5
= 2 − ^1.4 − j0.4h IL .....(2)
Consider the closed path BCDB shown in Fig. 4. By KVL, we can write,
j5I 2 = 5+45 o + ^2 − j2h IL
j5I 2 − ^2 − j2h IL = 5^cos 45 o + j sin 45 oh B
+ I
L
j5 6 2 − ^1.4 − j0.4h@ IL − ^2 − j2h IL = 5^cos 45 o + j sin 45 oh
-
b 2 - j 2g I 5Ð450 V
j10 − ^2 + j7h IL − ^2 − j2h IL = 3.5355 + j3.5355
L ~ +
I2
-
^− 4 − j5h IL = 3.5355 + j3.5355 − j 10
D - + C
j5 I 2
3.5355 + j3.5355 − j 10
` IL = Fig. 4.
− 4 − j5
= 0.4434 + j1.0618 A
Using equation (1)
= 1.1507 + 67.3c A
100 mF 10 W
EXAMPLE 3.3
In the circuit shown in Fig. 1, Find total current I T and power IT
factor. Take frequency of supply as 100 Hz. +
50 Ð0 V0 30 W 0.1 H
-
~
SOLUTION
Given that, V = 50 V, f = 100 Hz, L = 0.1 H and C = 100 mF Fig. 1.
Capacitive reactance, XC = 1 = 1 = 15.9155 Ω

2πfC 2π # 100 # 100 # 10- 6
Inductive reactance, XL = 2πfL = 2π # 100 # 0.1 = 62.8319 Ω
The frequency domain representation of the circuit is shown in Fig. 2.
- j15.9155 W 10 W - j15.9155 W 10 W
IT IT
j62.8319 W
+ + 30 ´ j62.8319
0 30 W 0
30 + j62.8319
50 Ð0 V ~ Þ 50 Ð0 V ~
- -
= 24.4305 + j11.6647 W
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
With reference to Fig.4, by Ohm’s law, IT
IT = 50
34.4305 − j4.2508 +
0
- j15.9155 + 10
50Ð0 V ~ + 24.4305 + j11.6647
- = 34.4305 - j4.2508 W
= 1.4304 + j0.1766 A
= 1.4413 ∠ 7o A
Fig. 4.
o o o
Power factor angle, φ = + V − + I T = 0 − 7 =−7 Since the current leads the voltage,
the power factor is lead.
∴ Power factor = cos φ = cos(−7o) = 0.9925 lead
EEXAMPLE 3.4 Z3 = 6.25 + j1.25
Impedances Z1 and Z 2 are parallel and this combination is in

Z1 = 5 E jXc
series with an impedance Z3 , connected to a 100 V, 50 Hz ac supply.

Z2 = 5 + j0
+
Z1 = 5 − jXc Ω , Z 2 = 5 + j0 Ω , Z3 = 6.25 + j1.25 Ω . Determine the value of 100 V
50 Hz
E
~
capacitance such that the total current of the circuit will be in phase with
the total voltage. Find the circuit current and power.
Fig. 1.
SOLUTION
Given that, Z1 = 5 − jXc Ω ; Z 2 = 5 + j0 Ω ; Z3 = 6.25 + j1.25 Ω
V = 100 V ; f = 50 Hz
With reference to Fig. 1, equivalent impedance is obtained as shown below:
Z1 # Z 2
Zeq = Z3 +
Z1 + Z 2
(5 − jXC) # 5
= 6.25 + j1.25 +
5 − jXC + 5
25 − j5XC 10 + jXC
` Zeq = 6.25 + j1.25 + #
10 − jXC 10 + jXC
250 + j25XC − j50XC + 5XC2

= 6.25 + j1.25 +
10 2 + XC2
250 + 5XC2 25XC

= 6.25 + j1.25 + −j
10 2 + XC2 10 2 + XC2
For voltage and current to be in phase, Zeq should be real and so the imaginary part of Zeq should
be zero.
25XC j25XC j25XC

` j1.25 − j = 0 & j1.25 = & 102 + XC2 =
10 2 + XC2 10 2 + XC2 j1.25
102 + XC2 = 20 XC & XC2 − 20 XC + 100 = 0
2
` XC = 20 ! 20 − 4 # 100 = 20 = 10 Ω
2 2
We know that,
XC = 1 & C = 1 = 1 = 3.1831 # 10- 4 F = 318.31 # 10- 6 F

2πfC 2πfXC 2π # 50 # 10
= 318.31 mF
When XC = 10 W,
250 + 5XC2 2
Zeq = 6.25 + = 6.25 + 250 +2 5 # 10
102 + XC2 10 + 102
= 6.25 + 3.75 = 10 W
` Current, I = V = 100 = 10 A
Zeq 10
Power, P = V # I = 100 # 10 = 1000 W = 1 kW
(or Power, P = I2 × real part of Zeq = 102 × 10 = 1000 W)

3.11 Resonance
In RLC circuits excited by sinusoidal sources, the inductive and capacitive reactances
have opposite signs. Hence, when the reactances are varied, there is a possibility that the
inductive reactance may cancel the capacitive reactance and the circuit may behave as a purely
resistive circuit. This condition of an RLC circuit is called resonance. Resonance may be
defined as a circuit condition at which the circuit behaves as a purely resistive circuit.
The inductive reactance, XL = ωL = 2πfL, and so the inductive reactance can be varied
by varying either frequency (f ) or inductance (L).
The capacitive reactance, X C = 1 = 1 , and so the capacitive reactance can be varied

ωC 2πfC
by varying either frequency (f ) or capacitance (C).
When the frequency of the sinusoidal source exciting the RLC circuit is varied, there is
a possibility that “the inductive reactance is equal and opposite to the capacitive reactance at a
particular frequency”. Therefore, the total reactance is zero and the circuit will behave as a purely
resistive circuit. Now, the circuit will be in resonance and the frequency at which resonance occurs
is called resonant frequency.
3.12 Series Resonance

In a series RLC circuit, the resonance condition can be achieved by varying the frequency
of exciting sinusoidal source. When the frequency is varied, at a particular frequency the inductive
reactance will cancel the capacitive reactance and the circuit will behave as a resistive circuit. This
condition of an RLC series circuit is called series resonance.
3.12.1 Resonance Frequency of Series RLC Circuit (AU May’17, 8 Marks)
Consider the RLC series circuit shown in Fig. 3.11 excited by a Z = R + jwL - j
1
wC
sinusoidal source of variable frequency.
When the frequency of the source is varied by maintaining the R L C
voltage of the source as constant, the resonance occurs at a particular

frequency. The expressions for resonance frequency in the RLC series circuit
of Fig. 3.11 are given below: I
+ ~ -
V, w
Resonant angular frequency, ωr = 1 in rad/s .....(3.21) Fig. 3.11.
LC
Resonant frequency, fr = ωr = 1 in Hz .....(3.22)

2π 2π LC
Proof for resonance frequency in series RLC

Consider the RLC series circuit shown in Fig 3.11.
Let, Z = Impedance of RLC series circuit .
Here, Z = R + jωL − j 1 = R + j aωL − 1 k .....(3.23)

ωC ωC
At resonance frequency ωr , the total reactance is zero. Equating imaginary part
of equation (3.23) to zero
` At ω = ωr, ωr L − 1 = 0 .....(3.24)
ωr C
` ωr L = 1 & ωr2 = 1
ωr C LC
` ωr = 1 .....(3.25)
LC
` fr =
ωr
& fr = 1 ω = 2πf
2π 2π LC
3.12.2 Variation of Current and Impedance with Frequency in Series

RLC Circuit
Consider the RLC circuit shown in Fig. 3.11.
Let, V = V+0 o V = Supply voltage.
I = Current through the RLC series circuit.
I r = Current at resonance.
Z r = Impedance at resonance.
The impedance at resonance is obtained by substituting ω = ωr in equation (3.23).
` Z r = R + jω r L − j 1 = R
ωr C
` Impedance at resonance, Z r = R ..... (3.26)

o
Current at resonance, I r = V = V+0 = V +0 o = I r +0 o A .....(3.27)
Zr R R
where, I r = V = Magnitude of current at resonance. .....(3.28)

R
Let us examine the variation of impedance Z of the RLC series circuit with frequency. At
frequencies lower than resonant frequency, the capacitive reactance will be more than the inductive
reactance and so the total reactance will be capacitive. Since the capacitive reactance is inversely
proportional to frequency, the capacitive reactance and hence, the total reactance will increase when
the frequency is decreased from the resonant frequency. Therefore, the impedance of the series
RLC circuit will increase when the frequency is decreased from the resonant value.
At frequencies higher than resonant frequency, the inductive reactance will be more than
the capacitive reactance and so the total reactance will be inductive. Since the inductive reactance
is directly proportional to frequency, the inductive reactance and hence, the total reactance will
increase when the frequency is increased from the resonant frequency. Therefore, the impedance
of the series RLC circuit will increase when the frequency is increased from the resonant value.
At resonant frequency, the impedance of the RLC series circuit is equal to the resistance and
this value of the impedance is minimum. Since the impedance is minimum, the current is maximum
at resonance. Also the current at resonance will be in-phase with the supply voltage V.
Since the impedance increases for frequencies lesser or higher than the resonant value, the
current decreases when frequency is increased or decreased from the resonant value.
X
L
I Z =w
XL
XC
-
Ir XL
=
= X
0 wr w
=
R 1
-X C = -
w w wC
wr wr
Fig. a : Current vs Frequency. Fig. b : Impedance vs -X

Frequency.
Fig. c : Reactance vs
Fig. 3.12 : Characteristics of series resonance. Frequency.
3.12.3 Q-Factor (Quality Factor) of RLC Series Circuit

When a circuit consisting of a resistor, inductor and capacitor is excited by a sinusoidal
source, the resistor dissipates energy in the form of heat, the inductor stores energy in the magnetic
field associated with it and the capacitor stores energy in the electric field associated with it. In the
steady state (after the transient period), there is a possibility that the sum of the energy stored in
the inductor and capacitor is greater than the energy dissipated in the resistor.
In a series RLC circuit, due to larger stored energy in the inductor and capacitor, the voltage
across these devices will be greater than the supply voltage. In other words we can say that there is a
voltage magnification or amplification. The voltage magnification can be expressed by a factor called
Quality factor (Q), which is defined as the ratio of maximum energy stored to the energy dissipated
in one period.
Maximum energy stored
` Quality factor, Q = 2π # .....(3.29)
Energy dissipated in one period
The term 2π is introduced to simplify the expression for quality factor.

Maximum energy stored at resonance

Quality factor at resonance, Q r = 2π #
Energy dissipated in one period at resonance .....(3.30)
ωr L
Here, Qr = .....(3.31)
R
At resonance, ωr = 1 ; ω2r = 1 and L = 1

LC LC ω2r C
Therefore, the quality factor at resonance, Qr can also be expressed as shown below:
ωr L
= r # 12 = 1 1
ω
Qr = ` Qr = .....(3.32)
R R ωr C ωr CR ωr CR
ωr L 1 L = 1 L
Qr = = ` Qr = 1 L .....(3.33)
R LC R R C R C
For frequencies less than resonant frequency, the RLC series circuit behaves as a capacitive
circuit.
∴ When ω ≤ ωr , Q = 1 .....(3.34)
ωCR
For frequencies higher than resonant frequency, the RLC series circuit behaves as an
inductive circuit.
∴ When ω ≤ ωr , Q = ωL .....(3.35)
R
Note : In an RLC series circuit, when the inductor stores energy, the capacitor discharges it
and vice versa. At resonance, the sum of energy stored in the inductor and capacitor is maximum.
For ω < ωr , the energy stored in the capacitor is maximum and for ω > ωr , the energy stored
in the inductor is maximum.
Equation (3.35) can be used to calculate the Q-factor of a coil or an RL series circuit and
equation (3.34) can be used to calculate the Q-factor of an RC series circuit.
Proof for quality factor at resonance, Qr in RLC series circuit
Consider an RLC series circuit shown in Fig 3.13, excited by a sinusoidal voltage source of frequency, ω.
Let, I be the reference phasor. R L C

` I = I +0 o A + v -
i C
Let, i = Instantaneous value of current.
∴ i = Im sinwt .....(3.36)
Let, wL = Instantaneous value of energy stored in inductor I
wC = Instantaneous value of enrgy stored in capacitor

+ ~ -
V, w
w = Total instantaneous energy stored in the RLC circuit

Fig. 3.13.
wr = Total intantaneous energy stored in the RLC circuit at resonance.

We know that,
wL = 1 L i 2 Using equation (3.6)

2
1
= L _ Im sin ωt i2 Using equation (3.36)
2
= 1 L I m2 sin 2 ωt .....(3.37)
2
We know that,
wC = 1 C νc2 Using equation (3.10)

2
2
1
= 1 C< 1 # i dt F νC = # i dt
2 C C
2
C< # Im sin ωt dt F
1 1
= Using equation (3.36)
2 C
cos ωt 2 I 2
C < d− Im nF = m2 cos ωt
1 1 2 .....(3.38)
` ωC =
2 C ω 2ω C
1 I 2
Now, w = wL + wC = L Im2 sin 2 ωt + m2 cos 2 ωt Using equations (3.37) and (3.38)
2 2ω C
Im2 1
2 <
= L sin 2 ωt + 2 cos 2 ωt F
ω C
Im2 1
2 <
` wr = w = L sin 2 ωt + 2 cos 2 ωt F
~ = ~r ω C ~ = ~r
I m2
L sin 2 ωr t + 12 cos 2 ωr t F
2<
=
ωr C
Im2
< L sin ωr t + cos 2 ωr t F
2 LC 1 1
= ωr = & = LC
2 C LC ωr2
Im2 L 7 2
= sin ωr t + cos 2 ωr t A sin 2 + cos 2 θ = 1
2
Im2 L
` ωr = .....(3.39)
2
From equation (3.39) we can say that the energy stored in the RLC circuit at resonance is independent of time
and it is constant. Therefore, the instantaneous energy is the maximum energy stored at resonance.
Let, Wmr = Maximum energy stored at resonance

Im2 L
` Wmr = wr = .....(3.40)
2
In the RLC series circuit, the enrgy is dissipated by the resistor.
Let, WR = Energy dissipated in the resistor in one period.
WRr = Energy dissipated in the resistor in one period at resonance.
` WR = Power # Time period

I = RMS value of current
= I2 R # T
Im 2 1
∴ WR = d n R# f I=
Im
T=
1
2 f
2
I m2 2π
= R# 1 2π
2 ω ω = 2πf & =
f ω
π Im2 R
= .....(3.41)
ω
2
π Im R
` WRr = WR = .....(3.42)
~ = ~r ωr
Wmr 1
` Qr = 2π # = 2π # Wmr #
WRr WRr
Im2 L ωr
= 2π # # Using equations (3.40) and (3.42)
2 π Im2 R
ωr L
= .....(3.43)
R
3.12.4 Bandwidth of Series RLC Circuit (AU June’16, 16 Marks & May’17, 8 Marks)
From the current response (Refer Fig. 3.12(a)) of an RLC series circuit we can say that the
current is maximum at resonance and it decreases when frequency is decreased or increased from
the resonant value. For practical applications, we have to define a range of frequencies over which
the current response is appreciable and this range of frequency is called bandwidth.
Since the resistance is load resistance in practical circuits, the range of frequencies over which
the response is appreciable can be decided based on the power in the resistance. At resonance, the
current is maximum and so, the power is maximum. For practical applications, the frequency range
in which power is greater than or equal to 50% of maximum power is chosen as a useful range. It
can be proved that when power is 50% of the maximum value (or 1/2 times of maximum value),
current is 1/ 2 times of the maximum value.
“The current response is maximum at resonance” and it decreases for increasing or decreasing
frequency from the resonance value. Therefore, when frequency is decreased from the resonant
value, we come across a frequency at which power is 1/2 times that of maximum value (or current
is 1/ 2 times that of maximum value), and this frequency is called lower cut-off frequency, ωl.
When frequency is increased from the resonant value, we come across a frequency at which
power is 1/2 times that of maximum value (or current is 1/ 2 times that of maximum value), and
this frequency is called higher cut-off frequency, ωh.
The two cut-off frequencies are also called half-power frequencies, and they lie on either
side of the resonant frequency as shown in Fig. 3.14. It can be proved that resonant frequency is
given by the geometric mean of the two half-power frequencies, i.e., ωr = ωl ωh
Now, “bandwidth can be defined as the range of frequencies over which power is greater
than or equal to 1/2 times the maximum power”.
Alternatively, “bandwidth can be defined as the range I

of frequencies over which current is greater than or equal to Ir
1/ 2 times the maximum current”. 1

Ir = 0.707 Ir
2
Bandwidth is given by the difference between the cut-off
b
frequencies and it can be denoted by β. The unit of bandwidth
is rad/s or Hz. wl wr wh
w
The equations for cut-off frequencies and bandwidth are Fig. 3.14 : Current response of
given below: RLC series circuit
2
Higher cut-off angular frequency, ωh = R + e o
R + 1 in rad/s
2L 2L LC
.....(3.44)
2
Lower cut- off angular frequency, ωl = − R + e o
R + 1 in rad/s
2L 2L LC .....(3.45)
Alternatively,
ωh = ωr > H in rad/s
1 1
+ 1+ .....(3.46)
2Q r 4Q r2
ωl = ωr >− H in rad/s
1 1
+ 1+ .....(3.47)
2Q r 4Q r2
Higher cut- off frequency, fh = 1 > R + R + 1 H in Hz

2
e o .....(3.48)
2π 2 L 2L LC
Lower cut - off frequency, fl = 1 >− R + R + 1 H in Hz

2
e o .....(3.49)
2 π 2L 2L LC
Bandwidth, β = R in rad/s .....(3.50)

L
Alternatively,
Bandwidth, β = ωr in rad/s .....(3.51)

Qr
β
Bandwidth in Hz = = R in Hz
2π 2πL .....(3.52)
Proof for cut-off frequencies and bandwidth

1
Z = R + jwL - j
Consider an RLC series circuit shown in Fig. 3.15, excited by a sinusoidal voltage wC
source of frequency, ω.
R L C
Let, V = V∠0 o = Supply voltage.
I = Current through the RLC series circuit.
Z = Impedance of RLC series circuit.
I
Here, Z = R + jωL − j 1 = R + j aωL − 1 k

+ ~ -
V, w
ωC ωC
Fig. 3.15.
2
` Z = Z = R 2 + aωL − 1 k .....(3.53)
ωC
Here, I = V
Z
V V
` I = I = = = V
Z Z Z
` I = V
2 .....(3.54)
R + aωL − 1 k
2 Using equation (3.53)
ωC
Let, P = Power in RLC circuit.
Pr = Power in RLC circuit at resonance.
Here, P = I 2 R = V2 R
2 .....(3.55)
R 2 + aωL − 1 k Using equation (3.54)
ωC
At resonance, ωL − 1 = 0. On substituting this condition in equation (3.55), we get power at resonance, Pr.
ωC
2 2
` Pr = V 2R = V
R R .....(3.56)
2 2
Note : Alternatively, Pr = Ir2 R = a V k R = V
R R
At half-power frequencies or cut-off frequencies, the power will be equal to half the power at resonance.
` 1 # Pr = P
2
1 # V2 = V2 R
2 R 2 Using equations (3.55) and (3.56)
R 2 + aωL − 1 k
ωC
On cross multiplying the above equation, we get,
2
R 2 + aωL − 1 k = 2R 2 1 2
aωL − ωC k = 2R − R
2 2
⇒
ωC
2
` aωL − 1 k = R 2
ωC
On taking square root of above equation, we get,
ωL − 1 = ! R .....(3.57)
ωC
Note : Equation (3.57) implies that the absolute value of total reactance at half-power frequencies is equal to
the resistance of the circuit.
` ωh L − 1 = R ; ωl L − 1 = − R
ωh C ωl C
On multiplying equation (3.57) by ω , we get,
L
ω2 − 1 = ! R ω ⇒ ω2 " R ω − 1 = 0
LC L L LC
` ω2 − R ω − 1 = 0 and ω2 + R ω − 1 = 0
L LC L LC
The roots of quadratic ω2 − R ω − 1 = 0 are, The roots of quadratic ω2 + R ω − 1 = 0 are,

L LC L LC
R! R 2 4 R 2 4
a L k + LC −R ! a L k + LC
ω = L ω = L
2 2
4< 1 a R k + 1 F 4< 1 a R k + 1 F
2 2
= R ! 1 = − R ! 1
2L 2 4 L LC 2L 2 4 L LC
R ! R 2 1 = − R ! R 2 1
=
2L a 2L k + LC 2L a 2L k + LC
The cut-off frequencies are given by the positive roots of the two quadratic.
R + R 2 1
` Higher cut- off angular frequency, ωh =
2L a 2L k + LC in rad/s .....(3.58)
2
Lower cut-off angular frequency, ωl = − R + a R k + 1 in rad/s .....(3.59)
2L 2L LC
Since, ω = 2πf and f = ω , the cut-off frequency in Hz can be expressed as shown below:
2π
1 <R +
a 2L k + LC F in Hz
` Higher cut- o ff frequency, f h = R 2 1
2π 2L .....(3.60)
1 <− R +
a 2L k + LC F in Hz
Lower cut- off frequency, f l = R 2 1
2π 2L .....(3.61)
The bandwidth, β is given by the difference between cut-off frequencies.
∴ Bandwidth, β = ωh – ωl
a 2L k + LC − <− 2L + a 2L k + LC F
= R + R 2 1 R R 2 1
2L
= R + R = 2 R = R in rad/s
2 L 2L 2L L .....(3.62)
β
` Bandwidth in Hz = = R in Hz .....(3.63)
2π 2πL
Alternatively, the bandwidth and cut-off frequencies can be expressed in terms of angular resonant frequency,
ωr and quality factor, Qr as shown below:
From equation (3.62), we get, β = R

L
ωr L R = ωr
From equation (3.43), we get, Qr = &
R L Qr
On comparing the above two equations, we get,
ωr
β = .....(3.64)
Qr
From equation (3.58), we get,
R + R 2 1 β β2 1 R = β
a 2L k + LC = 2 + + ωr2
ωh = ωr =
2L 4 LC L
ωr2 ωr
ωr2 d1 + 1 2 n
ωr ωr
= + + ωr2 = + β =
2Qr 4Qr2 2Qr 4Q r Qr
1 + 1 2 = ωr > 1 + 1+ 1 2 H
ωr
= + ωr
2Qr 4Qr 2Qr 4Qr .....(3.65)
Similarly,
ωl = ωr >− 1 + 1+ 1 2 H
2Qr 4Q r .....(3.66)
On multiplying equations (3.65) and (3.66), we get,
ωh ωl = ωr > 1 + 1 + 1 2 H # ωr >− 1 + 1+ 1 2 H
2Q r 4Qr 2Qr 4Qr
= ωr2 > 1+ 1 2 + 1 H > 1+ 1 2 − 1 H

4Qr 2Qr 4Qr 2Qr
= ωr2 <1 + 1 − 1
F
4Qr2 4Qr2 (a + b) (a – b) = a2 – b2
= ωr2
` ωr = ωh ωl .....(3.67)
From equation (3.67) we can say that resonant frequency is given by the geometric mean of the cut-off
frequencies.
3.12.5 Selectivity of Series RLC Circuit

RLC circuits are operated at resonance condition in order to select a particular frequency
signal from a group of signals, or they are employed to pass a particular frequency of signal from
one part of the circuit to the other. In general, resonance circuits are frequency selective circuits.
The best example of resonant circuits are tuned circuits used in TV/Radio. Each TV/Radio
station broadcasts its signal at a particular frequency allotted to it. The tuning circuit is basically
an RLC circuit with variable capacitance. In order to select a channel/station, the capacitance is
varied and the circuit is made to resonate at the frequency of the desired channel/station. Under
resonance condition, the response is maximum at the desired frequency. Hence, the tuning circuit
selects a particular frequency and rejects all the other frequencies.
A resonant circuit should be capable of selecting the desired frequency and rejecting all the
other frequencies. This is possible only by achieving a very narrow response curve with smaller
bandwidth as shown in Fig. 3.16. When the response curve is very I

narrow, the circuit is highly selective. A term called selectivity Ir
can be defined in order to measure the ability of the resonant

1
circuit to discriminate between the desired and unwanted Ir
2
frequencies.
Selectivity is defined as the ratio of bandwidth and
resonant frequency. wr
w
β ω − ωl Fig. 3.16 : Current response curve
` Selectivity = = h .....(3.68) of a highly selective RLC series
ωr ωr
resonant circuit.
From the definition of selectivity we can say that a circuit is highly selective when the value
of selectivity is low, which is possible with a smaller value of bandwidth β.
ωr
β =
Qr
β ω
` Selectivity = = r# 1 = 1 .....(3.69)
ωr Q r ωr Qr
From equation (3.69), we can say that selectivity is the

I Q1 > Q 2 > Q 3
inverse of the quality factor. Therefore, when the quality factor
Ir Q3
is high, the selectivity will be small and so the circuit will be
Q2
highly selective.
Q1
Also, from the expression of bandwidth we can say that

when the quality factor is high, the bandwidth will be small w
wr
and the circuit will be highly selective. The current response of Fig. 3.17 : Current response of
a series RLC resonant circuit for various values of Q is shown an RLC series resonant circuit for
in Fig. 3.17. various values of Q.
3.12.6 Variation of Voltage across L and C with Frequency
Consider an RLC series circuit shown in Fig. 3.18, excited by a
1
Z =R + jwL - j
sinusoidal voltage source of V with variable frequency ω. Let V be wC
reference phasor. -j
1
R jwL wC
∴ V = V 0o V + - + -
VL VC
Impedance, Z = R + jωL − j 1 = R + j eωL − 1 o

ωC ωC
R + eωL − 1 o + tan- 1 f ωC p = Z+φ

ωL − 1 I + -
= 2
2
~
V,w
ωC R
Fig. 3.18.
φ = tan- 1 f ωC p
2 ωL − 1
where, Z = R 2 + e ωL − 1 o ;
ωC R
o
I = V = V+0 = V + − φ = I+ − φ
Z Z+φ Z
where, I = V
Z
At resonance, Z = R & I = Ir = V
R
ωL
Voltage across inductance at resonance, VLr = I r # jωr L = V jωr L = jV r
R R
ωr L
Since, Q r = , VLr = jVQr = VQr + 90 o V
R
∴ Magnitude of voltage across inductance at resonance, VLr = VQ r
Voltage across capacitance at resonance, VCr = I r # e − j 1 o

ωr C
= V # e − j 1 o = − jV 1
R ωr C ωr CR
Since, Q r = 1 , V = − jVQ = VQ + − 90 o V
Cr r r
ωr CR
∴ Magnitude of voltage across capacitance at resonance, VCr = VQ r
From the above analysis we can say that the magnitude of voltage across inductor and
capacitor is Qr times the supply voltage at resonance, but they are in phase opposition. Therefore
the sum of inductance and capacitance voltage at resonance will be zero. (i.e., VLr + VCr =
jVQr − jVQr = 0). At resonance the full supply voltage will be available across the resistance.
Since the voltage across the inductance or capacitance is Q r times the supply voltage we
can say that the series RLC circuit amplifies the voltage.
3.12.7 Solved Problems in Series Resonance

EXAMPLE 3.5
(AU June’14, 16 Marks)
For the RLC circuit shown in Fig. 1, determine the impedance at a) resonant 12W 0.15H 22 mF
frequency, b) 10 Hz below resonant frequency and c) 10 Hz above resonant frequency.
SOLUTION
Given that, R = 12 Ω ; L = 0.15 H and C = 22 mF = 22 × 10
–6
F + ~ -
V
Angular resonant frequency, ωr = 1 = 1 = 550.4819 rad/s Fig. 1.
LC 0.15 # 22 # 10- 6
= 550.4819 = 87.6119 Hz
ωr
Resonant frequency, fr =
2π 2π
Let, Z be the impedance of an RLC series circuit. With reference to Fig. 1, we get,
Z = R + jωL − j 1 = R + j eωL − 1 o
ωC ωC
a) Impedance at resonance
Let, Zr be the impedance at the resonance frequency. At resonant frequency ωr, the total reactance is zero,
i.e., ωr L − 1 = 0 and the impedance is equal to resistance.

ωr C
` Impedance of resonance, Zr = R = 12 Ω
b) Impedance at 10 Hz below the resonant frequency
Let, Z1 be the impedance at 10 Hz below the resonant frequency and ω1 be the corresponding frequency.
Now, ω1 = 2π (fr − 10) = 2π × (87.6119 − 10) = 487.6499 rad/s
` Z1 = R + j eω1 L − 1 o
ω1 C
= 12 + j e 487.6499 # 0.15 − 1
o
487.6499 # 22 # 10- 6
= 12 − j20.0639 W = 23.3786∠−59.1o W
c) Impedance at 10 Hz above the resonant frequency
Let, Z 2 be the impedance at 10 Hz above the resonant frequency and ω2 be the corresponding frequency.
Now, ω2 = 2π (fr + 10) = 2π × (87.6119 + 10) = 613.3137 rad/s
` Z2 = R + j eω2 L − 1 o
ω2 C
= 12 + j e613.3137 # 0.15 − 1
o
613.3137 # 22 # 10- 6
= 12 + j17.884 W = 21.5369∠56.1o W
(AU Dec’16, 16 Marks) VR VL

EXAMPLE 3.6 + E + E
2 XL= 10
For the circuit shown in Fig. 1,find I, VR, VL and VC at resonance. +
Also calculate bandwidth, Q factor, half-power frequencies and power
dissipated at resonance and at the half-power frequencies. Take resonant
10 V ~
E XC= 10
+
E
VC
frequency as 5000 Hz.

Fig. 1.
SOLUTION
At resonance the voltage across the resistor is equal to the supply voltage.
` VR = E = 10+0o V
VR o
Current at resonance, Ir = = E = 10+0 = 5+0o A
R R 2
VL = Ir # jXL = 5+0o # j10 = 5+0o # 10 + 90o = 50 + 90o V
VC = Ir # (− jXC) = 5+0o # (− j10) = 5+0o # 10 + − 90o = 50 + − 90o V

ωrL X
Quality factor at resonance, Qr = = L = 10 = 5
R R 2
fr
Bandwidth, β = = 5000 = 1000 Hz
Qr 5
Higher cut − off frequency , fh = fr > 1 + 1+ 12 H

2Qr 4Qr
= 5000 # < 1 + 1+ 1
F = 5524.9378 Hz
2#5 4 # 52
Lower cut − off frequency , fl = fr > − 1 + 1+ 12 H

2Qr 4Qr
= 5000 # < − 1 + 1+ 1
F = 4524.9378 Hz
2#5 4 # 52
Power dissipated at resonance, Pr = Ir2 R = 5 2 # 2 = 50 W
Pr
Power dissipated at half-power frequency = = 50 = 25 W
2 2

5W 0.03H 100 mF
For the circuit shown in Fig. 1, determine the frequency at which the circuit
resonates. Also find the quality factor, voltage across inductance and voltage across
capacitance at resonance.
SOLUTION
+~
20V
-
Fig. 1.
Given that, R = 5 W ; L = 0.03 H ; C = 100 µF and Supply voltage, V = 20 V
Angular frequency of resonance, ωr = 1 = 1 = 577.3503 rad/s

LC 0.03 # 100 # 10- 6
= 577.3503 = 91.8882 Hz
ωr
Resonant frequency, f r =
2π 2π
ωrL
Quality factor at resonance, Qr = = 577.3503 # 0.03 = 3.4641
R 5
Voltage across inductance at resonance, VLr = jQr V = j3.4641 # 20
= j69.282 V = 69.282∠90o V
Voltage across capacitance at resonance, VCr = − jQr V = − j3.4641 # 20
= –j69.282 V = 69.282∠−90o V
Alternatively, VLr and VCr can be computed as shown below:
Current at resonance, Ir = V = 20 = 4 A
R 5
VLr = Ir # jω r L = 4 # j577.3503 # 0.03 = j69.282 V = 69.282+90 o V
VCr = Ir # e− j 1 o = 4 # e− j 1
o = − j69.282 V = 69.282+ − 90 V
o
ω rC 577.3503 # 100 # 10- 6
EXAMPLE 3.8
A series RLC circuit has an impedance of 40 W at a frequency of 200 rad/s. When the circuit is made to
resonate by connecting a 10 V source of variable frequency the current at resonance is 0.5 A and the quality
factor at resonance is 10. Determine the circuit parameters.
SOLUTION
Given that, supply voltage, V = 10 V ; I r = 0.5 A ; Qr = 10 ; Z = 40 Ω ~ = 200 rad/s
We know that, Ir = V ` R = V = 10 = 20 Ω
R Ir 0.5
We know that, Qr = 1 L ; ` Q2r = 12 L ⇒ C = 12 12 L

R C R C Qr R
` C = 1 # 1 # L = 2.5 # 10- 5 L
102 202
The magnitude of impedance, Z of the RLC series circuit is given by,
2
R 2 + d ωL − 1 n
2 2
Z =
ωC ⇒ Z 2 = R 2 + d ωL − 1 n ⇒ Z 2 − R 2 = d ωL − 1 n
ωC ωC
` ωL − 1 = Z2 − R2
ωC
On substituting ω = 200 rad/s, Z = 40 W, R = 20 W and C = 2.5 × 10 –5L in the above equation we get,
200 L − 1 = 402 − 202 ⇒ 200 L − 200 = 34.641

200 # 2.5 # 10- 5 L L
On multiplying throughout by L/200, we get,
L # 200L − L # 200 = L # 34.641 ⇒ L2 − 1 = 0.1732 L

200 200 L 200
∴ L2 – 0.1732 L – 1 = 0
` L = 0.1732 ! 0.17322 + 4 = 1.0903 H Taking positive value

2
` C = 2.5 # 10- 5 L = 2.5 # 10- 5 # 1.0903 = 2.72575 # 10- 5 F
= 27.2575 # 10- 6 F = 27.2575µF

RESULT
The circuit parameters R, L and C are,
R = 20 W ; L = 1.0903 H and C = 27.2575 µF

An RLC series circuit consists of R = 16 W, L = 5 mH and C = 2 µF. Calculate the quality factor, bandwidth
and half-power frequencies.
SOLUTION
Angular resonant frequency, ωr = 1 = 1 = 10, 000 rad/s

LC 5 # 10- 3 # 2 # 10- 6
10, 000 # 5 # 10- 3
Quality factor at resonance, Qr = ωr L = = 3.125
R 16
10, 000
Bandwidth, β = ωr = = 3200 rad/s
Qr 3.125
β
Bandwidth in Hz = = 3200 = 509.2958 Hz
2π 2π
R 2+ 1
Lower angular cut − off frequency, ωr = − R + d n
2L 2L LC
R 2+ 1
Higher angular cut − off frequency, ω h = R + d n
2L 2L LC
Here, R = 16 = 1600
2L 2 # 5 # 10- 3
1 = 1 = 108
LC 5 # 10- 3 # 2 # 10- 6
` ωl = − 1600 + 16002 + 108 = 8527.1911 rad/s
ωh = 1600 + 16002 + 108 = 11727.1911 rad/s
= 8527.1911 = 1357.1446 Hz
ωl
Lower cut − off frequency, fl =
2π 2π
= 11727.1911 = 1866.4404 Hz
ωh
Higher cut − off frequency, fh =
2π 2π
EXAMPLE 3.10
An RLC series circuit is to be designed to produce a magnification of 10 at 100 rad/s. The 100 V source
connected to an RLC series circuit can supply a maximum current of 10 A. The half-power frequency impedance
of the circuit should not be more than 14.14 W. Find the values of R, L and C.
SOLUTION
Given that ωr = 100 rad/s, Qr = 10, V = 100 V, Ir = 10 A.
The current will be maximum only at resonance. Hence, 10 A current can be considered as current at
resonant condition.
Current at resonance, Ir = V
R
` R = V = 100 = 10 Ω
Ir 10
ωr L
Quality factor at resonance, Qr =
R
Qr R
` L = = 10 # 10 = 1 H
ωr 100
Angular higher cut − off frequency, ωh = ωr < 1 + 1+ 1 2 F

2Qr 4Qr
= 100 < 1 + 1+ 1
F = 105.1249 rad/s
2 # 10 4 # 10 2
Let, Z = Impedance of RLC series circuit.
2
Here, Z = R 2 + d ωL − 1 n
ωC
At higher cut - off
2
R + dωh L − 1 n = 1 2 1 2
dωh L − ω C n + dωh L − ω C n
2 frequency,
` Z =
~ = ~h ωh C h h
R = ωh L − 1
ωh C
2
= 2 dωh L − 1 n = 2 dωh L − 1 n
ωh C ωh C
Here, 2 dωh L − 1 n # 14.14 ⇒ 2 cωh L − 1 m = 14.14 ⇒ 1 = ω L − 14.14

h
ωh C ωh C ωh C 2
` C = 1 = 1
ωh dωh L − 14. 14
n 105.1249 # d105.1249 − 14.14 n
2 2
= 99.998 # 10- 6 F = 99.998 µF . 100 µF

RESULT
The values of the parameters of an RLC series circuit are,
R = 10 W, L = 1 H and C = 100 µF
3.13 Parallel Resonance (AU Dec’14, 16 Marks)

Like series RLC circuits, the resonance condition can be achieved in parallel RLC circuits
by varying the frequency of the exciting source. In a parallel RLC circuit, the circuit will behave
as a purely resistive circuit at resonance and this circuit condition is called parallel resonance.
However, the current supplied by the source is minimum in parallel resonance, which is why
parallel resonance is also called anti-resonance.
For simplicity in analysis, parallel circuits can be analysed in terms of admittance. In
admittance, the inductive and capacitive susceptances have opposite signs and they are functions
of frequency. Hence, when the susceptances are varied by varying the frequency of the exciting
source, there is a possibility that the inductive susceptance cancels the capacitive susceptance at a
particular frequency. Therefore, the total susceptance is zero and the circuit will behave as a purely
resistive circuit. Now, the circuit will be in resonance and the frequency at which resonance occurs
is called resonant frequency.
The effective resistance of the RLC parallel circuit at resonance is called dynamic resistance.
At resonance, the admittance of the RLC parallel circuit is purely real and so the dynamic resistance
is given by the inverse of admittance at resonance.
In a parallel RLC circuit, we may come across the following four combinations of R, L and
C circuits, as also shown in Fig. 3.19.
Case i : R, L and C are in parallel.
Case ii : A branch with R1 and L in series is parallel with another branch with R2 and C in series.
Case iii : A branch with R1 and L in series is parallel with C.
Case iv : A branch with R2 and C in series is parallel with L.
R1 R2 R1 R2
R L C C L
L C L C
Fig. a : R, L and C are Fig. b : RL parallel Fig. c : RL parallel Fig. d : L parallel

in parallel. with RC. with C. with RC.
Fig. 3.19 : RLC parallel resonant networks.
3.13.1 Resonant Frequency of Parallel RLC Circuits I
Case i : Parallel combination of R, L and C +
Consider the RLC parallel circuit shown in Fig. 3.20, excited V, w ~

-
R L C
by a sinusoidal source of variable frequency. When the frequency of

the source is varied, the resonance occurs at a particular frequency.
The expressions for resonance frequency and dynamic resistance for Y = G - jBL + jB C
the RLC parallel circuit of Fig. 3.20 are given below: Fig. 3.20.
1
Resonant angular frequency, ωr = in rad/s
LC .....(3.70)
ωr 1
Resonant frequency, fr = = in Hz .....(3.71)
2π 2π LC
Dynamic resistance, R dynamic = R .....(3.72)
Proof for resonance frequency in RLC parallel circuit
Consider the parallel combination of R, L and C shown in Fig. 3.20.

Let, Y = Admittance of the parallel combination of R, L and C.
Now, Y = G − jBL + jBC = 1 − j 1 + jωC G =

1
; BL =
1
; BC = ωC
R ωL R ωL
= 1 + j aωC − 1 k
R ωL .....(3.73)
At resonant frequency ωr , the circuit behaves as a purely resistive circuit and so the imaginary part of admittance
is zero.
` At ω = ωr , ωr C − 1 = 0 .....(3.74)
ωr L
` 1 = ωC
r
ωr L
` ωr2 = 1
LC
` ωr = 1
LC
` fr =
ωr
& fr = 1
2π 2π LC ω=2πf
Let, Y r be the admittance at resonance and it is obtained by substituting ω = ωr in equation (3.73).
` Y r = 1 + j dωr C − 1 n = 1 Using equation (3.74)

R ωr L R
Dynamic resistance is the inverse of the admittance at resonance.
` Dynamic resistance, Rdynamic = 1 = R

Yr
Case ii : RL parallel with RC

+ R1 R2
Consider the RLC parallel circuit shown in Fig. 3.21, excited V, w ~ Y1 Y2
by a sinusoidal source of variable frequency. When the frequency of -
L1 C2
The expression for resonance frequency and dynamic resistance for 1 1
Y = Y1 + Y2 = +
the RLC parallel circuit of Fig. 3.21 are given below: Z1 Z2
Fig. 3.21.
1 L − CR12 .....(3.75)
Resonant angular frequency, ωr = in rad/s
LC L − CR22
1 L − CR12
Resonant frequency, fr = ωr = in Hz .....(3.76)
2π 2π LC L − CR22
1
Dynamic resistance, Rdynamic = in Ω
R1 R2
+ .....(3.77)
R12 + X 2Lr R 22 + XCr
2
1
where, X Lr = ωr L ; XCr =
ωr C
Proof for resonance frequency in parallel RLC circuit in which RL parallel with RC
Consider the parallel resonant circuit shown in Fig. 3.21.
Let, Y = Total admittance of the RLC parallel network.
1 1
Now, Y = Y 1 + Y 2 = 1 + 1 = +
Z1 Z2 R1 + jωL R2 − j 1
ωC
Let us separate the real and imaginary parts by multiplying the numerator and denominator of each term by
the conjugate of the denominator.
R1 − jωL R2 + j 1
` Y = 1 # + 1 # ωC
R1 + jωL R1 − jωL R2 − j 1 R2 + j 1
ωC ωC
R + j 1
R1 − jωL 2
ωC
= 2 +
R1 + ω2 L2 R 22 + 21 2
ω C
1
R R2
= 2 1 2 2 − j 2 ωL 2 2 + +j ωC
R1 + ω L R1 + ω L R 22 + 21 2 R 22 + 21 2
ω C ω C
R 1 V
R1 S W
= 2 + R2
+ jS ω C − 2 ω L W
.....(3.78)
R 22 + 21 2 S R 22 + 1
2 2 2 2
R1 + ω L R1 + ω L W
ω C S 2 2
ω C W
T X
At resonant frequency ωr , the circuit behaves as a purely resistive circuit and so the imaginary part of the
admittance is zero.
1
ωr C ωL
` At ω = ωr ; − 2 r 2 2 = 0
1 R 1 + ωr L
2
R2 + 2 2
ωr C
1 ωr L
` =
ωr C d R 22 + 1 R12 + ωr2 L2
ωr2 C 2 n
On cross-multiplying the above equation, we get,
R12 + ωr2 L2 = ωr2 LC d R 22 + 1 R12 + ωr2 L2 = ωr2 R 22 LC + L

ωr2 C 2 n
⇒ .....(3.79)
C
` ωr2 L2 − ωr2 R 22 LC = L − R12 ⇒ ωr2 LC a L − R 22 k = L − R12

C C C
L − R2
` ωr2 = C
1
= L − CR12
L
LC a − R 2 k 2 LC _L − CR 22 i
C
` ωr = 1 L − CR12
LC L − CR 22
` fr =
ωr
= 1 L − CR12
2π 2π LC L − CR 22
The value of admittance at resonance is obtained from the real part of equation (3.78) at ω = ωr .
R1 R2 R1 R2
` Admittance at resonance, Y r = Yr = + = +
R12 + ωr2 L2 R 22 + 21 2 R12 + XLr2 R22 + XCr2
ωr C
where, XLr = ωr L ; XCr = 1
ωr C
` Rdynamic = 1 = 1
Yr R1 R2
+
R12 + XLr2 R22 + XCr2
Resonance at All Frequency
The parameters R1, R2, L and C of the parallel resonant circuit shown in Fig. 3.22 can be
chosen such that the circuit behaves as a purely resistive circuit at all frequencies. Hence, the circuit
will be in resonance at all frequencies.
R1
From equation (3.79), we can write, + R2
V, w ~
R12 − L + ωr2 L2 − ωr2 R22 LC = 0 -
L
C C
` aR12 − L k − ωr2 LC aR22 − L k = 0 Fig. 3.22.

C C
Let, R1 = R2 = R
` aR2 − L k − ωr2 LC aR2 − L k = 0

C C
L
aR − C k (1 − ωr LC) = 0
2 2
The above equation is zero, if aR2 − L k = 0

C
2 L
Let, R − C = 0
` R2 = L
C
` R = L .....(3.80)
C
Equation (3.80) is the condition for resonance at all frequencies. Therefore, we can say that when
R1 = R2 = L , the imaginary part of the admittance will be zero for all frequencies and the circuit of
C
Fig. 3.22 will behave as a resistive circuit at all frequencies, i.e., resonate at all frequencies.
Case iii : RL parallel with C

R1
Consider the RLC parallel circuit shown in Fig. 3.23, excited +
by a sinusoidal source of variable frequency. When the frequency of V, w

-
~ Y1 C
L1
The expressions for resonance frequency and dynamic resistance
1
for the RLC parallel circuit of Fig. 3.23 are given below: Y = Y1 + jBC =
Z1
+ jBC
Fig. 3.23.
1 CR12
Resonant angular frequency, ωr = 1−
LC L .....(3.81)
1 CR12
Resonant frequency, fr = ωr = 1− .....(3.82)
2π 2π LC L
Dynamic resistance, Rdynamic = L in Ω .....(3.83)

R1 C
Note : Equation (3.81) for resonant frequency can be obtained from equation (3.75), if we
put R2 = 0.
Proof for resonance frequency in parallel RLC circuit in which RL is parallel with C
Now, Y = Y 1 + jBC = 1 + jBC

Z1
1 1 R1 − jωL
= + jω C = # + jωC
R1 + jωL R1 + jωL R1 − jωL
R1 − jωL
= + jωC = 2 R1 2 2 − j 2 ωL 2 2 + jωC
R12 + ω2 L2 R1 + ω L R1 + ω L
= R1 + j dωC − 2 ωL 2 2 n
R12 + ω2 L2 R1 + ω L .....(3.84)
At resonant frequency ωr, the circuit behaves as a purely resistive circuit and so the imaginary part of the
admittance is zero.
ωr L
` At ω = ωr ; ωr C − = 0
R12 + ωr2 L2
ωr L ωr L
` ωr C = ⇒ R12 + ωr2 L2 =
R12 + ωr2 L2 ωr C
` ωr2 L2 = L − R12 .....(3.85)

C
On dividing the above equation by L2, we get,
2 2
ωr2 = 1 − R1 ⇒ ωr2 = 1 d1 − CR1 n
LC L2 LC L
2
` ωr = 1 1 − CR1
LC L
2
1 1 − CR1
ωr
` fr = =
2π 2π LC L
The value of admittance at resonance is obtained from the real part of equation (3.84) at ω = ωr.
` Admittance at resonance, Y r = Yr = R1
R12 + ωr2 L2
Dynamic resistance is given by the inverse of the admittance at resonance.
2 2 2
Rdynamic = 1 = R1 + ωr L Using equation (3.85)
Yr R1
R12 + L − R12
= C = L
R1 R1 C
Case iv : L parallel with RC
Consider the RLC parallel circuit shown in Fig. 3.24, + R2
excited by a sinusoidal source of variable frequency. When V, w ~

-
L Y2
the frequency of the source is varied, resonance occurs C
at a paricular frequency. The expressions for resonance

1
Y = - jBL + Y2 = - jBL +
frequency and dynamic resistance for the RLC parallel circuit of Z2
Fig. 3.24 are given below: Fig. 3.24.
Resonant angular frequency, ωr = 1 L in rad/s

LC L − CR 22 .....(3.86)
Resonant frequency, fr = ωr = 1 L in Hz
2π 2π LC L − CR 22 .....(3.87)
Dynamic resistance, Rdynamic = L in Ω

R2 C .....(3.88)
Note : Equation (3.86) for resonant frequency can be obtained from equation (3.85), if we
put R1 = 0.
Proof for resonance frequency in RLC parallel circuit in which L parallel with RC
Now, Y = − jBL + Y 2 = − jBL + 1

Z2
= −j 1 + 1
ωL R2 − j 1
ωC
R2 + j 1
` Y = −j 1 + 1 # ωC
ωL R2 − j 1 R2 + j 1
ωC ωC
R2 + j 1
= −j 1 + ωC
ωL R 22 + 21 2
ω C
1
R2
= −j 1 + + j ωC
ωL R 22 + 21 2 R 22 + 21 2
ω C ω C
R2 1 1
f ωC dR 22 + 21 2 n ωL p
= + j −
R 22 + 1
ω C2
2
ω C .....(3.89)
At resonant frequency ωr, the circuit behaves as resistive circuit and so the imaginary part of the admittance
is zero.
` At ω = ωr ; 1 − 1 = 0
ωr C d R 22 + 1 ωr L
n
ωr2 C 2
1 1 ωr L
` = ⇒ = R 22 + 21 2
ωr C d R 22 + 1 ωr L ωr C
n ωr C
ωr2 C 2
` L − R2 = 1
2
C ωr2 C 2 .....(3.90)
L − CR 22
` = 21 2 ⇒ ωr2 = 1 # C
C ωr C C2 _L − CR 22 i
On multiplying and dividing the above equation by L, we get,
ωr2 = 1 # L ⇒ ωr = 1 L
LC L − CR 22 LC L − CR 22
` ωr = 1 L
LC L − CR 22
` fr =
ωr
= 1 L
2π 2π LC L − CR 22
The value of admittance at resonance is obtained from the real part of equation (3.89) at ω = ωr.
R2
` Admittance at resonance, Y r = Yr =
R 22 + 1
ωr2 C 2
R 22 + 1
ωr2 C 2
` Dynamic resistance, Rdynamic = 1 = Using equation (3.90)
Yr R2
R 22 + L − R 22
= C = L .....(3.91)
R2 R2 C
Table 3.2 : Summary of Equations for Resonance and Dynamic Resistance in Parallel RLC Circuits
3. 40
RLC parallel circuit Resonant frequency Dynamic resistance

ωr in rad/s fr in Hz Rdynamic in W
+
V, w
1 1
R L C ωr = fr = Rdynamic = R
-
~ LC 2π LC
R1
1 L − CR12 1 L − CR12 1
+ R2 ωr = fr = Rdynamic =
V, w LC L − CR 22 2π LC L − CR 22 R1 R2
~ + 2
- L R12 + X 2Lr R 22 + XCr
C
X Lr = ωr L ; XCr = 1
ωr C
+ R1 2 2
ωr = 1 1 − CR1 fr = 1 1 − CR1 Rdynamic = L
V, w C L L R1 C
~ LC 2π LC
- L
+ R2 1 L 1 L
ωr = fr = Rdynamic = L
V, w L LC L − CR22 2π LC L − CR 22 R2 C
-
~
C
Circuit Analysis

Parallel RLC Circuit (AU Dec’16, 2 Marks)
Consider the parallel RLC circuit excited by a sinusoidal I
source of variable frequency as shown in Fig. 3.25. The admittance +

Y of the circuit is given by, V = VÐ0o V ~ R L C
Y = G − jB L + jB C = G + j _B C − B L i .....(3.92)
-
Let, I r = Current at resonance.

Fig. 3.25.
Yr = Admittace at resonance.
At resonance, BL = BC
Therefore, from equation (3.92), we get,
Admittance at resonance, Yr = 1 .....(3.93)
R
` Current at resonance, I r = V Yr = V+0 o # 1 = V +0 o = I r +0 o A .....(3.94)
R R
where, I r = V = Magnitude of current at resonance .....(3.95)
R
Let us examine the variation of admittance of the RLC parallel circuit with frequency. At
frequencies lesser than resonant frequency, the inductive susceptance will be more than the capacitive
susceptance and so the total susceptance will be inductive. Since the inductive susceptance is
inversely proportional to frequency, the inductive susceptance and hence the total susceptance will
increase when the frequency is decreased from the resonant frequency. Therefore, the admittance
of the RLC parallel circuit will increase when the frequency is decreased from the resonant value.
At frequencies higher than resonant frequency, the capacitive susceptance will be more
than the inductive susceptance and so the total susceptance will be capacitive. Since the
capacitive susceptance is directly proportional to frequency, the capacitive susceptance and
hence the total susceptance will increase when the frequency is increased from the resonant
frequency. Therefore, the admittance of the RLC parallel circuit will increase when the frequency
is increased from the resonant value. B
C
=w
BC
BL
-
I Y BC
=
B
0 wr w
1
-BL = -
1 wL
Ir Yr =
R
wr
w wr w
-B
Fig. a : Current vs Frequency. Fig. b : Admittance vs Fig. c : Susceptance vs
Frequency. Frequency.
Fig. 3.26 : Characteristics of parallel resonance.
At resonant frequency, the admittance of the RLC parallel circuit is equal to the
conductance and this value of admittance is minimum. Since the admittance is minimum, the
current is minimum at resonance. Also the current at resonance is in-phase with the supply voltage.
Since the admittance increases for frequencies lesser or higher than the resonant value,
the current increases when the frequency is increased or decreased from the resonant value. The
variation of current, susceptances and admittance of an RLC parallel circuit with frequency are
shown in Fig. 3.26.
When the RLC parallel circuit is excited by a constant current source as shown in
Fig. 3.26(a), it can be justified from the above discussion that the voltage across the parallel
elements is maximum at resonance and decreases when the frequency is increased or decreased
from the resonance value. The variation of voltage with frequency when excited by a constant
current source is shown in Fig. 3.27 (b).
Let, Vri = Voltage across parallel elements at resonance when excited by a current source.
Yri = Admittance of RLC circuit at resonance.
Here, Yri = G = 1
R .....(3.96)
o
Vri = I = I+0 = IR+0 o = Vri +0 o .....(3.97)
Yri G
where, Vri = IR = Magnitude of voltage at resonance .....(3.98)
V
I Vri
+
I = IÐ0o A
~ V R L C
-
wr
w
Fig. a : RLC parallel circuit. V = |V| and Vr = Voltage at resonance
Fig. b : Voltage vs Frequency.
Fig. 3.27 : Characteristics of an RLC parallel circuit excited
by a constant current source.
3.13.3 Q-Factor(Quality Factor) of RLC Parallel Circuit(AU June’14, 16 Marks)

In an RLC parallel circuit, due to stored energy in the inductor and capacitor, the current
through these devices will be greater than the current supplied by the source. In other words, we can
say that there is current magnification or amplification. Current magnification can be expressed
by a factor called Quality factor (Q), which is defined as the ratio of maximum energy stored to
the energy dissipated in one period.
` Quality factor, Q = 2π # .....(3.99)
The term 2π is introduced to simplify the expression for quality factor.
Maximum energy stored at resonance
Quality factor at resonance, Q r = 2π # .....(3.100)
Energy dissipated in one period at resonance
Here, Q r = ωr CR .....(3.101)
At resonance, ωr = 1 , ωr =2 1 and C = 2 1
LC LC ωr L
Therefore, the quality factor at resonance, Qr can also be expressed as shown below:
Q r = ωr CR = ωr # 12 # R = R ` Qr = R .....(3.102)
ωr L ωr L ωr L
= ωr CR = 1 # CR = R C ` Qr = R C .....(3.103)
LC L L
For frequencies less than the resonant frequency, the RLC parallel circuit behaves as an
inductive circuit.
` When ωr # ωr, Q = R .....(3.104)
ωL
For frequencies higher than the resonant frequency, the RLC parallel circuit behaves as a
capacitive circuit.
∴ When ω ≥ ωr , Q = ωCR .....(3.105)
Note : Equation (3.104) can be used to calculate the Q-factor of an RL parallel circuit and
equation (3.105) can be used to calculate the Q-factor of a capacitor or an RC parallel circuit.
Proof for quality factor at resonance, Qr in RLC parallel circuit

Consider an RLC parallel circuit shown in Fig. 3.28, excited by a sinusoidal voltage source of frequency, ω.
Let, V be the reference phasor.
iL
` V = V+0 o V + +
Let, v = Instantaneous value of voltage

V = VÐ0o V ~ R L C
_
v
-
` v = Vm sin ωt .....(3.106)
Let, wL = Instantaneous value of energy stored in inductor Fig. 3.28.
wC = Instantaneous value of energy stored in capacitor
w = Total instantaneous energy stored in the RLC circuit
wr = Total instantaneous energy stored in the RLC circuit at resonance.
We know that,
wL = 1 LiL2 Using equation (3.6)
2
2
= 1 L<1 # v dt F iL = 1 # v dt
2 L L
2
= 1 L<1 # Vm sin ωt dt F Using equation (3.106)
2 L
2
= 1 L < 1 a− Vm cos ωt kF
2 L ω
Vm2
= cos 2 ωt .....(3.107)
2ω2 L
We know that,
wC = 1 CV 2 Using equation (3.10)
2
1
= C _Vm sin ωt i2 Using equation (3.106)
2
1
= C Vm2 sin 2 ωt .....(3.108)
2
V2
Now, w = wL + wC = m2 cos 2 ωt + 1 C Vm2 sin 2 ωt Using equations (3.107) and (3.108)
2ω L 2
Vm2
2 <
= C sin 2 ωt + 12 cos 2 ωt F
ω L
Vm2 Vm2
2 <
C sin 2 ωt + 12 cos 2 ωt F
2 <
` wr = w = = C sin 2 ωr t + 12 cos 2 ωr t F
~ = ~r ω L ωr L
~ = ~r
V2
= m 9C sin 2 ωr t + LC cos 2 ωr t C ωr = 1 ⇒ 1 = LC
2 L LC ωr2
Vm2 C 7 2
= sin ωr t + cos 2 ωr t A sin 2 θ + cos 2 θ = 1
2
Vm2 C
= .....(3.109)
2
From equation (3.109) we can say that the energy stored in the RLC circuit at resonance is independent of time
and it is constant. Therefore, the instantaneous energy is the maximum energy stored at resonance.
Let, Wmr = Maximum energy stored at resonance
Vm2 C
` Wmr = wr = .....(3.110)
2
In the RLC parallel circuit, the energy is dissipated by the resistor
Let, WR = Energy dissipated in resistor in one period
WRr = Energy dissipated in resistor in one period at resonance
∴ WR = Power × Time Period.
2
= V #T V = RMS value of voltage
R
2
=f p #
Vm 1 # 1 Vm
V= T= 1
2 R f 2 f
Vm2 1 = 2π
= # 1 # 2π ω = 2πf ⇒
2 R ω f ω
π Vm2 .....(3.111)
=
ωR
π Vm2
` WRr = WR = .....(3.112)
~ = ~r ωr R
Wmr
` Qr = 2π # = 2π # Wmr # 1
WRr WRr
Vm2 C ωR
= 2π # # r 2 Using equations (3.110) and (3.112)
2 πVm
` Qr = wr CR .....(3.113)
3.13.4 Bandwidth of RLC Parallel Circuit

When an RLC parallel circuit is excited by a constant voltage source as shown in
Fig. 3.29(a), the current is the response as shown in Fig. 3.29(b). From this current response we
can say that the RLC parallel circuit acts as a rejector circuit, where a band of frequencies are
rejected. This is because for the band of frequencies around resonant frequencies, the current
response is minimum.
I
+
V = VÐ0o V
-
~ R L C
Ir
wr w
Fig. a.
Fig. b : Current vs Frequency.
Fig. 3.29 : RLC parallel circuit excited by voltage source.
V
Vri
I
+
I = IÐ0o A
~ V R L C
-
wr
w
Fig. a : RLC parallel circuit. Fig. b : Voltage vs Frequency.
Fig. 3.30 : Parallel circuit excited by a constant current source.
On the other hand, when an RLC parallel circuit is excited by a constant current source
as shown in Fig. 3.30(a), the voltage is the response as shown in Fig. 3.30(b). From this voltage
response, we can say that the RLC parallel circuit acts as a selector circuit where a band of
frequencies are selected. This is because for the band of frequencies around resonant frequencies,
the voltage response is maximum. Bandwidth based on current response and voltage response is
discussed here.
Bandwidth Based on Current Response
The current response of an RLC parallel circuit is shown in I
Fig. 3.31. The current response is minimum at resonance and it increases
for increasing or decreasing frequency from the resonance value. Since
current is minimum, power is also minimum at resonance. Therefore,
when the frequency is decreased from the resonant value, we come 2 Ir
across a frequency at which power is twice the minimum value (or
current is 2 times the minimum value), and this frequency is called Ir
b
lower cut-off frequency, ωl. When frequency is increased from the w
wl wr wh
resonant value, we come across a frequency at which power is twice
the minimum value (or current is 2 times the minimum value), and Fig. 3.31.
this frequency is called higher cut-off frequency, ωh.
The two cut-off frequencies lie on either side of the resonant frequency as shown in
Fig. 3.31. It can be proved that “the resonant frequency is given by the geometric mean of the two
cut-off frequencies”, i.e., ωr = ωl ωh .
The bandwidth based on current response can be defined as the range of frequencies over
which power is less than or equal to twice the minimum power.
Alternatively, the bandwidth based on current response can be defined as the range of
frequencies over which current is less than or equal to 2 times the minimum current.
The bandwidth is given by the difference between the cut-off frequencies and it can be denoted
by β. The unit of bandwidth is rad/s or Hz.
The equations for cut-off frequency and bandwidth are given below:
1 + 1 2 1
Higher cut - off angular frequency, ωh =
2RC a 2RC k + LC in rad/s ..... (3.114)
Lower cut - off angular frequency, ωl = − 1 + 1 2 1

2RC a 2RC k + LC in rad/s ..... (3.115)
Alternatively,
ωh = ωr < 1 + 1 + 1 2 F in rad/s
2Q r 4Q r .....(3.116)
ωl = ωr < − 1 + 1 + 1 2 F in rad/s .....(3.117)

2Q r 4Q r
Higher cut - off frequency, fh = ωh = 1 < 1 + a 2RC k + LC F in Hz

1 2 1 .....(3.118)
2π 2π 2RC
Lower cut - off frequency, fl = ωh = 1 < − 1 + a 2RC k + LC F in Hz

1 2 1 .....(3.119)
2π 2π 2RC
Bandwidth, β = 1 in rad/s
RC .....(3.120)
Alternatively,
Bandwidth, β = ωr in rad/s
Qr .....(3.121)
β 1 in Hz
Bandwidth in Hz = = .....(3.122)
2π 2πRC
Proof for cut-off frequency and bandwidth based on current response

Consider an RLC parallel circuit shown in Fig. 3.32, excited by a sinusoidal voltage source of frequency ω.
Let, V = V+0 o = Supply voltage I
I = Current delivered by the source
Y = Admittance of RLC parallel circuit. +
Here, Y = 1 − j 1 + jωC = 1 + j aωC − 1 k

V, w
~ R L C
R ωL R ωL -
1 + ωC − 1 2
` Y= Y = a ωL k .....(3.123)
R2 Y=
1
-j
1
+ jwC
R wL
Here, I = V Y
Fig. 3.32.
` I = I = V Y = V Y = VY
1 + ωC − 1 2
` I=V# a ωL k
R2 .....(3.124) Using equation (3.123)
Let, P = Power in RLC circuit
Here, P = I 2 R = V 2 d 12 + aωC − 1 k n R
2
R ω L
` P = V 2 d 1 + R aωC − 1 k n
2
.....(3.125)
R ωL
At resonance, ωC = 1/ωL. On substituting this condition in equation (3.125), we get power at resonance, Pr.
2
` Pr = V .....(3.126)
R
2 2
Note : Alternatively, Pr = Ir2 R = a V k R = V
R R
At half-power frequencies or cut-off frequencies, the power will be equal to twice the power at resonance.
` 2 # Pr = P
2
2 # V = V 2 d 1 + R aωC − 1 k n
2
Using equations (3.125) and (3.126)
R R ωL
2 = 1 + R ωC − 1 2 2 − 1 = R ωC − 1 2 1 = R ωC − 1 2
`
R R a ωL k
⇒
R R a ωL k
⇒
R a ωL k
2
` aωC − 1 k = 12
ωL R
On taking the square root of the above equation, we get,
ωC − 1 = ! 1 .....(3.127)
ωL R
Note : Equation (3.127) implies that the absolute value of the total susceptance at cut-off frequencies is equal
to the conductance of the circuit.
` ωh C - 1 = 1 ; ωl C - 1 = - 1
ωh L R ωl L R
ω
On multiplying the equation (3.127) by , we get,
C
2
ω − 1 =! 1 ω ⇒ ω2 " 1 ω − 1 = 0
LC RC RC LC
` ω2 − 1 ω − 1 = 0 and ω2 + 1 ω − 1 = 0
RC LC RC LC
The roots of quadratic The roots of quadratic

ω2 - 1 ω - 1 = 0 are, ω2 + 1 ω - 1 = 0 are,
RC LC RC LC
1 ! 1 2 4 1 1 2 4
RC ` RC j + LC -
RC
! ` RC j + LC
ω = ω =
2 2
2 2
= 1 ! 1 4; 1 ` 1 j + 1 E = - 1 ! 1 4; 1 ` 1 j + 1 E
2RC 2 4 RC LC 2RC 2 4 RC LC
2 2
= 1 ! ` 1 j + 1 = - 1 ! ` 1 j + 1
2RC 2RC LC 2RC 2RC LC
The cut-off frequencies are given by the positive roots of the two quadratic.
1 + 1 2 1
` Higher cut- off angular frequency,ωh =
2RC a 2RC k + LC in rad/s
..... (3.128)
2
Lower cut- off angular frequency, ωl = − 1 + a 1 k + 1 in rad/s ..... (3.129)
2RC 2RC LC
Since, ω = 2πf and f = ω , the cut-off frequency in Hz can be expressed as shown below:
2π
1 < 1 +
a 2RC k + LC F in Hz
` Higher cut- off frequency, f h = 1 2 1
2π 2RC ..... (3.130)
1 <− 1 +
a 2RC k + LC F in Hz
Lower cut- off frequency, f l = 1 2 1
2π 2RC ..... (3.131)
The bandwidth, β is given by difference between cut-off frequencies.
∴ Bandwidth, β = ωh – ωl
a 2RC k + LC − <− 2RC + a 2RC k + LC F

= 1 + 1 2 1 1 1 2 1
2RC
1 + 1 = 1 in rad/s
=
2RC 2RC RC ..... (3.132)
β 1 in Hz
` Bandwidth in Hz = = ..... (3.133)
2π 2πRC
Alternatively, bandwidth and cut-off frequencies can be expressed in terms of angular resonant frequency, ωr
and quality factor, Qr as shown below:
From equation (3.132), we get, β = 1
RC
1 ωr
From equation (3.101), we get, Qr = ωr CR ⇒ RC = Q
r
On comparing the above two equations, we get,
ω
β = r
Qr ..... (3.134)
1 + 1 2 1 β β2 1 1
ωh =
2RC a 2RC k + LC = 2 + 4
+ ωr2 ωr = β =
RC
LC
ωr2
ωr2 d1 + 1 2 n
ωr ωr
= + + ωr2 = + ωr
2Qr 4Qr2 2Qr 4Q r β =
Qr
1 + 1 2 = ωr > 1 + 1+ 1 2 H
ωr
= + ωr
2Qr 4Qr 2Qr 4Qr ..... (3.135)
Similarly,
ωl = ωr >− 1 + 1+ 1 2 H
2Q r 4Qr ..... (3.136)
ωh ωl = ωr > 1 + 1 + 1 2 H # ωr >− 1 + 1+ 1 2 H
2Qr 4Qr 2Qr 4Qr
= ωr2 > 1+ 1 2 + 1 H > 1+ 1 2 − 1 H

4Qr 2Qr 4Qr 2Qr
= ωr2 <1 + 1 2 − 1 2 F (a + b) (a – b) = a2 – b2
4Qr 4Qr
= ωr2
` ωr = ωh ωl ..... (3.137)
From equation (3.137) we can say that, resonant frequency is given by the geometric mean of the cut-off
frequencies.
Bandwidth Based on Voltage Response

Consider a parallel RLC circuit excited by a constant current source as shown in Fig. 3.33(a).
Now, the voltage response will be as shown in Fig. 3.33(b). The voltage response is maximum at
resonance and it decreases for increasing or decreasing frequency from the resonance value. Since
current is maximum, power is also maximum at resonance.
V
Vri
+ Vri
2
I = IÐ0o A ~ V R L C
b
-
wl wr wh
w
Fig. a : RLC parallel circuit. Fig. b : Voltage response.

Fig. 3.33 : Voltage response of an RLC parallel circuit excited by a current source.
Therefore, when frequency is decreased from the resonant value, we come across a frequency
at which power is 1/2 times the maximum power (or voltage is 1 2 times the maximum value) and
this frequency is called lower cut-off frequency, ω l. When frequency is increased from the resonant
value, we come across a frequency at which power is 1/2 times the maximum power (or voltage
is 1 2 times the maximum value) and this frequency is called higher cut-off frequency, ωh.
Now, bandwidth based on voltage response can be defined as the range of frequencies over
which power is greater than or equal to 1/2 times the maximum power.
Alternatively, bandwidth based on voltage response can be defined as the range of frequencies
over which voltage is greater than or equal to 1 2 times the maximum voltage.
Bandwidth is given by the difference between cut-off frequencies and is denoted by β. The
unit of bandwidth is rad/s or Hz.
The expression for cut-off frequencies and bandwidth in an RLC parallel circuit is independent
of the excitation source and depends only on parameters R, L and C. Therefore, equations (3.114)
to (3.122) for cut-off frequencies and bandwidth are applicable for an RLC parallel circuit excited
by a current source.
Proof for cut-off frequency and bandwidth based on voltage response
Consider an RLC parallel circuit shown in Fig. 3.34, excited by a sinusoidal current source of frequency, ω.
Let, I = I∠0o = Supply current.

+
V = Voltage across parallel combination of R, L and C.
Y = Admittance of RLC parallel circuit.

I, w ~ V
R L C
Here, Y = 1 − j 1 + jωC = 1 + j aωC − 1 k

R ωL R ωL Fig. 3.34.
1 + ωC − 1 2
` Y = Y = a ωL k
R2 ..... (3.138)
Here, V = I
Y
I I
` V = V = = = I
Y Y Y
` V = I
1 + ωC − 1 2 ..... (3.139) Using equation (3.138)
a ωL k
R2
Let, P = Power in RLC circuit.
2
Here, P = V = 1 I2
R R 1 2 ..... (3.140) Using equation (3.139)
+ ωC − 1 k
2 a
R ω L
At resonance, ωC = 1 . On substituting this condition in equation (3.140), we get power at resonance, P .

r
ωL
2
` Pr = 1 I = I 2 R ..... (3.141)
R 1
R2
At half-power frequencies or cut-off frequencies, power will be equal to 1/2 times the power at resonance.
` P = 1 Pr
2
1 I2 1 I2 R
R 1 2 = 2 Using equations (3.140) and (3.141)
+ aωC − 1
R2 ωL k
2
` 1 = R
2 2
1 + ωC − 1
a ωL k
R2
On inverting the above equation, we get,
1 + ωC − 1 2 = 2 1 2 2 1
a ωL k
⇒ aωC − ωL k = 2 − 2
R2 R2 R R
2
` aωC − 1 k = 1
ωL R2
On taking square root of the above equation, we get,
ωC − 1 = ! 1
ωL R ..... (3.142)
Note : Equation (3.142) implies that the absolute value of the total susceptance at cut-off frequencies is equal to
the conductance of the circuit.
Equation (3.142) is the same as equation (3.127), and so the rest of the proof will be similar to the proof of cut-off
frequency and bandwidth based on current response.
3.13.5 Selectivity of Parallel RLC Circuit

RLC parallel circuits can be operated at resonance condition in order to select a particular
frequency signal from a group of signals, or they are employed to pass a particular frequency of
signal from one part of the circuit to the other. In general, when an RLC parallel circuit is excited
by a current source, the response is voltage. In this case, the RLC parallel resonance circuit
behave as a frequency selective circuit.
Under resonance condition, the voltage response is maximum in an RLC parallel circuit at
the desired resonant frequency. Hence, the RLC parallel circuit selects a particular frequency and
rejects all the other frequencies.
When the response curve is very narrow, the circuit is V
highly selective, as shown in Fig. 3.35. Vr
1
Selectivity is defined as the ratio of bandwidth and Vr
2
resonant frequency.
β ω − ωl
` Selectivity = = h .....(3.143)
ωr ωr
wr
w
From the definition of selectivity, we can say that a circuit Fig. 3.35 : Voltage response curve
is highly selective when the value of selectivity is low, which of a highly selective RLC parallel
resonant circuit.
is possible with a smaller value of bandwidth, β.

ωr
β =
Qr
β ω
` Selectivity = = r# 1 = 1 .....(3.144)
ωr Q r ωr Qr
From equation (3.144), we can say that selectivity is V Q1 > Q2 > Q3
Vr Q3
the inverse of the quality factor. Therefore, when the quality
factor is high, the selectivity will be small and so the circuit Q2
will be highly selective. Q1
Also, from the expression of bandwidth we can say that

w
when the quality factor is high, the bandwidth will be small wr
and the circuit will be highly selective. The voltage response Fig. 3.36 : Voltage response of an
RLC parallel resonant circuit for
of a parallel RLC resonant circuit for various values of Q is various values of Q.
shown in Fig. 3.36.
3.13.6 Variation of Current through L and C with Frequency

Consider an RLC parallel circuit shown in Fig. 3.37, excited by a sinusoidal voltage source
of V with variable frequency ω. Let V be the reference phasor. I
∴ V = V ∠ 0o V IL I
C
+
Admittance, Y = G − jB L + jBC = G + j (BC + B L) V, w ~
-
R L C
BC − BL
= G2 + (BC − B L) 2 + tan- 1 = Y+φ Fig. 3.37.
G
2
e o & φ = tan
1 + ωC − 1 - 1 BC − BL
where, Y = = G 2 + (B C − B L) 2 = 2
R ω L G
Current delivered by the source,
I = V # Y = V+0 o # Y+φ = VY+φ = I+φ

where, I = VY
At resonance, Y = G
∴ Current at resonance, Ir = VY = VG = V
R
4 Lr
Current through inductance I = V (− jB ) = V+0 o (− jB )
# L # L
at resonance
= V # e− j 1 o = − j V ..... (3.145)
ωr L ωr L
On multiplying and dividing equation (3.145) by R we get,
I Lr = − j V # R = − j V # R
ωr L R R ωr L
Since, Q r = R , I Lr = − jI r Q r = I r Q r + − 90 o A
ωr L
∴ Magnitude of current through inductance at resonance, I Lr = IrQr
4 Cr
Current through capacitance I = V (jB ) = V+0 o jB
# C # C
at resonance
= V # jωr C = jVωr C .....(3.146)
On multiplying and dividing equation (3.146) by R we get,
I Cr = jVωr C # R = j V # ωr CR
R R
Since, Q r = ω r CR, I Cr = jIrQr = IrQr ∠ 90 o A
∴ Magnitude of current through capacitance at resonance, I Cr = IrQr
From the above analysis we can say that the magnitude of current through inductor and
capacitor is Qr times the current supplied by the source at resonance, but they are in phase
opposition. Therefore, the sum of inductance and capacitance current at resonance will be zero.
(i.e., I Lr + I Cr = − jIrQr + jIrQr = 0). At resonance the entire current supplied by the source will flow
through the resistance.
Since the current through the inductance or capacitance is Qr times the supply voltage, we
can say that the parallel RLC circuit amplifies the current.
3.13.7 Solved Problems in Parallel Resonance

EXAMPLE 3.11
The parameters of an RLC parallel circuit excited by a current source are R = 40 Ω, L = 2 mH and
C = 3 µF. Determine the resonant frequency, quality factor, bandwidth and cut-off frequencies.
SOLUTION
Given that, R = 40 Ω, L = 2 mH and C = 3 µF
Angular resonant frequency, ωr = 1

LC
= 1 = 12909.9445 . 12910 rad/s

2 # 10- 3 # 3 # 10- 6
= 12910 = 2054.7 Hz = 2054.7 kHz = 2.0547 kHz

ωr
Resonant frequency, fr =
2π 2π 1000
Quality factor at resonance, Q r = R = 40 = 1.5492

ωr L 12910 # 2 # 10- 3
Bandwidth, β = 1 = 1 = 8333.3333 rad/s . 8333 rad/s

RC 40 # 3 # 10- 6
β
Bandwidth in Hz = = 8333.3333 = 1326.3 Hz = 1326.3 kHz = 1.3263 kHz
2π 2π 1000
Higher cut - off frequecy, fh = fr ; 1 + 1+ 12 E

2Q r 4Q r
= 2.0547 # ; 1 1
+ 1+ E
2 # 1.5492 4 # 1.5492 2
= 2.8222 kHz
Lower cut - off frequecy, fl = fr ; − 1 + 1+ 12 E

2Q r 4Q r
= 2.0547 # ; − 1 1
+ 1+ E
2 # 1.5492 4 # 1.5492 2
= 1.4959 kHz
The RLC parallel circuit shown in Fig. 1, consists of R = 8 kW, I
L = 0.2 mH and C = 8 µF. Determine the resonant frequency, quality +

factor, bandwidth and cut-off frequencies. 10 sinwt ~
-
R L C
SOLUTION
Fig. 1.
Given that, R = 8 kΩ, L = 0.2 mH and C = 8 µF
Resonant frequency in rad/sec, ωr = 1 = 1 = 25000 rad/s

LC 0.2 # 10- 3 # 8 # 10- 6
Quality factor at resonance, Q r = ωr CR = 25000 # 8 # 10- 6 # 8 # 103 = 1600
ωr
Bandwidth, β = = 25000 = 15.625 rad/s
Qr 1600
Higher cut - off frequecy, ωh = ωr ; 1 + 1+ 12 E

2Qr 4Qr
= 25000 # ; 1 1
+ 1+ E
2 # 1600 4 # 1600 2
= 25007.8 rad/s
Lower cut - off frequecy, ωl = ωr = − 1 + 1+ 12 G

2Qr 4Qr
= 25000 # ; − 1 1
+ 1+ E
2 # 1600 4 # 1600 2
= 24992.2 rad/s
EXAMPLE 3.13
A coil of inductance 31.8 mH and resistance 10 Ω is connected in parallel with a capacitor across a 250 V,
50 Hz supply. Determine the value of the capacitor if no reactive current is taken from the supply.
SOLUTION
Y
The parallel combination of the coil and capacitor excited by the
voltage source is shown in Fig. 1.
31. 8 mH 10
R
+
250 V 1
Let, Y = Admittance of parallel combination of coil and capacitor. ~
Coil
Y1 a C
50 Hz Z1
E
Z1 = Impedance of coil.
L
Y1 = 1 = Admittance of coil.
Z1 Fig. 1.
BC = Susceptance of capacitor.
The current supplied by the source does not have any reactive component. This happens only at
resonance. At resonance, the circuit behaves as a purely resistive, which means that the imaginary part of
admittance Y is zero. Therefore, the value of the capacitor can be determined by equating the imaginary part
of admittance to zero.
` Y = Y1 + jBC = 1 + jBC = 1 + jBC = 1 + jBC

Z1 R + jωL R + j2πfL
= 1 + jBC
10 + j^2π # 50 # 31.8 # 10- 3h
= 0.05 − j0.05 + jBC = 0.05 + j^BC − 0.05h
On letting the imaginary part of admittance to zero, we get,
BC − 0.05 = 0 ⇒ BC = 0.05
Since, BC = ωC we get,
BC B
C = = C = 0.05 = 1.5915 # 10- 4 F
ω 2πf 2π # 50
= 159.15 # 10- 6 F = 159.15 µF
EXAMPLE 3.14
3 RC
In the RLC network shown in Fig. 1, determine the value of RC for resonance.
Also calculate the dynamic resistance.
j12 Ej12.5
SOLUTION
The given network has two parallel branches and the admittances of the Fig. 1.
parallel branches are named as shown in Fig. 2
Let, Z1, Z2 = Impedance of parallel branches.
Y1, Y2 = Admittance of parallel branches.
Y = Total admittance of the RLC parallel network.

Y1 = 1 Y2 = 1
Now, Y = Y1 + Y2 = 1 + 1 = 1 + 1 Z1 Z2
Z1 Z2 3 + j12 RC − j12.5
Let us separate the real and imaginary parts of the admittance by multiplying the numerator and de-
nominator of each term of the admittance by the complex conjugate of the denominator.
1 3 − j12 1 R + j12.5
` Y = # + # C
3 + j12 3 − j12 RC − j12.5 RC + j12.5
3 − j12 R + j12.5 3 − j12 R + j12.5

= + C = + 2C
32 + 122 RC2 + 12.52 153 RC + 156.25 3 RC
1 1
RC
= 3 − j 12 + 2 + j 2 12.5 Y1 a
Z1
Y2 a
153 153 RC + 156.25 RC + 156.25 j12 Ej12.5
Z2
RC
= 0.0196 − j0.0784 + 2 + j 2 12.5 Y
RC + 156.25 RC + 156.25
Fig. 2.
= e0.0196 + 2 o + jc 2
RC 12.5 − 0.0784 m
RC + 156.25 RC + 156.25
At resonance, the imaginary part of the admittance Y will be zero.
` 12.5 − 0.0784 = 0 ⇒ 12.5 = 0.0784

RC2 + 156.25 RC2 + 156.25
` 12.5 = R 2 + 156.25 ⇒ RC2 = 12.5 − 156.25

C
0.0784 0.0784
` RC = 12.5 − 156.25 = 1.7857 Ω

0.0784
Dynamic resistance is given by the inverse of the real part of the admittance at resonance.
` Rdynamic = 1 = 1 = 32.4676 Ω
RC 0.0196 + 1.7857
0.0196 +
RC2 + 156.25 1.78572 + 156.25
RESULT
For resonance, RC = 1.7857 Ω
Dynamic resistance, Rdynamic = 32.4676 Ω
EXAMPLE 3.15
RL 20
Determine the value of RL for resonance in the network shown in Fig. 1. Also
calculate the dynamic resistance.
j20 Ej10
SOLUTION
The given network has two parallel branches and the admittances of the Fig. 1.
parallel branches are named as shown in Fig. 2.
Let, Z1, Z2 = Impedance of parallel branches
Y1, Y2 = Admittance of parallel branches
Y = Total admittance of the RLC parallel network.
Now, Y = Y1 + Y2 = 1 + 1 = 1 + 1 Y1 = 1 Y2 = 1
Z1 Z2 RL + j20 20 − j10 Z1 Z2
Let us separate the real and imaginary parts of the admittance by multiplying the numerator and
denominator of each term of the admittance by the complex conjugate of the denominator.
1 R − j20 1 20 + j10
` Y = # L + #
RL + j20 RL − j20 20 − j10 20 + j10
RL − j20 20 + j10 R − j20 20 + j10 RL

= + = 2L + 20
RL2 + 20 2 20 2 + 10 2 RL + 400 500 1 1
Y1 a Y2 a
R Z1 Z2
= 2 L − j 2 20 + 20 + j 10
RL + 400 RL + 400 500 500 j20 Ej10
Y
RL
= + 0.04 + j c0.02 − 2 20 m
RL2 + 400 RL + 400 Fig. 2.
` 0.02 − 20 = 0 ⇒ 0.02 = 20
RL2 + 400 RL2 + 400
` RL2 + 400 = 20 ⇒ RL2 = 20 − 400

0.02 0.02
` RL = 20 − 400 = 24.4949 Ω
0.02
Dynamic resistance is given by the inverse of the real part of the admittance at resonance.
` Rdynamic = 1 = 1 = 15.5051 Ω
RL 24.4949 + 0.04
2
+ 0. 04 2
RL + 400 24.4949 + 400
RESULT
For resonance, RL = 24.4949 Ω
Dynamic resistance, Rdynamic = 15.5051 Ω

Determine the equivalent parallel network for a series RL combination.
SOLUTION
The series RL network excited by source E and its parallel equivalent are shown in Figs 1 and 2. The
networks are equivalent if the impedances (or the admittances) with respect to source terminals are equal.
+ Rs +
E ~
-
Zs
º E ~
-
Rp jwLp
jwLs
Fig. 1. Yp
Fig. 2.
With reference to Fig. 1.
Ys = 1 = 1
Zs Rs + jωLs
1 R − jωLs Multiplying numerator and denominator

` Ys = # s
Rs + jωLs Rs − jωLs by conjugate of denominator.
Rs − jωLs
=
Rs2 + ω2 Ls2
Rs ωL s
= −j .....(1)
Rs2 + ω2 Ls2 Rs2 + ω2 Ls2
With reference to Fig. 2.
Yp = 1 + 1 .....(2)
Rp jωLp
On equating the real part of equations (1) and (2), we get,
1 = Rs
Rp Rs2 + ω2 Ls2
Rs2 + ω2 Ls2 ω2 Ls2

` Rp = = Rs +
Rs Rs
On equating the imaginary part of equations (1) and (2), we get,
1 = −j ωL s
jωLp Rs2 + ω2 Ls2
Rs2 + ω2 Ls2 Rs2

` Lp = = L s +
ω2 Ls ω2 Ls
EXAMPLE 3.17
In the RLC network shown in Fig. 1, determine the two possible values of C for 4 4
the network to resonate at 2000 rad/s. Also, determine the value of C for resonance at
all frequencies. 5 mH C
SOLUTION
Fig. 1.
The given network has two parallel branches and the admittance of the parallel
branches are named as shown in Fig. 2.
4 4
Let, Z1, Z2 = Impedance of parallel branches 1
Y1 a 1
Y2 a
Z1 Z2
5 mH C
Y = Total admittance of the RLC parallel network. Y
Now, Y = Y1 + Y2 = 1 + 1 = 1 + 1
Fig. 2.
Z1 Z2 R + jX L R − jXC
= 1 + 1 = 1 + 1 Y1 = 1 Y2 = 1
R + jωL R − jXC 4 + j2000 # 5 # 10- 3 4 − jX C Z1 Z2
= 1 + 1
4 + j10 4 − jX C
1 4 − j10 4 + jXC
` Y = # + 1 #
4 + j10 4 − j10 4 − jXC 4 + jXC
4 − j10 4 + jX C 4 − j10 4 + jXC

= + = +
42 + 102 42 − X2C 116 16 + X2C
= 4 − j 10 + 4 + j XC 2
116 116 16 + X2C 16 + X C
4 XC − 10
= c0.0345 + m + jc 116 m
16 + X2C 16 + X2C
` X C − 10 = 0 ⇒ XC = 10
16 + X2C 116 16 + X2C 116
` 116 X C = 16 + X2C ⇒ 11.6X C = 16 + X2C

10
` X2C − 11.6XC + 16 = 0
The roots of the quadratic equation are,
− ^− 11.6h ! ^− 11.6h2 − 4 # 16
XC =
2
= 11.6 ! 8.4 = 10 or 1.6 Ω

2
We know that, XC = 1 , ` C = 1
ωC ωX C
When, XC = 10 Ω, C = 1 = 1 = 5 # 10- 5 F
ωX C 2000 # 10
= 50 # 10- 6 F = 50 µF
When, XC = 1.6 Ω, C = 1 = 1 = 3.125 # 10- 4 F

ωX C 2000 # 1.6
= 312.5 # 10- 6 F = 312.5 µF
The condition for resonance at all frequencies is, R = L .

C
` R2 = L ⇒ C = L2
C R
-3
The value of C for resonance at all frequencies is, C = L2 = 5 # 10 2
= 3.125 # 10- 4 F
R 4
= 312.5 # 10- 6 F = 312.5 µF
RESULT
Two possible values of C for resonance at 2000 rad/s = 50 µF and 312.5 µF
The value of C for resonance at all frequencies = 312.5 µF

EXAMPLE 3.18
2 4
In the RLC network shown in Fig. 1, determine the two possible values of
L for the network to resonate at 4000 rad/s.
L 20 mF
SOLUTION Fig. 1.
The given network has two parallel branches and the admittances of the parallel branches are named
as shown in Fig. 2.
2W 4W
Let, Z1, Z 2 = Impedance of the parallel branches 1
Y1 = 1
Y2 =
Z1 Z2
L 20 mF
Y = Total admittance of the RLC parallel network. Fig. 2.

Y
Now, Y = Y1 + Y2 = 1 + 1 = 1 + 1
Y1 = 1 Y2 = 1
Z1 Z2 R1 + jX L R2 − jXC Z1 Z2
= 1 + 1 = 1 + 1
R1 + jXL R − j 1 2 + jXL 4 − j 1
2
ωC 4000 # 20 # 10- 6
= 1 + 1
2 + jXL 4 − j12.5
1 2 − jX L 1 4 + j12.5
Y = # + #
2 + jX L 2 − jX L 4 − j12.5 4 + j12.5
2 − jX L 4 + j12.5 2 − jX L 4 + j12.5
= + 2 = +
22 + X2L 4 + 12.52 4 + X2L 172.25
2 XL 4
= −j + + j 12.5
4 + X2L 4 + X2L 172.25 172.25
= 2 − j X L + 0.0232 + j0.0726
4 + X2L 4 + X2L
m + j e j0.0726 − o
XL
= c 0.0232 + 2
4 + X2L 4 + X2L
XL XL
` 0.0726 − = 0 ⇒ 0.0726 =
4 + X2L 4 + X2L
XL
` 4 + X2L = ⇒ 4 + X2L = 13.7741 X L
0.0726
` X2L − 13.7741 X L + 4 = 0
− ^− 13.7741h ! ^− 13.7741h2 − 4 # 4
XL =
2
= 13.7741 ! 13.1805 = 13.4773 Ω or 0.2968 Ω
2
XL
We know that, XL = ωL , ` L =
ω
XL
When, X L = 13.4773 Ω, L = = 13.4773 = 3.3693 # 10- 3 H = 3.3693 mH
ω 4000
XL
When, X L = 0.2968 Ω, L = = 0.2968 = 7.42 # 10- 5 H = 74.2 # 10- 6 H = 74.2 µH
ω 4000
RESULT
Two possible values of L for resonance at 4000 rad/s = 3.3693 mH and 74.2 µH
3.14 Coupled Circuits

Coupled circuits refer to circuits involving elements with magnetic coupling. If the flux
produced by an element of a circuit links (or pass through) other elements of the same circuit or a
nearby circuit then the elements are said to have magnetic coupling (or connection through magnetic
flux). Likewise, circuits with a number of branches and loops are said to have conductive coupling.
In magnetically coupled elements, the power (or energy) transfer occurs through the
magnetic flux. In conductively coupled elements, the power (or energy) transfer takes place through
the current. In general, coupled circuits refer to circuits with magnetically coupled elements.
Whenever current passes through a coil, flux is set up in the coil. If the current is varying
then the flux will also follow the variations in the current. Due to change in flux, an emf will be
induced in the coil. The direction of the induced emf will be such as to oppose the current through
the coil. This emf is called self-induced emf.
When a circuit has two or more coils then there is a possibility that the flux produced by one
coil links the other coils. If the flux produced by coil-1 of a circuit links (or pass through) coil-2 of the
circuit then an emf is induced in coil-2 due to change in flux (or current) in coil-1. This emf is called
mutual induced emf . The term mutual is used here for induced emf because the action is reversible,
i.e., if the flux produced by coil-2 links coil-1 then a change in flux in coil-2 will induce an emf in
coil-1. The two coils linked by magnetic flux are called coupled coils.
A transformer is the best example of a coupled circuit. A transformer consists of two coils
wound on a common core. The two coils are electrically isolated but linked magnetically. The two
coils are called primary winding and secondary winding. When the primary is connected to an
ac source, the current flows through the primary which creates flux. Since the coils are wound on
a common core, the flux produced by the primary current links both the coils. Here, the current is
sinusoidal in nature and so the flux will also be sinusoidal. The sinusoidal flux varies with respect
to time and so emfs are induced in the primary and secondary.
The induced emf in the primary is called self-induced emf and the induced emf in the
secondary is called mutual induced emf. The mutual induced emf acts as a source for the load
connected to the secondary. Hence, the power flows from the primary to secondary through the
magnetic flux linking the primary and secondary.
Note : A transformer is a linear device as long as the flux in the core is not saturated.
Normally, the flux density of a practical transformer is maintained to avoid saturation and so the
transformer is also called a linear transformer.
3.15 Self-Inductance and Mutual Inductance

3.15.1 Self-Inductance
Consider a coil with N turns carrying a current i as shown in Fig. 3.38. Let φ i
be the flux in the coil. When the current in the coil is variable in nature, the flux φ also +
v L
varies and so an emf is induced in the coil in a direction opposing the current flow.
E
This emf is called self-induced emf.
Self-induced emf is directly proportional to the rate of change of current, and Fig. 3.38.
the constant of proportionality is self-inductance, L. (Refer Section 3.4, equation
(3.4)).
` ν α di
dt
and ν = L di ..... (3.147)
dt
When permeability is constant, self-inductance is given by the ratio of weber-turn and current.
(Refer Section 3.4, equation (3.3)).
Nφ
` Self - inductance, L = ..... (3.148)
i
3.15.2 Mutual Inductance (AU Dec’14, 6 Marks) (AU May’15, 16 Marks)
Consider two coils with turns N1 and N2 placed very close to each other
as shown in Fig. 3.39. Let L1 and L2 be the self-inductances of the coils 1 N1 N2
and 2, respectively. L1 L2
Let us excite coil-1 by connecting a voltage source across its terminals

Coil-1 Coil-2
as shown in Fig. 3.40. Now, current passes through coil-1 and so flux is set
Fig. 3.39.
up in coil-1. Since coil-2 is placed very close to coil-1, a part of this flux
will also pass through (or links) coil-2.
Let, i1 = Current through coil-1
i1
φ 1 = Flux set-up in coil-1 + f12 +
+
φ12 = Flux produced by coil-1 linking coil-2.
e
~ v1 vm2
When the current i1 is variable, the flux will also be variable. -
Now an emf is induced in coil-1 due to φ 1, which is called - f1 -

self-induced emf and an emf is induced in coil-2 due to φ12,which is Coil-1 Coil-2
called mutual induced emf. Fig. 3.40.

Self-induced emf is proportional to the rate of change of current in coil-1, and the constant
of proportionality is self-inductance of coil-1(i.e., L 1).
di1
` Self - induced emf in coil - 1, ν1 = L1
dt ..... (3.149)
N1 φ1 ..... (3.150)
where, L1 =
i1
Mutual induced emf in coil-2 is proportional to the rate of change of current in coil-1, and
the constant of proportionality is the mutual inductance between coils 1 and 2.
Let, M 12 = Mutual inductance between coils 1 and 2.
di1 ..... (3.151)
` Mutual induced emf in coil - 2, νm2 = M12
dt
Similar to self-inductance, mutual inductance is also given by the ratio of weber-turn (flux
linkage) and current.
N2 φ12 ..... (3.152)

` M12 =
i1
i2
In another case, let us excite coil-2 by connecting a voltage +
+
source across its terminals as shown in Fig. 3.41. Now current +
passes through coil-2 and so flux is set up in coil-2. Since coil-1 is
placed very close to coil-2, a part of this flux will also pass through
vm1 v2
~
-
e
(or links) coil-1. - f21 f2 -
Let, i2 = Current through coil-2 Coil-1 Coil-2
φ 2 = Flux set up in coil-2 Fig. 3.41.

When the current i2 is variable, the flux will also be variable. Now an emf is induced in coil-2
due to φ 2 , which is called self-induced emf and an emf is induced in coil-1 due to φ 21 , which is
called mutual induced emf.
Self-induced emf is proportional to the rate of change of current in coil-2, and the constant
of proportionality is self-inductance of coil-2 (i.e., L 2 ).
di2
` Self - induced emf in coil - 2, ν2 = L2 ..... (3.153)
dt
N2 φ2 ..... (3.154)
where, L2 =
i2
Mutual induced emf in coil-1 is proportional to the rate of change of current in coil-2, and
the constant of proportionality is the mutual inductance between coils 2 and 1.
Let, M 21 = Mutual inductance between coils 2 and 1.
di2 ..... (3.155)
` Mutual induced emf in coil - 1, νm1 = M21
dt
Similar to self-inductance, mutual inductance is also given by the ratio of weber-turn (flux
linkage) and current.
N1 φ21 ..... (3.156)

` M21 =
i2
When variable current flows in both the coils, we have mutual induced emf in coil-2 due to
current in coil-1 and mutual induced emf in coil-1 due to current in coil-2. Now, the turns ratio,
the ratio of induced emfs and the ratio of currents are related as shown below:
N1 = νm1 = i2 ..... (3.157)
N2 νm 2 i1
From equation (3.157), we can write,
N1 = N2 ..... (3.158)
i2 i1
In most of the practical coupled coils, the flux linking coils 1 and 2 is the same as that of flux
linking coils 2 and 1. i1 i2
∴φ = φ = φ ..... (3.159) M
12 21
N1 N2
where, φ = Flux linking coils 1 and 2.
L1 L2
From equations (3.158) and (3.159), we can say that,
M12 = M21 = M ..... (3.160) Fig. 3.42.
where, M = Mutual inductance.
“The existence of magnetic coupling and hence, mutual inductance between two coils is
represented by a double-headed arrow as shown in Fig. 3.42”.
N1 φ N φ
` Mutual inductance, M = = 2 ..... (3.161)
i2 i1
where, φ = Flux linking coils 1 and 2.
3.15.3 Coefficient of Coupling (AU May’15, 16 Marks)
The coefficient of coupling can be defined for two coils linked by magnetic flux. It is a
measure of flux linkages between the two coils. The coefficient of coupling is defined as the
fraction of the total flux produced by one coil linking another and it is denoted by k.
Let, φ 1 = Flux produced by coil-1
φ 2 = Flux produced by coil-2
φ12 = Flux produced by coil-1 linking coil-2
φ12 φ
Now, Coefficient of coupling, k = = 21 ..... (3.162)
φ1 φ2
When k = 1, all the flux produced by one coil links the other coil and the coils are said to be
tightly coupled or closely coupled coils. On the other hand, when k = 0, the flux produced by one
coil does not link the other coil and the coils are said to be magnetically isolated. When the value
of k is very low, the coils are said to be loosely coupled.
φ12 φ φ φ
Note : When ! 21 then k1 = 12 and k2 = 21 .
φ1 φ2 φ1 φ2
Now, k = k1 k2
The expression relating the coefficient of coupling with self- and mutual inductances is
given by,
Coefficient of coupling, k = M ..... (3.163)
L1 L2
Also, from the above equation we can write, (AU Dec’14, 6 Marks)
Mutual inductance, M = k L1 L2 ..... (3.164)
Proof:
N2 φ12 N1 φ21
M12 # M21 = # ⇒ M 2 = N2 φ12 # N1 φ 21 Using equation (3.160)
i1 i2 i1 i2
N2 kφ1 N1 kφ2 Nφ N2 φ2 Using equation (3.162)

` M2 = # = k2 1 1 #
i1 i2 i1 i2 φ12 = kφ1 ; φ21 = kφ2
∴ M2 = k2 L1 L2 ..... (3.165)
Using equations (3.150) and (3.154)
On taking the square root of equation (3.165), we get,
M = k L1 L2
` k = M
L1 L2
3.16 Analysis of Coupled Coils

In magnetically coupled coils, there are two induced emfs in each coil. One is self-induced
emf and the other is mutual induced emf. “The self-induced emf is due to current (or flux) in the
same coil and the polarity (or sign) of self-induced emf will be always opposing the current through
the coil”.
The mutual induced emf is due to current or flux in a nearby coil. The polarity (or sign) of
mutual induced emf may be either the same as that of the self-induced emf or opposite to that of
the self-induced emf.
In a pair of coupled coils, if the flux produced by one coil aids the flux produced by the other
coil then the polarity of self- and mutual induced emfs will be the same in both the coils. On the
other hand, if the flux produced by one coil opposes the flux produced by the other coil then the
polarity of self- and mutual induced emfs will be opposite in both the coils.
Consider a coil wound on a core carrying current i. Now, the direction of flux lines can be
found using the right-hand rule. Hold the coil in the palm of the right-hand and fold the fingers except
the thumb in the direction of current through the turns. Now, the thumb indicates the direction of flux.
Flux Flux
i i i i
i i i i
Fig. 3.43 : Direction of flux in a coil with different winding sense.

Two possible coil orientations (or winding sense) and resulting direction of flux for the
same direction of (external) current are shown in Fig. 3.43. Coil orientation is also known as
winding sense.
Let us apply the above concept to two coupled coils. The polarity of self- and mutual induced
emfs for some possible winding sense and direction of current are shown in Fig. 3.44.
In the coupled coils shown in Fig. 3.44, the polarity of self-induced emf is fixed first by
assigning positive to the terminal where the current enters the coil (because the self-induced emf
will always oppose the current).
Then the polarity of mutual induced emf is fixed depending on whether the fluxes are
aiding or opposing. “If the fluxes are aiding then the polarity of mutual induced emf is the same
as that of the self-induced emf. If the fluxes are opposing then the polarity of the mutual induced
emf is opposite to that of the self-induced emf ”.
Note : In Fig. 3.44, separate cores are shown for coupled coils in order to explain the
concepts. However, most coupled coils are wound on a common core (or on a single core).
+ vm1 E E vm1 +
+ v1 E + v1
i1 i1 i1 E i
1
Aiding Opposing
flux flux
i2 i2 i2 E i2
+ v2 v2 +
E
+ vm2 E + vm2 E
E vm1 + + vm1 E
+ v1 + v1 E
i1 E i
1
i1 i1
Opposing Aiding
flux flux
i2 i2 i2 i
v2 + 2
+ v2 E E
vm2 E vm2 +
E +
Fig. 3.44 : Polarity of self- and mutual induced emfs for different winding sense
and direction of current.
3.16.1 Dot Rule
The polarity (or sign) of mutual induced emf depends on coil orientation (or winding sense)
and the direction of current through the coil. Most manufacturers of coupled coils/transformers
mark one end of each coupled coil by a dot, which represents the polarity of mutual induced emf.
The dot rule can be stated for the polarity of mutual induced emf as shown ahead.
Dot Rule (AU May’15, 2 Marks)

“In coupled coils, current entering at the dotted terminal of one coil induces an emf in the second
coil, which is positive at the dotted terminal of the second coil. Conversely, current entering at the
undotted terminal of one coil induces an emf in the second coil, which is positive at the undotted terminal
of the second coil”.
Note : When dot markings are not provided in coupled coils, they can be determined
experimentally by measuring the additive and subtractive voltages of coupled coils using a voltmeter.
The method of assigning dots to terminals of coupled coils is discussed in detail here.
Consider two coils wound on a common core as shown in Fig. 3.45(a). The terminals of
coil-1 are marked as 1 and 1′ and the terminals of coil-2 are marked as 2 and 2′. Let us excite the
coil-1 by connecting a time varying voltage source e1 through current limiting resistance R1. Now
a current i1 flows through coil-1 and a flux φ1 is set up in the core. The direction of flux can be
determined using the right-hand rule.
The flux φ1 links both coils 1 and 2. Since the exciting source is a time varying source, the
current and hence, flux are variable. Therefore, emfs are induced in coils 1 and 2. The emf in coil-1
is called self-induced emf and the emf in coil-2 is called mutual induced emf.
i1 R1 1 2 i1 R1 1 2 i2
+ + +
e1
~
-
e1
~
-
vm2
-
R2
i1 1¢ 2¢ i1 1¢ 2¢ i2
Fig. a. Fig. b.
Fig. 3.45 : Assigning dot to coupled coils.
Let us connect a resistance, R2 across the terminals of coil-2. Now a closed path is provided in
coil-2 and a current flows in coil-2. The coupled coil shown in Fig. 3.45(b) is basically a transformer
( or linear transformer or natural transformer) and so the current is also known as natural current.
By Lenz’s law, the direction of current is to oppose the cause producing it. The cause is the
flux φ 1 which induces mutual emf. Hence, the current i2 will establish a flux φ2 in order to oppose
φ1. (In a practical sense, in this case, φ2 can never be greater than φ1 ).
By taking the direction of flux φ 2 as opposite to that of φ1 and applying the right-hand
rule, the direction of current through coil-2 can be determined. It is found that i2 leaves the coil
at terminal-2 and enters the coil at terminal-2′. The mutual induced emf is the source for current
i2 and the terminal at which current leaves is positive for mutual induced emf. A dot is placed at
terminal-2 of coil-2 to mark the positive polarity of the mutual induced emf.
1 2 R2 i2 i1 1 2 R2 i2
+ + +
~ -
e2 R1 vm1
-
~-
e2
1¢ 2¢ i2 i1 1¢ 2¢ i2
Fig. a. Fig. b.
Fig. 3.46 : Assigning dot to coupled coils.
By similar analysis on exciting the coil-2 by a source of e2 and connecting a resistance across
coil-1 as shown in Fig. 3.46, it is found that the polarity of mutual induced emf is positive at
terminal-1 of coil-1. Hence, a dot is placed at terminal-1 of coil-1 to mark the positive polarity of
mutual induced emf.
Let us assign the polarity of self- and mutual induced emfs for the coupled coils as shown
in Fig. 3.45(b) and 3.46(b). Now, the self-induced emf will oppose the current in the same coil.
Since the fluxes produced by coils 1 and 2 are opposing, the polarity of mutual induced emf
will be opposite to that of the self-induced emf. The coupled coils of Figs 3.45(b) and 3.46(b) with
polarity of self- and mutual induced emfs are shown in Figs 3.47 and 3.48, respectively.
i1 R1 1 2 i2 i1 1 2 R2 i2
+ + + - + + + + - +
e1
~
-
vm1 v1
- -
v2 vm2 R2
+ -
R1 vm1 v1
- -
v2 vm2
- +
~ -
e2
i1 1¢ 2¢ i2 i1 1¢ 2¢ i2
Fig. 3.47 : Polarities of self- and mutual Fig. 3.48 : Polarities of self- and mutual
induced emfs when coil-1 is excited. induced emfs when coil-2 is excited.
Here it is observed that the current enters at the dotted terminal in one coil and leaves at
the dotted terminal in the other coil. In this situation, the polarity (or signs) of self- and mutual
induced emfs are opposite.
Let us consider two other cases of exciting the coupled coils of Figs 3.47 and 3.48 with the
same dot marking by two voltage sources e1 and e2 as shown in Figs 3.49 and 3.50, respectively.
The self-induced emf will always oppose the current in the same coil. Since the fluxes produced
by the two coils are aiding each other, the mutual induced emf will have the same sign as that of
the self-induced emf.
i1 R 1 1 R2 i i1 R1 R2 i2
2 2
+ + + + + + - - - - - -
e1
~
-
vm1
-
v1
-
v2 vm2
- -
~ -
e2
~
e1
+
vm1 v1
+ +
v2 vm2
+ +
~+
e2
i1 1¢ 2¢ i2 i1 i2
Fig. 3.49 : Polarities of self- and mutual induced Fig. 3.50 : Polarities of self- and mutual induced
emfs when current enter at dotted terminal in emfs when current leave at dotted terminal in
both coils. both coils.
From the above discussions, the dot rule can be interpreted as follows to fix the polarity of
self- and mutual induced emfs in coupled coils.
For analysis of coupled coils with dot marking, let us assume an arbitrary direction for current
in coils 1 and 2. Now the current may either enter at the dotted end or leave at the dotted end and
so we may come across the following four cases of current direction in relation to the dot marking.
Case i : The current in coil-1 enters at the dotted end and current in coil-2 leaves at the dotted end.
Case ii : The current in coil-1 leaves at the dotted end and current in coil-2 enters at the dotted end.
Case iii : The current enters at the dotted end in both coils 1 and 2.
Case iv : The current leaves at the dotted end in both coils 1 and 2.
In case (i) and (ii), the polarity (or sign) of self- and mutual induced emfs are opposite. (Refer
to Figs 3.47 and 3.48). In case (iii) and (iv), the polarity (or signs) of self- and mutual induced emf
are the same (Refer Figs. 3.49 and 3.50). These four cases of coupled coils are shown in Fig. 3.51,
without details of winding orientation (or winding sense).
i1 i2 i1 i2 i1 i2 i1 i2
M M M M
E + E + + E + E + + + + E E E E
vm1 v1 L1 L2 v vm2 vm1 v1 L1 L2 v2 vm2 vm1 v1L1 L2 v vm1 v1 L1 L2 v2 vm2

2 2 vm2
+ E + E E + E + E E E E + + + +
Coil-1 Coil-2 Coil-1 Coil-2 Coil-1 Coil-2 Coil-1 Coil-2
Fig. a : i1 entering and i2 Fig. b : i2 entering and i1 Fig. c : Both the current Fig. d : Both the current
leaving at dotted end. leaving at dotted end. entering at dotted end. leaving at dotted end.
Fig. 3.51 : Polarity (or sign) of self- and mutual induced emfs for various choice
of current direction.
Note : In circuits with more than two coils, the coupling between various coils are denoted
by different symbols like , , , , etc.
3.16.2 Expression for Self- and Mutual Induced EMFS in Various Domains
Time Domain
Consider the coupled coils as shown in Fig. 3.52, with i1 entering at the dotted end and i2
leaving at the dotted end. Now, the polarity of self- and mutual induced emfs are opposite. The
polarity of self-induced emf is fixed such that it opposes the current through the same coil and the
polarity of mutual induced emf is fixed such that it is opposite to that of the self-induced emf. From
the discussions made in Section 3.5, the equation for self- and mutual induced emfs are,
di di di di
ν1 = L1 1 ; ν2 = L2 2 ; νm1 = M 2 ; νm2 = M 1 ..... (3.166)
dt dt dt dt
[Refer equations (3.149), (3.151), (3.153), (3.155) and (3.160)].
The coupled coils with time domain expression for self- and mutual emfs are shown in Fig. 3.53.
i1 i2 i1 i2
M + E M E +
+ E E +
di di2 L di2 di
v1 vm1 L1 L2 v
2 vm2 L1 1 M 1 L2 L 2 M 1
dt dt dt dt
E + + E
E + + E
Coil-1 Coil-2 Coil-1 Coil-2
Fig. 3.52. Fig. 3.53 : Coupled coils in time domain.

Laplace Domain
Let, L{v1} = V1(s) L{v2} = V2(s)
L{vm1} = Vm1(s) L{vm2 } = Vm2(s)
L{i1 } = I 1(s) L{i2} = I 2(s)
On taking Laplace transform of time domain expression for self- and mutual induced emfs
with zero initial conditions, we get,
I1(s) I2(s)
3
V1 (s) = sL1 I1 (s) Vm1 (s) = sM I2 (s)
+ E sM E +
V2 (s) = sL2 I2 (s) Vm2 (s) = sM I1 (s) ..... (3.167)
sL1 I1(s)
sL2I2(s)
sM I2(s)
sM I1(s)
sL1 sL2
The coupled coils with Laplace domain expression for self- and
mutual induced emfs are shown in Fig. 3.54.
E + + E
Frequency Domain Coil-1 Coil-2
On substituting s = jω, in the s-domain expression for emfs (i.e., Fig. 3.54 : Coupled coils in
in equation (3.167)), we get the expression for frequency domain emfs. Laplace domain.
3
V1 (jω) = jωL1 I1 (jω) Vm1 (jω) = jωM I2 (jω)
V2 (jω) = jωL2 I2 (jω) Vm2 (jω) = jωM I1 (jω) ... (3.168)
For simplicity, F(jω) is denoted as F . i1 i2
jwM
Therefore, equation (3.168) can be written as shown + - - +
below:
jwL1I1
jwMI2
jwMI1
jwL2I2
jwL2
jwL1
V1 = jωL1 I1 Vm1 = jωM I2
V2 = jωL2 I2 Vm2 = jωM I1 - + + -
The coupled coils with frequency domain Coil-1 Coil-2
expression for self- and mutual induced emfs are
Fig. 3.55 : Coupled coils in frequency domain.
shown in Fig. 3.55.
3.16.3 Writing Mesh Equations for Coupled Coils (AU May’16, 16 Marks)
R1
Consider the coupled coils shown in Fig. 3.56. Let us choose
mesh currents I1 and I2 as shown in Fig. 3.56.
jwM
Mesh-1 Mesh-2
The assumed mesh currents enter at the dotted end in coil-1 +
and leave at the dotted end in coil-2. Hence, the polarity (or signs) E1
-
~ jwL1 jwL2 R2
of the mutual induced emf will be opposite to that of the self- I1 I2

induced emf. The voltages across the various elements of mesh-1
and mesh-2 are shown in Fig. 3.57. Fig. 3.56.
R1
+ -
R1 I1
+ + - + - +
E1
-
~ I1 jwL1 I1
- +
jwM I2 jwM I1
-
jwL 2 I2
+ I2 -
R2 I 2
Fig. a : Mesh-1. Fig. b : Mesh-2.

Fig. 3.57 : Voltage across various elements in mesh-1 and mesh-2.
By using KVL in mesh-1, we can write,
R1 I1 + jωL1 I1 = E1 + jωMI2
` ^R1 + jωL1h I1 − jωMI2 = E1 ..... (3.169)
By using KVL in mesh-2, we can write,
jωL2 I2 + R2 I2 = jωMI1
` − jωM I1 + (R2 + jωL2) I2 = 0 ..... (3.170)
On arranging equations (3.169) and (3.170) in the matrix form, we get,
= G = G = = G
R1 + jωL1 − jωM I1 E1
− jωM R2 + jωL2 I2 0 ..... (3.171)
From equation (3.171), it can be observed that the mutual reactance, (jωM) is introduced
as an element common to meshes 1 and 2 and it is negative. However, it is not included in the
self-impedance (i.e., not included in Z11 and Z22 ) of meshes 1 and 2.
In general, we can say that if there is a coupling between meshes j and k, first form the mesh
basis matrix equation without considering the mutual reactance, and then add the mutual reactance
to the impedances Z jk and Z kj . The sign of mutual reactance is negative if current enters at the
dotted end in one coil and leaves at the dotted end in another coil. The sign of mutual reactance is
positive if current enters (or leaves) at the dotted end in both the coils.
3.16.4 Electrical Equivalent of Magnetic Coupling
(Electrical Equivalent of a Transformer or Linear Transformer)
Magnetic coupling between two coils can be replaced by an electrical equivalent. Consider
mesh-1 of the coupled circuit shown in Fig. 3.56. The mutual reactance introduces a voltage in
mesh-1 due to current in mesh-2, but it does not introduce a voltage in mesh-1 due to mesh-1
current. The (self-) inductive reactance jωL 1 introduces a voltage in mesh-1 due to mesh-1 current.
Similarly in mesh-2, the mutual reactance introduces a voltage in mesh-2 due to current in
mesh-1 and (self-) inductive reactance jωL2 introduces a voltage in mesh-2 due to mesh-2 current.
From the above discussion, we can conclude that self-reactances of coupled coils can
be introduced as elements associated with respective meshes alone and mutual reactance
as an element common to two meshes. However, when we introduce mutual reactance as
an element common to meshes 1 and 2, it will introduce voltage in mesh-1 due to both
mesh-1 and mesh-2 currents. The voltage introduced by mesh-1 current can be eliminated
by introducing a negative mutual reactance in mesh-1 as an element associated with mesh-1
alone. By similar argument, a negative mutual reactance has to be introduced in mesh-2 as an
element associated with mesh-2 alone.
Therefore, in general, when magnetic coupling exists between meshes j and k, the coupled
coils can be replaced by introducing the following elements in mesh-j and mesh-k, provided the
direction of current in coils j and k are not specified.
i) The mutual reactance jωM is introduced as an element common to mesh-j and mesh-k.
ii) The reactance jω(Lj−M) is introduced as an element associated with mesh-j alone.
iii) The reactance jω(Lk−M) is introduced as an element associated with mesh-k alone.
where, Lj and Lk are self-inductances of the coils in mesh-j and mesh-k, respectively,
and M is the mutual inductance between these two coils.
The electrical equivalent of coupled coils is shown in Fig. 3.58. The electrical equivalent
of the coupled circuit of Fig. 3.56 is shown in Fig. 3.58. “This type of magnetic coupling exists in
a transformer and so the electrical equivalent of coupled coils shown in Figs 3.58 and 3.59 are
applicable for a transformer or linear transformer or natural transformer”.
Lj - M Lk - M
Lj Lk M
Þ
Coil-j Coil-k
Fig. 3.58 : Electrical equivalent of coupled coils.

R1 jwM R1 jw(L1 - M) jw(L2 - M)
+ +
E1
-
~ jwL1 jwL2 R2 Þ E1~
-
jwM
I2
R2
I1
I1 I2
Fig. 3.59 : Electrical equivalent of a coupled circuit.

Note : Physically realisable electrical equivalent is possible as long as M < L1 and M < L2.
Equivalent of Coupled Coils with Resistances

So far we have considered only ideal coils, in which the resistance of the coil is zero.
Sometimes, the resistance of the coil is specified along with the inductance (practically, the
resistance of the coil is the resistance of the wire that is used to construct the coil). In such cases, the
resistance of the coil can be represented by a resistance external to the coil in series as shown in Fig. 3.60.
Rj Rk Lj - M Lk - M
M M Rj Rk
Rj, Lj Rk, Lk Þ Lj Lk Þ M
Fig. 3.60 : Coupled coils with resistance of the coils.

Equivalent of Coupled Coils When Currents and Dots are Specified
When the direction of current through the coils is specified along with dot convention,
the electrical equivalent of coupled coils (shown in Fig. 3.58) will not be applicable for certain
combination of dot marking and mesh currents. When mesh currents are specified, we come across
the following two groups of coupled coils:
Group I : Mesh currents in opposite orientation and fluxes are aiding.
Mesh currents in same orientation and fluxes are opposing.
Group II : Mesh currents in same orientation and fluxes are aiding.
Mesh currents in opposite orientation and fluxes are opposing.
For group-I coupled coils, the electrical equivalent will be as shown in Fig. 3.61. For group-II
coupled coils, the electrical equivalent is obtained by replacing M by −M in the electrical equivalent
shown in Fig. 3.62.
Note : 1. When fluxes are aiding, emf due to self- and mutual inductances have the same sign.
2. When fluxes are opposing, emf due to self- and mutual inductances have the opposite sign.
+ + M + + - - M - -
Ij Vmj Vj Lj Lk Vk Vmk Ik Ij Vmj Vj Lj Lk Vk Vmk Ik
- - - - + + + +
Fig. a : Currents’ opposite Fig. b : Currents’ opposite

orientation and fluxes aiding. orientation and fluxes aiding.
Þ
Þ
Lj - M Lk - M
Note : In the electrical equivalent, the

mesh currents’ orientation should be
M the same as that of the original circuit.
Þ
Þ
- + M - + + - + -
M
+ - + - - + - +
Fig. c : Currents’ same Fig. d : Currents’ same

orientation and fluxes opposing. orientation and fluxes opposing.
Fig. 3.61 : Electrical equivalent of group-I coupled coils.
+ + M - - - - M + +
- - + + + + - -
Fig. a : Currents’ same Fig. b : Currents’ same

orientation and fluxes aiding. orientation and fluxes aiding.
Þ
Þ
Lj + M Lk + M

-M
mesh currents’ orientation should be
the same as that of the original circuit.
Þ
Þ
- + M + - + - M - +
+ - - + - + + -
Fig. c : Currents’ opposite Fig. d : Currents’ opposite

orientation and fluxes opposing. orientation and fluxes opposing.
Fig. 3.62 : Electrical equivalent of group-II coupled coils.
3.16.5 Writing Mesh Equations in Circuits with Electrical Connection and
Magnetic Coupling
Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 3.63(a) in which two electrically connected coils
have magnetic coupling between them. Let us choose two mesh currents I1 and I2 as shown in
Fig. 3.63(b). The voltages across various elements excluding the voltages due to mutual inductance
are shown in Fig. 3.63(b).
jwL2 R1 jwL2
R1 M + - M + -
jw R1 I1 jw
jwL 2 I2
+ + + - +
jwL1 R2
~ -
E ~ -
E jwL1 I1
-
jwL1 I2
+
R2 I 2
-
R2
I1 I2
Fig. a. Fig. b.
Fig. 3.63 : Magnetic coupling in electrically connected coils.
Here I2 is the current through coil-2. Let us take the current through coil-1 as I1 – I2 . Now
due to mutual inductance, the current I1 – I2 entering at the dotted end in coil-1 will induce an
emf jωM ( I1 – I2 ) in coil-2 such that the induced emf is positive at the dotted end in coil-2. Similarly,
the current I 2 entering at the dotted end in coil-2 will induce an emf jωM I2 in coil-1 such that the
induced emf is positive at the dotted end in coil-1. The mutual induced emf along with self-induced
emf are shown in Fig. 3.64.
R1 e
I2 jwM I1 - I2 j
+ - M
R1 I1 eI1 - I2 j jw + -
jwL 2 I2
+ + + - +
~ -
E jwM I2
-
jwL1 I1
- +
jwL1 I2 R2 I 2
-
R2
I1 I2
Fig. 3.64.
With reference to Fig. 3.64, in mesh-1 by KVL, we can write,
R1 I1 + jωMI2 + jωL1 I1 = E + jωL1 I2
` ^R1 + jωL1h I1 + ^− jωL1 + jωMh I2 = E ..... (3.172)
With reference to Fig. 3.64, in mesh-2 by KVL, we can write,

R2 I2 + jωL1 I 2 + jωL2 I2 + jωMÎ1 − I2h = jωMI 2 + jωL1 I1
` ^− jωL1 + jωMh I1 + (R2 + jωL2 + jωL1 − j2ωM) I2 = 0 ..... (3.173)
On arranging equations (3.172) and (3.173) in the matrix form, we get,
= G = G = = G
R1 + jωL1 − jωL1 + jωM I1 E
− jωL1 + jωM R2 + jωL2 + jωL1 − j2ωM I2 0 ..... (3.174)
3.16.6 Analysis of Multiwinding Coupled Coils (Coupled Inductors)

When number of isolated coils are wound on a common core, it can be called multiwinding
coupled coils. In such coils, flux produced by one coil will link all other coils and so mutual
inductance exist between any two coils.
Coil-1
Coil-1 Coil-1
Coil-2
23
p §
M
Coil-5 M51
31
31
M
M1
M
M
p
§ 12
2
M1
M2
§ M45
2
M 34
3
p p
Coil-3 Coil-2 Coil-3 Coil-2 Coil-3
M23 Coil-4
Fig. a Fig. b Fig. c

Fig. 3.65 : Multiwinding coupled coils.
Some examples of multiwinding coupled coils is shown in Fig. 3.65. In multiwinding
coupled coils, since multiple coupling exists, diffferent symbols like , , , , etc can be used to
represent mutual coupling.
Consider the multiwinding coupled coil shown in Fig. 3.65a.

Let, L1 = Self-inductance of coil-1
L2 = Self-inductance of coil-2
L3 = Self-inductance of coil-3
M12 = Mutual inductancce between coil-1 and 2
k12 = Coefficient of coupling between coil-1 and 2
Now, the following equations will give the relation between self- and mutual inductances
in multiwinding coupled coil of Fig. 3.65a.
M12 = k12 L1 L2
M23 = k23 L2 L3
M31 = k31 L3 L1
3.17 Series and Parallel Connections of Coupled Coils (Coupled Inductors)

In certain circuits there may be a magnetic coupling between series-connected or
parallel-connected coils. In such case it is possible to replace the series or parallel combination
by a single equivalent inductive reactance. In series (or parallel) connection, the mutual induced
emf will have either the same polarity or opposite polarity as the self-induced emf.
In series connection, when the mutual and self-induced emfs have the same polarity (or
sign), the connection is called series aiding. When the mutual and self-induced emfs have an
opposite polarity, (or sign) the connection is called series opposing.
Similarly, in parallel connection, when the mutual and self-induced emfs have the
same polarity (or sign) the connection is called parallel aiding. When the mutual and
self-induced emfs have an opposite polarity (or sign) the connection is called parallel opposing.
Physically, in series or parallel aiding the flux produced by one coil aids the other
(i.e., both the coil will set up flux in the same direction). Alternatively, in series or parallel opposing,
the flux produced by one coil will oppose the other.
3.17.1 Series Aiding Connection of Coupled Coils
Consider the coupled coils connected in series as shown in Fig. 3.66(a). Here, the current
enters at the dotted end in both the coils and so the self- and mutual induced emfs will have the
same polarity (or sign). Therefore, the connection shown in Fig. 3.66(a) is series aiding. Now, the
coupled coils can be represented by a single equivalent inductance as shown in Fig 3.66(b), where
equivalent inductance, Leq is given by, (AU May’17, 2 Marks)
Leq = L1 + L2 + 2M .....(3.175)
jwM
jwL1 jwL2 jwLeq

I I I
+ - + - + -
jwL1 I jwL 2 I jwLeq I
+ - + -
jwM I jwM I Þ
+ ~ - + ~ -
E Leq = L1 + L2 + 2M
Fig. a : Series aiding connection. Fig. b : Equivalent of coupled coils in series aiding.
Fig. 3.66 : Series aiding connection of coupled coils and its equivalent.
Proof: Equivalent inductance of series aiding connection.
With reference to Fig. 3.66(a), by KVL, we can write,
jωL1 I + jωMI + jωL2 I + jωMI + jωMI = E
jω (L1 + L2 + 2M) I = E
` jωLeq I = E ..... (3.176)
where, L eq = L1 + L2 + 2M
From equation (3.176), we can say that the coupled coils of Fig. 3.66(a) can be replaced by an equivalent
reactance as shown in Fig. 3.66(b).
Equation (3.175), can be written as,

Leq = (L1 + M) + (L2 + M) ..... (3.177)
From equation (3.177), we can say that, “the series aiding connection of coupled coils can
be viewed as a series connection of two inductances (L1 + M) and (L2 + M)”, as shown in Fig. 3.67.
M
L1 + M L2 + M L1 + L2 + 2M
L1 L2
Þ Þ
Leq Leq Leq
Fig. 3.67 : Alternate representation for series aiding connection.
3.17.2 Series Opposing Connection of Coupled Coils (AU Dec’16, 2 Marks)

Consider the coupled coils connected in series as shown in Fig. 3.68(a). Here the current
enters at the dotted end in one coil and leaves at the dotted end in the other coil. Hence, the polarity
(or sign) of self- and mutual induced emfs will be opposite. Therefore, the connection shown in
Fig. 3.68(a) is series opposing. Now, the coupled coils can be represented by a single equivalent
inductance as shown in Fig. 3.68(b), where equivalent inductance, Leq is given by,
Leq = L1 + L2 − 2M .....(3.178)
jwM
jwL1 jwL2 jwLeq

I I I
+ - + - + -
jwL1 I jwL 2 I jwLeq I
- + - +
jwM I jwM I
Þ
Leq = L1 + L2 - 2M
+ ~ - + ~ -
E E
Fig. a : Series opposing connection. Fig. b : Equivalent of coupled coils in series opposing.
Fig. 3.68 : Series opposing connection of coupled coils and its equivalent.
Proof : Equivalent inductance of series opposing connection.
With reference to Fig. 3.68(a), by KVL, we can write,

jωL1 I + jωL2 I = E + jωMI + jωMI ⇒ jωL1 I + jωL2 I − jω2MI = E
` jω (L1 + L2 − 2M) I = E
jωLeq I = E ..... (3.179)

where, L eq = L1 + L2 − 2M
Equation (3.178) can be written as,

Leq = (L1 − M) + (L2 − M) ..... (3.180)
From equation (3.180), we can say that, “the series opposing connection of coupled coils can
be viewed as a series connection of two inductances (L1− M) and (L2 − M)”, as shown in Fig. 3.69.
M
L1 - M L2 - M L1 + L2 - 2M
L1 L2
Þ Þ
Leq Leq Leq
Fig. 3.69 : Alternate representation for series opposing connection.
3.17.3 Parallel Aiding Connection of Coupled Coils

Consider the coupled coils connected in parallel as shown in Fig. 3.70(a). Here, the current
enters at the dotted end in both the coils and so the self- and mutual induced emfs will have the
same polarity (or sign). Therefore, the connection shown in Fig. 3.70(a) is parallel aiding. Now,
the coupled coils can be represented by a single equivalent inductance as shown in Fig. 3.70(b),
where equivalent inductance, Leq is given by,
L1 L2 − M2 ..... (3.181)
Leq =
L1 + L2 − 2M
I I
I1 M I2
+ + + +
+ +
E ~
-
jwM I2 jwL1 I1 jwL1 jwL2 jwL 2 I2 jwM I1 Þ E ~
-
jwLeq
- - - -
L1 L 2 - M2
Leq =
L1 + L 2 - 2M
Fig. a : Parallel aiding connection. Fig. b : Equivalent of coupled coils in parallel aiding.
Fig. 3.70 : Parallel aiding connection of coupled coils and its equivalent.
Proof: Equivalent inductance of parallel aiding connection. (AU June’16, 8 Marks)
With reference to Fig. 3.70(a), by using KVL in the parallel arms, we get the following two equations:
jωL1 I 1 + jωMI 2 = E ..... (3.182)
jωMI 1 + jωL2 I 2 = E ..... (3.183)
Let us arrange equations (3.182) and (3.183) in the matrix form, as shown below:
= G = G = = G
jωL1 jωM I 1 E
jωM jωL2 I 2 E
jωL1 jωM
Now, ∆ = = jωL1 # jωL2 − jωM # jωM
jωM jωL2
= − ω2 L1 L2 + ω2 M 2 = − ω2 (L1 L2 − M 2)
E jωM
∆1 = = E # jωL2 − E # jωM
E jωL2
= E jω (L2 − M)
jωL1 E
∆2 = = jωL1 # E − jωM # E
jω M E
= E jω (L1 − M)
∆1 E jω (L2 − M)
` I1 = =
∆ − ω2 (L1 L2 − M 2)
∆2 E jω (L1 − M)
I2 = =
∆ − ω2 (L1 L2 − M 2)
Now by KCL, I = I 1 + I 2
E jω (L2 − M) E jω (L1 − M)
` I = 2 2
+
− ω (L1 L2 − M ) − ω2 (L1 L2 − M 2)
jω L2 − M + L1 − M
= E ; E
− ω2 L1 L2 − M 2
L + L − 2M
= E 1 ; 1 2
jω L1 L2 − M 2 E
L1 L2 − M 2
` E = I jω ; E
L1 + L2 − 2M
or E = I jωLeq ..... (3.184)
L1 L2 − M 2
where, Leq =
L1 + L2 − 2M
Consider the network shown in Fig. 3.71(a). It can be reduced to a single equivalent
inductance as shown in Fig. 3.71(d). Here this value of equivalent inductance is the same as that
of equation (3.179). Therefore, the parallel aiding connection of coupled coils can be represented
by an equivalent network as shown in Fig. 3.71(b).
M
L1 L2 Þ L1 - M L2 - M
Leq Leq
Fig. a. Fig. b.
Þ
M
L1 L 2 - L1M - L 2M + M2
Leq = M +
L1 + L 2 - 2M
ML1 + ML 2 - 2M2 + L1 L 2 - L1M - L 2M + M2 (L1 - M) ´ (L 2 - M)
Þ
=
L1 + L 2 - 2M L1 - M + L 2 - M
L1 L 2 - M2 L L - L1M - L 2M + M2
Leq = = 1 2
L1 + L 2 - 2M Leq L1 + L 2 - 2M
Fig. d. Fig. c.
Fig. 3.71 : Alternate representation for parallel aiding connection.
3.17.4 Parallel Opposing Connection of Coupled Coils

Consider the coupled coils connected in parallel as shown in Fig. 3.72(a). Here, the current
enters at the dotted end in one coil and leaves at the dotted end in the other coil. So the self- and
mutual induced emfs will have an opposite polarity (or sign). Therefore, the connection shown in
Fig. 3.72(a) is parallel opposing. Now, the coupled coils can be represented by a single equivalent
inductance as shown in Fig. 3.72(b), where equivalent inductance, Leq is given by,
L1 L2 − M2 .....(3.185)
Leq =
L1 + L2 + 2M
I I1 I2 I
- +
+ + - +
M L1 L 2 - M2
E ~
-
jwM I2 jwL1 I1
jwL1 jwL2
jwL 2 I2 jwM I1
E ~
-
jwLeq Leq =
L1 + L 2 + 2M
+ - - +
Fig. a : Parallel opposing connection. Fig. b : Equivalent of coupled coils in parallel opposing.
Fig. 3.72 : Parallel opposing connection of coupled coils and its equivalent.
Proof: Equivalent inductance of paralled opposing connection.
With reference to Fig. 3.72(a), by using KVL in the parallel arms, we get the following two equations:
jωL1 I 1 − jωMI 2 = E ..... (3.186)
− jωMI 1 + jωL2 I 2 = E ..... (3.187)

Let us arrange equations (3.186) and (3.187) in the matrix form, as shown below:
= G = G = = G
jωL1 − jωM I 1 E
− jωM jωL2 I 2 E
jωL1 − jωM
Now, ∆ = = jωL1 # jωL2 − (− jωM) 2
− jωM jωL2
= − ω2 L1 L2 + ω2 M 2 = − ω2 (L1 L2 − M 2)
E − jωM
∆1 = = E # jωL2 − E # (− jωM)
E jωL2
= E jω (L2 + M)
jωL1 E
∆2 = = jωL1 # E − (− jωM) # E
− jω M E
= E jω (L1 + M)
∆1 E jω (L2 + M)
` I1 = =
∆ − ω2 (L1 L2 − M 2)
∆2 E jω (L1 + M)
I2 = =
∆ − ω2 (L1 L2 − M 2)
Now by KCL, I = I 1 + I 2
E jω (L2 + M) E jω (L1 + M)
` I = +
− ω2 (L1 L2 − M 2) − ω2 (L1 L2 − M 2)
jω L2 + M + L1 + M
= E ; E
− ω2 L1 L2 − M 2
L + L + 2M
= E 1 ; 1 2
jω L1 L2 − M 2 E
L1 L2 − M 2
` E = I jω ; E
L1 + L2 + 2M
or E = I jωLeq .....(3.188)
L1 L2 − M 2
where, Leq =
L1 + L2 + 2M
Consider the network shown in Fig. 3.73(a). It can be reduced to a single equivalent
inductance as shown in Fig. 3.73(d). Here this value of equivalent inductance is the same as that of
equation (3.185). Therefore, the parallel opposing connection of coupled coils can be represented
by an equivalent network as shown in Fig. 3.73(b).
-M
L1 L2 L1 + M L2 + M
Þ
Leq Leq
Fig. a. Fig. b.
Þ
-M
L L + L1 M + L 2 M + M2
L eq = -M + 1 2
L1 + L 2 + 2 M
Þ (L1 + M) ´ (L 2 + M)
- ML1 - ML 2 - 2 M2 + L1 L 2 + L1 M + L 2 M + M2 L1 + M + L 2 + M
=
L1 + L 2 + 2 M
L1 L 2 + L1 M + L 2 M + M2
=
L1 L 2 - M2 L1 + L 2 + 2 M
Leq Leq
=
L1 + L 2 + 2 M
Fig. d. Fig. c.
Fig. 3.73 : Alternate representation for parallel opposing connection.
3.18 Tuned Coupled Circuits

The coupled circuits are mainly used to transfer energy from a weak source to a load or
employed for maximum power transfer from one circuit to another. This is possible only when
both the coils work at resonance condition.
In coupled coils, the coil to which the source is connected is called primary and the coil to
which the load is connected is called secondary. The coupled coils can be brought to resonance
by adding capacitors to the primary and secondary coils. When the primary inductive reactance is
very low or negligible, it is sufficient if we resonate the secondary coil alone by adding a capacitor
to the secondary coil, to achieve maximum power transfer condition.
When a capacitor is added only to the secondary coil, the coupled coils are called single
tuned coupled coils and the resultant circuit is called a single tuned coupled circuit.
When capacitors are added to both secondary and primary coils, the coupled coils are called
double tuned coupled coils and the resultant circuit is called a double tuned coupled circuit.
Normally, in a double tuned circuit, the primary and secondary are tuned to the same frequency.
However, sometimes, intentionally the primary and secondary are tuned to slightly different
frequencies and such double tuned circuits are called stagger tuned circuits.
3.18.1 Single Tuned Coupled Circuits
Let us connect a voltage source E with internal resistance Rg to single tuned coupled coils
as shown in Fig. 3.74(a). Here Rp and Rs are resistances of primary and secondary coil and Lp and
Ls are inductances of primary and secondary coil.
Let us represent the total resistance of primary as R1 and that of secondary as R2 as shown in
Fig. 3.74(b). Also, let us denote the inductances of primary and secondary as L1 and L2.
∴ R 1 = Rg + Rp ; R2 = Rs ; L1 = Lp and L2 = Ls
In a single tuned coupled circuit, the secondary is tuned by varying the capacitance in
secondary. The secondary is equivalent to an RLC series circuit. Therefore, the condition for
resonance and the resonace frequency of secondary will be the same as an RLC series resonance.
R1 R2
jwM
M
+ +
+ Rp Rs + 1
E, Rg ~
-
C V0
-
Þ E ~
-
jwL1 jwL2
-j
wC
-
V0
Lp Ls
I1 I2
Primary Secondary Coil-1 Coil-2

Primary Secondary
Fig. a. Fig. b.
Fig. 3.74 : Single tuned coupled circuit.
Now, the condition for resonance is,
ωr L2 = 1 ⇒ ωr L2 − 1 = 0 .....(3.189)
ωr C ωr C
∴ Resonant frequency, ωr = 1 .....(3.190)

L2 C
Now, the secondary current and output voltage at resonance are given by the following equations:
Secondary current at resonance, I2,r = jωr ME .....(3.191)

R1 R2 + ω2r M2
ME
Output voltage at resonance, Vo, r = C .....(3.192)
R1 R2 + ω2r M2
Proof:
Let us assume two mesh currents I 1 and I 2 as shown in Fig. 3.74(b). With reference to Fig. 3.74(b), the mesh
basis matrix equation is given below:
R2 + jωL2 − j 1 H > I H = > H

R1 + jωL1 − j ωM
> − j ωM
I1 E
ωC 2 0
R1 + jωL1 − jωM
1
R2 + jωL2 − j 1 = ^R1 + jωL1h ` R2 + jωL2 − j ωC j − ^− jωM h
2
∆ = − jωM
ωC
= ^R1 + jωL1h `R2 + jωL2 − j 1 j + ω2 M 2
ωC
R1 + jωL1 E
∆2 = = jωME
− jωM 0
∆2 jωME
` I2 = =
∆ (R1 + jωL1) c R2 + jωL2 − j 1 m + ω2 M 2 ..... (3.193)
~C
Single tuned coupled circuits are employed only when the primary inductive reactance is negligible.
Hence, in the primary circuit, R1 >> ωL1
∴ R1 + jωL1 ≈ R1
On neglecting the primary inductive reactance, equation (3.193) can be written as shown below:
jωME
I2 =
R1 R2 + ω2 M 2 + jR1 cωL2 − 1 m
~C
jωr ME
` I 2,r = I 2 =
R1 R2 + ωr2 M 2 + jR1 cωr L2 −
ωr C m
~ = ~r 1
jωr ME Using equation(3.189)

=
R1 R2 + ωr2 M 2
Let, V 0 be the output voltage in secondary as shown in Fig. 3.74.
jωME `− j 1 j
Now, V 0 = I 2 `− j 1 j = ωC
ωC R1 R2 + ω2 M 2 + jR1 `ωL2 − 1 j
ωC
ME
= C
R1 R2 + ω2 M 2 + jR1 cωL2 − 1 m
~C
ME
` V o, r = V o = C
R1 R2 + ωr2 M 2 + jR1 cωr L2 − 1 m
~ = ~r
ωr C
ME
C Using equation(3.189)
=
R1 R2 + ωr2 M 2
Critical Coupling
From equations (3.191) and (3.192), we can say that the secondary current and the output
voltage at resonance are functions of mutual inductance. Hence, it is possible to vary the secondary
current and output voltage by varying mutual inductance, which in turn can be varied by varying
coefficient of coupling k.
It can be proved that for a particular value of k called critical coupling kC, the output voltage
at resonance will be maximum. The mutual inductance at critical coupling is denoted by MC. It is
also called optimum mutual inductance, Mopt.
Now, critical coupling and mutual inductance at critical coupling are given by the following
equations:
Mc
Critical coupling, kc = .....(3.194)
L1 L2
Mutual inductance at critical coupling, Mc = R1 R2 .....(3.195)

ωr
Proof:
Cosider the output voltage of a single tuned coupled circuit at resonance.
ME
V o, r = C .....(3.196)
R1 R2 + ωr2 M 2
dV 0, r
The condition for maximum V 0, r can be obtained by differentiating V 0, r with respect to M and equating
dM
equal to zero when M = MC.
On differentiating equation (3.196) with respect to M, we get,
^R1 R2 + ωr2 M 2h E − ME (2ωr2 M)

dV 0, r C C
=
dM ^R1 R2 + ωr2 M 2h
2
dV 0, r dV 0, r
For = 0 the numerator should be zero. Let us equate the numerator of as zero after
dM dM
replacing M by MC.
M E
` E ^R1 R2 + ωr2 MC2 h − C ^2ωr2 MC h = 0
C C
MC E
− ^2ωr2 MCh = − E ^R1 R2 + ωr2 MC2 h
C C
2ωr2 MC2 = R1 R2 + ωr2 MC2
2ωr2 MC2 − ωr2 MC2 = R1 R2
` ωr2 MC2 = R1 R2
R1 R2
` MC =
ωr
We know that,
Coefficient of coupling, k = M
L1 L2
MC
` Critical coefficient of coupling, kC =
L1 L2

R1 R2
ωr . .... (3.197)
kC =
L1 L2
We know that,
ωr L1 R1 ω
Quality factor of primary coil, Q1 = ; ` = r
R1 L1 Q1
ωr L2 R2 ω
Quality factor of secondary coil, Q2 = ; ` = r
R2 L2 Q2
Using the above equations we can write equation (3.197) as shown below:
R1 R2
kC = 1 1 1
ωr ωr
= ⇒ kC = .... (3.198)
ωr L1 L2 ωr Q1 Q2 Q1 Q2
Let, I2, C = Secondary current at critical coupling.

The expression for secondary current at critical coupling can be obtained from
equation (3.192), by replacing M by M C .
R1 R2
jωr M C E jωr E j R1 R2 E
` I2, C = = ωr =
2 2 R R 2R1 R2
R1 R2 + ωr M C 2
R1 R2 + ωr 1 2 2
ωr
jE ..... (3.199)
=
2 R1 R2
Let, V0,C = Output voltage at critical coupling.
The expression for output voltage at critical coupling can be obtained from equation (3.192),
by replacing M by M C .
R1 R2 E
MC E R1 R2 E
` V0, C = C = ωr C = ωr C
R1 R2 + ω2r M2C R1 R2 + ωr 2 R1 R2 2R1 R2
ω2r
= E
2ωr C R1 R2 .....(3.200)
V0 V0
V0, C
k = kC
V0, r
k > kC
k < kC
wr w wr
w
Fig. a : V0 Vs w . Fig. b : V0 Vs w for different values of k.
Fig. 3.75 : Frequency response of a single tuned coupled circuit..

The variation of output voltage V0 with angular frequency ω is shown in Fig. 3.75(a).
From Fig. 3.75(a), it can be observed that the maximum value of V0 occurs at a frequency
slightly less than the resonant frequency.
The variation of output voltage V0 with angular frequency ω for different values of k
are shown in Fig. 3.75(b). From the curves of Fig. 3.75(b), it can be observed that when the
value of k is above k c, the curve becomes broader and when the value of k is less than kc, the
curve becomes narrower. In practical circuits kc will be less than 0.5. For better selectivity,
the curve should be narrow and so the value of k is less than 0.5 (or less than kc ).
3.18.2 Double Tuned Coupled Circuits

In a double tuned circuit, the capacitance may be connected either in series or parallel to the
primary coil. When the capacitance is connected in series with the primary coil, the tuned circuit is
called a series fed double tuned circuit and when the capacitance is connected in parallel with the
primary coil, the tuned circuit is called a parallel fed double tuned circuit.
Series Fed Double Tuned Circuit
Let us connect a voltage source E with internal resistance Rg to a series fed double tuned
coupled coils as shown in Fig. 3.76(a). Here, R p and Rs are resistances of primary and secondary
coil and Lp and Ls are inductances of primary and secondary coil.
Let us represent the total resistance of primary as R1 and that of secondary as R2 as shown in
Fig. 3.76(b). Also, let us denote the inductances of primary and secondary as L1 and L2.
∴ R 1 = Rg + Rp ; R2 = Rs ; L1 = Lp and L2 = Ls
1
-j
C1 wC1 R1 R2
jwM
M
+ +
+ Rp Rs + 1
E, Rg ~
- Lp Ls
C2
-
V0 Þ E ~
-
jwL1 jwL2 -j wC
2
-
V0
I1 I2
Primary Secondary Coil-1 Coil-2

Primary Secondary
Fig. a. Fig. b.
Fig. 3.76 : Single fed double tuned coupled circuit.
In a double tuned coupled circuit both the primary and secondary are tuned to resonate at
the same frequency. Let ωr be the frequency of resonance. At resonance, both the primary and
secondary coils will behave as a purely resistive circuit.
Hence at resonance, ωr L1 − 1 = 0 and ωr L 2 − 1 = 0
ωr C1 ωr C 2
..... (3.201)
` Resonant frequency, ωr = 1 = 1 .....(3.202)

L1 C1 L2 C2
Now, the secondary current and output voltage at resonance are given by the following
equations:
jωr ME
Secondary current at resonance, I 2, r = ..... (3.203)
R1 R 2 + ω2r M 2
ME
C2
Output voltage at resonance, V0, r = ..... (3.204)
R1 R 2 + ω2r M 2
Proof:
Let us assume two mesh currents I 1 and I 2 as shown in Fig. 3.76(b). With reference to Fig. 3.76(b), the mesh
basis matrix equation is given below:
R V R V R V
S R1 + jωL1 − j 1 − j ωM W SI 1 W SE W
S ω C1 W S W= S W
SS − jωM R2 + jωL2 − j 1 WW SS WW SS WW
ωC2 I2 0
T X T X T X
R1 + jωL1 − j 1 − j ωM
ωC1
∆ =
− jωM R2 + jωL2 − j 1
ωC2
∆ = c R1 + jωL1 − j 1 m # c R2 + jωL2 − j 1 m − ^− jωM h2

ωC 1 ωC 2
= c R1 + j cωL1 − 1 mm # c R2 + j cωL2 − 1 mm + ω2 M 2
ωC 1 ωC 2
R1 + jωL1 − j 1 E
∆2 = ωC1 = jωME
− j ωM 0
∆2 jωME
` I2 = =
1 1
c 1 c 1 ωC mm c R2 + j cωL2 − ωC mm + ω M
∆ R + j ω L − 2 2
1 2
jωME
` I 2,r = I 2 =
c R1 + j cωr L1 − ω C mmc R2 + j cωr L2 − ω C mm + ωr M
~ = ~r 1 1 2 2
r 1 r 2
jωr ME Using equation (3.201)

=
R1 R2 + ωr2 M 2
Let, V 0 be the output voltage in secondary as shown in Fig. 3.76.
jωME c− j 1 m
ωC2
Now, V 0 = I 2 c− j 1 m =
ωC2 1 1
c R1 + j cωL1 − ωC mm c R2 + j cωL2 − ωC mm + ω M
2 2
1 2
ME
C2
=
1 1
c R1 + j cωL1 − ωC mm c R2 + j cωL2 − ωC mm + ω M
2 2
1 2
ME
C2
` V o, r = V o =
c R1 + j cωr L1 − ω C mmc R2 + j cωr L2 − ω C mm + ωr M
~ = ~r 1 1 2 2
r 1 r 2
ME
C2 Using equation (3.201)
=
R1 R2 + ωr2 M 2
Equations (3.203) and (3.204) are similar to equations (3.191) and (3.192) of single tuned
circuit, respectively. Hence, the condition for maximum output voltage and the expression for
critical coupling, k C will be the same as that of a single tuned circuit. Therefore, by an analysis
similar to that of a single tuned circuit, we can obtain the following equations:
R1 R 2
Mutual inductance at critical coupling, MC = ..... (3.205)
ωr
MC
Critical coefficient of coupling, kC = ..... (3.206)
L1 L 2
R1 R 2
or kC = 1
ωr L1 L 2
1 V0
or kC =
Q1 Q 2 k = kC
4 2, C = 2 R R
k > kC
Secondary current at I jE ..... (3.207)
critical coupling 1 2
4 0, C
Output voltage at V = k < kC
E ..... (3.208) w
critical coupling 2 ω r C 2 R1 R 2 Fig. 3.77 : Frequency response
of a double tuned circuit.
In double tuned circuits, it can be proved that the frequency response will exhibit a double
hump when the coefficient of coupling is greater than critical coupling. The variation of output
voltage V0 with angular frequency ω for different values of k are shown in Fig. 3.77.
Parallel Fed Double Tuned Circuit
Let us connect a voltage source E with internal M
+
resistance Rg to a parallel fed double tuned coupled coils + Rp Rs
as shown in Fig. 3.78. Here Rp and Rs are resistances of ~ E

E, Rg C1
Lp Ls
C2
E
V0
primary and secondary coil and Lp and Ls are inductances

of primary and secondary coil.
Fig. 3.78 : Parallel fed double tuned
The parallel fed double tuned circuit can be
coupled circuit.
converted into an equivalent series fed double tuned circuit
as shown below. Then the circuit can be analysed in a manner similar to that of a series fed double
tuned circuit.
A
A
+ +
Rg
+
1 1 1
E, Rg
~
-
-j
wC1
Vth Þ
+
-j
wC1
Vth Þ Rg -j
wC1
-
E ~
- -
B
Zth B
Fig. a. Fig. b. Fig. c. Zth
Fig. 3.79 : To find Thevenin’s equivalent of the exciting source in

parallel with capacitance.
With reference to Fig. 3.79(b) by, voltage division rule, we can write,
−j 1
ωC1
Vth = E #
Rg − j 1
ωC1
Let, Rg >> 1
ωC1
−j 1
ωC1
` Vth = E # = −j E
Rg ωRg C1
With reference to Fig. 3.79(c), we can write,
R g2
Rg e− j 1 o Rg e− j 1 o 1 Rg
ωC1 ωC1 Rg + j − j +
ωC1 ω C 1 (ωC1) 2
Z th = = # = 2
Rg − j 1 Rg − j 1 Rg + j 1 Rg2 + e 1 o
ωC1 ωC1 ωC1 ωC1
Let, Rg >> 1
ωC1
R g2 Rg
−j +
ωC1 (ωC1) 2 1
` Z th = = − j 1
Rg2 R g (ωC1) 2 ωC1
Using Thevenin’s equivalent of the voltage source in parallel with capacitance, the parallel
fed double tuned circuit of Fig. 3.78 can be drawn as shown in Fig. 3.80(a).
1
-j
C1 wC1 R1 R2
jwM
1
Rg (w C1)2 +
+
+
Rp Rs 1
+ C2
-
V0 Þ Vth ~ jwL1 jwL2
-j
wC2
-
V0
Vth
-
~ Lp Ls -
I1 I2
E 1
Vth = - j R1 = Rp + ; R2 = Rs ; L1 = Lp and L 2 = L s
w Rg C1 Rg (w C1)2
Fig. a. Fig. b.
Fig. 3.80 : Series fed equivalent of parallel fed double tuned circuit.
The circuit of Fig. 3.80(b) is similar to that of a series fed double tuned circuit. Therefore,
the analysis will be similar to that of a series fed double tuned circuit.
3.19 Solved Problems in Coupled Circuits
EXAMPLE 3.19
A coil having an inductance of 100 mH is magnetically coupled to another coil having an inductance of
900 mH. The coefficient of coupling between the coils is 0.45. Calculate the equivalent inductance if the two
coils are connected in a) series aiding, b) series opposing, c) parallel aiding and d) parallel opposing.
SOLUTION
Given that, L1 = 100 mH , L2 = 900 mH and k = 0.45
` Mutual - inductance, M = k L1 L 2 = 0.45 100 # 900 = 135 mH
a) Equivalent inductance in series aiding, Leq = L1 + L2 + 2M
= 100 + 900 + (2 ´ 135) = 1270 mH
b) Equivalent inductance in series opposing, Leq = L1 + L2 − 2M
= 100 + 900 – (2 ´ 135) = 730 mH

L1 L 2 − M 2
c) Equivalent inductance in parallel aiding, Leq =
L1 + L 2 − 2M
a100 # 900 k − 135 2

= = 98.3219 mH
100 + 900 − a2 # 135 k
L1 L 2 − M 2
d) Equivalent inductance in parallel opposing, Leq =
L1 + L 2 + 2M
a100 # 900 k − 135 2

= = 56.5157 mH
100 + 900 + a2 # 135 k
EXAMPLE 3.20
A primary coil having an inductance of 100 µH is connected in series with a secondary coil having
an inductance of240 µH and the total inductance of the combination is measured as 146 µH. Determine
the coefficient of coupling.
SOLUTION
Given that, L1 = 100 µH , L2 = 240 µH
Equivalent inductance in series = 146 µH.
Since the equivalent inductance in series is less than the sum of individual inductances, the series
connection should be series opposing.
In series opposing connection,
Leq = L1 + L2 − 2M
∴ 2M = L1 + L2 − Leq
L1 + L 2 − Leq
` M = = 100 + 240 − 146 = 97 µH
2 2
Coefficient of coupling, k = M = 97 = 0.6261
L1 L 2 100 # 240
EXAMPLE 3.21
Two coils connected in series have an equivalent inductance of 0.8 H when connected in aiding and
an equivalent inductance of 0.4 H when connected in opposing. Determine the mutual inductance. Calculate
the self-inductance of the coils by taking k = 0.55.
SOLUTION
We know that,
Equivalent inductance in series aiding, Leq = L1 + L 2 + 2M
Equivalent inductance in series opposing, Leq = L1 + L 2 − 2M

Given that,
L1 + L2 + 2M = 0.8 ..... (1)
L1 + L2 − 2M = 0.4 ..... (2)
Let us subtract equation (2) from (1).

L1 + L2 + 2M = 0.8
L1 + L2 − 2M = 0.4
(–) (–) (+) (–)
4M = 0.4
` M = 0.4 = 0.1 H ..... (3)
4
We know that,
M = k L1 L 2 ⇒ M2 = k2 L1L2
2
` L2 = M = 0.1 2 = 0.0331
2
k L1 0.55 2 # L1 L1 ...... (4)
On substituting for M and L2 from equations (3) and (4) in equation (1), we get,
L1 + 0.0331 + _2 # 0.1 i = 0.8

L1
On multiplying the above equation by L1, we get,
L21 + 0.0331 + 0.2 L1 = 0.8L1
L21 + 0.2 L1 − 0.8L1 + 0.0331 = 0
∴ L21 − 0.6 L1 + 0.0331 = 0
The above equation is a quadratic function of L1. The roots of the quadratic equation will give the values of L1.
2
− a − 0. 6 k ! a− 0.6 k − 4 # 0.0331
L1 = = 0.6 ! 0.4771
2 2
= 0.53855 or 0.06145
∴ L1 = 0.53855 H or L1 = 0.06145 H
L 2 = 0.8 − L1 − 2M
When L1 = 0.53855 H , L2 = 0.8 − 0.53855 − 2 × 0.1 = 0.06145 H
When L1 = 0.06145 H , L2 = 0.8 − 0.06145 − 2 × 0.1 = 0.53855 H
RESULT
Mutual inductance, M = 0.1 H
Self-inductance of coil-1, L1 = 0.53855 H
Self-inductance of coil-2, L2 = 0.06145 H
EXAMPLE 3.22
Two coupled coils with self-inductances 0.9 H and 0.4 H have a coupling coefficient of 0.3. Find the
mutual inductance and turns ratio. What will be the maximum possible value of mutual inductance ?
SOLUTION
Given that, L1 = 0.9 H , L2 = 0.4 H and k = 0.3
Mutual inductance, M = k L1 L2 = 0.3 0.9 # 0.4 = 0.18 H
N1 φ1 N 2 φ2
We know that, L1 = and L2 =
I1 I2
N1 φ1
L1 I1 N φ I
` = = 1 1 # 2
L2 N 2 φ2 N 2 φ2 I1
I2
In coupled coils, (or in transformer)
N I the flux will be same.
= 1 # 2
N2 I1 ∴ φ1 = φ2
N1 N
= # 1 I2 N
N2 N2 In coupled coils, = 1
I1 N2
2
= e o
N1
N2
N1 L1 0.9 = 1.5
` Turns ratio, = =
N2 L2 0.4
The maximum possible value of M is achieved when k = 1.
` Maximum possible value of M = k L1 L 2 = 1 # 0.9 # 0.4 = 0.6 H

RESULT
When k = 0.3, Mutual inductance, M = 0.18 H
Maximum possible value of M = 0.6 H
N1
Turns ratio, = 1.5
N2
EXAMPLE 3.23
Two coils A and B of 1200 turns and 1500 turns, respectively, lie in a parallel plane, so that 40% of
flux produced by coil-A links with coil-B. A current of 4 A in coil-A produces a flux of 0.5 × 10 −4 Wb while the
same current in coil-B produces a flux of 0.8 × 10 −4 Wb. Determine the coefficient of coupling between the coils.
SOLUTION
N A φA -4
Self- inductance of coil - A, LA = = 1200 # 0.5 # 10 = 0.015 H
IA 4
NB φB -4
Self- inductance of coil-B, LB = = 1500 # 0.8 # 10 = 0.03 H
IB 4
NB φAB
Mutual inductance between coil A and B, M =
IB
Here 40% of flux produced by coil-A links coil-B.
φAB
` = 40% = 40 = 0.4 ⇒ φAB = 0.4φA
φA 100
NB φAB -4
` M = = 1500 # 0.4 # 0.5 # 10 = 0.0075 H
IA 4
Coefficient of coupling, k = M = 0.0075 = 0.3536
L1 L 2 0.015 # 0.03
EXAMPLE 3.24 (AU May’17 & Dec’16, 8 Marks)

Consider two coils A and B consisting of 500 turns and 1500 turns, respectively. A current of 5 A in
coil-A produces a flux of 0.6 × 10 −3 Wb and the flux linking coil-B is 0.3 × 10 −3 Wb. Determine the inductance,
coefficient of coupling and mutual inductance of the coils.
SOLUTION
N A φA -3
Self- inductance of coil - A, LA = = 500 # 0.6 # 10 = 0.06 H = 60 # 10- 3 H = 60 mH
IA 5
NB φB -3
Self- inductance of coil-B, LB = = 1500 # 0.3 # 10 = 0.09 H = 90 # 10- 3 H = 90 mH
IB 5
Flux linking coil− A and coil−B -3
Coefficient of coupling, k = = 0.3 # 10- 3 = 0.5
Total flux 0.6 # 10
` Mutual - inductance, M = k L A LB = 0.5 60 # 90 = 36.7423 mH
EXAMPLE 3.25
Two magnetically coupled coils are connected in series and their total effective inductance is found to be
4.4 mH. When one coil is reversed in connection, the combined inductance drops to 1.6 mH. Here all the flux
due to the first coil links the second coil but only 40% of the flux due to the second coil links with the first coil.
Find the self-inductance of each coil and the mutual inductance between the coils.
SOLUTION
We know that,
Equivalent inductance in series aiding, Leq = L1 + L 2 + 2M
Equivalent inductance in series opposing, Leq = L1 + L 2 − 2M
In series aiding connection, the equivalent inductance will be more than that in series opposing
connection. Therefore, 4.4 mH is the equivalent inductance in series aiding and 1.6 mH is the equivalent
inductance in series opposing.
∴ L1 + L2 + 2M = 4.4 .....(1)
L1 + L2 − 2M = 1.6 .....(2)
Let us subtract equation (2) from (1).
L1 + L2 + 2M = 4.4
L1 + L2 − 2M = 1.6
(–) (–) (+) (–)
4M = 2.8
` M = 2.8 = 0.7 mH .....(3)

4
Here all the flux produced by coil-1 links coil-2.
φ12
` Coefficient of coupling between coils 1and 2, k1 = = 1
φ1
Here only 40% of the flux produced by coil-2 links coil-1.
φ21
` Coefficient of coupling between coils 2 and 1, k 2 = = 0.4
φ2
Now coefficient of coupling, k = k1 k 2 = 1 # 0.4 = 0.4
We know that,
2 2
M = k L1 L 2 ⇒ M = k L1 L2
2
` L2 = M = 0.7 2 = 1.225
2 2 L1
k L1 a 0.4 k L1 .....(4)
On substituting for M and L2 from equations (3) and (4) in equation (1), we get,
L1 + 1.225 + a2 # 0.7 k = 4.4

L1
On multiplying the above equation by L1, we get,
L21 + 1.225 + 1.4 L1 = 4.4L1 ⇒ L21 + 1.4 L1 − 4.4L1 + 1.225 = 0

∴ L21 − 3 L1 + 1.225 = 0
The above equation is a quadratic function of L1. The roots of the quadratic equation will give the values of L1.
− (− 3) ! (− 3) 2 − 4 # 1.225
L1 = = 3 ! 2.0248
2 2
= 2.5124 or 0.4876
∴ L1 = 2.5124 mH or L1 = 0.4876 mH
L2 = 4.4 − L 1 − 2M
When L1 = 2.5124 mH , L2 = 4.4 − 2.5124 − 2 × 0.7 = 0.4876 mH
When L1 = 0.4876 mH , L2 = 4.4 − 0.4876 − 2 × 0.7 = 2.5124 mH
RESULT
Mutual inductance, M = 0.7 mH
Self-inductance of coil-1, L1 = 2.5124 mH
Self-inductance of coil-2, L2 = 0.4876 mH
EXAMPLE 3.26
Coil-1
Determine the coefficient of coupling between coupled coils in the multiwinding
coupled coil shown in Fig. 1.
5H § 3H
SOLUTION §
Let, k12 = Coefficient coupling between coil-1 and 2 p p
Coil-3 Coil-2
k23 = Coefficient coupling between coil-2 and 3 2H
k31 = Coefficient coupling between coil-3 and 1 Fig. 1.
M12 3
k12 = = = 0.3354
L1 L 2 10 # 8
M 23 2
k 23 = = = 0.2041
L 2 L3 8 # 12
M31 5
M31 = = = 0.4564
L3 L1 12 # 10
EXAMPLE 3.27
Determine the effective inductance of the series-connected coupled coils shown in Figs 1, 2 and 3.
4H 8H
3H 1H 3H
2H
3H
1H 10 H
2H
3H 2H 6H 4H
5H
Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
6H
SOLUTION
a) To find the equivalent inductance of series-connected coils in Fig. 1
Consider the series-connected coils shown in Fig. 1. There are two mutual couplings. Let us remove
them one by one.
Let I be the current through the series-connected coils as shown in Fig. 4.
The coupling between 3 H and 2 H coils is additive because the current I enters at the dotted end
in both the coils. Hence, the magnetic coupling is eliminated by adding the mutual inductance 2 H to the
self-inductances as shown in Fig. 5.
2H 3H
The coupling between 4 H and 6 H coil of Fig. 5 is opposive, I
because the current I enters at the dotted end in one coil and leaves at the
3H 2H 6H
dotted end in the other coil. Hence, the magnetic coupling is eliminated by
subtracting the mutual inductance 3 H from the self-inductances as shown
Fig. 4.
in Fig. 6. Þ
Now, the series-connected inductances of Fig. 6 can be added to give an equivalent inductance as
shown in Fig. 7.
3H
Leq
I Þ I Þ I
Leq = 5 + 1 + 3 = 9 H 5H 4 - 3 = 1H 6 - 3 = 3H 3 + 2 = 5H 2 + 2 = 4H 6H
Fig. 7. Fig. 6. Fig. 5.

b) To find the equivalent inductance of series-connected coils in Fig. 2
In Fig. 2, there are two mutual couplings. Let us remove them one by one as shown below:
Let I be the current through the series combination as shown in Fig. 8. Here both the couplings are
opposive because the current enters at the dotted end in one coil and leaves at the dotted end in the other coil.
I 4H I 4-1=3H 3H
I
Leq = 3+0+3 = 6 H
I
1H 3H 3-1=2H 2-2=0H
Þ Þ Þ Leq
2H 2H
5H 5H 5-2=3H
Fig. 8 : Equivalent inductance of the series-connected coils shown in Fig. 2.

c) To find the equivalent inductance of series-connected coils in Fig. 3

In Fig. 3, there are three mutual couplings. Let us remove them one by one as shown below:
Let I be the current through the series combination as shown in Fig. 9. Here all the couplings are
opposive because the current enters at the dotted end in one coil and leaves at the dotted end in the other coil.
I 8H
I 8-3=5H
5H
I
3H
1H 10 H Þ 1H 10 - 3 = 7 H Þ 1H 7-4=3H
4H 4H
6-4=2H
6H
Þ
6H
5 - 1 = 4H
I I
Þ
Leq Leq = 4 + 3 + 1 = 8 H 3H
2 - 1 = 1H
Alternate Method
Alternatively, the magnetic coupling in two series-connected coils can be represented by an additional
inductance of value +2M or −2M in series with the coils.
When the current enters (or leaves) at the dotted ends in both the coils, the flux is aiding and so it is
represented by an additional inductance of +2M in series with the coils.
When the current enters at the dotted end in one coil and leaves at the dotted end in other coil, the
flux is opposing and so it is represented by an additional inductance of −2M in series with the coils.
The estimation of equivalent inductance of the series-connected coils by this method is illustrated
diagrammatically here.
2H 3H
I 3H 2H 6H
Þ Þ Leq = 9 H
3H 2H 6H
2 ´ 2H = 4H - 2 ´ 3H = - 6 H Leq = 3 + 2 + 6 - 6 + 4 = 9 H
I 4H 4H
1H 3H 3H
2H Þ Þ Leq = 6 H
5H
5H
- 2 ´ 2H - 2 ´ 1H Leq = 4 + 3 + 5 - 2 - 4 = 6 H
= - 4H = - 2H

I 8H 8H - 2 ´ 3H = - 6 H
3H 10 H
1H 10 H Þ Þ Leq = 8 H
- 2 ´ 4H
4H
= - 8H
Leq = 8 - 6 + 10 - 8 + 6 - 2 = 8 H
6H - 2 ´ 1H 6H
= - 2H
EXAMPLE 3.28
Determine the equivalent inductance of the series-parallel-connected coupled coils shown in Fig. 1.
2H
1H
2H
2H 3H
Fig. 1.
SOLUTION
Let current through the parallel branches be Ia and Ib as shown in Fig. 2.
Ia 2H Ia + 2 = 4 H
2
Ib Ia Ib Ia Ib Ia
1H
Leq
1H
2H Þ Þ 4+5 Þ
2H 3H 2H 3 + 2 = 5H 2H 2 ´ 9 - 12
= 9H L eq =
1H 2 + 9 + 2 ´1
17
= H = 13077
. H
13
Fig. a. Fig. b. Fig. c. Fig. d.
Fig. 2 : Equivalent inductance of the inductive network of Fig. 1.
The coupling between the series-connected coils 2 H and 3 H is additive because the current Ia leaves
at the dotted end in both the coils. Hence, the magnetic coupling can be eliminated by adding the mutual
inductance to the self-inductances as shown in Fig. b. Then the series-connected inductances 4 H and 5 H are
combined to form a single equivalent as shown in Fig. c.
The coupling between parallel-connected coils 2 H and 9 H is opposive because the current enters at
the dotted end in one coil and leaves at the dotted end in the other coil. This parallel-connected coupled coil
is combined to a single equivalent as shown in Fig. d.
L1 L 2 − M 2
The equivalent inductance in parallel opposing, Leq =
L1 + L 2 + 2M
Alternate Method I1 I2 2H
I1 E I 2 Coil-B
Alternatively, we can estimate the looking back impedance
1H
(inductive reactance) from the two terminals of the inductive network +
2H 3H
by connecting a source of value E at the two terminals of the network.
The looking back inductive reactance is the equivalent inductive
E
E
~ 2H Coil-A Coil-C
reactance at the two terminals, which is given by the ratio of voltage I1 I2

to current at the two terminals.
Let us connect a sinusoidal voltage source of value E as Fig. 3.

shown in Fig. 3. Let I1 and I 2 be the mesh currents.
Now the equivalent inductive reactance, jωLeq = E

I1
Let us name the coils as coil-A, coil-B and coil-C as shown in Fig. 3. Now, I1 − I 2 be the current through
coil-A and I 2 be the current through coil-B and coil-C. The current flowing in each coupled coil will induce an emf
in the other coil. Therefore, in the circuit of Fig. 3, there will be four mutual induced emfs as explained below :
Emf-1 : The current I1 − I2 entering at the dotted end in coil-A will induce an emf jω aI1 − I2 k in coil-B such that the dotted end
is positive.
Emf-2 : The current I2 entering at the undotted end in coil-B will induce an emf jωI2 in coil-A such that the undotted end
is positive.
Emf-3 : The current I2 entering at the undotted end in coil-B will induce an emf j2ωI2 in coil-C such that the undotted end
is positive.
Emf-4 : The current I2 entering at the undotted end in coil-C will induce an emf j2ωI2 in coil-B such that the undotted end
is positive.
The self- and mutual induced emfs in the coils are shown in Fig. 4.
+ j2w I 2 -
jw (I1 - I 2 )
I1 I2 +
-
+ -
I1 - I 2 j2w I 2
jw + +
+ + -
j2w
E ~
-
j2w(I1- I2 ) jw I 2
j2w I 2 j3w I2
- -
- +
I2
I1
Fig. 4.
By KVL in mesh-1,
j2ω ( I1 − I 2) = jω I 2 + E
` j2ω I1 − j3ω I 2 = E
.....(1)
By KVL in mesh-2,
jω I 2 + j2ω I 2 + j2ω I 2 + j2ω I 2 + j3ω I 2 = j2ω ( I1 − I 2) + jω ( I1 − I 2)
` j3ω I1 + j13ω I 2 = 0 .....(2)

On arranging equations (1) and (2) in matrix form, we get,
> H > H = > H

j2ω − j3ω I1 E
− j3ω j13ω I 2 0
E − j3ω
Now, ∆1 = = E # j13ω − 0 = j13ωE
0 j13ω
j2ω − j3ω 2
∆ = = j2ω # j13ω − a− j3ω k
− j3ω j13ω
= –26ω2 + 9ω2 = –17ω2
∆1 j13ωE
I1 = = = 13E
∆ − 17ω2 j17ω
j17ω
` E =
I1 13
j17ω
Here, jωLeq = E , ` jωLeq = ⇒ Leq = 17 H = 1.3077 H
I1 13 13
RESULT
Equivalent inductance, Leq = 17 H = 1.3077 H
13
EXAMPLE 3.29
5H 2H
Determine the equivalent inductance of the inductive network
with coupled coils shown in Fig. 1.
8H
SOLUTION
3H
6H
Let us connect a sinusoidal voltage source of value, E as shown
in Fig. 2. Let, I1 and I 2 be the mesh currents. 9H
Now,
Equivalent inductive reactance, jωLeq = E Fig. 1.
I1
Let us name the coils as shown in Fig. 2. Now, I1 is the
5H 2H
current through coil-A, I1 − I 2 is the current through coil-B and I 2 I1 I2
is the current through coils C and D. Coil-A I1 E I 2
8H
The current flowing in each coupled coil will induce an + Coil-C
emf in the other coil. Therefore, in the circuit of Fig. 2, there will 3H
be four mutual induced emfs as explained below:

E ~ 6H Coil-B
E I1 9H
I2 Coil-D
Emf-1 : The current I1 entering at the undotted end in coil-A will induce an emf
j2ω I1 in coil-C such that the undotted end is positive.
Fig. 2.
Emf-2 : The current I1 − I2 entering at the dotted end in coil-B will induce an emf
j3ω aI1 − I2 k in coil-D such that the dotted end is positive.
Emf-3 : The current I2 entering at the dotted end in coil-C will induce an emf j2ω I2 in coil-A such that the dotted end is positive.
Emf-4 : The current I2 entering at the dotted end in coil-D will induce an emf j3ω I2 in coil-B such that the dotted end is positive.
j2w
I1 + j5w I1 - I2
- +
j2w I 2 I1 - I 2 - +
j2w I1 j8w I2
+ + + j3w
+ -
E ~
-
j6w(I1- I2 )
-
j3w I 2
+ +
-
j3w (I1 - I 2 ) j9w I2
-
I1 I2 -
Fig. 3.
By KVL in mesh-1,
j5ω I1 + j6ω ( I1 − I 2) + j3ω I 2 = j2ω I 2 + E
` j11ω I1 − j5ω I 2 = E
.....(1)
By KVL in mesh-2,
j8ω I 2 + j9ω I 2 + j3ω ( I1 − I 2) = j6ω ( I1 − I 2) + j3ω I 2 + j2ω I1
` − j5ω I1 + j17ω I 2 = 0 .....(2)
On arranging equations (1) and (2) in matrix form we get,
> H > H = > H

j11ω − j5ω I1 E
− j5ω j17ω I 2 0
E − j5ω
Now, ∆1 = = E # j17ω − 0 = j17ωE
0 j17ω
j11ω − j5ω 2
∆ = = j11ω # j17ω − a− j5ω k
− j5ω j17ω
= –187ω2 + 25ω2 = –162ω2
∆1 j17ωE
I1 = = = 17 E
∆ − 162ω2 j162ω
j162
` E = ω
I1 17
j162
Here, E = jωLeq , ` jωLeq = ω ⇒ Leq = 162 H
I1 17 17
RESULT
Equivalent inductance, Leq = 162 H = 9.5294 H

17
EXAMPLE 3.30
2 2
Determine the equivalent impedance of the parallel-connected impedance
with magnetic coupling shown in Fig. 1.
j2
SOLUTION j5 j5
Let us assume the current through parallel arms as I A and IB as shown

in Fig. 2. Now the current enters at the dotted end in both the coils. Hence, the
connection is parallel aiding. Fig. 1.
The magnetic coupling in parallel aiding can be represented as shown in Fig. 3.
Hence, the network of Fig. 1 can be redrawn as shown in Fig. 4.
I A C IB
IA IB
2 2
j2
j5 j5
j2
Fig. 2.
2 2
M
M j5 E j2 j5 E j2
L1 L2 Þ L1 - M L2 - M
= j3 = j3
Zeq
Fig. 3. Fig. 4.
The equivalent impedance can be obtained by reducing the network of Fig. 4 to a single equivalent
impedance as shown below:
j2 W j2 W
= 1 + j1.5 W
2W 2W
1 + j1.5 + j2
= 1 + j3.5 W
Þ Þ
2 + j3
j3 W j3 W
2
Zeq Zeq Zeq
Zeq = 1 + j 3.5 W
Fig. 5 : Equivalent impedance of the network shown in Fig. 1.
Alternate Method I1 I1 E I 2 I2
Let us connect a sinusoidal voltage source of value E as shown
+ 2 2
in Fig. 6. Let, I1 and I 2 be the mesh currents as shown in Fig. 6. j2
Now, Equivalent impedance, Zeq = E

E
E
~ j5
j5
I1 I1
Coil-A
I2
Coil-B
Let us name the coils as coil-A and coil-B. Now the current
through coil-A is I1 − I 2 and the current through coil-B is I 2 . Fig. 6.
The current I1 − I 2 flowing in coil-A will induce an emf j2 aI1 − I 2 k in coil-B. Since I1 − I 2 enters at the
dotted end in coil-A, the sign of this emf will be positive at the dotted end in coil-B.
The current I 2 flowing in coil-B will induce an emf j2I 2 in coil-A. Since I 2 enters at the dotted end in
coil-B, the sign of this induced emf will be positive at the dotted end in coil-A.
I1 I1 E I 2 I2
+ I2
+
+ 2(I1E I2 ) 2I2
E j2 E
E
E
~ +
+ +
+
j5(I1E I2 ) j2(I1 E I2 ) j5I2
I1 j2I2
E E
E E
Fig. 7.
By KVL in mesh-1,
2 ( I1 − I 2) + j5 ( I1 − I 2) + j2I 2 = E
` (2 + j5) I1 + (− 2 − j3) I 2 = E .....(1)
By KVL in mesh-2,
2I 2 + j5I 2 + j2 ( I1 − I 2) = j5 ( I1 − I 2) + j2I 2 + 2 ( I1 − I 2)
` (− 2 − j3) I1 + (4 + j6) I 2 = 0 .....(2)
> H > H = > H

2 + j5 − 2 − j3 I1 E
− 2 − j3 4 + j6 I 2 0
E − 2 − j3
Now, ∆1 = = E # a 4 + j6 k − 0 = a 4 + j6 k E
0 4 + j6
2 + j5 − 2 − j3 2
∆ = = a2 + j5 k # a 4 + j6 k − a− 2 − j3 k = − 17 + j20
− 2 − j3 4 + j6
∆1 a 4 + j6 k E
I1 = = ⇒ E = − 17 + j20
∆ − 17 + j20 I1 4 + j6
− 17 + j20
` Zeq = E = = 1 + j3.5 Ω
I1 4 + j6
Rp Rs
EXAMPLE 3.31 k = 0.1
IL
100 40
A transformer with a primary having R p = 100 W and M
+
Lp = 0.1 H and a secondary having Rs = 40 W and Ls = 0.4 H 200 V Lp Ls RL
is connected between source voltage of 200 V at 159.2 Hz 159.2 Hz ~ E 0.1 H 0.4 H
500
and a load resistance of 500 W. Determine the load current if

k = 0.1.
SOLUTION Fig. 1.
The transformer connected between the source and load can be represented by the circuit shown in Fig. 1.
Let, IL = Load current.
Primary inductive reactance, Xp = 2πfL p = 2 × π × 159.2 × 0.1 = 100.0283 W
≈ 100 W
Secondary inductive reactance, Xs = 2πfL s = 2 × π × 159.2 × 0.4 = 400.1132 W
≈ 400 W
Mutual inductance , M = k Ls Lp = 0.1 0.1 # 0.4 = 0.02 H
Mutual reactance, X m = 2πf M = 2 × π × 159.2 × 0.02 = 20.0057 W ≈ 20 W
The frequency domain representation of the transformer connected between the source and load is shown
in Fig. 2. Let I1 and I 2 be the mesh currents. Now the current enters at the dotted end in one coil and leaves
at the dotted end in the other coil, and so the fluxes are opposing. Also, the mesh currents are in the same
orientation. Hence, it is group-1 coupled coil. The electrical equivalent of the circuit of Fig. 2 is shown in Fig. 3.
j100 - j20 j400 - j20
= j80 W = j380 W
j20 W
100 W 40 W IL
100 W 40 W IL
200Ð0 V
+
0
200Ð00 V
~ j100 W j400 W 500 W

+
-
I1 I2 -
~ I1
j20 W
I2
500 W
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
> H > H = > H

100 + j80 + j20 − j20 I1 200+0 o
− j20 j20 + j380 + 40 + 500 I 2 0
> H > H = > H

100 + j100 − j20 I1 200
− j20 540 + j400 I 2 0
100 + j100 − j20 2

Now, ∆ = = a100 + j100 k # a540 + j400 k − a− j20 k
− j20 540 + j400
= 14400 + j94000
100 + j100 200
∆2 = = 0 − a− j20 k # 200 = j4000
− j20 0
∆2 j4000
Load current, IL = I 2 = = = 0.0416 + j0.0064 A
∆ 14400 + j94000
= 0.0421∠8.7 o A = 42.1 × 10–3∠8.7o A = 42.1∠8.7o mA

5W
Find the mutual reactance Xm in the coupled coils shown in Fig. 1,
Xm
if the average power in 8 W resistance is 100 W.
100Ð00 V
+
SOLUTION
-
~ j5 W j12 W 8W
Let us assume two mesh currents I1 and I 2 as shown in Fig. 2.

Now the current enters at the dotted end in one coil and leaves at the
dotted end in the other coil. So the fluxes are opposing. Also, the mesh Fig. 1.
currents are in the same orientation. Hence, it is group-1 coupled coil.
The electrical equivalent of the coupled circuit is shown in Fig. 3.
5W 5W j5 - jXm j12 - jXm
jXm
100Ð00 V
+
100Ð00 V
~ j5 W j12 W 8W
-
~ jXm
I2
8W
-
I1
I1 I2
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
> H > H = > H

5 + j5 − jXm + jXm − jXm I1 100+0 o
− jXm jXm + j12 − jXm + 8 I 2 0
> H > H = > H

5 + j5 − jXm I1 100
− jXm 8 + j12 I 2 0
5 + j5 − jXm 2
Now, ∆ = = a5 + j5 k # a8 + j12 k − a− jXm k
− jXm 8 + j12
= –20 + j100 + X2m = X2m – 20 + j100
5 + j5 100
∆2 = = 0 − a− jXm k # 100 = j100Xm
− jXm 0
∆2 j100Xm
Now, I 2 = = 2
∆ Xm − 20 + j100 .....(1)
Given that,
Power in 8 W resistance = 100 W
2
Here, Power in 8 Ω resistance = I 2 #8
2
` I2 # 8 = 100 Using equation (1)
2
j100Xm
2 # 8 = 100
Xm − 20 + j100
J N2 2
100Xm 80000Xm
` K O # 8 = 100 ⇒ = 100
K 2 O 2
K b Xm
2
− 20 l + 100 2 O b Xm
2
− 20 l + 1002
L P
2
2 80000Xm
` b Xm
2
− 20 l + 1002 = ⇒ 4
Xm 2
+ 400 − 40Xm 2
+ 10000 = 800 Xm
100
4 2 2 4 2
` Xm − 40Xm − 800Xm + 10400 = 0 ⇒ Xm − 840Xm + 10400 = 0
2
Let, Xm = X
Now, X2 – 840X + 10400 = 0

The roots of the quadratic are,
2
− a− 840 k ! a− 840 k − 4 # 10400
X = = 840 ! 814.862
2 2
= 827.431 or 12.569
Let us take smaller value of X for realizability.
2
Now, Xm = X
` Xm = X = 12.569 = 3.5453 Ω
RESULT
Mutual reactance, Xm = 3.5453 W

j6W
Determine the equivalent conductively coupled circuit for the
magnetically coupled circuit as shown Fig. 1 and solve the mesh currents. j5W j10W
SOLUTION
+ 3W
Let us name the coupled coils as coil-A and coil-B as shown in
50Ð00 V
Fig. 2. The current I1 entering at the dotted end in coil-A will induce an emf ~
-
I1 I2 5W
j6I1 in coil-B such that the dotted end is positive. The current I 2 entering -j4W
at the undotted end in coil-B will induce an emf j6I 2 in coil-A such that the
undotted end is positive. Fig. 1.
The self- and mutual induced emfs in the coupled coils are shown
in Fig. 2.
j6W
Coil-A Coil-B
I1 - j6 I 2 + - j6 I1 +
+ - + -
j5 I1 I2 j10 I 2
I1 - I 2
+
+ +
3(I1- I2 )
50Ð00 V
= 50 V ~
-
I1
-
I2
5 I2
-
+
- j4(I1- I2 )
-
Fig. 2.
By KVL in mesh-1,
j5I1 + 3 ( I1 − I 2) + [− j4 ( I1 − I 2)] = 50 + j6I 2

j5I1 + 3I1 − 3I 2 − j4I1 + j4I 2 − j6I 2 = 50
` (3 + j) I1 − (3 + j2) I 2 = 50
.....(1)
By KVL in mesh-2,
j10I 2 + 5I 2 = − j4 (I1 − I 2) + 3 (I1 − I 2) + j6I1
j10I 2 + 5I 2 + j4I1 − j4I 2 − 3I1 + 3I 2 − j6I1 = 0
` − (3 + j2) I1 + (8 + j6) I 2 = 0 .....(2)
3W j1W j6W
Using equations (1) and (2) the conductively coupled
equivalent circuit can be drawn as shown in Fig. 3.
+ 3W
50Ð00 V
On arranging equations (1) and (2) in matrix form we get, = 50 V ~
-
I1 I2 8W
j2W
> H > H = > H

3+j − (3 + j2) I1 50
− (3 + j2) 8 + j6 I2 0
Fig. 3.
3+j − (3 + j2)
Now, ∆ = = (3 + j) # (8 + j6) − (3 + j2) 2 = 13 + j14
− (3 + j2) 8 + j6
50 − (3 + j2)
∆1 = = 50 # (8 + j6) − 0 = 400 + j300
0 8 + j6
3+j 50
∆2 = = 0 − [− (3 + j2) # 50] = 150 + j100
− (3 + j2) 0
∆1 400 + j300
` I1 = = = 25.7534 − j4.6575 A = 26.1712 + − 10.3o A
∆ 13 + j14
∆2 150 + j100
I2 = = = 9.1781 − j2.1918 A = 9.4432 + − 13.4o A
∆ 13 + j14
EXAMPLE 3.34
Calculate the primary and secondary current in the coupled 6W 8W
j10 W
circuit shown in Fig. 1.

220Ð00 V
+
SOLUTION
-
~ j12 W j40 W -j20 W
Ip Is
The current Ip entering at the dotted end in the primary coil
will induce an emf j10Ip in the secondary such that the dotted end -j3 W
is positive. The current Is entering at the dotted end in the secondary Fig. 1.
coil will induce an emf j10Is in the primary such that the dotted end
is positive. The self- and mutual induced emfs are shown in Fig. 2.
6Ip - 8Is
+
-
j10 W
220Ð00 V
+ + + - - +
-
~ j12Ip
-
j10 I s j10 Ip j40Is - j20Is
- + + -
Ip Is
+
-
- j3Ip
Fig. 2.
By KVL in primary we get,
6Ip + j12Ip + j10Is + (− j3Ip) = 220
` (6 + j9) Ip + j10Is = 220 .....(1)
By KVL in secondary we get,
j10Ip + j40Is + 8Is + (− j20Is) = 0
` j10Ip + (8 + j20) Is = 0 .....(2)
On arranging equations (1) and (2) in matrix form we get,
> H > H = > H

6 + j9 j10 Ip 220
j10 8 + j20 Is 0
Alternatively, the mesh basis matrix equation can be obtained j12 + j10 j40 + j10
from the electrical equivalent of the coupled coils shown in Fig. 3. = j22 W = j50 W
(Here it is group-II coupled coil) 6W 8W
220Ð0 V
+
0
-j20 W
~ -j10 W
H > H = > H
Ip
>
6 + j22 − j10 − j3 − (− j10) Ip 220+0 o - Is
− (− j10) − j10 + j50 + 8 − j20 Is 0 -j3 W
> H > H = > H

6 + j9 j10 Ip 220 Fig. 3.
j10 8 + j20 Is 0
6 + j9 j10 2
Now, ∆ = = a6 + j9 k # a8 + j20 k − a j10 k = − 32 + j192
j10 8 + j20
220 j10
∆p = = 220 # a8 + j20 k − 0 = 1760 + j4400
0 8 + j20
6 + j9 220
∆s = = 0 − j10 # 220 = − j2200
j10 0
∆p 1760 + j4400
Ip = = = 20.8108 − j12.6351 A = 24.3462+ − 31.3 o A
∆ − 32 + j192
∆s − j2200
Is = = = − 11.1486 + j1.8581 A = 11.3024+170.5 o A
∆ − 32 + j192
12 8
EXAMPLE 3.35
75 mH
A voltage of 115 V at a frequency of 10 kHz is applied to the primary
of the coupled circuit shown in Fig. 1. Determine the total impedance
0.1 mF
referred to primary and the currents in primary and secondary. 200 mH 100 mH
SOLUTION
Given that, f = 10 kHz, Lp = 200 µ H, Cp = 5 µF 5 mF
Fig. 1.
M = 75 µ H, Ls = 100 µH, Cs = 0.1 µF
3 −6
Primary inductive reactance = j2πf Lp = j2π × 10 × 10 × 200 × 10
= j12.5664 W
Primary capacitive reactance = 1 = 1 = − j3.1831 Ω
j2πfCp j2π # 10 # 103 # 5 # 10- 6
3 –6
Mutual reactance = j2πf M = j2π × 10 × 10 × 75 × 10 = j4.7124 W
3 −6
Secondary inductive reactance = j2πf Ls = j2π × 10 × 10 × 100 × 10 = j6.2832 W
Secondary capacitive reactance = 1 = 1 = − j159.1549 Ω

j2πfCs j2π # 10 # 103 # 0.1 # 10- 6
The frequency domain equivalent of the coupled circuit is shown in Fig. 2. Let Ip and Is be the primary
and secondary currents as shown in Fig. 2. The electrical equivalent of the coupled circuit is shown in Fig. 3.
(Here it is group-I coupled circuit).
j12.5664 j6.2832
- j4.7124 - j4.7124
12 W = j7.854 W = j1.5708 W 8W
j4.7124 W
12 W 8W
-j159.1549 W
-j159.1549 W
j4.7124 W
115Ð00 V
+
j12.5664 W
115Ð00 V
j6.2832 W
+
Þ ~
~
-
Ip Is
-
Ip Is
-j3.1831 W -j3.1831 W
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
With reference to Fig. 3, the mesh basis matrix equation can be obtained as shown below :
> H > H = > H

12 + j7.854 + j4.7124 − j3.1831 − j4.7124 Ip 115+0 o
− j4.7124 j4.7124 + j1.5708 + 8 − j159.1549 Is 0
> H > H = > H

12 + j9.3833 − j4.7124 Ip 115
− j4.7124 8 − j152.8717 Is 0
12 + j9.3833 − j4.7124 2
Now, ∆ = = a12 + j9.3833 k # a8 − j152.8717 k − a− j4.7124 k
− j4.7124 8 − j152.8717
= 1552.6477 – j1759.394
115 − j4.7124
∆p = = 115 # a8 − j152.8717 k − 0
0 8 − j152.8717
= 920 – j17580.2455
12 + j9.3833 115
∆s = = 0 − a− j4.7124 k # 115
− j4.7124 0
= j541.926
∆p 920 − j17580.2455
Ip = = = 5.8769 − j4.6634 A = 7.5023+ − 38.4 o A
∆ 1552.6477 − j1759.394
∆s j541.926
Is = = = − 0.1732 + j0.1528 A = 0.231+138.6 o A
∆ 1552.6477 − j1759.394
o
Total impedance referred to primary = 115+0
Ip
= 115+0 o = 15.3286+38.4 o Ω
7.5023+ − 38.4 o
RESULT
Primary current, Ip = 7.5023+ − 38.4 o A
Secondary current, Is = 0.231+138.6 o A
Total impedance referred to primary = 15.3286+38.4 o A
EXAMPLE 3.36
5 2
In the coupled circuit shown in Fig. 1. Determine the voltage
j2
ratio V2 , which will make the current I1 equal to zero.
V1 + +
SOLUTION
V1
~
E
j8 j4 ~ E
V2
I1 I2
The given coupled coils are group-I coupled coils. The electrical
equivalent of the coupled coils is shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 1.
With reference to Fig. 2, the mesh basis matrix equation is
obtained as shown below :
> H > H = > H

5 + j6 + j2 − j2 I1 V1 j8 E j2 j4 E j2
− j2 j2 + j2 + 2 I 2 − V2 5 = j6 = j2 2
> H > H = > H

5 + j8 − j2 I1 V1
+ +
− j2 2 + j4 I 2 − V2
V1
E
~ j2 ~
E
V2
I1 I2
∆1
We know that, I1 =
∆
For, I1 = 0, ∆1 = 0 Fig. 2.
V1 − j2
∆1 = = V1 # a2 + j4 k − a− V2 k # a− j2 k
− V2 2 + j4
= V1 a2 + j4 k − j2V2
Put, ∆1 = 0
` V1 a2 + j4 k − j2V2 = 0
− j2V2 = − V1 a2 + j4 k
2 + j4
` V2 = = 2 − j = 2.2361+ − 26.6 o
V1 j2
RESULT
The ratio V2 to make I1 as zero = 2.2361+ − 26.6 o
V1

For the coupled circuit shown in Fig. 1, find the value 5W 2W
of V2 so that the current I1 = 0.
j2W
SOLUTION
10Ð90 V
+ I1 +
I2
0
The self- and mutual induced emfs for the given -
~ j8W j2W ~ -
V2
direction of mesh currents are shown in Fig. 2.
With reference to Fig. 2, the mesh basis matrix

equation can be written as shown below: Fig. 1.
By applying KVL in mesh-1,

5W 2W
5I1 + j8I1 + j2I 2 = 10 + 90 o + - - +
5I 1 2I 2
j2W
10Ð90 V
(5 + j8) I1 + j2I 2 = j10 .....(1) + + + + + +

0
-
~ I1 j2I 2 j8I 1
- -
j2I 2 j2I 1
- -
I2
~ -
V2
By applying KVL in mesh-2,
2I 2 + j2I 2 + j2I1 = V2 XL1 = j8W XL2 = j2W
Fig. 2.
j2I1 + (2 + j2) I2 = V2 .....(2)
By arranging equations (1) and (2) in matrix form, we get,
= G= G = = G
5 + j8 + j2 I1 j10
+ j2 2 + j2 I 2 V2
∆1
We know that, I1 =
∆
For I1 = 0, ∆1 = 0
j10 j2
` ∆1 = = 0
V2 2 + j2
j10 # (2 + j2) − V2 # j2 = 0
j10 # (2 + j2)
` V2 = = 10 + j10 V
j2
= 14.1421 + 45 o V
-j4 W
EXAMPLE 3.38 (AU May’17 & Dec’16, 8 Marks)
j3 W
In the coupled circuit shown in Fig. 1, determine the
voltage across 12 Ω resistor. +
I1
I2
SOLUTION
12Ð00 V ~
-
j5 W j6 W 12 W
The given coupled coils are group-1 coupled coils. The

electrical equivalent of the coupled coils is shown in Fig. 2. Fig. 1.
With reference to Fig. 2, the mesh basis matrix j5 - j3W j6 - j3W

equation is obtained as shown below: -j4 W = j2 W = j3 W
> H > 1H = > H

− j4 + j2 + j3 − j3 I 12 +
− j3 j3 + j3 + 12 I 2 0 12Ð00 V
-
~ I1 j3 W I2 12 W
> H > 1H = > H

j − j3 I 12
− j3 12 + j6 I 2 0 Fig. 2.
j − j3
Now, ∆ = = j # (12 + j6) − (− j3) 2 = 3 + j12
− j3 12 + j6
j 12
∆2 = = 0 − (− j3) # 12 = j36
− j3 0
∆2 j36
` I2 = = = 2.8235 + j0.7059 A
∆ 3 + j12
∴ Voltage across 12W resistor = 12 # I 2 = 12 # (2.8235 + j0.7059)
= 33.882 + j8.4708 = 34.9248+14o V
EXAMPLE 3.39 j8 W
k = 0.5
j8 W
In the coupled circuit shown in Fig. 1, determine the voltage

across 10 Ω resistor.
100Ð300 V
+ 8W
~
-
I1 I2
10 W
SOLUTION -j4 W
Given that, k = 0.5 , X L1 = 8 Ω and X L2 = 8 Ω

Fig. 1.
` Mutual reactance, Xm = k XL1 XL2 = 0.5 8 # 8 = 4Ω
Let us name the coupled coils as coil-A and coil-B as shown in Fig. 2. The current I1 entering at the
undotted end in coil-A will induce an emf jXm I1 in coil-B such that the undotted end is positive.
The current I 2 entering at the dotted end in coil-B will induce an emf jXm I 2 in coil-A such that the dotted
end is positive.
The self- and mutual induced emfs in the coupled coils are shown in Fig. 2.
Coil-A jXm = j4 W Coil-B
j8I1 - + j8I2 -
I1 +
- + - +
j 4 I2 I2 j 4 I1
I1 - I 2
100Ð300 V
o o o
+ + + + 100∠30 = 100 cos 30 + j100 sin 30
~
- -
8(I1- I2 ) 10I2
-
V0
-
= 86.6025 + j50
+
I1 - j4(I1- I2 ) I2
-
Fig. 2.
Let, V0 be the voltage across the 10 Ω resistor as shown in Fig. 2.
Now, V0 = I 2 # 10 = 10 I 2
By KVL in mesh-1,
j8I1 + 8 ( I1 − I 2) + [− j4 ( I1 − I 2)] = j4I 2 + 86.6025 + j50
` (8 + j4) I1 − 8I 2 = 86.6025 + j50 .....(1)
By KVL in mesh-2,
j8I 2 + 10I 2 = [− j4 ( I1 − I 2)] + 8 ( I1 − I 2) + j4I1
` − 8I1 + (18 + j4) I 2 = 0 .....(2)
> H > H = > H

8 + j4 − 8 I1 86.6025 + j50
− 8 18 + j4 I 2 0
8 + j4 −8 2
Now, ∆ = = a8 + j4 k # a18 + j4 k − a− 8 k = 64 + j104
− 8 18 + j4
8 + j4 86.6025 + j50
∆2 = = 0 − a− 8 k # a86.6025 + j50 k = 692.82 + j400
−8 0
∆2 692.82 + j400
I2 = = = 5.7632 − j3.1152 A
∆ 64 + j104
V0 = 10I 2 = 10 # a5.7632 − j3.1152 k = 57.632 − j31.152 V = 65.5126+ − 28.4 o V

RESULT
The voltage across 10 Ω resistance = 65.5126∠−28.4 o V
EXAMPLE 3.40 4W j6 W
In the coupled circuit shown in Fig. 1, determine the voltage across

j5 Ω reactance. j2 W
+
12Ð300 V
SOLUTION ~
-
j5 W -j8 W
Let I1 and I 2 be the mesh currents as shown in Fig. 2. Now I1

is the current through j6 reactance and I1 − I 2 is the current through the
j5 Ω reactance. Fig. 1.
The I1 entering at the undotted end in j6 Ω reactance will I1 4W j6 W
induce an emf j2I1 in the j5 Ω reactance such that the undotted

I1 - I 2
end is positive. j2 W
+
12Ð30 V
0
The I1 − I 2 entering at the dotted end in j5 Ω reactance will
-
~ j5 W -j8 W
induce an emf j2 aI1 − I 2 k in j6 Ω reactance such that the dotted I1 I2
end is positive.
Fig. 2.
The self- and mutual induced emfs are shown in Fig. 3.
j2(I1 - I2 )
I1 - +
+ - + j6I - +
4I1 1 I1 - I 2 o o o
12∠30 = 12 cos 30 + j12 sin 30
+ j2 W
12Ð300 V
- = 10.3923 + j6
~
-
+
j5(I1- I2 ) j2 I1 V0 +
- j8I2
I1 I2 -
- +
Fig. 3.
Let V0 be the voltage across j5 Ω reactance. With reference to Fig. 3, by KVL, we can write,
V0 + j2 I1 = j5 aI1 − I 2 k
` V0 = j5I1 − j5I 2 − j2 I1
= j3I1 − j5I 2
By KVL in mesh-1,
4I1 + j6I1 + j5 ( I1 − I 2) = j2 ( I1 − I 2) + j2 I1 + 10.3923 + j6
` (4 + j7) I1 + − j3I 2 = 10.3923 + j6 .....(1)
By KVL in mesh-2,
j2I1 + (− j8I 2) = j5 ( I1 − I 2)
` − j3I1 − j3I 2 = 0 .....(2)
> H > H = > H

4 + j7 − j3 I1 10.3923 + j6
− j3 − j3 I 2 0
4 + j7 − j3
Now, ∆ = = 9(4 + j7) # (− j3) C − (− j3) 2 = 30 − j12
− j3 − j3
10.3923 + j6 − j3
∆1 = = (10.3923 + j6) # (− j3) − 0 = 18 − j31.1769
0 − j3
4 + j7 10.3923 + j6
∆2 = = 0 − (− j3) # (10.3923 + j6) = − 18 + j31.1769
− j3 0
∆1 18 − j31.1769
I1 = = = 0.8756 − j0.689 A
∆ 30 − j12
∆2 − 18 + j31.1769
I2 = = = − 0.8756 + j0.689 A
∆ 30 − j12
Now,
V0 = j3I1 − j5I 2
= j3(0.8756 – j0.689) – j5(–0.8756 + j0.689)

= 5.512 + j7.0048 = 8.9134∠51.8o V
Since −j8 Ω reactance is parallel to j5 Ω reactance, the voltage V0 is the same as the voltage across
j8 Ω reactance.
` V0 = − j8I 2
= –j8 × (–0.8756 + j0.689)
= 5.512 + j7.0048 = 8.9134∠51.8o V
RESULT
Voltage across j5 Ω reactance = 8.9134∠51.8 o V
EXAMPLE 3.41
50 1 mF 30
The double tuned circuit shown in Fig. 1 is tuned to a frequency of M
+
1000 rad/s. Calculate the self-inductance of the two coils and the
optimum value of the mutual inductance and coefficient of coupling. E ~
E
L1 L2 2 mF
SOLUTION
Given that, ωr = 1000 rad/s , R 1 = 50 Ω , R2 = 30 Ω , Fig. 1.
C1 = 1 µF and C2 = 2 µF
In the primary at resonance,
ωr L1 = 1
ωr C1
` L1 = 21 = 1 = 1H
ωr C1 (1000) 2 # 1 # 10- 6
In the secondary at resonance,
ωr L2 = 1
ωr C2
` L2 = 21 = 1 = 0.5 H
ωr C2 (1000) 2 # 2 # 10- 6
Let, MC = Optimum or critical value of mutual inductance.
R1 R 2 50 # 30 = 0.0387 H = 38.7 # 10- 3 H = 38.7 mH

` MC = =
ωr 1000
Let, kC = Optimum or critical value of coefficient of coupling.
MC 0.0387 = 0.0547
` kC = =
L1 L 2 1 # 0.5
EXAMPLE 3.42
A double tuned circuit is tuned to a frequency of 750 Hz. When excited by a voltage source at
critical coefficient of coupling, the maximum output voltage across C 2 is 20 V. Determine the coefficient of
coupling and the source voltage. The circuit parameters are : Q 1 = 6, R 1 = 10 Ω, Q 2 = 10 and R2 = 90 Ω.
SOLUTION
Critical coefficient of coupling, kC = 1 = 1 = 0.1291
Q1 Q 2 6 # 10
Let, V0,C = Output voltage at critical coupling.
We know that,
V0,C = E
2ωr C 2 R1 R 2
` Source voltage, E = V0,C # 2ωr C2 R1 R2
Magnitude of source voltage, E = V0,C # 2ωr C2 R1 R2

ωr L2
We know that, Q 2 =
R2
Q2 R2
` L2 = = 10 # 90 = 1.2 H
ωr 750
At resonance, ωr L2 = 1
ωr C2
` C2 = 1 = 1 = 1.4815 # 10- 6 F
ωr2 L2 7502 # 1.2
Now, E = V0,C # 2ωr C2 R1 R2
= 20 # 2 # 750 # 1.4815 # 10- 6 # 10 # 90 = 1.33335 V

RESULT
Critical coefficient of coupling = 0.1291
Source voltage, E = 1.33335 V

1. The sources in which current/voltage sinusoidally varies with time are called sinusoidal
sources.
2. The time for one cycle is called time period and it is also given by the inverse of frequency.
3. The average value of a time varying quantity is the average of the instantaneous value for a
particular time period.
4. The rms value of a time varying quantity is the equivalent dc value of that quantity.
5. Form factor is defined as the ratio of rms value and average value of a periodic waveform.
6. Peak factor is defined as the ratio of peak value and rms value of a periodic waveform.
7. Inductance is the property of an element (or matter) by which it opposes any change in flux
or current.
8. The inductance of a coil is defined as the ratio of flux linkages and current through the coil.
9. Capacitance is the property of an element (or matter) by which it opposes any change in
charge or voltage.
10. The capacitance of a capacitor is defined as the ratio of stored charge and potential difference
across it.
11. The energy W stored in a capacitance C having a steady voltage V across it is given by,
2
W = CV .
2
12. The complex power S is defined as the product of rms voltage V and conjugate of rms
current I ai.e., S = V I k .
) )
13. The magnitude of complex power S is called apparent power S. It is also given by the
product of voltage and current di.e., S = S = V I = VI n .
)
14. The real part of complex power S is called active power P (or simply power) and the unit
of power is Watts (W). The higher units are kW and MW.
15. The imaginary part of complex power S is called reactive power Q and the unit of reactive
power is Volt-Ampere-Reactive (VAR). The higher units are kVAR and MVAR.
16. Power factor is defined as the ratio of (active) power and apparent power. It is also given
by cosine of the phase difference between voltage and current.
17. The impedance of an element is defined as the ratio of sinusoidal voltage and current in that
element.
18. Impedance is a complex quantity. The real part of impedance is resistance and the
imaginary part is reactance.
19. Resonance is a circuit condition at which an RLC circuit behaves as a purely resistive circuit.
Resonance in a series RLC circuit is called series resonance and in a parallel RLC circuit
is called parallel resonance.
20. Resonance in an RLC circuit can be achieved by varying the frequency of the exciting
sinusoidal source.
21. The frequency at which resonance occurs is called resonance frequency.
22. In a series RLC circuit, at resonance, the inductive reactance cancels the capacitive
reactance and so the total reactance is zero.
23. In a series RLC circuit, the angular resonant frequency, ωr = 1 , and the resonant
1 LC
frequency in Hz is, fr = .
2π LC
24. In a series RLC circuit, at resonance, the impedance is minimum and equal to R and so the
current is maximum.
25. For ω < ωr , a series RLC circuit behaves as a capacitive (RC) circuit and for ω > ωr , it behaves as
an inductive (RL) circuit.
26. Quality factor (Q-factor) is defined as the ratio of maximum energy stored to the energy
dissipated in one period.
27. In an RLC series circuit, the Q-factor at resonance is a measure of voltage magnification
at resonance.
28. In an RLC series circuit, when the inductor stores energy, the capacitor discharges energy
and vice versa.
29. At resonance, the sum of energy stored in the inductor and capacitor is maximum.
30. In an RLC series circuit, for ω < ωr , the energy stored in the capacitor is maximum
and for ω > ωr , the energy stored in the inductor is maximum.
31. The various expressions for Q-factor of an RLC series circuit are,
ωr L 1
Qr = ; Qr = ; Qr = 1 L
R ωr CR R C
When ω # ωr, Q = 1 ; When ω $ ωr, Q = ωL

ωCR R
32. In an RLC series circuit, bandwidth is defined as the range of frequencies over which
power is greater than or equal to 1/2 times the maximum power.
33. Alternatively, bandwidth is the range of frequencies over which current is greater than or
equal to 1 2 times the maximum current.
34. Bandwidth is given by the difference between the cut-off frequencies.
35. The various equations for bandwidth, β of RLC series circuit are,
ω β
β = R in rad/s ; β = r in rad/s ; Bandwidth in Hz =
L Qr 2π
36. Half-power frequencies (or cut-off frequencies) are frequencies at which power is
1/2 times the maximum power _or current is 1 2 times the maximum currenti .
37. The various equations for half-power (or cut-off) frequencies of RLC series circuit are,
ωl = − R + R 2 1 ωh = R + R 2 1
2L a 2L k + LC in rad/s ;
2L a 2L k + LC in rad/s
ωl = ωr < − 1 + 1 + 1 2 F in rad/s ; ωh = ωr < 1 + 1 + 1 2 F in rad/s

2Q r 4Q r 2Q r 4Q r
ωl ωh
fl = in Hz ; fh = in Hz
2π 2π
38. Resonant frequency is given by the geometric mean of two half-power frequencies.
` ωr = ωl ωh
39. In an RLC series circuit, at half-power frequencies, the absolute value of total reactance is
equal to resistance.
` ωL − 1 = ! R ; ωh L − 1 = R ; ωl L − 1 = − R
ωC ωh C ωl C
40. Selectivity is defined as the ratio of bandwidth and resonant frequency.
β
` Selectivity =
ωr
41. Alternatively, selectivity is the inverse of quality factor (Q-factor).
` Selectivity = 1
Qr
42. The RLC circuit is highly selective in selecting a particular frequency if the selectivity is
low, which in turn demands smaller bandwidth and large value of Q-factor.
43. In an RLC series circuit, the magnitude of voltage across inductor VLr and capacitor VCr at
resonance is Qr times supply voltage, V where Qr is Q-factor at resonance.
∴ VLr = VCr = QrV
44. In a parallel RLC circuit, at resonance, the inductive susceptance cancels the capacitive
susceptance and so the total susceptance is zero.
45. In a parallel RLC circuit, at resonance, the admittance is minimum and equal to conductance
of the circuit and so the current is also minimum.
46. The current is maximum in series resonance and minimum in parallel resonance, and so
parallel resonance is also called anti-resonance.
47. In a parallel RLC circuit, the effective resistance of the circuit at resonance is called
dynamic resistance.
48. For ω < ωr, the parallel RLC circuit behaves as an inductive circuit and for ω > ωr, behaves as
a capacitive circuit.
49. The frequency of resonance and dynamic resistance for the popular four parallel combinations
of R, L and C are given below:
Case i : R, L and C are in parallel.
ωr = 1 ; Rdynamic = R
2π LC
Case ii : A branch with R1 and L in series is parallel with another branch with R2 and C in series.
1 L − CR12 1
ωr = ; Rdynamic =
LC L − CR22 R1
+
R2
R12 + XLr2 R22 + X Cr
2
where, XLr = ωr L ; XCr = 1

ωr C
Condition for resonance at all frequency is, R1 = R2 = L

C
Case iii : A branch with R1 and L in series is parallel with C.
1 CR12 L
ωr = 1− ; Rdynamic =
LC L R1 C
Case iv : A branch with R2 and C in series is parallel with L.
ωr = 1 L ; Rdynamic = L
LC L − CR22 R2 C
50. In an RLC parallel circuit excited by a current source, the Q-factor at resonance is a measure
of current magnification at resonance.
51. In an RLC parallel circuit for ω < ωr, the energy stored in the inductor is maximum and for
ω > ωr, the energy stored in the capacitor is maximum.
52. The various expressions for Q-factor of RLC parallel circuit are,
Q r = ωr CR ; Qr = R ; Qr = R C
ωr L L
When ω # ωr, Q = R ; When ω $ ωr, Q = ωCR

ωL
53. In an RLC parallel circuit excited by a voltage source, the power is minimum at resonance,
and when excited by a current source, the power is maximum at resonance.
54. In an RLC parallel circuit excited by a voltage source, bandwidth is defined as the
range of frequencies over which power is less than or equal to twice the minimum
power. Alternatively, bandwidth is the range of frequencies over which current is less
than or equal to 2 times the minimum current.
55. In an RLC parallel circuit excited by a current source, bandwidth is defined as the
range of frequencies over which power is greater than or equal to 1/2 times the maximum
power. Alternatively, bandwidth is the range of frequencies over which voltage is
greater than or equal to 1 2 times the maximum voltage.
56. The various equations for bandwidth, β of RLC parallel circuit when excited by either a
voltage or current source are,
1 in rad/s ωr β
β = ; β = in rad/s ; Bandwidth in Hz =
RC Qr 2π
57. The various equations for half-power (or cut-off) frequencies of an RLC parallel circuit are,
ωl = − 1 + 1 2 1 1 + 1 2 1
2RC a 2RC k + LC in rad/s ; ωh =
2RC a 2RC k + LC in rad/s
ωl = ωr < − 1 + 1 + 1 2 F in rad/s ; ω h = ωr < 1 + 1 + 1 2 F in rad/s

2Q r 4Q r 2Q r 4Q r
ωl ωh
2π 2π
58. In an RLC parallel circuit at half-power frequencies, the absolute value of total susceptance is
equal to conductance.
` ωC − 1 = ! R ; ωh C − 1 = 1 ; ωl C − 1 = − 1
ωL ωh L R ωl L R
59. The connection between two or more coils via magnetic flux is called magnetic coupling.
60. The connection between two or more coils via electric current is called conductive coupling.
61. In magnetically coupled elements, the power/energy transfer occurs through magnetic flux.
62. In conductively coupled elements, the power/energy transfer occurs through current flow.
63. The induced emf in a coil due to change in flux in the same coil is called self-induced emf
and the direction of self-induced emf will oppose the current through the coil.
64. The induced emf in a coil due to change in flux in a nearby coil is called mutual induced
emf and the direction of mutual induced emf will depend on flux/current in the nearby coil.
65. The self-inductance L of a coil with N turns carrying a current of i amperes and developing
a flux of φ webers is given by,
Nφ
L = .
i
66. The coefficient of coupling k is defined as the fraction of the total flux produced by one coil
linking the other coil.
67. In coupled coils, when k = 1, the coils are said to be tightly coupled or closely coupled, and
when k = 0, the coils are said to be magnetically isolated, and when k is very low, the coils
are said to be loosely coupled.
68. The mutual inductance M between two coils with self-inductances L1 and L2 and coefficient
of coupling k is given by,
M = k L1 L2 .
69. In coupled coils, the maximum value of mutual inductance M is possible when coefficient
of coupling k is equal to one.
70. In coupled coils, if the fluxes produced by the two coils aid each other then the sign/polarity
of self- and mutual induced emfs will be the same.
71. In coupled coils, if the fluxes produced by two coils oppose each other then the sign/polarity
of self- and mutual induced emfs will be opposite.
72. Dot rule : In coupled coils, current entering at the dotted terminal of one coil induces an emf in
the second coil, which is positive at the dotted terminal of the second coil.
[Conversely, current entering at the undotted terminal of one coil induces an
emf in the second coil, which is positive at the undotted terminal of the second coil].
73. Electrical equivalent of group-I coupled coils are given below:
- + M M
vm1 v
1
Ij Lj Lk Ik Ij Lj Lk Ik
+ -
Þ
Þ
Lj - M Lk - M

M
mesh currents’ orientation should be the
same as that of the original circuit.
Þ
Þ
M M
74. Electrical equivalent of group-II coupled coils are given below:
M M
Þ
Þ
Lj + M Lk + M

-M mesh currents’ orientation should be the
same as that of the original circuit.
Þ
Þ
M M
75. In series connection of coupled coils, if the sign/polarity of self- and mutual induced emfs
are the same then the connection is called series aiding. The series aiding connection and
its equivalent are shown below:
M
i i
Þ
L1 L2 Leq = L1 + L2 + 2M
76. In series connection of coupled coils, if the sign/polarity of the self-and mutual emfs are
opposite then the connection is called series opposing. The series opposing connection and
its equivalent are shown below:
M
i i
Þ
L1 L2 Leq = L1 + L2 - 2M
77. In parallel connection of coupled coils, if the sign/polarity of self-and mutual induced
emfs are the same then the connection is called parallel aiding. The parallel aiding connection
and its equivalent are shown below:
M
L 1 L 2 - M2
L1 L2 Þ L eq =
L1 + L 2 - 2 M
78. In parallel connection of coupled coils, if the sign/polarity of self-and mutual induced
emfs are opposite then the connection is called parallel opposing. The parallel opposing
connection and its equivalent are shown below:
M L 1 L 2 - M2
L1 L2 Þ L eq =
L1 + L 2 + 2 M
79. In a coupled coil, if a capacitor is added to the secondary coil in order to resonate the
secondary circuit then it is called a single tuned coupled coil.
80. In a coupled coil, if capacitors are added to both the primary and secondary in order to
resonante both the primary and secondary circuit then it is called a double tuned circuit.
81. In a double tuned coupled coil, if the primary and secondary are tuned to slightly
different frequency then it is called a stagger tuned coupled coil.
82. In a tuned coupled circuit, the critical coupling, kC is the value of coupling coefficient, k
at which the output voltage is maximum.
83. The value of mutual inductance at critical coupling, k C is called optimum mutual
inductance, Mopt.

Q3.1 A sinusoidal voltage is represented by the equation 100 sin(503t + 30o) volts. What is the frequency
and time period?
Solution
The general form of sinusoidal voltage is,
v (t) = Vm sin ^ωt + φh ......(1)

Given that,
v(t) = 100 sin (503t + 30o) ......(2)

On comparing equations (1) and (2), we get,
ω = 503 rad/s
Since, ω = 2πf
Frequency, f = ω = 503 = 80 Hz
2π 2π
Time period, T = 1 = 1 = 0.0125 second = 12.5 # 10- 3 second = 12.5 ms
f 80
Q3.2 A sinusoidal current is given by the equation i(t) = 7.072 sin 314t A. What is the rms and average
value of the current?
Solution
The general form of sinusoidal current is, i(t) = Im sin (ω t + φ) .....(1)
Given that, i(t) = 7.072 sin 314t .....(2)
On comparing equations (1) and (2), we get, Im = 7.072 A
Im
` Rms value of current, I = = 7.072 = 5 A
2 2
2Im 1H 1F
Average value of current, Iave = = 2 # 7.072 = 4.502 A
π π
Q3.3 Determine the current i(t) for the circuit shown in Fig. Q3.3.1.
10 cos t +E 1
Solution (AU May’17, 2 Marks) i(t)
The general form of cosinusoidal voltage is,

v (t) = Vm cos ^ωt ! φh .....(1) Fig. Q3.3.1
Given that, v(t) = 10 cos t .....(2)
On comparing equations (1) and (2), we get, ω = 1 rad/sec

The circuit with L and C represented by their reactance is shown in Fig. Q3.3.2. Now it can be
observed that the inductive and capacitive reactance cancel each other and the circuit is
purely resistive as shown in Fig. Q3.3.3.
1 1
jwL = j´1´1 -j = -j
wc 1´ 1
=j = -j
v(t) = 10 cos t +- 1W Þ v(t) = 10 cos t +- i(t) 1W

i(t)
Fig. Q3.3.2. Fig. Q3.3.3.

With reference to Fig. Q3.3.3, by Ohm’s law,
v (t)
i (t) = = 10 cos t = 10 cos t A
R 1
Q3.4 Define form factor.
Form factor is defined as the ratio of rms value and average value of a periodic waveform.
` Form factor, k f = Rms value

Average value
Q3.5 Define peak factor.

Peak factor is defined as the ratio of peak value (or maximum value) and the rms value of a periodic
waveform.
` Peak factor, kp = Maximum value

Rms value
Q3.6 What will be the inductance of a coil with 1000 turns while carrying a current of 2 A and producing a
flux of 0.5 mWb?
Solution
Given that, N = 1000, φ = 0.5 mWb, I = 2 A

Nφ -3
Inductance, L = = 1000 # 0.5 # 10 = 0.25 H
I 2
Q3.7 A steady current of 3 A flows through an inductance of 0.2 H. What will be the energy stored
in the inductance?
Solution
Given that, I = 3 A, L = 0.2 H
Energy stored in inductance, W = 1 LI 2 = 1 # 0.2 # 3 2 = 0.9 Joules

2 2
Q3.8 A 100 µF capacitance is charged to a steady voltage of 500 V. What will be the energy stored in
the capacitance?
Solution
Given that, C = 100 µF , V = 500 V
Energy stored in capacitance, W = 1 CV 2 = 1 # 100 # 10- 6 # 5002 = 12.5 Joules

2 2
Q3.9 When a sinusoidal voltage v = 200 sin (377t + 30o) V is applied to a load, it draws a current of
10 (sin 377t + 60o) A. Determine the active and reactive power of the load.
The rms current and voltage phasors in polar form are,
V = 200 +30 o V ; I = 10 +60 o A

2 2
*
Complex power, S = V I = 200 +30 o # c 10 +60 o m = 200 +30 o # 10 + − 60 o
*
2 2 2 2
= 2000 +^30 o − 60 oh = 1000+ − 30 o = 866 − j500 VA

2
Since, S = P + jQ ; Active power, P = 866 W
Reactive power, Q = −500 VAR (or 500 VAR-Capacitive)
Q3.10 A load consisting of 3 Ω resistance and 4 Ω inductive reactance draws a current of 10 A when
connected to a sinusoidal source. Determine the voltage and power in the load.
Magnitude of impedance, Z = R 2 + XL2 = 32 + 42 = 5 Ω
Voltage, V = I Z = 10 × 5 = 50 V
2 2
Power, P = I R = 10 × 3 = 300 W
Q3.11 When a sinusoidal voltage of 120 V is applied across a load, it draws a current of 8 A with a phase
lead of 30o. Determine the resistance, reactance and impedance of the load.
Let, V be the reference phasor.
` V = 120+0 o V and I = 8+ + 30 o A
o
Impedance, Z = V = 120+0o = 15+ − 30 o = 12.99 − j7.5 Ω
I 8+30
Since, Z = R + jX ; Resistance, R = 12.99 Ω

Reactance, jX = –j7.5 W (or 7.5 W-Capacitive)
Q3.12 What is resonance ?
Resonance is a circuit condition at which an RLC circuit behaves as a purely resistive circuit.
Q3.13 Write the expressions for resonant frequency and current at resonance of a RLC series circuit.
Angular resonant frequency, ωr = 1 in rad/s

LC
Resonant frequency, fr = 1 in Hz
2π LC I
Current at frequency, I r = V Ir
R
Q3.14 Define the frequency response of RLC series circuit. (AU May’15, 2 Marks)
The variation of current with frequency is called frequency response,
which is shown in Fig. Q3.14. wr
w
Q3.15 Define quality factor. (AU June’14 & Dec’14, 2 Marks) Fig. Q3.14.
Quality factor is defined as the ratio of maximum energy stored to the energy dissipated in one
period.
Quality factor, Q = 2π #
Q3.16 Write the expressions for quality factor of a series RLC circuit.
ωr L
R
1 ωr
Alternatively, Qr = ; Qr = 1 L ; Qr =
ωr CR R C β
When, ω # ωr, Q = 1
ωCR
When, ω $ ωr, Q = ωL
R
Q3.17 Determine the quality factor of a coil for the series resonant circuit consisting of R = 10 ohm,
L = 0.1H, and C = 10 microfarad. (AU June’14, 2 Marks)
Quality factor at resonant, Q r = 1 L = 1 # 0.1 = 10
R C 10 10 # 10-6
Q3.18 Define bandwidth of an RLC series circuit. I
Ir
The bandwidth β of an RLC series circuit is defined as the range
of frequencies over which current is greater than or equal 1
Ir = 0.707 Ir
to 1/ 2 times the maximum current.The bandwidth is shown 2
in Fig. Q3.18.
b
Q3.19 What are half-power frequencies ?
In RLC circuits, the frequencies at which power is half the wl wr wh w
maximum/minimum power are called half-power frequencies. Fig. Q3.18.
Q3.20 Write the expression for half-power frequencies of an RLC series circuit.
Lower cut− off frequency, fl = 1 ; − R + c

R 2 + 1 E in Hz
m
2π 2L 2L LC
Higher cut − off frequency, fh = 1 ; R + c

R 2 + 1 E in Hz
m
2π 2L 2L LC
Alternatively, fl = fr ; − 1 + 1 + 1 2 E ; fh = fr ; 1 + 1+ 12 E
2Qr 4Qr 2Qr 4Qr
Q3.21 Write the expression for impedance of an RLC series circuit at half-power frequencies.
At half-power frequencies in an RLC series circuit, the total reactance is equal to resistance.
i.e., at ω = ωh, ωL − 1 = R
ωC
2
` At ω = ωh, Z = R 2 + c ωL − 1 m = R2 + R2 = 2R2 = 2 R
ωC
2 2 2
Alternatively, Z = R 2 + c ω L − 1 m = c ω L − 1 m + c ωL − 1 m
ωC ωC ωC
2
= 2 cωL − 1
m = 2 cωL −
1
m
ωC ωC
Q3.22 Write the expression for bandwidth of an RLC series circuit.

ωr
Bandwidth, β = R in rad/s Alternatively, β = in rad/s
L Qr
R fr
Bandwidth in Hz = Alternatively, Bandwidth in Hz =
2πL Qr
Q3.23 How is resonant frequency related to half-power frequencies in an RLC series/parallel circuit?
Resonant frequency is given by the geometric mean of two half-power frequencies.
i.e., ωr = ωh ωl or fr = fh fl
Q3.24 Define selectivity. (AU Dec’15, 2 Marks)

Selectivity is defined as the ratio of bandwidth and resonant frequency.
β
Selectivity = Alternatively, Selectivity = 1
ωr Qr
Q3.25 Write the characteristics of series resonance.
 At resonance, impedance is minimum and equal to resistance, therefore current is maximum.
 Below resonant frequency, the circuit behaves as a capacitive circuit and above resonant
frequency, the circuit behaves as an inductive circuit.
 At resonance, the magnitude of voltage across inductance and capacitance will be Q times
the supply voltage but they are in-phase opposition.
Q3.26 An RLC series circuit has R = 10 W and X C = 62.833 W. Find the value of L for resonance at 50 Hz .
At resonance, X L = XC , ∴ XL = 62.833 Ω
XL
Since, XL = 2πfL, Inductance, L = = 62.833 = 0.2 H
2πf 2π # 50
Q3.27 Determine the quality factor of an RLC series circuit with R = 5 W, L = 0.01 H and C = 100 mF.
Quality factor at resonance, Qr = 1 L = 1 0.01 = 2

R C 5 100 # 10- 6
Q3.28 The impedance and quality factor of an RLC series circuit at ω = 10 7 rad/s are 100 + j0 W and 100
respectively. Find the values of R, L and C.
Since the impedance is resistive, the circuit will be in resonance. Therefore, ωr = 10 7 rad/s.
At ω = ωr , Z = R , ∴ Resistance, R = 100 Ω
ωr L
We know that, Qr =
R
QR
` Inductance, L = r = 100 # 7100 = 1 mH
ωr 10
We know that, ωr = 1 ⇒ ωr2 = 1
LC LC
` Capacitance, C = 12 = 1 = 1 # 10- 11 F = 10 # 10- 12 F = 10 pF
ωr L ^107h2 # 1 # 10- 3
Q3.29 An RLC series circuit with R = 10 W, X L = 20 W and XC = 20 W is excited by a sinusoidal source of

voltage 200 V. What will be the voltage across inductance ?
Since X L = XC , the circuit will be in resonance. At resonance, voltage across inductance is Qr times
the supply voltage.
ωr L X
Quality factor at resonance, Qr = = L = 20 = 2
R R 10
∴ Voltage across inductance = Q r V = 2 × 200 = 400 V
Q3.30 An RLC series circuit excited by a 10 V sinusoidal source resonates at a frequency of 50 Hz. If the
bandwidth is 5 Hz, what will be the voltage across the capacitor ?
ωr f
Quality factor at resonance, Qr = = r = 50 = 10
β β 5
∴ Voltage across capacitor = Q r V = 10 × 10 = 100 V
Q3.31 What is anti-resonance ?

In an RLC parallel circuit, the current is minimum at resonance, whereas in series resonance, the
current is maximum. Therefore, parallel resonance is called anti-resonance.
R1 L
Q3.32 Write the expression for resonant frequency for the RLC network shown in
Fig. Q3.32. What happens when R 1 = R2 = R and L = CR2 ?
Resonant frequency, fr = 1 L − CR12

R2 C
2π LC L − CR22
2
When, R1 = R2 = R and L = CR the circuit will resonate at all frequencies. Fig. Q3.32.
Q3.33 Find the resonant frequency in Hz of an RLC circuit with L = 100 mH and C = 0.1 mF.
Resonant frequency, fr = 1 (AU June’16, 2 Marks)

2π LC
= 1 = 1591.5 Hz
2π 100 # 10- 3 # 0.1 # 10- 6
Q3.34 A coil of resistance 2.2 W and an inductance 0.01 H is connected in series with a capacitor across
220 V mains. Find the value of capacitance such that maximum current flows in the circuit at a
frequency of 190 Hz. Also find the maximum current. (AU Dec’14, 2 Marks)
Given that, R = 2.2 W ; L = 0.01 H and supply voltage, V = 220 V
The current will be maximum only at resonance. Therefore, the resonance frequency is 190 Hz.
Resonant frequency, fr = 1
2π LC
` C = 1 = 1 = 7.0167 # 10- 5 F = 70.167 × 10−6 F = 70.167 mF

4π2 fr2 L 4π2 # 1902 # 0.01
Current at resonance, I = V = 220 = 100 A
r R 2.2
(Maximum current)
Q3.35 Draw the frequency response of an RLC parallel circuit.

I
The variation of current with frequency is called frequency response, which
is shown in Fig. Q3.35.
Q3.36 Write the expressions for quality factor of a parallel RLC circuit.
R Ir
ωr L wr
w
C ; Q = ωr Fig. Q3.35.
Alternatively, Qr = ωr CR ; Qr = R r
L β
When, ω # ωr, Q = R
ωL
When, ω $ ωr, Q = ωCR
Q3.37 Write the expressions for bandwidth of an RLC parallel circuit.

ωr
Bandwidth, β = 1 in rad/s Alternatively, β = in rad/s
RC Qr
1 fr
Bandwidth in Hz = Alternatively, Bandwidth in Hz =
2πRC Qr
Q3.38 Write the expression for half-power frequencies of an RLC parallel circuit.
Lower cut − off frequency, fl = 1 ; − 1 + c

1 2 + 1 E in Hz
m
2π RC 2RC LC
Higher cut − off frequency, fh = 1 ; 1 + c

1 2 + 1 E in Hz
m
2π RC 2RC LC
Alternatively, fl = fr ;- 1 + 1 + 1 2 E ; fh = fr ; 1 + 1+ 12 E
2Qr 4Qr 2Qr 4Qr
Q3.39 Write the expression for admittance of an RLC parallel circuit at half-power frequencies.
At half-power frequencies of an RLC parallel circuit, the total susceptance is equal to conductance.
i.e., at ω = ωh , ωC − 1 = G
ωL
2
` At ω = ωh , Y = G 2 + c ωC − 1 m = G2 + G2 = 2G2 = 2 G
ωL
2
G 2 + c ωC − 1 m = 1 2 + ωC − 1 2
Alternatively, Y = c ωC − m c m
ωL ωL ωL
2
= 2 e ωC − 1 o = 2 e ωC − 1 o
ωL ωL
Q3.40 Write the characteristics of parallel resonance.

 At resonance, admittance is minimum and equal to conductance, therefore, current is minimum.
 Below resonant frequency, the circuit behaves as an inductive circuit and above resonant
frequency, the circuit behaves as a capacitive circuit.
 At resonance, the magnitude of current through inductance and capacitance will be Q times the
current supplied by the source but they are in-phase opposition.
Q3.41 What is dynamic resistance? Write the expression for dynamic resistance of an RL circuit parallel
with C.
The resistance of an RLC parallel circuit at resonance is called dynamic resistance.
For an RL circuit parallel with C, the dynamic resistance is given by,
R dynamic = L
RC
Q3.42 In Fig. Q3.42, the source voltage and current are in-phase. Find the value of C.
Since the source voltage and current are in-phase, the circuit will be
1H
in resonance. +
Given that, e(t) = sin2t

e(t)
~
E
C
2
The standard form of sinusoidal voltage is,

e(t) = sin 2t V
e(t) = Emsinωt
Fig. Q3.42.
On comparing the above two equations of e(t), we get,
ωr = 2 rad/s
2
For the RLC circuit shown in Fig. Q8.30, ωr = 1 1 − CR
LC L
2 2
` ωr2 = 1 c1 − CR m ⇒ ωr2 + R2 = 1 ⇒ LC = 1
LC L L LC 2
ωr + R2
2
L
` C = 1 = 1 = 1 = 0.0625 F = 62.5 # 10- 3 F = 62.5 mF
2 2 16
L cωr2 + R2 m 1 # c2 # 22 m
2
L 1 4H 1F
Q3.43 For the RLC circuit shown in Fig. Q3.43, find the resonant frequency. 10 W
c j4ω + mc m
1 1
jω jω
Impedance, Z = 10 + 1F
c j4ω + m
1 + 1
jω jω
At resonance, the imaginary part of impedance should be zero.
+ ~
V, w
_
Therefore, the numerator of the imaginary part should be zero. Fig. Q3.43.
Therefore, at ω = ωr,
1 1 j4ωr + 1 = 0 j4ωr = − 1
c j4ωr + jω m jω = 0 ⇒
jωr
⇒
jωr
r r
` j2 ωr2 = − 1 ⇒ − ωr2 = − 1 ⇒ ωr = 1 ⇒ ωr = 1 = 0.5 rad/s

4 4 4 2
Q3.44 An RLC parallel circuit with G = 10 M , B L = 20 M and B C = 20 M draws a current of 5 A when

excited by a sinusoidal source. Determine the current through inductance.
Since B L = BC , the circuit will be in resonance. At resonance, the current through inductance will be Qr
times the current drawn from the source.
B
` Quality factor at resonance, Qr = R = L = 20 = 2
ωr L G 10
Current through inductance = Qr I = 2 # 5 = 10 A
Q3.45 What are coupled circuits?
Coupled circuits refer to circuits involving elements with magnetic coupling. If the flux
produced by an element of a circuit links other elements of the same circuit or a nearby
circuit then the elements are said to have magnetic coupling.
Q3.46 What are coupled coils?
When two or more coils are linked by magnetic flux, the coils are called coupled coils (or
coupled coils are group of two or more coils linked by magnetic flux).
Q3.47 Define self-inductance. (AU May’17, 2 Marks)
When permeability is constant, the self-inductance of a coil is defined as the ratio of flux linkage
and current. (The flux linkage is the product of flux and number of turns.)
Nφ
` Self inductance, L =
i
Q3.48 Define mutual inductance. (AU May’15&’17, 2 Marks)
When permeability is constant, the mutual inductance between two coupled coils is defined as
the ratio of flux linkage in one coil due to common flux and current through another coil. (The
flux linkage in one coil due to common flux is the product of the flux linking both the coils and the
number of turns of the coil.)
N1 φ21 N φ
` Mutual inductance, M = or M = 2 12
i2 i1
where, φ 12 = φ 21 = Common flux.
N1, N2 = Number of turns in coils 1 and 2.
i1 , i2 = Currents in coils 1 and 2.
Q3.49 Define coefficient of coupling. (AU June’16 & Dec’15, 2 Marks)
In coupled coils, the coefficient of coupling is defined as the fraction of the total flux produced by
one coil linking another coil.
φ φ
` Coefficient of coupling, k = 12 or k = 21
φ1 φ2
where, φ 12 = Flux produced by coil-1 linking coil-2.
φ 21 = Flux produced by coil-2 linking coil-1.
φ1 = Flux produced by coil-1.
φ 2 = Flux produced by coil-2.
Q3.50 Write the expression which relates self- and mutual inductances.
Mutual inductance between two coils linked by magnetic flux is given by,
Mutual inductance, M = k L1 L 2
where, L 1 = Self-inductance of coil-1.
L 2 = Self-inductance of coil-2.
k = Coefficient of coupling.
Q3.51 What is dot convention? Why it is required?

The sign or polarity of mutual induced emf depends on the winding sense (or coil orientation)
and current through the coil. The winding sense is decided by the manufacturer and to inform the
user about the winding sense, a dot is placed at one end/terminal of each coil. When current enters
at the dotted end in one coil, the mutual induced emf in the other coil is positive at the dotted end.
Hence, the dot convention is required to predict the sign of mutual induced emf.
Q3.52 State dot rule for coupled coils.
The dot rule states that in coupled coils, current entering at the dotted terminal of one coil induces
an emf in the second coil which is positive at the dotted terminal of the second coil.
Conversely, current entering at the undotted terminal of one coil induces an emf in the second
coil which is positive at the undotted terminal of the second coil.
Q3.53 Draw the electrical equivalent of the coupled coils M M
shown in Figs. Q3.53.1 and Q3.53.2.
I1 I2 I1 L1 L2 I2
L1 L2
The electrical equivalent of the coupled coils of
Figs Q3.53.1 and Q3.53.2 is shown in Figs Q3.53.3
and Q3.53.4, respectively. Fig. Q3.53.1. Fig. Q3.53.2.
L1 E M L2 E M L1 + M L2 + M
I1 M I2 I1 EM I2
Fig. Q3.53.3. Fig. Q3.53.4.

Q3.54 Write the expression for the equivalent inductance of two coupled coils connected in series.
In series aiding, equivalent inductance, Leq = L 1 + L2 + 2M.
In series opposing, equivalent reactance, Leq = L 1 + L2 − 2M.
Q3.55 Write the expression for the equivalent inductance of two coupled coils connected in parallel.
L1 L 2 − M 2
In parallel aiding, equivalent inductance, Leq =
L1 + L 2 − 2M
L1 L2 − M 2
In parallel opposing, equivalent inductance, Leq =
L1 + L2 + 2M
Q3.56 Determine the equivalent inductance of the circuit shown in Fig. Q3.56, if the coefficient
of coupling(k) between the two coils is 0.6. (AU Dec’14, 2 Marks) 33 mH 47 mH
Mutual inductance, M = k L1 L2 = 0.6 # 33 # 47 = 23.6296 mH

k
Equivalent inductance, Leq = L1 + L2 + 2M Fig. 3.56.
= 33 + 47 + 2 × 23.6296 = 127.2592 mH
1H
Q3.57 D e t e r m i n e t h e e q u i v a l e n t i n d u c t a n c e o f t h e 4H 5H
series-connected inductances shown in Fig. Q3.57.
The equivalent inductance of series-connected 2H 3H
inductances can be determined as shown ahead.
Fig. Q3.57.
6H
1H
I 4H 5H 4H 5H 6H
Þ Þ Leq
2H 3H
6H -2 ´ 2 H -2 ´ 3 H -2 ´ 1 H
Equivalent inductance, Leq = 4 + 5 + 6 − 2 × 1 − 2 × 3 − 2 × 2 = 3H
Q3.58 What is tuned coupled circuit?

In a coupled circuit, when capacitors are added to the primary and secondary of coupled coils to
resonate the coils to achieve maximum power transfer condition, the coupled circuit is called a
tuned coupled circuit.
Q3.59 Why and where are tuned coupled circuits employed?

Tuned coupled circuits are mainly used to transfer energy from a weak source to a load or employed
for maximum power transfer from one circuit to another. This is possible only when both the coils
work at resonance condition.
Q3.60 Write the differences between single tuned and double tuned coupled circuits.
i) In a single tuned circuit, the secondary circuit is resonated by adding capacitor whereas in
double tuned circuit both primary and secondary are resonated by adding capacitors to both
primary and secondary.
ii) The frequency response of a double tuned coupled circuit exhibits a double hump when the
coefficient of coupling is greater than critical value whereas there is no such double hump in
frequency response of a single tuned circuit.
Q3.61 Draw the frequency response of a single tuned V0
coupled circuit. k = kC
The frequency response of a single tuned k > kC

coupled circuit for various values of k are
shown in Fig. Q3.61. k < kC
wr w
Here, V0 is the output voltage.
Fig. Q3.61 : |V0| Vs w for different values of k.
Q3.62 Draw the frequency response of a double
tuned coupled circuit. k = kC
V0
The frequency response of double tuned coupled circuit for various k > kC
values of k are shown in Fig. Q3.62. Here, V0 is the output voltage.
Q3.63 Define critical coefficient of coupling and critical mutual inductance.

k < kC
In tuned coupled circuits, the critical coefficient of coupling is defined as w
the value of coupling coefficient when the output voltage at resonance Fig. Q3.62.
is maximum.
In tuned coupled circuits, the optimum or critical mutual inductance is defined as the value of
mutual inductance when the output voltage at resonance is maximum.
Q3.64 Write the expression for kC and MC .
MC 1 R1 R2 1
Critical coefficient of coupling, kC = or or
L1 L2 ωr L1 L2 Q1 Q2
R1 R 2
Critical mutual inductance , MC = k L1 L 2 or
ωr
3.22 Exercises
1. In sinusoidal voltage/current, the number of cycles per second is called ________ .
2. The ratio of rms value and average value of a periodic waveform is called ________.
3. The ratio of peak value and rms value of a periodic waveform is called ________.
4. The ________ is defined as the ratio of active power and apparent power.
5. The ________ is the circuit condition at which the circuit behaves as a resistive circuit.
6. In a series RLC circuit, when ω > ωr , the total reactance is ________ and when ω < ωr , the total reactance
is ________ .
7. In an RLC series circuit, ________ is maximum and ________ is minimum at resonance.
8. When ω < ωr , the current ________ and when ω > ωr , the current ________ in an RLC series circuit.
9. In an RLC parallel circuit, ________ and ________ are minimum at resonance.
10. In a series RLC circuit, when ω < ωr , the energy stored in the inductor is ________ than the energy
stored in the capacitor.
11. The ________ is the ratio of energy stored and energy dissipated.
12. Resonant frequency is given by the ________ of the two half-power frequencies.
13. The ________ is the range of frequencies over which power is greater than or equal to 1/2 times the
maximum power.
14. The impedance of an RLC series circuit at half-power frequency is ________ .
15. The admittance of an RLC parallel circuit at half-power frequency is ________ .
16. When excited by a voltage source, a series RLC circuit magnifies ________ and a parallel RLC circuit
magnifies ________ at resonance.
17. At resonance in a series RLC circuit, the ________ across inductance and capacitance is ________
times supply voltage.
18. At resonance in a parallel RLC circuit, the ________ in inductance and capacitance is ________
times the current drawn from the source.
19. The ________ is the ratio of bandwidth and resonant frequency.
20. In a series RLC circuit, ________ across inductance will be maximum at a frequency ________ than
resonant frequency.
21. The coils linked by magnetic flux are called ________ .

22. The ________ emf is the emf induced due to change in flux in the same coil.
23. The ________ emf is the emf induced due to change in flux in a nearby coil.
24. When all the flux produced by one coil links another coil then the coils are said to be ________ coupled.
25. In coupled coils, when the value of ________ is very low, the coils are said to be ________ coupled.
26. In coupled coils, the self-inductances of two coils are 20 mH and 5 mH. The maximum possible value
of mutual inductance is ________ .
27. The equivalent inductance of series aiding connection is ________ than equivalent inductance of series
opposing connection.
28. The equivalent inductance of parallel opposing connection is ________ than equivalent inductance of
parallel aiding connection.
29. In ________ tuned coupled circuit, a capacitor is added in the secondary circuit.
30. In ________ tuned coupled circuit, capacitors are added to both the primary and secondary.
31. In ________ tuned circuit, the primary and secondary are tuned to different frequencies.
32. In tuned circuits ________ is varied to maximise the output voltage.
33. At critical coupling, the output voltage is ________ .
34. When M = M C , the output ________ is maximum.
35. The frequency response of ________ tuned circuit exhibits ________ when k > kC .
ANSWERS
1. frequency 13.bandwidth 25. k, loosely
2. form factor 14. 2 R or 2 (XL − XC) 26. 10 mH
3. peak factor 15. 2 G or 2 (BC − BL) 27. greater
4. power factor 16. voltage, current 28. lesser
5. resonance 17. voltage, Q r 29. single
6. inductive, capacitive 18. current, Q r 30. double
7. current, impedance 19. Selectivity 31. stagger
8. leads, lags 20. voltage, greater 32. coefficient of coupling
9. current, admittance 21. coupled coils 33. maximum
10. less 22. self-induced 34. voltage
11. quality factor 23. mutual induced 35. double, double hump
12. geometric mean 24. tightly or closely

1. The average value of sinusoidal voltage over one period is zero.
2. In an inductance, energy is stored as electric field.
3. In a capacitance, energy is stored as magnetic field.
4. At resonance, the total reactance of a circuit is zero.
5. In an RLC series circuit, the impedance is minimum at resonance but in an RLC parallel circuit, the
impedance is maximum at resonance.
6. In an RLC parallel circuit, the current leads when ω < ωr and lags when ω > ωr .
7. At resonance, the current is in-phase opposition with voltage.
8. At resonance, the energy stored in the inductor and capacitor will be equal.
9. In a series RLC circuit, when ω > ωr , the inductor stores more energy than the capacitor.
10. The Q r of an RLC series circuit will be high if the inductance is very large and the capacitance is low.
11. The Q r of an RLC parallel circuit will be low if the capacitance is very large and the inductance is low.
12. The frequency response of an RLC circuit is symmetric with respect to resonant frequency.
13. In an RLC series circuit, at half-power frequencies the total reactance is equal to resistance.
14. In an RLC parallel circuit, at half-power frequencies the total susceptance is equal to conductance.
15. At resonance in a series RLC circuit, the voltages across inductance and capacitance are equal in
magnitude.
16. At resonance in a parallel RLC circuit, the currents through inductance and capacitance are equal in
magnitude.
17. In a series RLC circuit, the voltage across capacitance will be maximum at a frequency greater than
resonant frequency.
18. Selectivity is directly proportional to quality factor.
19. In magnetically coupled elements, power transfer occurs through flux.
20. In conductively coupled elements, power transfer occurs through flow of current.
21. Self-induced emf is proportional to the rate of change of current in a nearby coil.
22. Mutual induced emf is proportional to the rate of change of current in the same coil.
23. Between two coils with inductances L1 and L2, the maximum possible value of mutual inductance is L1 L2 .
24. In two coils placed nearby, if the flux produced by one does not link the other then they are said to be
magnetically isolated.
25. In coupled coils, the sign of self- and mutual induced emfs will be the same if the fluxes are opposing.
26. In coupled coils, current entering at the dotted end in a coil will induce an emf in another coil which
is positive at the undotted end.
27. In coupled coils, when current enters or leaves at the dotted ends in both the coils, the sign of self-
and mutual induced emfs are the same.
28. In coupled coils, when current enters at the dotted end in one coil and leaves at the dotted end in another
coil, sign of self and mutual induced emfs are opposite.
29. Tuned circuits work at resonance condition.
30. In double tuned circuits, the primary and secondary are tuned to different frequencies.
31. In tuned circuits, k is varied to maximise output voltage.
32. In single tuned circuits, the output voltage is maximum at a frequency lesser than resonant frequency.
33. The frequency response of single tuned circuits exhibit double hump.
ANSWERS
1. True 7. False 13. True 19. True 25. False 31. True
2. False 8. True 14. True 20. True 26. False 32. True
3. False 9. True 15. True 21. False 27. True 33. False
4. True 10. True 16. True 22. False 28. True
5. True 11. False 17. False 23. True 29. True
6. False 12. False 18. False 24. True 30. False

1. The frequency of the sinusoidal voltage, v = 163 sin377t V is,
a) 40 Hz b) 50 Hz c) 60 Hz d) 70 Hz
2. The average and rms value of the sinusoidal current, i = 10 sin314t A respectively are,
a) 3.183 A, 6.366 A b) 6.366 A, 7.071 A
c) 15.708 A, 14.142 A d) 7.854 A, 9.003 A
3. The form factor of the sinusoidal voltage, n = 230 sin314t V is,
a) 1.111 b) 2.222 c) 0.901 d) 0.451
4. The peak factor of the sinusoidal voltage, n = 400 sin377t V is,
a) 1.732 b) 0.866 c) 0.707 d) 1.414
5. The inductance of a coil with a flux linkage of 0.202 Wb-turn and carrying a current of 0.2 A is,
a) 0.404 H b) 0.101 H c) 0.002 H d) 0.402 H
6. The energy stored in a coil carrying a current of 20 A and having an inductance of 5 mH is,
a) 2 Joule b) 1 Joule c) 0.5 Joule d) 0.1 Joule
7. What is the charge in a 0.01 F capacitor when a voltage of 100 V exists in it?
a) 10 Coulomb b) 1 Coulomb c) 0.1 Coulomb d) 0.01 Coulomb
8. What is the energy in a 0.01 F capacitor when a voltage of 10 V exists in it?
a) 2 Joule b) 1 Joule c) 0.5 Joule d) 0.1 Joule
9. The power factor of a load with active power 120 W and reactive power 100 VAR is,
a) 0.64 lag b) 0.64 lead c) 0.768 lag d) 0.768 lead
10. A coil with inductance 1 mH and resistance 10 W is connected in series with a condenser and
excited by a sinusoidal source of frequency 10,000 rad/s. What is the value of capacitance of
the condenser for resonance?
a) 0.1 mF b) 1 mF c) 10 mF d) 100 mF
11. An RLC series circuit consists of R = 16 W, L = 13 mH and C = 41 mF. The resonance frequency is,
a) 207 Hz b) 218 Hz c) 436 Hz d) 1370 Hz
12. An RLC series circuit with R = 0.4 W, L = 0.25 mH and C = 40 mF is excited by a sinusoidal source
of voltage 6 V. The value of current at resonance and quality factor respectively are,
a) 15 A, 6.25 b) 6.25 A, 15 c) 1.5 A, 2.5 d) 5 A, 0.625
13. An RLC series circuit has a Q-factor of 5 and resonates at a frequency of 1000 Hz . The
cut-off frequencies are,
a) 965 Hz, 1085 Hz b) 925 Hz, 1082 Hz c) 950 Hz, 1054 Hz d) 905 Hz, 1105 Hz
14. The cut-off frequencies of an RLC series circuit are 1810 Hz and 2210 Hz. The resonance
frequency is,
a) 200 Hz b) 400 Hz c) 2000 Hz d) 2010 Hz
15. The current through an RLC series circuit at resonance is 5 A when excited by a 200 V
sinusoidal source. The total reactance at half-power frequencies is,
a) 20 W b) 40 W c) 60 W d) 80 W
16. An RLC circuit has a Q-factor of 4 at resonance. The selectivity is,

a) 0.25 b) 2 c) 4 d) 8
17. An RLC series circuit with R = 5 W, L = 2 mH and C = 4 mF is excited by a 120 V sinusoidal

source. The voltage across inductance at resonance is,
a) 432 V b) 537 V c) 657 V d) 777 V
18. An RLC parallel circuit consists of R = 5 W, L = 0.9mH and C = 3300 mF. The resonance angular
frequency and dynamic resistance respectively are,
a) 580 rad/s, 5 W b) 290 rad/s, 5 W c) 92 rad/s, 5 W d) 580 rad/s, 0.2 W
19. A coil with 95 mH inductance and 0.2 W resistance is connected in parallel with a condensor to
make the power factor unity when excited from a 115 V, 60 Hz ac supply. What is the value of
the capacitance of the condensor?
a) 96 mF b) 37 mF c) 74 mF d) 1276 mF
20. For the RLC parallel circuit shown in Fig. 20, the expression for
angular frequency of resonance is, + R1 R2
V, w
1 L − CR12 1 L − CR12
~
_
a) b) L C
LC L − CR 22 LC L − CR 22
Fig. 20.
f p
1 L − CR12 1 L − CR 22
c) d)
LC L − CR 22 LC L − CR12
21. For the RLC parallel circuit shown in Fig. 21, the condition for
resonance at all frequency is, + R R
V, w
a) R = L b) R = C
~
_
C L L C
c) R = C d) R = L
L C Fig. 21.
22. For the RLC circuit shown in Fig. 22, the expressions for resonance
+ R1
angular frequency and dynamic resistance respectively are,
V, w C
~
_
1 CR12 L 1 CR12 L L
a) 1− ; b) 1− ;
LC L R1 C LC L R1 C
Fig. 22.
1 R1 C R1 C
c) 1− L2 ; d) 1 1− L2 ;
LC CR1 L LC CR1 L
23. For the RLC circuit shown in Fig. 23, the expressions for resonant
angular frequency and dynamic resistance respectively are, + R2
V, w L
1 L L 1 L L
~
_
a) ; b) ; C
LC L − CR 22 R2 C LC L − CR 22 R2 C
Fig. 23.
1 CR 22 R2 C 1 CR 22 R2 C
c) 1− ; d) 1− ;
LC L L LC L L
24. An RLC parallel circuit with R = 8 W, L = 1 mH and C = 250 mF is excited by a sinusoidal source
of 12 V. The value of current at resonance and quality factor respectively are,
a) 4 A, 1 b) 20 A, 2 c) 1.5 A, 4 d) 0.67 A, 8
25. An RLC parallel circuit has a Q-factor of 3 and resonates at a frequency of 200 Hz. The cut-off
frequencies are,
a) 169 Hz, 236 Hz b) 169 Hz, 231 Hz c) 164 Hz, 236 Hz d) 164 Hz, 231 Hz
26. The cut-off frequencies of an RLC parallel circuit are 543 Hz and 663 Hz . The resonance
frequency is,
a) 1206 Hz b) 663 Hz c) 603 Hz d) 600 Hz

27. The current through an RLC parallel circuit at resonance is 12 A when excited by 120 V sinusoidal
source. The total susceptance at half-power frequencies is,
a) 10 M b) 0.1 M c) 20 M d) 0.2 M
28. An RLC parallel circuit with R = 20 W, L = 2 mH and C = 20 mF is excited by a 60 A sinusoidal

current source. The current through inductance at resonance is,
a) 30 A b) 60 A c) 120 A d) 240 A
29. For the circuit shown in Fig. 29, the angular frequency
4W
of resonance and dynamic resistance respectively are, +
V, w 20 mF
~
_
a) 3500 rad/s , 0.02 W b) 3200 rad/s , 50 W 4 mH
Fig. 29.
c) 3391 rad/s , 50 W d) 4375 rad/s , 0.02 W
30. The self-inductance of a coil with 500 turns carrying a current of 2 A and developing a flux of
0.25 × 10 – 2 Wb is,
a) 2.5 H b) 0.625 H c) 6.25 mH d) 25 mH
31. The coefficient of coupling k between two coils with self-inductances L1 and L2 and with mutual
inductance M between them is given by,
L1 L2 L1 + L2 M M
a) k = b) k = c) k = d) k =
M M L1 + L2 L1 L2
32. The mutual inductance between two coils having self-inductances of 40 mH and 90 mH
when 40% of flux produced by coils link each other is given by,
a) 24 mH b) 52 mH c) 150 mH d) 325 mH
33. The mutual inductance between two coils with inductances 0.2 H and 0.8 H when all the flux
produced by coils link each other is,
a) 1 H b) 0.6 H c) 0.4 H d) 0.3 H

34. The equivalent inductance of two series-connected coils with self-inductances L1 and L2 and
mutual inductance M is given by,
a) L1 L2 ! M b) L + L2 ! 2M c) M_L1 ! L2i d) 2M_L1 ! L2i
35. The equivalent inductance of two parallel-connected coils with self-inductances L1 and L2
and mutual inductance M is given by,
L1 + L2 ! M2 L1 + L2 ! 2M L1 L2 + M2 L1 L2 − M2
a) b) c) d)
L1 L2 + M L1 L2 + M2 L1 + L2 ! M L1 + L2 ! 2M
36. The two possible equivalent inductances of two series-connected coils with self-inductances
0.07 H and 0.09 H and mutual inductance 0.01 H are,
a) 0.17 H, 0.15 H
b) 0.18 H, 0.14 H
c) 0.18 H, 0.04 H
d) 0.0032 H, 0.0004 H
37. The two possible equivalent inductances of two parallel-connected coils with self-inductances
0.06 H and 0.03 H and mutual inductance 0.02 H are,
a) 0.011 H, 0.028 H
b) 0.022 H, 0.014 H
c) 0.017 H, 0.044 H
d) 0.034 H, 0.022 H
38. Which one of the given coupled coils represents a natural transformer?
I1 I2 I1 I2 I1 I2 I1 I2
a) M
b) M
c) d)
_ + + +
_
M
_ _ M _
jXmI 2 jXm I1 jXm I 2 jXm I1 jXmI 2 jXm I1 jXmI 2 jXm I1
+ _ _ _ + + + +
39. In the given coupled coils with mutual induced emf, identify the one that does not satisfy dot rule?
i1 i2 i1 i2 i1 i2 i1 i2
a) b) c) d)
40. In the coupled coil shown in Fig. 40, the mutual induced emf in coils 1 and 2 respectively are,
a) j2I2, j3I1 I1 I2
j2
b) j6I2, j7I1
j4 j5
c) j13I1, j7I2
Fig. 40.
d) j2I2, j2I1
41. The equivalent inductance of the series-connected coupled coils shown in Fig. 41 is,
0.3 H
a) 1.5 H
0.1 H
0.5 H
b) 2.7 H 0.2 H
0.7 H
0.6 H
0.2 H
c) 3.5 H
0.4 H 0.9 H
d) 4.7 H Fig. 41.
42. The equivalent inductance of the parallel-connected coupled coils shown in Fig. 42 is,
2H
a) 0.5 H 2H
b) 0.25 H 4H 4H 4H 4H
c) 1.33 H
d) 0.75 H Fig. 42.
43. In a tuned coupled circuit, the critical value of mutual inductance MC is given by,
ωr R1 R2 ωr R1 R2
a) b) c) d)
R1 R2 ωr R1 R2 ωr
44. In a tuned coupled circuit, the critical coefficient of coupling kC is given by,
1 Q1 Q2 1
a) b) c) d)
Q1 Q2 Q2 Q1 Q1 Q2
ANSWERS
1. c 9. c 17. b 25. a 33. c 41. c

2. b 10. c 18. a 26. d 34. b 42. d
3. a 11. b 19. c 27. b 35. d 43. b
4. d 12. a 20. b 28. c 36. b 44. a
5. b 13. d 21. d 29. c 37. a
6. b 14. c 22. a 30. b 38. a
7. b 15. b 23. b 31. d 39. c
8. c 16. a 24. c 32. a 40. d
E3.1 In the circuit shown in Fig. E3.1, determine the currents in all the branches.
E3.2 Determine the current I 2 in the circuit shown in Fig. E3.2.
E3.3 Determine the voltage V 2 in the circuit shown in Fig. E3.3.

Ia j2.5 W 2W -j3 W
4W
Ib Ic I2
+
1W 1W 2W
20 Ð300V
100 Ð00V
+ +
2W -j1 W j2 W 0
12Ð0 A
-
~ -
~ ~ V2
-j4 W
j2 W -j5 W
Fig. E3.1. Fig. E3.2. Fig. E3.3.

E3.4 A series combination of 5 Ω and 10 mH inductance is connected to a 115 V, 60 Hz supply. Estimate
the voltage and current in the elements. Also calculate the active, reactive and apparent power.
E3.5 A parallel RL circuit connected to a 230 V, 50 Hz supply has active power of 2.5.kW and reactive
power of 3.12 kVAR. Calculate the current through the elements, total current supplied by the
source and the value of R and L.
E3.6 A current of 10∠30o A flowing through a circuit consists of series-connected elements when excited
by a source of 200∠−30o V, 50 Hz. Determine the elements of the circuit, voltage across the elements
and active, reactive and apparent power.
E3.7 A parallel combination of 10 Ω resistance and 400 mF capacitance is connected to a 160 V, 50 Hz

supply. Estimate the current through the elements and the total current drawn from the supply.
Also calculate the apparent, active and reactive power.
E3.8 An RLC series circuit consists of R = 40 Ω, L = 70 mH and C = 450 mF. The circuit is excited by a
sinusoidal source of value 100 V, 50 Hz. Determine the current and voltage in the elements. Also
estimate the apparent, active and reactive power.
E3.9 A load absorbs 4 kW at a pf of 0.65 lagging from a 160 V, 50 Hz source. A capacitor is connected
in parallel to the load to improve the pf to 0.8 lag. Determine the value of the capacitor.
E3.10 An RLC series circuit consists of R = 50 W, L = 0.16 H and C = 4 mF. Calculate the resonant
frequency, quality factor, bandwidth and half-power frequencies.
E3.11 An RLC series circuit is to be designed to produce a magnification of 5 at resonance. At higher cut-
off frequency 1105 rad/s the impedance of the circuit is 21.2132 W. Find the value of R, L and C.
E3.12 An RC series circuit with R = 50 W and C = 20 mF is connected parallel to an inductance. The
parallel combination is excited by a source of 10 V, 1 kHz . Determine the value of inductance if no
reactive current is taken from the supply.
E3.13 For the RLC circuit shown in Fig. E3.13, determine the frequency at which the circuit
resonates. Also find the quality factor, voltage across inductance and capacitance at resonance.
10 0.1 H 25 mF 5 0.2 H 10 mF
+ ~
20 V
E + ~V
E
Fig. E3.13. Fig. E3.14.

E3.14 For the RLC circuit shown in Fig. E3.14, determine the impedance a) at resonance frequency,
b) at a frequency 50 Hz below resonance frequency and c) at a frequency 50 Hz above resonance
frequency.
RL 5
E3.15 Determine the value of RL for resonance in the network shown in Fig. E3.15.
Also calculate the dynamic resistance.
j8 Ej4
E3.16 The parameters of an RLC parallel circuit excited by a current source are,
R = 20 W, L = 5 mH and C = 10 mF. Calculate the resonant frequency, quality
Fig. E3.15.
factor, bandwidth and cut-off frequencies.
E3.17 Determine the value of RL for resonance in the network shown in Fig. E3.17.
RL 12 1 5
j10 Ej50 L 20 mF
Fig. E3.17. Fig. E3.18.

E3.18 For the RLC network shown in Fig. E3.18, determine the two possible values of inductance for the
network to resonate at 5000 rad/s.
E3.19 A coil of inductance 25 mH and resistance 20 W is connected parallel to a capacitor, and this parallel
combination is connected to a 200 V, 40 Hz supply. Determine the value of capacitance if no reactive
current is taken from the supply.
E3.20 Two coupled coils have a coefficient of coupling of 0.65. If the self-inductances of the coils are
0.02 H and 0.08 H, calculate the equivalent inductance if the two coils are connected in a) series aiding,
b) series opposing, c) parallel aiding and d) parallel opposing.
E3.21 Two coupled coils connected in series have an equivalent inductance of 0.725 H when connected
in aiding and an equivalent inductance of 0.425 H when connected in opposing. Determine the
self- and mutual inductances by taking k = 0.42.
E3.22 Two coils A and B of 1000 turns and 1600 turns, respectively, lie in parallel plane, so that 55% of
flux produced by coil-A links with coil-B. A current of 2 A in coil-A produce a flux of 0.3 × 10 − 4
Wb while the same current in coil-B produce a flux of 0.6 × 10 − 4 Wb. Determine the coefficient of
coupling between the coils.
E3.23 Determine the effective inductance of the series-connected coupled coils shown in Fig. E3.23.1,
Fig. E3.23.2 and Fig. E3.23.3. 1H 4H
0.2 H 0.7 H
2H 0.03 H 2H
2.5 H
6H
0.05 H
0.1 H
2H
0.5
1.2 H
H
2H 3H 4H 5H
0.4
H
0.6 H 0.9 H
1H 1.5 H 3H 5H 8H
1.
Fig. 3.23.1. Fig. 3.23.2.
Fig. 3.23.3.
E3.24 Determine the equivalent inductance of the series-parallel-connected coupled coils shown in
Fig. E3.24.1, Fig. E3.24.2 and Fig. E3.24.3.
0.5 H
0.4 H 4H
1H 2H
0.1 H 4H
5H
0.3 H
0.7 H 0.8 H 2H 3H 1H 1H
5H
0.2 H 5H 4H
0.7
2H
0.5 H 2.5 H
Fig. E3.24.1. Fig. E3.24.2. Fig. E3.24.3.
E3.25 Determine the equivalent impedance of the network with coupled coils shown in Fig. E3.25.1,
Fig. E3.25.2 and Fig. E3.25.3.
2 j4 10 Ej1 5
j2
3 5
1
j2 3
j1.5
Ej3
Ej4 j5 j4
j4 j6
j6
Fig. E3.25.1. Fig. E3.25.2. Fig. E3.25.3.

E3.26 A transformer with a primary having Rp = 3 W and Lp = 0.2 H and a secondary having Rs = 12 W
and Ls = 0.4 H is connected between source voltage of 220 V at 50 Hz and a load of 600 W. Determine
the load current if k = 0.5.
E3.27 Determine the mesh currents in the coupled circuit shown in Fig. E3.27.
2W 0.5 W
j3 W
4W
+
100Ð0o V
~ j8 W j20 W
-j2 W
-
I1 I2
Fig. E3.27.
E3.28 A 10 W load consumes 250 W power when connected to a source of 220 V, 50 Hz through a transformer
with primary impedance of 2 + j10 W and a secondary impedance of 4 + j20 W. Determine the
mutual inductance and coefficient of coupling of the transformer.
E3.29 In the coupled circuit shown in Fig. E3.29, determine the active and reactive power delivered to the
load Z L .
k = 0.6
4W 2W 2W j5 W 2W
A
j5 W j12.8 W
ZL = 4 + j6 W
220Ð0o V
+ + j1.5 W
20Ð30 V
1W
o
-
~ -
~ j6 W -j4 W
j3
-j4 W
W
B
Fig. E3.29. j8 W
Fig. E3.30.
E3.30 In the circuit shown in Fig. E3.30, determine the voltage across j6 W reactance.
E3.31 Determine the mesh currents I 1 and I 2 in the circuit shown in Fig. E3.31.
2W j4 W -j5 W j8 W
150 W 4W
j0.5 W
j2
+ M
70Ð0o V
.5
j10 W
W
~ j2 W + +
5Ð30 V
o
0.05 H
- I1
4W
I2 ~
-
2W
0.2 H
3W
C
-
V0, C
-j6 W 3W
Fig. E3.31. Fig. E3.32.
E3.32 In the single tuned coupled circuit of Fig. E3.32, determine the value of C for resonance at
1200 rad/s. Calculate the critical value of mutual inductance and coefficient of coupling. Also
determine the output voltage V 0,C at critical coupling.
E3.33 A double tuned circuit is tuned to a frequency of 2000 rad/s. What should be the supply voltage at critical
coupling to get an output voltage of 12 V. The circuit parameters are : Q1 = 1.5, R1 = 4 W , Q2 = 2.5 and
R2 = 60 W. Also determine MC and kC .
E3.34 The double tuned circuit shown in Fig. E3.34 is tuned to a frequency of 750 rad/s. Calculate the
self-inductance of the two coils, critical value of mutual inductance and coefficient of coupling.
Also calculate the output voltage at critical coupling if E = 10 + 0 o V.
70 10 mF 20
M
+
E ~
E
L1 L2 33 mF
Fig. E3.34.
ANSWERS
E3.1 Ia = 57.2598∠−76.8o A ; Ib = 25.5711∠−140.2o A ; Ic = 51.2147∠−50.2o A
E3.2 I 2 = 6.2469∠171.3o A
E3.3 V2 = 18.9734∠18.4o V
E3.4 I = 18.3648∠−37 o A ; VR = 91.8242∠−37o V ; VL = 69.2336∠53o V
S = 2.112 kVA ; Q = 1.271 kVAR ; P = 1.6867 kW
E3.5 I = 17.3828∠−51.3 o A ; IR = 10.8696∠0o A ; IL = 13.5652∠−90o A
R = 21.1599 Ω ; L = 54 mH
E3.6 R = 10 Ω ; C = 183.78 µF ; VR = 100∠30o V ; VC =173.205∠−60o V
S = 2 kVA ; P = 1 kW ; Q = −1.7321 kVAR
E3.7 I = 25.6955∠51.5 o A ; IR = 16∠0o A ; Ic = 20.1062∠90o A
S = 4.1113 kVA ; P = 2.5593 kW ; Q = –3.2175 kVAR
E3.8 I = 2.3424∠−20.5 o A ; VR = 93.696∠−20.5o V ; VL = 51.512∠69.5o V ;VC =16.5692∠−110.5o V
S = 234.24 VA ; P = 219.4061 W ; Q = 82.0326 VAR
E3.9 C = 207.31 µF
E3.10 ωr = 1250 rad/s ; fr = 198.9437 Hz ; Qr = 4 ; β = 312.5 rad/s

Bandwidth in Hz = 49.7359 Hz ; fh = 225.3599 Hz ; fl = 175.6239 Hz
E3.11 R = 15 W ; L = 75 mH ; C = 13.334 µF
E3.12 L = 51.3 mH
E3.13 ωr = 632.4555 rad/s ; fr = 100.6584 Hz ; Qr = 6.3246
VLr = 126.4911+90 o V ; VCr = 126.4911+ − 90 o V
E3.14 Zr = 5 Ω ; Z1 = 175.9686+ − 88.4 o Ω ; Z 2 = 106.453+87.3 o Ω
E3.15 R L = 4.2388 W ; Rdynamic = 5.7566 W
E3.16 fr = 711.7626 Hz ; Qr = 0.8944 ; β = 5000 rad/s
Bandwidth in Hz = 795.7747 Hz ; fh = 1213.3319 Hz ; fl = 417.5329 Hz
E3.17 RL = 20.7147 W
E3.18 L = 2.4839 mH or 16.1 µH
E3.19 C = 56.898 µF
–3
E3.20 i) 0.152 H ii) 0.048 H iii) 0.01925 H iv) 6.0789 × 10 H
E3.21 M = 0.075 H ; L 1 = 0.5128 H ; L2 = 0.0622 H
E3.22 k = 0.4919
E3.23 i) Leq = 5 H ii) Leq = 2.94 H iii) Leq = 26.6 H
E3.24 i) Leq = 0.5667 H ii) Leq = 6.8125 H iii) Leq = 5.3333 H
E3.25 i) 1.8884 + j1.6813 W ii) 4 + j0.5 W iii) 10.7692 + j3.8462 W
E3.26 I L = 0.2503∠−6 o A
E3.27 I1 = 12.7852∠−74.3 o A ; I2 = 2.0672∠119.7o A
E3.28 Xm = 5.2458 W ; M = 0.0167 H ; k = 0.3709
E3.29 P = 47.4022 W ; Q = 71.1033 VAR
E3.30 VAB = 9.2183∠39.3o V

E3.31 I1 = 15.2387∠8o A ; I2 = 5.3332∠−26.4o A
E3.32 C = 3.4722 µF ; M C = 0.0272 H ; kC = 0.272 ; V0,C = 18.3942∠30 o V
E3.33 E = 2.4762 V ; M C = 7.746 mH ; kC = 0.5164
E3.34 L 1 = 0.1778 H ; L2 = 0.0539 H ; MC = 0.0499 H ;
kC = 0.5097 ; V0,C = 5.3992∠0 o V

Chapter 4
TRANSIENT ANALYSIS
4.1 Transient Response
Electrical devices are controlled by switches which are closed in order to connect supply to a
device or opened in order to disconnect supply from a device. The switching operation changes the
current and the voltage in a device. Purely resistive devices allow instantaneous change in current and
voltage. Inductive devices do not allow a sudden change in current (or delay the change in current),
and capacitive devices do not allow a sudden change in voltage (or delay the change in voltage).
Hence, when a switching operation is performed in inductive or capacitive devices, the current and
voltage in the device take some time to change from a pre-switching value to a steady value after
switching. This phenomena can be observed in starting of a motor, which is an inductive device.
The study of the switching condition in a circuit is called transient analysis. The state (or
condition) of the circuit from the instant of switching to the attainment of a steady state is called
transient state or simply, transient. The time duration from the instant of switching till the attainment
of a steady state is called the transient period. The current and voltage of circuit elements during
the transient period is called transient response.
Apart from switching, the transient will also occur due to a change in circuit elements (i.e.,
due to change in values of R, L and C). In electrical engineering, transient analysis is a useful tool
for analysis of switching conditions in circuit breakers, relays, generators and various types of
loads. It is also useful for the analysis of faulty conditions in electrical devices.
4.1.1 Natural and Forced Response
Transient response is the response (or output) of a circuit from the instant of switching to
the attainment of a steady state. In order to study the response with respect to time, the switching
instant is taken as time origin, i.e., t = 0. The time t = 0 − is used to denote the time instant just prior
to switching and the time t = 0+ is used to denote the time instant immediately after switching.
The time difference between t = 0− and t = 0+ is zero. It is necessary to define three time
instants 0 − , 0 and 0 + because current and voltage in certain elements may change suddenly.
A resistance will allow a sudden change in current and voltage.
∴ iR (0+) ≠ iR (0 −) and vR (0+) ≠ vR (0−)
An inductance will not allow a sudden change in current but allow a sudden change in voltage.
∴ iL (0+) = iL (0 −) and vL (0+) ≠ vL (0−)
A capacitance will allow a sudden change in current but will not allow a sudden change in voltage.
∴ iC (0+) ≠ iC (0 −) and vC (0+) = vC (0−)
Inductance and capacitance are energy storage devices. Hence, they may have stored energy
prior to the switching instant. The response of a circuit due to stored energy alone (without an
external source) is called natural response or source-free response. The response of a circuit due
to an external source is called forced response.
In time domain analysis, the voltage-current relation of circuits is studied in the form of
differential equations. Hence, the response of a circuit is the solution of its differential equations. In
general, the solution of differential equations or the response has two parts, namely, complementary
function and particular solution.
The complementary function becomes zero as t tends to infinity, and so it is the transient
part of the solution. The complementary function is similar to natural response and so it is also
called natural response (i.e., the complementary function and source-free response have similar
form, which depends on the nature of the circuit).
The particular solution attains a steady value as t tends to infinity, and so it is the steady
state part of the solution. The particular solution depends on the nature of the exciting source and
so it is also called forced response.
4.1.2 First and Second Order Circuits
In time domain, the equations governing the circuits will be in the form of differential
equations. The order of the differential equations governing the circuit will be the order of the circuit.
R L
Consider the RL circuit shown in Fig. 4.1. By KVL, we can write, +
Ri(t)
E +
di(t)
E
L
di (t) e(t) +E
dt
Ri (t) + L = e ( t) .....(4.1)
dt i(t)
Equation (4.1) is the differential equation governing the RL circuit.
The order of equation (4.1) is one and so the RL circuit is a first order circuit. Fig. 4.1 : RL Circuit.
Consider the RC circuit shown in Fig. 4.2. By KVL, we can write, R C
+ +
# i (t) dt
E E
Ri (t) + 1 = e (t) Ri(t) 1
z
i(t) dt
C C
e(t) +E
On differentiating the above equation with respect to t, we get, i(t)
di (t) 1 de (t)
R + i (t) = .....(4.2) Fig. 4.2 : RC Circuit.
dt C dt
Equation (4.2) is the differential equation governing the RC circuit. The order of
equation (4.2) is one and so the RC circuit is a first order circuit. R L C
+ E + E + E
Consider the RLC circuit shown in Fig. 4.3. By KVL, we can write, Ri(t) di(t) 1
e(t) +E
L
dt C
i(t) dt z
di (t) 1
Ri (t) + L
dt
+
C #
i (t) dt = e (t) i(t)
On differentiating the above equation with respect to t, we get, Fig. 4.3 : RLC Circuit.
d i (t) d 2 i (t) 1 de (t) .....(4.3)
R +L + i (t) =
dt dt2 C dt
Equation (4.3) is the equation governing the RLC circuit. The order of equation (4.3) is two
and so the RLC circuit is a second order circuit.
Chapter 4 - Transient Analysis 4. 3
4.2 Transient Analysis Using Laplace Transform

In time domain, the voltage-current relation of circuits are governed by differential equations.
The direct solution of differential equations gives the transient response.
Alternatively, the transient response can be obtained using the Laplace transform technique. In
this method, the differential equations are converted into simple s-domain algebraic equations using
Laplace transform. The solution of algebraic equations are simple as compared to the solution of
differential equations. The s-domain algebraic equations are solved to obtain the s-domain response.
But for practical purposes, we require the response in time domain, and so the time domain response
is obtained by taking the inverse Laplace transform of the s-domain response. In this book, transient
analysis is performed using only the Laplace transform technique.
In order to solve a circuit using the Laplace transform technique, the given circuit is first
transformed into an s-domain circuit and then the sources and parameters are replaced by their
s-domain equivalents.
4.2.1 Some Standard Voltage Functions
d(t)
Impulse Voltage ¥
Impulse voltage is a function with infinite magnitude and zero

duration, but with an area of E. Mathematically, impulse voltage is t
0
defined as,
Fig. 4.4 : Impulse voltage.
+3
Impulse voltage, v (t) = δ (t) = 3 ; t = 0 and # δ (t) dt =E dE(t)

E
-3
D
= 0 ; t ≠ 0
Graphically, impulse voltage can be expressed as a pulse of width
E/∆ and height ∆, as shown in Fig. 4.5. 0
t
Unit impulse voltage is a function with infinite magnitude D
and zero duration, but with unit area. Mathematically, unit impulse Fig. 4.5 : Representation
voltage is defined as, of impulse as a pulse.
+3
Unit Impulse voltage, v (t) = δ (t) = 3 ; t = 0 and # δ (t) dt =1

-3
= 0 ; t ≠ 0
Step Voltage
Step voltage is defined as,
v(t) = E ;t≥0 v(t) u(t)
=0 ;t<0
E 1
Unit step voltage is defined as,
v(t) = u(t) = 1 ;t≥0 0
t t
0
=0 ;t<0 Fig. 4.6 : Step voltage. Fig. 4.7 : Unit step voltage.
Ramp Voltage v(t)
Ramp voltage is defined as, 2E
v(t) = E t ;t≥0 E
=0 ;t<0
0 1 2
t
Unit ramp voltage is defined as,
Fig. 4.8 : Ramp voltage.
v(t) = t ;t≥0
v(t)
=0 ;t<0
2
Parabolic Voltage
1
Parabolic voltage is defined as,
2 t
ν (t) = Et ; for t $ 0 0 1 2
2
= 0 ; for t < 0 Fig. 4.9 : Unit ramp voltage.
v(t)
Unit parabolic voltage is defined as,
4.5E
2
ν (t) = t ; for t $ 0
2
= 0 ; for t < 0
Exponential Voltage 2E
Exponential voltage is defined as,

0.5E
v(t) = E eat 0 1 2 3
t
where,‘E’ and ‘a’ are real. Fig. 4.10 : Parabolic voltage.

Here, when ‘a’ is positive, the voltage v(t) will be an exponentially rising voltage and when
‘a’ is negative, the voltage v(t) will be an exponentially decaying voltage.
v(t) v(t)
Sinusoidal and Cosinusoidal Voltage a - Positive E
a - Negative
Sinusoidal voltage is defined as,
v(t) = Em sin (ωt + φ)

E
Cosinusoidal voltage is defined as, 0

t t
v(t) = Em cos (ωt + φ) Fig. 4.11 : Rising Fig. 4.12 : Decaying
exponential voltage. exponential voltage.
where, ω = 2πf = 2π = Angular frequency in rad/s
T
f = Frequency in cycles/second or Hz
T = Time period in seconds
The waveforms of sinusoidal voltages for various choices of φ are shown in Chapter 4, Section 4.2,
Fig. 4.10. The waveforms of cosinusoidal voltages are phase-shifted versions of sinusoidal voltages,
shifted in phase by 90 degrees.,
s-Domain Representation of Voltage Functions

The s-domain representation of voltage functions is obtained by taking the Laplace transform
of their time domain representation.
Table 4.1 : Standard Voltage Functions (AU Dec’16, 2 Marks)
Name of the voltage, v(t) Time domain representation Laplace transform of

of the voltage, v(t) the voltage, v(t) = V(s)
Impulse δE(t) E
Unit step δ(t) 1
Step E E
s
Unit step 1 1
s
Ramp Et E
s2
Unit ramp t 1
s2
Parabolic Et2 E
2 s3
Unit parabolic t2 1
2 s3
Rising exponential E eat E 1

s−a
Decaying exponential E e−at E 1

s+a
Em ω
Sinusoidal Em sin ωt s2 + ω2
Cosinusoidal Em cos ωt Em 2 s 2
s +ω
4.2.2 s-Domain Representation of R, L, C Parameters

In an s-domain circuit, the R, L and C parameters of the circuit are also respresented by
their s-domain equivalent. The s-domain equivalent of R, L and C parameters without initial
energy is discussed in Chapter 3, Section 3.6. Since L and C parameters store energy, the s-domain
equivalent of L and C parameters with initial energy is developed in this section.
Inductance with Initial Current

Inductance is an energy storage element. Hence, it can have an initial stored energy at the
time of analysis which results in initial current (or flux). Consider an inductance connected to a
circuit through position-1 of SPDT (Single Pole Double Throw) switch as shown in Fig. 4.13. Let
a steady current I0 be established in the inductance. (Here, I0 is the rms value in case of ac).
Let us change the switch position from 1 to 2 and the time instant be t = 0. At the time of
closing the switch to position-2, a steady current I 0 is flowing through an inductance and this
current is called initial current in the inductance for the analysis at (or after) t = 0, (i.e., for t ≥ 0).
Note : L = Nφ / I = Ψ / I , ∴ I0 = Ψ0 / L ,where Ψ0 is initial flux linkages in weber turns.
2 1 i(t)
t=0 I0 + l(s)
+ + + +
v(t) circuit v(t) L v(t) V(s) sL sL l(s)
L I0 E
E
+ LI0
_ E
Fig. a : Inductance with Fig. b : Inductance with initial Fig. c : Inductance with initial
steady current I0. current in time domain. current in s-domain.
Fig. 4.13 : Voltage-current relation of inductance with initial current in time and s-domain.
Let i(t) be the current through the inductance and v(t) be the voltage across the inductance
for t $ 0, as shown in Fig. 4.13(b).
di (t)
Now, v (t) = L .....(4.4)
dt
On taking Laplace transform of the above equation, we get,
V(s) = L[sI(s) – i(0)] i(0) = − I 0 = Initial condition.

Here, I0 is negative because
∴ V(s) = sLI(s) – Li(0) it is opposite to i(t).
V(s) = sLI(s) + LI0equat .....(4.5)

Using equation (4.5), the s-domain equivalent circuit of inductance with initial current
opposite to i(t) is drawn as shown in Fig. 4.13(c).
If the direction of initial current is the same as that of the source current then i(0) = +I 0 and
so equation (4.5) can be written as shown in equation (4.6).
V(s) = sL I(s) − LI 0 .....(4.6)
Using equation (4.6), the s-domain equivalent circuit of inductance with initial current in
direction i(t) is drawn as shown in Fig. 4.14.
i(t)
I0 + l(s)
+
+ +
V(s) sL sL l(s)
v(t) v(t) L
E
E E
_ + Ll0
Fig. a : Inductance with initial Fig. b : Inductance with initial

current in time domain. current in s-domain.
Fig. 4.14 : Voltage-current relation of inductance with
initial current in the direction of source current.
Capacitance with Initial Voltage

Capacitance is an energy storage element. Hence, it can have an initial stored energy
at the time of analysis which results in initial voltage (or charge). Consider a capacitance
connected to a circuit through position-1 of SPDT (Single Pole Double Throw) switch as shown
in Fig. 4.15. Let a steady voltage V0 be established in the capacitance. (Here, V0 is the rms value
in case of ac).
Let us change the switch position from 1 to 2 and the time instant be t = 0. At the time of
closing the switch to position-2, a steady voltage V0 exists across capacitance and this voltage is
called initial voltage in the capacitance for the analysis at (or after) t = 0 (i.e., for t ³ 0).
Note : C = Q/V , ∴ V0 = Q0 /C , where Q0 is the initial charge.
2 1
i(t) + l(s)
t=0
+
+ E 1 1
E circuit V(s) I(s)
i(t) i(t) v(t) V0 sC sC
V0 E
E +
+ E V0
_ +
s
Fig. a : Capacitance with Fig. b : Capacitance with initial Fig. c : Capacitance with initial
steady voltage V0. voltage in time domain. voltage in s-domain.
Fig. 4.15 : Voltage-current relation of capacitance with initial current in time and s-domain.
Let i(t) be the current through the capacitance and v(t) be the voltage across the capacitance
for t ³ 0 as shown in Fig. 4.15(b).
dν (t)
Now, i (t) = C .....(4.7)
dt
On taking Laplace transform of the above equation, we get,
I(s) = C[sV(s) − v(0)] v(0) = −V0 = Initial condition.
∴ I(s) = sCV(s) + C V0 Here, V0 is negative because
it is opposite to v(t).
sCV(s) = I(s) − C V0
V
V (s ) = 1 I (s ) − 0 .....(4.8)
sC s
Using equation (4.8), the s-domain equivalent circuit of capacitance with initial voltage
opposite to v(t) is drawn as shown in Fig. 4.15(c).
When the polarity of initial voltage is the same as that of voltage v(t) then v(0) = + V0 and
so equation (4.8) can be written as shown in equation (4.9).
V
V (s ) = 1 I (s ) + 0 .....(4.9)
sC s
Using equation (4.9), the s-domain equivalent circuit of capacitance with initial voltage of
polarity same as v(t) is drawn as shown in Fig. 4.16.
i(t) + l(s)
+
+ + 1 1
V(s) I(s)
i(t) v(t) V0 sC sC
E
+ V0
E E
_ E
s
Fig. a : Capacitance with initial Fig. b : Capacitance with initial

voltage in time domain. voltage in s-domain.
Fig. 4.16 : Voltage-current relation of capacitance with initial voltage of polarity same as v(t).
Table 4.2 : s-Domain Representation of R, L and C Parameters
S.No. Parameter Time domain s-Domain
i + v _ I(s) + V(s) _
1. Resistance, R R
R
i + v _ I(s) + V(s) _
2. Inductance, L
L sL
sL I(s) LI0
i + v _ I(s) + _
E+
L I0 sL
V(s) _
3. Inductance, L +
with initial current

sL I(s) LI0
i + v _ I(s) + _
+E
L I0 sL
V(s) _
+
v _ V(s) _
i + I(s) +
4. Capacitance, C
C 1
sC
+ v _ 1
I(s)
V0
V0 _ sC s
i + I(s) + _
+E
C 1/sC
V(s) _
5. Capacitance, C +
with initial voltage

+ v _ 1 V
I(s) 0
i _ V0 + I(s) +sC _ Es+
C 1/sC
V(s) _
+
4.2.3 Solving Initial and Final Conditions Using Laplace Transform

The initial condition in circuits can be solved using the initial value theorem of Laplace transform.
The final condition in circuits can be solved using the final value theorem of Laplace transform.
Initial Condition
The initial value theorem of Laplace transform states that if F(s) is Laplace transform of f(t) then,
Lt f (t) = Lt sF (s)
t"0 s"3
` Initial value of f (t) = f (0) = Lt sF (s)

s"3
Hence, by the initial value theorem, the initial value of a time domain function can be directly
determined from its s-domain function. In transient analysis, the initial value theorem is useful to
determine the following initial conditions in circuits.
1. Let, L{i(t)} = I(s)

Now,
Initial current, i (0+) = Lt i (t) = Lt sI (s)
t"0 s"3
2. Let, L{i(t)} = I(s)

di (t)
` L' 1 = sI (s) − i (0+)
dt
di (t) di (t)
Initial rate of rise of current, = Lt = Lt s 6sI (s) − i (0+) @
dt t = 0+
t"0 dt s"3
3. Let, L{i(t)} = I(s)
` L) 3 = s2 I (s) − si (0+) −
d 2 i (t) di (t)
dt 2 dt t = 0+
Now,
d 2 i (t) d 2 i (t)
= Lt s =s2 I (s) − s i (0+) − G
di (t)
= Lt
dt2 t = 0+
t"0 dt2 s"3 dt t = 0+
Similarly, the initial voltage and initial rate of rise of voltage can be solved using the above
equations after replacing i by v.
Final Condition
The final value theorem of Laplace transform states that if F(s) is Laplace transform of f(t) then,
t"3 s"0
` Final value of f (t) = f (3) = Lt sF (s)

s"0
Hence, by the final value theorem, the final value of a time domain function can be directly
determined from its s-domain function.
In transient analysis, the final value theorem is useful to determine the following final
conditions in circuits.
1. Let, L{i(t)} = I(s)
Now,
Final current, i (3) = Lt i (t) = Lt sI (s)
t"3 s"0
2. Let, L{v(t)} = V(s)

Now,
Final voltage, ν (3) = Lt ν (t) = Lt sV (s)
t"3 s"0
4.3 Transient Response of RL Circuit

4.3.1 Natural or Source-Free Response of RL Circuit t=0
R L
− + _
Consider the RL circuit with initial current i(0 ) = I0 through vR(t) l0
inductor as shown in Fig. 4.17. Let the switch be closed at t = 0. + vL(t) _
Let, i(t) = Current through the RL circuit i(t)
vR(t) = Voltage across resistance, R

vL(t) = Voltage across inductance, L Fig. 4.17.
Now, the transient equations of the source-free RL circuit shown in Fig. 4.17 are,
t
i (t) = I0 e- x .....(4.10)
t
νR (t) = RI0 e- x
t
νL (t) = − RI0 e- x
where, τ = L = Time constant of the RL circuit .....(4.11)
R
Equation (4.10) is called source-free response of RL circuit.
Note : It can be proved that Henry/Ohm has the unit of time and so the unit of time constant
is seconds.
Proof:
E+
The s-domain equivalent of the RL circuit is shown in Fig. 4.18. R sL Ll0
L I0 LI0 I(s)
I (s) = ⇒ I (s) =
R + sL L` R + sj
L
I0
Fig. 4.18.
` I (s) =
s+ R
L
Let us take the inverse Laplace transform of the above equation.
` L - 1 " I (s) , = L - 1
I0
*s+ R 4
L "e- at , = 1
s+ a
L
R
` i (t) = I0 e- L t
t t
= I0 e- L/R = I0 e- x
where, τ = L = Time constant of the circuit.

R
The equations for nR(t) and nL(t) can be obtained by using the equation for i(t) as shown below:
t
νR (t) = Ri (t) = R I0 e- x
di (t) t t t t
νL (t) = L = L d ` I0 e- x j = LI0 e- x # `− 1 j = − L I0 e- x # R = − R I0 e- x
dt dt τ L
Let us calculate i(t) using equation (4.10) for various values of time in multiples of time
constant as shown below:
1x i(t)
At t = 1τ, i (t) = I0 e- x = I0 e- 1 = 0.368 I0 l0
2x -2
At t = 2τ, i (t) = I0 e- x = I0 e = 0.135 I0
3x
At t = 3τ, i (t) = I0 e- x = I0 e- 3 = 0.05 I0 0.368l0
4x 0.2l0
At t = 4τ, i (t) = I0 e- x = I0 e- 4 = 0.018 I0
0
t
1t 2t 3t 4t 5t
5x -5
At t = 5τ, i (t) = I0 e- x = I0 e = 0.007 I0 Fig. 4.19 : i(t)vs t.
From the above analysis we can say that the initial current exponentially decays to zero as
time t tends to infinity.
4.3.2 Step Response of RL Circuit (AU May’15, 8 Marks)

(Response of RL Circuit Excited by DC Supply) (AU May’17, 2 Marks)
Note : A step voltage applied at t = 0 is equivalent to switching DC supply at t = 0.
t=0
Consider the RL circuit with no initial inductor current and R L
excited by a step voltage of E volts as shown in Fig. 4.20. Let the switch + _ + _
vR(t) vL(t)
be closed at t = 0. +
E
Let, i(t) = Current through RL circuit E i(t)

Fig. 4.20.
vL(t) = Voltage across inductance, L
Now the transient equations of the RL circuit excited by a dc source shown in Fig. 4.20 are,
t
i (t) = E ^1 − e- x h .....(4.12)
R
t
νL (t) = Ee- x
t
νR (t) = E^1 − e- x h
where, τ = L = Time constant of the RL circuit
R
Equation (4.12) is called the forced response of the RL circuit when excited by a dc source.
Proof:
Let, L "i (t) , = I (s) ; L "νR (t) , = VR (s) ; L "νL (t) , = VL (s) ; L "E , = E
s
The s-domain equivalent of the RL circuit is shown in Fig. 4.21.
By Ohm’s law, we get,
VR(s) = R I(s) ; VL(s) = sL I(s) .....(4.13)
With reference to Fig. 4.21, by KVL, we can write,
VR (s) + VL (s) = E
s
RI (s) + sLI (s) = E

s
R sL
(R + sL) I (s) = E _ _
s + +
VR(s) VL(s)
` I (s) = E +
s (R + sL) E
s I(s)
E E
= E = L
s # L `s + R j s `s + R j Fig. 4.21.
L L
By partial fraction expansion technique, the above equation can be expressed as,
E
L K K2
I (s) = = 1+
s `s + R j s s+ R
L L
E E E
K1 = L # s = L = L = E
s `s + R j R
`s + L j
R R
L s=0 s=0 L
E E E
K2 = L # `s + R j = L = L = −E
s `s + R j L s s =- R
L −R R
L s =- R L
L
E E
` I ( s) = R − R = E 1 − E 1
s s+ R R s R s+ R
L L
L - 1 " I (s) , = L - 1 E 1 − E 1
*R s R s+ R 4 L "1 , = 1
L s
L "e- at , = 1
` i ( t) = E L - 1 $ 1 . − E L - 1 1 s+a
R s R *s+ R 4
L
E E -Rt
= − e L
R R
= E `1 − e- L/R j
t
R
t
` i (t) = E ^1 − e- x h .....(4.14)
R
where, τ = L = Time constant of the circuit.

R
nR(t) = R i(t)
t Using equation (4.14)
= R # E ^1 − e- x h
R
t
` νR (t) = E ^1 − e- x h .....(4.15)
nR(t) + nL(t) = E
∴ nL(t) = E − nR(t)
= E − E^1 − e− x h
t
` νL (t) = Ee− x
Initial and Final Conditions
Let us examine the values of current and voltages of an RL circuit excited by a dc source at
t = 0 + and at t = ∞.
At t = 0 + , i (0+) = E a1 − e0 k = E a1 − 1 k = 0
R R
At t = 0 + , vL(0+) = E e0 = E × 1 = E
At t = 0 + , vR(0+) = E (1 − e 0) = E (1 − 1) = 0
At t = 3 , i (3) = E a1 − e- 3 k = E a1 − 0 k = E
R R R
At t = ∞ , vL(∞) = E e −∞ = E × 0 = 0
At t = ∞ , vR(∞) = E (1 − e −∞) = E (1 − 0) = E
From the above analysis, we can infer that “at t = 0 +, the current through inductance is
zero and so it behaves as an open circuit. At t = ∞, the voltage across inductance is zero and so it
behaves as a short circuit”.
The condition of the circuit at t = 0 + is called the initial condition and the condition of the circuit at
t = ∞ is called the final condition.
t
In the transient equations of the RL circuit, the term containing e − x tends to zero as t tends
t
to infinity and so the term containing e − x is the natural response (or complementary function
or transient part).
The term E/R is the steady state value of i(t) and the term E is the steady state value of vR(t).
The steady state value of vL(t) is zero.
R OC R SC
+ _ + _ + _ + _
vR (0 + ) = 0 vL (0 + ) = E vR(¥) = E vL(¥) = 0
+ +
E E
- i(0 + ) = 0 - E
i(¥) =
R
Fig. a : Initial condition. Fig. b : Final condition.

Fig. 4.22 : Initial and final condition of RL circuit of Fig. 4.20.
Let us examine the values of current and voltage when t is equal to one time constant.
At t = 1τ, i (t) = E b1 − e- x l = E a1 − e- 1 k = 0.6321 E

1x
R R R
1x
At t = 1τ, vL (t) = e- x = E e- 1 = 0.3679E
At t = 1τ, vR (t) = E b1 − e- x l = E a1 − e- 1 k = 0.6321E

1x
From the above calculations, we can say that, “the current through inductance rises from
zero to 63.21% of steady state value in a time of one time constant”. Also we can say that, “the
voltage across the inductance falls from initial value to 36.79% of initial value in a time of one
time constant”. These two measures are also used to define time constant.
Theoretically, the circuit attains steady state only at infinite time. But for practical purposes,
we can show that the circuit attains steady state in a time of five time constants. Let us calculate
i(t) for various values of time in multiples of time constant as shown below:

1x
R R R

2x
R R R

3x
R R R

4x
R R R
At t = 5τ, i (t) = E a1 − e- x k = E a1 − e- 5 k = 0.9933 E

5x
R R R
From the above calculations we can say that the current i(t) approximately reaches steady
value in a time of five time constants. Hence, “for all practical purposes the transient period is
assumed to be for a duration of five time constants, and after five time constants, the circuit is said
to be in a steady state”. (AU May’17, 2 Marks)
i(t) vL(t) vR(t)
E/R E E
0.6321E/R 0.6321E
0.3679E
0.2E/R 0.2E 0.2E
0 t 0 t 0 t
1t 2t 3t 4t 5t 1t 2t 3t 4t 5t 1t 2t 3t 4t 5t
Transient state Steady state

Fig. a : i(t) vs t. Fig. b : vL(t) vs t. Fig. c : vR(t) vs t.
Fig. 4.23 : The sketch of transient current and voltages of the RL circuit of Fig. 4.20.
Time Constant
The time constant of an RL circuit is defined as the time taken by the inductor current to
reach a steady state if the initial rate of rise is maintained. It can be proved that the time constant,
t = L/R, for an RL circuit.
Proof:
In the RL circuit, the inductance delays the rate of rise of current. The rate of rise of current is obtained by
differentiating i(t) with respect to t.
t
Here, i (t) = E ^1 − e− x h
R
On differentiating i(t) with respect to t, we get,
di (t) t di (t) t
= E ^− e− x h `− 1 j ⇒ = E e− x
dt R τ dt Rτ
di (t)
The value of at t = 0 + is the initial rate of rise of current.
dt
di (t) E e0 = E = E
` = = E
dt t = 0+ Rτ Rτ R# L L
R
di (t) ∆i (t)
For small time intervals, = , and so using the above equation we can write,
dt ∆t
di (t) ∆i (t)
= = E ⇒ ∆t = L # ∆i (t)
dt t = 0+ ∆t L E
In the above equation if, ∆i (t) = E

R
then, ∆t = L # ∆i (t) = L # E = L
E E R R
From the above analysis we can say that if the initial rate of rise of current is maintained then the current
would have reached the steady value of E/R in a time of ∆t = L/R, which is called time constant of an RL circuit.
` Time constant, τ = L .....(4.16)

R
From the above discussions we can say that the time constant of the RL circuit may be
defined in different ways. The various definitions of time constants are summarised below:
Definitions of Time Constant of RL Circuit
 The time constant of an RL circuit is defined as the time taken by the current through the
inductance to reach a steady value if the initial rate of rise is maintained.
 The time constant of an RL circuit is defined as the ratio of inductance and resistance of
the circuit.
inductance to reach 63.21% of the final steady value.
 The time constant of an RL circuit is defined as the time taken by the voltage across the
inductance to fall to 36.79% of the initial value.
4.3.3 Impulse Response of RL Circuit
t=0
Consider the RL circuit with no initial current and excited R L
+ - + -
by an impulse voltage of δE(t) as shown in Fig. 4.24. Let the switch vR(t) vL(t)
be closed at t = 0. +
dE(t)
i(t)
-
Let, i(t) = Current through the RL circuit
vL(t) = Voltage across inductance, L. Fig. 4.24.
Now the transient equations of the RL circuit excited by impulse voltage shown in Fig. 4.24 are,
i (t) = E e- t/x .....(4.17)
Rτ
vR (t) = E e- t/x .....(4.18)
τ
vL (t) = δE (t) − E e- t/x .....(4.19)
τ
R
Proof:
Let, L #i (t) - = I (s) ; L # vR (t) - = VR (s) ; L # vL (t) - = VL (s) ; L #δE (t) - = E

VR(s) = RI(s) ; VL(s) = sL I(s) .....(4.20) R sL
+ _ + _
With reference to Fig. 4.25, by KVL, we can write, VR(s) VL(s)
VR(s) + VL(s) = E +
E
E I(s)
RI(s) + sLI(s) = E Using equation (4.20)
(R + sL) I(s) = E
` I ( s) = E = E# 1 Fig. 4.25.
R + sL L s+ R
L
Let us take the inverse Laplace transform of I(s).
L - 1 # I (s) - = L - 1 E # 1
*L s+ R 4 *s+ R 4
= E L- 1 1
L
L L
R t t
` i (t) = E e- L t = E e- L/R = E e- x
L L Rτ
where, τ = L = Time constant of the circuit
R
vR(t) = Ri(t)
t t
= R # E e- x = E e- x
Rτ τ
vR(t) + vL(t) = δE(t)
∴ vL(t) = δE(t) − vR(t)

t
vL(t) = δE(t) − E e- x
t
Unit Impulse Response of RL Circuit

The analysis of an RL circuit excited by a unit impulse signal is the same as that of an impulse
response of an RL circuit except the value of E, where E = 1 in unit impulse response. Therefore,
by substituting E = 1 in equations (4.17),(4.18) and (4.19), we get the transient equations of an RL
circuit excited by a unit impulse signal as,
i (t) = 1 e- x
t
Rτ
t
vR (t) = 1 e- x
τ
t
vL (t) = δ (t) − 1 e- x
τ
4.3.4 Response of RL Circuit Excited by Exponential Signal

t=0
Consider the RL circuit with no initial inductor current and R L
excited by an exponential signal Ee−at as shown in Fig. 4.26. Let the + E +
vL(t)
E
vR(t)
switch be closed at t = 0.
+
Let, i(t) = Current through the RL circuit Ee
Eat
~ i(t)
E
vL(t) = Voltage across inductance, L.
Now the transient equations of the RL circuit excited by an Fig. 4.26.
exponential signal shown in Fig. 4.26 are,
i (t) = E ê- at − e- xt h
R (1 − aτ)
t
vR (t) = E ê- at − e- x h
1 − aτ
t
vL (t) = E ê- x − aτe- ath
1 − aτ
Proof:
Let, L #i (t) - = I (s) ; L # vR (t) - = VR (s) ; L # vL (t) - = VL (s) ; L #Ee- at - = E
s+a
R sL
+ _ + _
VR(s) = RI(s) ; VL(s) = sL I(s) .....(4.21) VR(s) VL(s)
With reference to Fig. 4.27, by KVL, we can write, +

E
sC a E I(s)
VR(s) + VL(s) = E
s+a
RI(s) + sL I(s) = E
s+a Using equation (4.21)
Fig. 4.27.
∴ (R + sL) I(s) = E
s+a
` I ( s) = E = E = E 1
(s + a) (R + sL) (s + a ) # L a s + R k L (s + a) s + R
L a Lk
By partial fraction expansion technique, the above equation of I(s) can be expressed as,
K1 K2
I (s) = E 1 = +
L (s + a ) s + R s+a s+ R
a Lk L
K1 = E 1 # (s + a ) = E 1 = E 1 = E
L (s + a) s + R L −a + R L R −a L + 1 R (1 − aτ)
a L k L La R k
s =-a
K2 = E 1 # as + R k = E 1 = E 1 =− E = − K1
L (s + a) s + R L L −R +a L −R 1 − a L R (1 − aτ)
a Lk L L a R k
s =- R
L
` I (s) = K1 # 1 − K1 # 1
s+a s+ R
L
Let us take the inverse Laplace transform of the above equation,
L - 1 # I (s) - = L - 1 K1 # 1 − K1 # 1
* s+a s+ R 4
L
` i (t) = K1 L - 1 % 1 / − L - 1
> *s+ R 4H
1
s+a
L
R
= K1 7 e- at − e- L t A
9e- at − e- L/R C
E t
=
R (1 − aτ)
E t
` i ( t) = 7 e- at − e- x A
R (1 − aτ)

R
vR(t) = R i(t)
E t E t
= R# 7 e- at − e- x A = 7 e- at − e- x A
R (1 − aτ) (1 − aτ)
vR(t) + vL(t) = Ee−at ⇒ vL(t) = Ee−at − vR(t)
` vL (t) = Ee- at − E 7 e- at − e- t/x A = E 7(1 − aτ) e- at − e- at + e- t/x A

1 − aτ 1 − aτ
= E 7 e- at − aτe- at − e- at + e- t/x A = E 7 e- t/x − aτe- at A

1 − aτ 1 − aτ
4.3.5 RL Transient with Initial Current I0

Case i : When I0 is in a direction opposite to that of i(t) t=0
R L
− + _ + _
Consider the RL circuit with initial current i(0 ) = − I0 through vR(t) vL(t)
inductor as shown in Fig. 4.28. Let the switch be closed at t = 0. + I0
E
i(t)
Let, i(t) = Current through the RL circuit E

vL(t) = Voltage across inductance, L Fig. 4.28.
Now, the response i(t) of RL circuit shown in Fig. 4.28 is,

t t
i (t) = E ^1 − e- x h − I0 e- x .....(4.22)
R
where, τ = L = Time constant
R
Proof:
Let, L "i (t) , = I (s) ; L "νR (t) , = VR (s) ;
L "νL (t) , = VL (s) ; L "E , = E

s
In Fig. 4.29, VR(s) = R I(s) .....(4.23)
VL(s) = sL I(s) + LI0 .....(4.24)

Ll0
VR (s) + VL (s) = E R sL
s + _ + _ +E
VR(s) sL l(s)
R I (s) + sL I (s) + LI0 = E VL(s) _
s + +
E
s I(s)
^R + sLh I (s) = E − LI0
E
s
E − sLI0
L ` s + R j I (s) = Fig. 4.29.
L s
E − sI
0
` I ( s) = L Using equations (4.23) and (4.24)
R
s `s + j
L
E − sI
0 K K2
I (s) = L = 1+
R
s `s + j s s+ R
L L
E − sI E − sI E
0 0
K1 = L # s = L = L = E
R
s `s + j s+ R R R
L s=0 L s=0 L
E − sI E − sI E + RI
0 0 0
K2 = L # `s + R j = L = L L = − ` E + I0j
R
s `s + j L s s =− R −R R
L
L s =− R L
L
E E +I
= E 1 − ` E + I0j
0
1
fs + R p
` I (s) = R − R
`s + L j
s R R s R
L
` L - 1 " I (s) , = L - 1 E 1 − ` E + I0j 1

*R s R f s + R p4
L
` i (t) = E L - 1 $ 1 . − ` E + I0j L - 1 1
R s R *s+ R 4 L "1 , = 1
L s
R 1
= E − ` E + I0j e− L t L "e- at , =
R R s+a
R R
= E − E e− L t − I0 e− L t
R R
R R = E ^1 − e− L th − I0 e− L t
R
t t
` i (t) = E ^1 − e− x h − I0 e− x
R
where, τ = L = Time constant
R
Let us examine the values of i(t) at t = 0+ and t = ∞.

At t = 0 +, i (0 +) = E a1 − e0 k − I0 e0 = E a1 − 1 k − I0 # 1 = − I0
R R
At t = 3, i (3) = E a1 − e- 3 k − I0 e- 3 = E a1 − 0 k − I0 # 0 = E
R R R
From the above analysis we can say that the current i(t) has a component due to I0, which
decays exponentially to zero as time t tends to infinity.
Also, on comparing the above results with the RL transient without initial current, we can
conclude that the steady state value is not affected by the initial current in the inductance.
R I0 R SC i(t)
E
+ +
R
E i(0 + ) = -I0 E E
i(¥) =
- - R
0
t
EI0
Fig. 4.30 : Initial and final condition of the RL circuit of Fig. 4.28. Fig. 4.31 : i(t) vs t.
Case ii : When I0 is in the same direction as i(t) t=0
R L
−
Consider the RL circuit with initial current, i(0 ) = +I0 through I0
the inductor as shown in Fig. 4.32, +
E i(t)
The response of this circuit can be obtained from case (i) by E
replacing I 0 by − I 0.
Fig. 4.32.
On replacing I0 of equation (4.22) by −I0, we get,
i (t) = E a1 − e − x k + I0 e − x
t t
.....(4.25)
R
Let us examine the values of i(t) at t = 0+ and t = ∞.
At t = 0 +, i (0 +) = E a1 − e0 k + I0 e0 = E a1 − 1 k + I0 # 1 = I0
R R
At t = 3, i (3) = E a1 − e- 3 k + I0 e − 3 = E a1 − 0 k + I0 # 0 = E
R R R
From the above analysis we can say that the current i(t) has a i(t)
E
component due to I 0 , which decays exponentially to zero as time t tends to R
infinity.
E
I0 `
Also, on comparing the above results with the RL transient without R
I0
initial current, we can conclude that the steady state value is not affected by
the initial current in the inductance. t
I0 R
R SC i(t)
I0
+ + E
I0 b
E i(0 + ) = I0 E E R
i(¥) = E
- - R
R
Fig. a : Initial condition. Fig. b : Final condition. t

Fig. 4.33 : Initial and final condition of the circuit of Fig. 4.32. Fig. 4.34 : i(t) vs t.
Note : When initial flux is specified in terms of weber-turns Ψ then the initial current can be
calculated using the relation, L = Ψ .
I
Ψ
∴ Initial current, I0 = 0 , where Ψ0 is the initial flux linkage.
L
4.4 Transient Response of RC Circuit

4.4.1 Natural or Source-Free Response of RC Circuit
Consider the RC circuit with initial voltage, vC(0 −) = −V0 across the capacitor as shown in
Fig. 4.35. Let the switch be closed at t = 0.
Let, i(t) = Current through the RC circuit
vC(t) = Voltage across capacitance, C t=0
R C
+ _ + _
Now the transient equations of the source-free RC circuit shown vR(t) vC(t)
in Fig. 4.35 are, E V +
0
t
νC (t) = − V0 e- x .....(4.26)
i(t)
V0 - xt Fig. 4.35.
i (t) = e
R
t
νR (t) = V0 e- x
where, t = RC = Time constant of the RC circuit ......(4.27)
Equation (4.26) is called source-free response of the RC circuit.
Note : It can be proved that Ohm × Farad has the unit of time and so the unit of time constant
is seconds.
Proof:
The s-domain equivalent of the RC circuit is shown in Fig. 4.36.
1 V0
V0 R sC s
s V0 E+
I (s) = ⇒ I (s) =
R+ 1 s c sRC + 1 m
sC sC
V0 V0 I(s)
` I ( s) = =
1 ^sRC + 1h 1 # RC s + 1
C C ` RC j
Fig. 4.36.
V0
=
R `s + 1 j
RC
L - 1 " I (s) , = L - 1
V0
⇒ i (t) = V0 L - 1
* R `s + 1 j 4
1
R *s+ 1 4 1
RC RC L "e- at , =
s+ a
V0 - t V t
` i ( t) = e RC = 0 e- x
R R
where, τ = RC = Time constant of the RC circuit.
The equations for nC(t) and nR(t) can be obtained using the equation of i(t), as shown below:
−t
# VR0 e x V0 e x
−t
νC (t) = 1
C # i (t) dt = 1
C
dt =
RC − 1
τ
V0 −t V −t −t
= − τ e x = − 0 RC e x = − V0 e x
RC RC
V0 - t -t
νR (t) = Ri (t) = R # e x = V0 e x
R
Let us calculate the voltage across the capacitance vC(t) for various values of time constant
using equation (4.26).
1x
At t = 1τ, vC (t) = − V0 e − x = − V0 e- 1 = − 0.368V0 0 1t 2t 3t 4t 5t
t
2x -0.2V0
At t = 2τ, vC (t) = − V0 e − x = − V0 e- 2 = − 0.135V0 -0.378V0
3x
At t = 3τ, vC (t) = − V0 e − x = − V0 e- 3 = − 0.05V0
4x
At t = 4τ, vC (t) = − V0 e − x = − V0 e- 4 = − 0.018V0 -V0
5x
At t = 5τ, vC (t) = − V0 e − x = − V0 e- 5 = − 0.007V0 Fig. 4.37 : vC(t) vs t.
From the above analysis, we can say that the initial voltage exponentially decays to zero as
time t tends to infinity.
4.4.2 Step Response of RC Circuit (AU May’15, 8 Marks)

(Response of RC Circuit Excited by DC Supply)
Note : A step voltage applied at t = 0 is equivalent to switching dc supply at t = 0.
Consider the RC circuit with no initial capacitor voltage and excited by a step voltage of E
volts as shown in Fig. 4.38. Let the switch be closed at t = 0.
vC(t) = Voltage across capacitance, C t=0
R C
+ _ + _
Now, the transient equations of the RC circuit excited by a dc vR(t) vC(t)
source shown in Fig. 4.38 are, +
t
νC (t) = E^1 − e- x h .....(4.28) E i(t)
E
t
i (t) = E e- x
R Fig. 4.38.
t
νR (t) = Ee- x
where, t = RC = Time constant of the RC circuit. .....(4.29)
Equation (4.28) is called forced response of the RC circuit when excited by a dc source.
Proof:
Let, L "i (t) , = I (s) ; L "νR (t) , = VR (s) ; L "νC (t) , = VC (s) ; L "E , = E
s
1
With reference to Fig. 4.39, by voltage division rule, we can write,
R sC
1 1 + _ + _
VC (s) = E # sC = E# sC = E# 1 VR(s) VC(s)
s R+ 1 s sRC + 1 s RC s + 1 +
sC sC ` RC j
E
s
E I(s)
E
` VC (s) = RC
s `s + 1 j Fig. 4.39.
RC
E
RC K K2
VC (s) = = 1+
s `s + 1 j s s+ 1
RC RC
E E E
K1 = RC #s = RC = RC = E
s `s + 1 j s+ 1 1
RC s=0 RC s=0 RC
E E E
K2 = RC # `s + 1 j = RC = RC = −E
s `s + 1 j RC s s =− 1
RC
−1
RC s =− 1
RC
RC L "1 , = 1
s
1
` VC (s) = E − E L "e- at , =
s+a
s s+ 1
RC
L - 1 "VC (s) , = L - 1 E − E ⇒ νC (t) = EL - 1 $ 1 . − EL - 1 1

*s s+ 1 4 s *s+ 1 4
RC RC
t t
νC (t) = E − Ee− RC ⇒ νC (t) = E^1 − e- RC h
t
` νC (t) = E^1 − e− x h .....(4.30)
where, τ = RC = Time constant of the RC circuit.

If n is the voltage across capacitance then the current i through the capacitance is given by, i = C dv .
dt
` i (t) = C d νC (t) Using equation (4.30)

dt
t
= C d 6E^1 − e− x h@
dt
t
` i (t) = C # E^− e− x h `− 1 j
τ
t t
= C # Ee− x = C # Ee− x
τ RC
t
` i (t) = E e− x
R
nR(t) + nC(t) = E
∴ nR(t) = E − nC(t)
t
= E − E^1 − e− x h
t
` νR (t) = Ee− x
Initial and Final Conditions
Let us examine the values of current and voltages of an RC circuit excited by a dc source,
at t = 0 + and at t = ∞.
At t = 0 +, vC a0 + k = E a1 − e0 k = E a1 − 1 k = 0
At t = 0 +, i a0 + k = E e0 = E # 1 = E
R R R
At t = 0 +, vR a0 + k = Ee0 = E # 1 = E
At t = 3, vC (3) = E a1 − e- 3 k = E a1 − 0 k = E
At t = 3, i (3) = E e- 3 = E # 0 = 0
R R
At t = 3, vR (3) = Ee- 3 = E # 0 = 0
From the above analysis we can infer that, “at t = 0+, the voltage across capacitance is
zero and so it behaves as short circuit. At t = ∞, the current through the capacitance is zero and
so it behaves as an open circuit”.
The condition of the circuit at t = 0+ is called the initial condition and the condition of the
circuit at t = ∞ is called the final condition.
R SC R OC
+ _ + _ + _ + _
vR (0 + ) = E vC (0 + ) = E vR(¥) = 0 vC(¥) = E
+ +
E E
- E - i(¥) = 0
i(0 + ) =
R

Fig. 4.40 : Initial and final condition of the RC circuit of Fig. 4.38.
t
In the transient equations of the RC circuit, the term containing e − x tends to zero as t tends
t
to infinity and so the term containing e − x is the natural response (or complementary function
or transient part).
The term E is the steady state value of vC(t) and steady state value of i(t) and vR(t) are zero.
Let us examine the values of voltages and current when t is equal to one time constant.
At t = 1τ, vC (t) = E b1 − e- x l = E a1 − e- 1 k = 0.6321E

1x
1x
At t = 1τ, i (t) = E e- x = E e- 1 = 0.3679 E
R R R
1x
At t = 1τ, vR (t) = Ee- x = Ee- 1 = 0.3679E
From the above calculations we can say that, “the voltage across the capacitance rises from
zero to 63.21% of steady value in a time of one time constant”. Also we can say that, “the current
through the capacitance falls from initial value to 36.79% of initial value in a time of one time
constant”. These two measures are used to define the time constant.
Theoretically, the circuit attains steady state only at an infinite time. But for practical purposes,
we can show that the circuit attains steady state in a time of five time constants. Let us calculate
vC(t) for various values of time in multiples of the time constant as shown below:

1x

2x

3x

4x
At t = 5τ, vC (t) = E a1 − e- x k = E a1 − e- 5 k = 0.9933E

5x
From the above calculations we can say that the voltage vC(t) approximately reaches steady
value in a time of five time constants. Hence, for all practical purposes, the transient period is
assumed to be for a duration of five time constants and after five time constants the circuit is said
to be in a steady state.
vC(t) i(t) vR(t)
E
E E
R
0.6321E
0.3679 E/R 0.3679E

0.2E 0.2 E/R 0.2E
t t t
0 1t 2t 3t 4t 5t 0 1t 2t 3t 4t 5t 0 1t 2t 3t 4t 5t
Transient state Steady state
Fig. a : vC(t) vs t. Fig. b : i(t) vs t. Fig. c : vR(t) vs t.

Fig. 4.41 : The sketch of transient current and voltages of the RC circuit of Fig. 4.38.
Time Constant
The time constant of an RC circuit is defined as the time taken by the capacitor voltage to
reach a steady state if the initial rate of rise is maintained. It can be proved that the time constant,
t = RC, for an RC circuit.
Proof:
In an RC circuit, the capacitance delays the rate of rise of voltage. The rate of rise of voltage is obtained by
differentiating vC(t) with respect to t.
t
Here, vc (t) = E^1 − e- x h
On differentiating vC(t) with respect to t, we get,
d v (t) = d E^1 − e- xt h d v (t) = E^− e- xt h − 1

dt c dt
⇒
dt c ` τj
t
` d vc (t) = E e- x
dt τ
dvc (t)
The value of at t = 0 + is the initial rate of rise of voltage.
dt
dvc (t)
` = E e0 = E # 1 = E
dt t = 0+
τ τ RC
dvc (t) ∆vc (t)

For small time intervals, = , and so using the above equation we can write,
dt ∆t
dvc (t) ∆vc (t)
= = E ⇒ ∆t = RC # ∆vC (t)
dt t = 0+ ∆t RC E
In the above equation if, ∆vC (t) = E
then, ∆t = RC # ∆vC (t) = RC # E = RC

E E
From the above analysis we can say that if the initial rate of rise of voltage is maintained then the voltage
would have reached the steady value of E in a time of ∆t = RC, which is called time constant of an RC circuit.
∴ Time constant, t = RC .....(4.31)
From the above discussions we can say that the time constant of an RC circuit may be defined
in different ways. The various definitions of time constants are summarised here.
Definitions of Time Constant of RC Circuit

 The time constant of an RC circuit is defined as the time taken by the voltage across the
capacitance to reach a steady value if the initial rate of rise is maintained.
 The time constant of an RC circuit is defined as the product of resistance and capacitance
of the circuit.
 The time constant of an RC circuit is defined as the time taken by the voltage across the
capacitance to reach 63.21% of the final steady value.
 The time constant of an RC circuit is defined as the time taken by the current through the
capacitance to fall to 36.79% of the initial value.
4.4.3 Impulse Response of RC Circuit t=0

R C
Consider the RC circuit with no initial capacitor voltage and + - + -

vR(t) vc(t)
excited by an impulse voltage of δE(t) volts as shown in Fig. 4.42.
+
Let the switch be closed at t = 0. dE(t)
i(t)
-
Fig. 4.42.
vC(t) = Voltage across capacitance, C.
Now the transient equations of the RC circuit excited by an
impulse signal shown in Fig. 4.42 are,
vC (t) = E e- t/x .....(4.32)
τ
i (t) = − E e- t/x .....(4.33)
Rτ
vR (t) = δE (t) − E e- t/x .....(4.34)
τ
Proof:
Let, L #i (t) - = I (s) ; L # vR (t) - = VR (s) ; L # vC (t) - = VC (s) ; L #δE (t) - = E

The s-domain equivalent of the RC circuit is shown in Fig. 4.43. 1
R sC
With reference to Fig. 4.43, by voltage division rule, we can write, _ _
+ +
VR(s) VC(s)
1 1
VC (s) = E # sC = E# sC = E +
R+ 1 sRC + 1 RC as + 1 k E
I(s)
sC sC RC E
` VC (s) = E 1
RC s + 1
RC
Fig. 4.43.
Let us take the inverse Laplace transform of VC(s).
L - 1 #VC (s) - = L - 1
1 t
* RC 4 *s+ 1 4
E # 1 = E L- 1 1 = E e- RC
s+ 1 RC RC
RC RC
t
` vC (t) = E e- x .....(4.35)
τ
where, τ = RC = Time constant of the RC circuit
If v is the voltage across capacitance then the current i through the capacitance is given by, i = C dv
dt
` i (t) = C dv vc (t)
dt
= C dv d E e- x n
t
dt τ
= C E _ e- x ia− 1 k = − C # E e- x
t t
τ τ RC # τ
t
` i (t) = − E e- x
Rτ
vR(t) + vc(t) = δE(t)
∴ vR(t) = δE(t) − vc(t)

∴ vR(t) = δE(t) − E e- x
t
Unit Impulse Response of RC Circuit
The analysis of an RC circuit excited by a unit impulse signal is the same as that of an
impulse response of an RC circuit except the value of E, where E = 1 in unit impulse response.
By substituting E = 1 in equations (4.32), (4.33) and (4.34) we get the transient equations
of an RC circuit excited by a unit impulse signal as,
vc (t) = 1 e- x
t
τ
i (t) = − 1 e- x
t
Rτ
t
vR (t) = δE (t) − 1 e- x
τ
4.4.4 Response of RC Circuit Excited by Exponential Signal

Consider the RC circuit with no initial capacitor voltage and excited by an exponential
voltage of Ee−at volts as shown in Fig. 4.44. Let the switch be closed at t = 0.
Let, i(t) = Current through the RC circuit t=0
R C
vR(t) = Voltage across resistance, R +

vR(t)
E +
vc(t)
E
vC(t) = Voltage across capacitance, C. Eat

+
Ee
i(t)
Now the transient equations of the RC circuit excited by an E
exponential voltage shown in Fig. 4.44 are,

i (t) = E ê- xt − aτe- ath
R (1 − aτ) Fig. 4.44.
vR (t) = E ê- xt − aτe- ath

1 − aτ
vC (t) = E ê- at − e- xt h
1 − aτ
Proof:
Let, L #i (t) - = I (s) ; L # vR (t) - = VR (s) ; L # vc (t) - = Vc (s) ; L #Ee- at - = E

s+a
1
With reference to Fig. 4.45, by Voltage division rule, we can write, R sC
+ _ + _
1 1 VR(s) VC(s)
` Vc (s) = E # sC = E # sC
s+a R+ 1 s+a sRC + 1 E
+
sC sC I(s)
sC a E
= E # 1
s+a RC as + 1 k
RC
` Vc (s) = E 1
RC (s + a) s + 1
Fig. 4.45.
a RC k
E 1 K1 K2
vc (s) = = +
RC (s + a) s + 1 s+a s+ 1
a RC k RC
K1 = E 1 # (s + a) = E 1 = E 1 = E
RC (s + a) s + 1 RC − a + 1 RC − aRC + 1 1 − aτ
a RC k RC RC
s =-a
K2 = E 1 # as + 1 k = E 1 = E 1
RC (s + a) s + 1 RC RC − 1 + a RC − 1 + aRC
a RC k RC RC
s =- R
RC
=− E = − K1
1 − aτ
` Vc (s) = K1 # 1 − K1 # 1
s+a s+ 1
RC
Let us take the inverse Laplace transform of the above equation,
L - 1 #Vc (s) - = L - 1 K1 # 1 − K1 #
* 4
1
s+a s+ 1
RC
` vc (t) = K1 L - 1 % 1 / − L - 1
> *s+ 1 4H
1
s+a
RC
t
= K1 7 e- at − e- RC A
` vc (t) = E 7 e- at − e- xt A
1 − aτ
where, τ = RC = Time constant of the RC circuit
If v is the voltage across capacitance then the current i through the capacitance is given by, i = C dv
dt
` i (t ) = C dv v (t ) = C <
d E 7 - at -tA
e −e x F
dt c dt 1 − aτ
CE <(e- at) # (− a) − _e- xt i − 1 F

=
1 − aτ a τk
= CE > H= CE > e − aτe- at H

-t -t
− aτe- at + e x x
1 − aτ τ 1 − aτ RC
E t
= 7 e- x − aτe- at A
R (1 − aτ)
vR(t) + vC(t) = Ee−at ⇒ vR(t) = Ee−at − vC(t)
∴ vR(t) = Ee- at − E 7 e- at − e- xt A = E 9(1 − aτ) e- at − e- at + e- xt C

1 − aτ 1 − aτ
= E 7− aτe- at + e- xt A = E 7 e- xt − aτe- at A
1 − aτ 1 − aτ
4.4.5 RC Transient with Initial Voltage V0

t=0 V0
Case i : When polarity of V0 is opposite to that of vC (t) R E +
+ _ + _
− vR(t) vC(t)
Consider the RC circuit with initial voltage, vC(0 ) = −V0 across
+
the capacitor as shown in Fig. 4.46. Let the switch be closed at t = 0.
E i(t)
E
vR(t) = Voltage across resistance, R Fig. 4.46.
vC(t) = Voltage across capacitance, C

Now, the response nC(t) of the RC circuit shown in Fig. 4.46 is,
t t
νC (t) = E^1 − e- x h − V0 e- x .....(4.36)
where, t = RC = Time constant.
Proof:
Let, L "i (t) , = I (s) ; L "νR (t) , = VR (s) ; L "νC (t) , = VC (s) ; L "E , = E
s
With reference to Fig. 4.47, the expression for current I(s) can be written as,
E + V0
I (s) = s s ⇒ I (s) = c E + V0 m # 1 V
= cE + 0 m# sC
R+ 1 s s sRC + 1 s s sRC + 1
sC sC
V V
` I ( s) = c E + 0 m sC = cE + 0 m# s
` RC j R `s + 1 j
s s RC s + 1 s s
RC
V
= E 1 + 0 1
R s+ 1 R s+ 1 .....(4.37)
` RC j ` RC j 1 V0
R sC s
E+
By Ohm’s law, we can write, VR(s) = R I(s) .....(4.38) + E + E
VR(s) VC(s)
+
E
sE
I(s)
VR (s) + VC (s) = E
s
Fig. 4.47.
` VC (s) = E − VR (s)
s
V
> R `s + 1 j R `s + 1 j H
= E − RI (s) = E − R E 1 + 0 1
s s
RC RC
= E −E 1 − V0 1 Using equations (4.37) and (4.38)

s 1 1
` RC j
s + ` RC j
s +
` L - 1 "VC (s) , = L - 1 E − E 1 1
*s `s + RC j 4
− V0
`s + RC j
1 1
` νC (t) = E L - 1 $ 1 . − E L - 1 1 1
*s+ 1 4 0 *s+ 1 4
− V L- 1
s
RC RC
t t
= E − Ee- RC − V0 e- RC L "1 , = 1
s
t t
L "e- at , = 1
= E^1 − e- x h − V0 e- x s+a
where, τ = RC = Time constant.

Let us examine the values of nC(t) at t = 0+ and t = ∞
At t = 0 +, vC(0+) = E (1 − e 0) − V0 e0 = E (1 − 1) − V0 × 1 = − V0
At t = ∞, vC(∞) = E (1 − e−∞) − V0 e−∞ = E (1 − 0) − V0 × 0 = E
From the above analysis, we can say that the voltage vC(t) has a component due to V0, which
Also, on comparing the above results with the RC transient without initial voltage, we can
conclude that the steady state value is not affected by the initial voltage in the capacitance.
R V0 R
-+ _
OC vC(t)
+ + _
vC(¥) = E E
vC (0 + ) = - V0
+ +
E E + V0 E
i(0 + ) = i(¥) = 0
- R -
t
EV0
Fig. 4.48 : Initial and final condition of the RC circuit of Fig. 4.46. Fig. 4.49 : vC(t) vs t.
Case ii : When the polarity of V0 is same as that of vC (t)

t=0 V0 _
R +
Consider the RC circuit with initial voltage, vC(0−) = + V 0 as _
+
shown in Fig. 4.50. vC(t)
+
The response of this circuit can be obtained from case (i) E i(t)
by replacing V0 by − V0. E
On replacing V 0 of equation (4.36) by − V 0, we get, Fig. 4.50.
vC (t) = E a1 − e- x k + V0 e- x
t t
.....(4.39)
Let us examine the values of nC(t) at t = 0+ and t = ∞.
At t = 0 +, vC(0 +) = E (1 − e 0 ) + V0 e 0 = E (1 − 1) + V 0 × 1 = V0
At t = ∞, vC(∞) = E (1 − e −∞ ) + V 0 e−∞ = E (1 − 0) + V 0 × 0 = E
From the above analysis we can say that the voltage vC(t) has a component due to V0, which
Also, on comparing the above results with the RC transient without initial voltage, we can
conclude that the steady state value is not affected by the initial voltage in the capacitance.
V0
vC(t)
R R OC
+- _ _
+ +
vC (0 + ) = V0 vC(¥) = E E
+ + V0 < E
E E
E - V0 i(¥) = 0
- i(0 + ) = -
R V0
t
Fig. 4.51 : Initial and final condition of the circuit of Fig. 4.49. vC(t)
V0
Note : When initial charge is specified, the initial voltage can be

Q E
calculated using the relation, C = . V0 > E
V
Q
∴ Initial voltage, V0 = 0 , where Q 0 is the initial charge. t
C
Fig. 4.52 : vC(t) vs t.
Table 4.3 : Initial and Final Condition of R, L and C when a Circuit is Excited by DC Supply
Element Initial condition Final condition

t = 0+ t=∞
R R R
OC SC
I0 I0
SC
I0 I0
SC
SC OC
V0 V0
_ OC
+ +E
V0 V0
_ OC
+ E+
C
4.5 Transient Response of RLC Circuit

4.5.1 Natural or Source-Free Response of RLC Circuit
Consider the RLC circuit with initial voltage across the capacitor as shown in Fig. 4.53.
Let the switch be closed at t = 0. Let i(t) be the current through the circuit. Let V0 be the initial
voltage across the capacitor before closing the switch.
The s-domain equivalent of the RLC circuit is shown in Fig. 4.54.
1
t=0 C
R L R sL sC
E+
E +
V0 V0
s
i(t) I(s)
Fig. 4.53. Fig. 4.54.

V0
I ( s) = s
R + sL + 1
sC
V0
I ( s) =
sR + s 2 L + 1
C
L f s2 + R s + 1 p
V0 1
` I ( s) =
L LC .....(4.40)
The denominator of equation (4.40) is a quadratic polynomial and the roots of the
quadratic polynomial can be real or complex. Hence, the solution of equation (4.40) will
depend on the roots of the denominator polynomial. The solution of equation (4.40) is a
source-free response and this solution will be in a form similar to that of the step response
discussed in Section 4.5.2.
4.5.2 Step Response of RLC Circuit
(Response of RLC Circuit Excited by DC Supply)
Note : A step voltage applied at t = 0 is equivalent to switching dc supply at t = 0.
t=0
Consider the RLC circuit with no initial current or R L C
voltage and excited by a step voltage of E Volts as shown in
Fig. 4.55. Let the switch be closed at t = 0. +
E
i(t)
Let, i(t) = Current through the RLC circuit. E
Fig. 4.55.
The response i(t) of the RLC circuit excited by a dc source (as shown in Fig. 4.55) will take
three different forms, as shown below:
Underdamped response: i (t) = E e- g~n t sin ω t
d
Lωd .....(4.41)
Critically damped response: i (t) = E te- ~n t .....(4.42)

L
E g2 - 1 t g 2 - 1 th
Overdamped response: i (t) = 2
e- g~n t ê~n − e- ~n .....(4.43)
2Lωn ζ − 1
where, ζ = R C = Damping ratio
.....(4.44)
2 L
ωn = 1 = Natural frequency of oscillation

LC .....(4.45)
ωd = ωn 1 − ζ 2 = Damped frequency of oscillation .....(4.46)
Response of RLC Circuit Excited by DC Supply in s-domain

R sL
Let, L %i (t) / = I (s) ; L %E / = E
s
+
E
The s-domain equivalent of the RLC circuit is shown s
- I(s)
in Fig. 4.56.
With reference to Fig. 4.57, we can write, Fig. 4.56.

E ß
I ( s) = s ⇒ I ( s) = E
R + sL + 1 sR + s 2 L + 1
sC C +
E 1
R + sL +
s I(s) sC
-
L f s2 + R s + 1 p
` I ( s) = E 1
.....(4.47)
L LC Fig. 4.57.
Equation (4.47) is the s-domain response of the RLC circuit excited by a dc supply.
Equation (4.47) can be expressed in terms of damping ratio ζ and natural frequency of oscillation
ωn as shown below:
R = 2# R = 2# R = 2# R # 1 = 2# R C # 1 = 2ζωn
L 2L 2 L L 2 L
2 L L C LC
C
1 = 1 = 1
LC ^ LC h
2
ω2n
` I ( s) = E 1 = E 2 1
L s2 + R s + 1 L s + 2ζωn s + ω2n
L LC .....(4.48)
Damping Ratio
Consider the s-domain response I(s) of the RLC circuit excited by a dc supply as shown below:
I ( s) = E 1
L s2 + R s + 1 From equation (4.47)
L LC
Let us examine the roots of the second order polynomial, s 2 + R s + 1 in the above equation.
L LC
Let, s1 and s2 be the roots of the second order polynomial, s 2 + R s + 1 = 0

L LC
2
−R ! d n
R − 4
4> 1 d R n − 1 H
L L LC 2
` s1, s 2 = = − R !1
2 2L 2 4 L LC
2
= − R ! d n
R − 1
2L 2L LC .....(4.49)
The above roots of the denominator polynomial may be complex or real depending on the
value of R, L and C. Hence, we may come across the following three cases:
2 R 2 1
Case i : When ` R j < 1 , the term ` 2L j − LC will be imaginary and roots will be complex conjugate.
2L LC
2 R 2 1
Case ii : When ` R j = 1 , the term ` 2L j − LC will be zero and so the roots will be real and equal.
2L LC
2 R 2 1
Case iii : When ` R j > 1 , the term ` 2L j − LC will be positive and so the roots will be real and unequal.
2L LC
“When the roots are complex, the current i(t) will be damped oscillatory (or damped sinusoid).
When roots are real, the oscillations are completely damped (or eliminated).”
2
When the term d R n is equal to 1 , the oscillations are just eliminated and this condition is
2L LC
called critical damping. Critical damping can be achieved by choosing a value of R that makes
2
the term d R n equal to 1 for a given value of L and C.
2L LC
Let, RC = Value of R for critical damping.
∴ At critical damping,
RC 2 1 RC 2
c m − c m = 1
RC 1 1
= 0 ⇒ ⇒ = ⇒ RC = 2L #
2L LC 2L LC 2L LC LC
` RC = 2 L .....(4.50)
C
The ratio of resistance of the circuit and resistance for critical damping (critical resistance, Rc )
is called damping ratio and denoted by ζ.
` Damping ratio, ζ = R = R = R C
RC 2 L 2 L
C
` ζ = R C
.....(4.51)
2 L
Natural Frequency of Oscillation
In an RLC circuit, if the resistance is zero then from equation (4.49), we can say that the
roots are purely imaginary and the current will be completely oscillatory.
When R = 0, s1, s 2 = ! − 1 = ! jω2n

LC
where, ωn = 1 = Natural frequency of oscillation.

LC .....(4.52)
On substituting the condition R = 0 in equation (4.47), we get, ωn = 1

LC
I ( s) = E 1 = E 21 2
L s2 + 1 L s + ωn L %sin ωt / = ω
LC s 2 + ω2
On taking the inverse Laplace transform of the above equation, we get,
L − 1 % I ( s) / = L − 1 ) E 2 1 2 3 E L- 1
' 2 1
ωn
⇒ i (t) =
L s + ωn Lωn s + ω2n
i (t) = E sin ω t
Lωn n .....(4.53)
From equation (4.52) we can say that current i(t) is completely oscillatory with a frequency
ωn in the absence of resistance and so this frequency of oscillation is called natural frequency
of oscillation.
Also, when R = 0, the damping ratio, ζ = 0 and so equation (4.53) is called undamped
response of the RLC circuit excited by a dc supply.
Condition for Three Cases of Response in Terms of Damping Ratio
Consider the s-domain response I(s) of the RLC circuit excited by a dc supply as shown below:
I ( s) = E 2 1
From equation (4.48)
L s + 2ζωn s + ω2n
Let, s1 and s2 be the roots of the second order polynomial, s 2 + 2ζωn s + ω2n = 0.
2
a2ζωn k − 4ωn
2
− 2ζωn ! 2ζωn 1
` s1, s 2 = = − ! 4ω2n aζ 2 − 1 k
2 2 2
= − ζωn ! ωn ζ 2 − 1
Depending on the value of ζ the roots may be real or complex.
Case i : If 0 < ζ < 1, then ζ < 1 and ζ 2 is also less than 1. Hence, ζ2 − 1 is imaginary and so
the roots are complex conjugate. In this case the current i(t) will be damped oscillatory.
Case ii : If ζ = 1, then ζ2 − 1 = 0 and so the roots are real and equal. In this case, the oscillation
of the current is just eliminated and so the response is called critically damped response.
Case iii : If ζ > 1, then ζ2 − 1 is real and so the roots are real and unequal. In this case, the response
is called overdamped response.
The equations for time domain response of the RLC circuit for the above three cases are
presented here.
Note : Here the current i(t) is referrd as time domain response.
Case i : Underdamped response (0 < ζ < 1)
The time domain response i(t) of the RLC circuit excited by a dc supply, as shown in
Fig. 4.55, when damping ratio ζ lies between 0 to 1 is given by equation (4.54).
i ( t) = E e- g~n t sin ω t
d
Lωd .....(4.54)
where, ωd = ωn 1 − ζ 2 = Damped frequency of oscillation. .....(4.55)
Equation (4.54) has a sinusoidal component of frequency ωd. The sinusoidal oscillations
are damped by the exponential term e- g~n t . Hence, “the current i(t) will have damped oscillations,
whose amplitude decays to zero as t tends to infinity”. Therefore, equation (4.54) is called damped
oscillatory response or underdamped response.
E - zw n t
i1 (t) = e i2 (t) = sin w d t i (t) = i1 (t) ´ i2 (t)
Lw d
´ t Þ t
Fig. a : Decaying exponential Fig. b : Sinusoidal Fig. c : Underdamped

component. component. response of the RLC circuit.
Fig. 4.58 : Underdamped response of the RLC circuit of Fig. 4.55.
Proof:
The s-domain response, I(s) of the RLC circuit excited by a dc supply is,
I (s) = E 2 1
L s + 2ζωn s + ωn2
Add and subtract
= E 2 1 the term ζ 2 ωn2
L s + 2ζωn s + ζ 2 ω2 − ζ 2 ω2 + ω2
n n n
` I ( s) = E 2 1
L `s + 2ζωn s + ζ 2 ω2 j + ω2 ^1 − ζ 2h
n n
ωd ωn 1 − ζ 2 = ωd
= E 1 = E
L ^s + ζωnh2 + ω2 Lωd ^s + ζωnh2 + ω2
d d 2 2
â + bh2 = a + b + 2ab
Let us take inverse Laplace transform of the above equation.
L − 1 " I (s) , = L − 1 ) E
ωd
Lωd ^s + ζωnh2 + ω2 3
d
E L− 1 ωd
` i ( t) = ' 21 L "e- at sin ωt , = ω
Lωd ^ s + ζωnh + ω
2
2
d ^s + ah2 + ω
= E e- g~n t sin ω t
d
Lωd
Case ii : Critically damped response ( ζ = 1)
Fig. 4.55, when damping ratio ζ is equal to 1 is given by equation (4.56).
i (t) = E t e- ~n t .....(4.56)
L
Equation (4.56) has a ramp component and decaying exponential component.“Initially

the current rises due to ramp component and then it gradually decays to zero due to exponential
component”. The sketch of i(t) for critically damped case is shown in Fig. 4.59.
E -w n t
i1 (t) = t i2 (t) = e i (t) = i1 (t) ´ i2 (t)
L
´ Þ
t t t
Fig. a : Ramp Fig. b : Decaying exponential Fig. c : Critically damped
component. component. response.
Fig. 4.59 : Critically damped response of the RLC circuit of Fig. 4.55.
Proof:
The s-domain response, I(s) of the RLC circuit excited by a dc supply is,
I (s) = E 2 1
L ^s + 2ζωn s + ω2h
n For critical damped case ζ = 1
= E 2 1 2 2
â + bh2 = a + b + 2ab
L ^s + 2ωn s + ω2 h
n
= E 1
L ^s + ωnh2
Let us take inverse Laplace transform of I(s).
L - 1 " I (s) , = L - 1 ' E 1

L ^s + ωnh2 1
L "te- at , = 1
` i ( t) = E L - 1 ' 1 E - ~n t ( s + a) 2
1 = L te
L ^s + ωnh2
Case iii : Overdamped response ( ζ > 1)

Fig. 4.55, when damping ratio ζ is greater than 1 is given by equation (4.57).
i (t) = E e- g~n t ê~n g2 - 1 t

− e- ~n g 2 - 1 th .....(4.57)
2
2Lωn ζ − 1 i(t)
Equation (4.57) is called overdamped response of the

RLC circuit excited by a dc supply. The decaying exponential
component e- g~n t in equation (4.57) will make the current i(t) to
zero as t tends to infinity. “Since the circuit is overdamped, the t
current decays at a faster rate than the underdamped or critically Fig. 4.60 : Overdamped response
damped RLC circuit”. of the RLC circuit.
Proof:
The s-domain response I(s) of the RLC circuit excited by a dc supply is,
I (s) = E 2 1 From equation (4.48)

L s + 2ζωn s + ω2
n
Let, s1 and s2 be the roots of the second order polynomial, s 2 + 2ζωn s + ωn2 = 0.
2
− 2ζωn ! ^2ζωnh2 − 4ωn − 2ζωn
` s1, s2 = = ! 1 4ωn2 ^ζ 2 − 1h = − ζωn ! ωn ζ 2 − 1
2 2 2
Let, s1 = − ζωn + ωn ζ 2 − 1 .....(4.58)
2
s2 = − ζωn − ωn ζ − 1 .....(4.59)
Using the above roots of the denominator polynomial, the s-domain response I(s) can be written as,
I (s) = E 2 1 = E 1
L s + 2ζωn s + ω2 L (s − s1) (s − s2)
n
K1 K2
I ( s) = E 1 = +
L (s − s1) (s − s2) s − s1 s − s2 .....(4.60)
K1 = E 1 # (s − s1) = E 1 = E 1
L (s − s1) (s − s2) s = s1 L (s − s2) s = s1 L s1 − s2
= E 1 = E Using equations
L − ζωn + ωn ζ 2 − 1 − `− ζωn − ωn ζ 2 − 1 j 2Lωn ζ 2 − 1 (4.58) and (4.59)
K2 = E 1 # (s − s2) = E 1 = E 1
L (s − s1) (s − s2) s = s2 L (s − s1) s = s2 L s2 − s1
Using equations
= E 1 = − E
(4.58) and (4.59)
L − ζωn − ωn ζ 2 − 1 − `− ζωn + ωn ζ 2 − 1 j 2Lωn ζ 2 − 1
The time domain response, i(t) is obtained by taking inverse Laplace transform of equation (4.60) as shown below:
i (t ) = L - 1 " I (s) ,
K1 K2
= L- 1 '
s − s1 s − s2 1
+ = K1 L - 1 ' 1 1 + K2 L - 1 ' 1 1
s − s1 s − s2
L "e at , = 1
= K1 e s1 t + K2 e s2 t (s − a )
On substituting the expressions for s 1, s2, K1 and K2 in the above equation, we get
g2 - 1 j t g2 - 1 j t
i ( t) = E e`- g~n + ~n − E e`- g~n - ~n
2 2
2Lωn ζ − 1 2Lωn ζ − 1
= E è- g~n t # e~n g2 - 1 t

− e- g~n t # e- ~n g2 - 1 tj
2
2Lωn ζ − 1
= E e- g~n t è ~n g2 - 1 t
− e- ~n g2 - 1 tj
2Lωn ζ 2 − 1
4.5.3 s-Domain Current and Voltage Equation of RLC Circuit

Consider the RLC circuit excited by a dc supply and its s-domain equivalent as shown
in Fig. 4.61.
Let, i(t) = Current through the RLC circuit in time domain
vR(t) = Voltage across resistance in time domain
vL(t) = Voltage across inductance in time domain
vC(t) = Voltage across capacitance in time domain
In RLC series circuit we are interested in the initial and final values of i(t), vR(t), vL(t) and
vC(t). The initial and final conditions can be evaluated using the initial and final value theorem of
Laplace transform. In order to evaluate the initial and final conditions using Laplace transform
technique, we require the current and voltage as s-domain functions.
Let, I(s) = Current through the RLC circuit in s-domain
VR(t) = Voltage across resistance in s-domain
VL(t) = Voltage across inductance in s-domain
VC(t) = Voltage across capacitance in s-domain
1
t=0
R L C R sL sC
+ E + E + E + _ + _ + _
vR(t) vL(t) vC(t) VR(s) VL(s) VC(s)
+ +
E
E i(t) s I(s)
E E
Fig. a : Time domain RLC circuit Fig. b : s-domain RLC circuit

Fig. 4.61 : RLC circuit excited by a dc supply.
The s-domain response I(s) of this circuit is given by equation (4.48).
` I ( s) = E
L^s 2 + 2ζωn s + ω2nh .....(4.61)
With reference to Fig. 4.61, by using Ohm’s law and equation (4.61), we can get the following
equations for voltage across R, L and C.
VR (s) = R # I (s) = R # E = ER
L^s 2 + 2ζωn s + ω2nh L^s 2 + 2ζωn s + ω2nh
VL (s) = sL # I (s) = sL # E = 2 sE
2
a 2 2
L s + 2ζωn s + ωn k s + 2 ζω n s + ωn
VC (s) = 1 # I (s) = 1 # E = E
sC sC L bs 2 + 2ζω s + ω2 l sLC bs 2
+ 2ζωn s + ω2n l
n n
In Summary,
VR (s) = ER .....(4.62)
L^s 2 + 2ζωn s + ω2nh
VL (s) = sE .....(4.63)
s 2 + 2ζωn s + ω2n
VC (s) = E .....(4.64)
sLC^s 2 + 2ζωn s + ω2nh
4.5.4 Initial Conditions in RLC Circuit

The initial value theorem of Laplace transform states that if F(s) is the Laplace transform of
f (t) then the initial value of f(t) is given by,
t"0 s"3
` Initial value, f (0) = Lt sF (s)

s"3
The initial value of current and voltage of the RLC circuit shown in Fig. 4.61 can be solved
using the initial value theorem of Laplace transform as shown ahead.
Initial Currrent in RLC Circuit

Let, i^0+h = i (t) t = 0+
= Initial value of current i (t).
Now, by initial value theorem of Laplace transform,

i^0 +h = Lt sI (s)
s"3
i (0+) = Lt s # E Using equation (4.61)

s"3 L^s 2 + 2ζωn s + ω2nh
= Lt s # E = Lt E # 1 # 1
Ls 2 e1 + + 2n o
2
s"3 2 ζω n ω s"3 L s 2ζω n ω2
1+ + 2n
s s s s
= E# 1 # 1 = E #0# 1 = 0
L 3 2ζωn ω2n L 1+0+0
1+ +
3 3
Initial Voltage Across Resistor
Let, vR ^0+h = vR (t) t = 0+

= Initial value of resistor voltage vR (t).

vR ^0+h = Lt sVR (s)
s"3
ER Using equation (4.62)

= Lt s #
s"3 L^s + 2ζωn s + ω2nh
2
= Lt s # ER = Lt ER # 1 # 1
2ζωn ω2n s"3 L s 2ζωn ω2n
Ls c1 + + 2m
s"3 2
1+ + 2
s s s s
= ER # 1 # 1 = ER # 0 # 1 = 0
L 3 2ζωn ω2n L 1+0+0
1+ +
3 3
Initial Voltage Across Inductor
Let, vL ^0+h = vL (t) t = 0+

= Initial value of inductor voltage vL (t).

vL ^0+h = Lt sVL (s)
s"3
sE Using equation (4.63)

= Lt s #
s"3 s 2 + 2ζωn s + ω2n
= Lt s2 E = E = E = E
s e1 + + 2o
s"3
2 2ζωn ω2n 2ζωn ω2n 1+0+0
1+ +
s s 3 3
Initial Voltage Across Capacitor
Let, vC ^0+h = vC (t) t = 0+

= Initial value of capacitor voltage vC (t).
vC ^0+h = Lt sVC (s)
s"3
= Lt s # E
s"3 sLC^s 2 + 2ζωn s + ω2nh Using equation (4.64)
= Lt E = Lt E # 12 # 1
LCs 2 e1 + + 2n o
2
s"3 2 ζω n ω s " 3 LC s 2 ζω n ω2
1+ + 2n
s s s s
= E 1
# # 1 = E #0# 1 = 0
LC 3 2ζωn ω2n LC 1+0+0
1+ +
3 3
R OC SC
Initial Condition Circuit _ _ _
+ + +
vR (0 C ) a 0 vL (0 C ) a E vC (0 C ) a 0
From the above analysis we can make the
+
following conclusions: E
i(0 C ) a 0
• At t = 0+, the current through the inductance E
is zero and so it behaves as an open circuit.

• At t = 0+, the voltage across the capacitance Fig. 4.62 : Initial condition circuit of the
is zero and so it behaves as a short circuit. RLC circuit shown in Fig. 4.61.
4.5.5 Final Conditions in RLC Circuit

The final value theorem of Laplace transform states that if F(s) is Laplace transform of f (t)
then the final value of f(t) is given by,
t"3 s"0
` Final value, f (3) = Lt sF (s)

s"0
The final value of current and voltage of the RLC circuit shown in Fig. 4.61 can be solved
using the final value theorem of Laplace transform as shown below:
Final Current in RLC Circuit
Let, i^3h = i(t) t=3

= Final value of current i (t).
Now, by final value theorem of Laplace transform,
i^3h = Lt sI (s)
s"0
= Lt s # E
s"0 L^s 2 + 2ζωn s + ω2nh
= 0# E = 0
L^0 + 0 + ω2nh
Final Voltage Across Resistor

Let, vR (3) = vR (t) t=3
= Final value of resistor voltage vR (t).

vR (3) = Lt sVR (s)
s"0
= Lt s # ER
s"0 L^s 2 + 2ζωn s + ω2nh Using equation (4.62)
= 0# ER = 0
L^0 + 0 + ω2nh
Final Voltage Across Inductor
Let, vL (3) = vL (t) t=3
= Final value of inductor voltage vL (t).

vL ^3h = Lt sVL (s)
s"0
= Lt s # sE
s"0 s 2 + 2ζ ωn s + ω2n
= Lt s2 E = 0 = 0
s"0 s + 2ζ ωn s + ω2n
2
0 + 0 + ω2n
Final Voltage Across Capacitor
Let, vC (3) = vC (t) t=3
= Final value of capacitor voltage vC (t).

vC ^3h = Lt sVC (s)
s"0
E Using equation (4.64)

= Lt s #
s"0 sLC^s 2 + 2ζ ωn s + ω2nh
= Lt E = E = E = E
s"0 LC^s 2 + 2ζ ωn s + ω2nh LC^0 + 0 + ω2nh LC^ω2nh
ω2n = 1
Final Condition Circuit LC
From the above analysis we can make the following conclusions:
R SC OC
+ _ + _ + _
 At t = ∞, the voltage across the inductance vR(¥) = 0 vL(¥) = 0 vC(¥) = E
is zero and so it behaves as a short circuit. +

E i(¥)= 0
-
 At t = ∞, the current through the capacitance
is zero and so it behaves as an open circuit.
Fig. 4.63 : Final condition circuit of the
RLC circuit shown in Fig. 4.61.
4.6 Complete Response of Circuits Excited by Sinusoidal Source

4.6.1 RL Circuit Excited by Sinusoidal Source t=0
R L
Consider the RL circuit with no initial current and excited by
a sinusoidal source e(t) = Emsin ωt, as shown in Fig. 4.64. Let the
+
switch be closed at t = 0. e(t)
~
E
i(t)
Let, i(t) = Current through the RL circuit

Now, the response, i(t) of the RL circuit excited by sinusoidal
source as shown in Fig. 4.64 is, Fig. 4.64.
ωLE m - RL t E
i (t) = e + m sin (ωt − φ)
Z2 Z
1 444 2 444 3
1 44 2 44 3 Steady state part
Transient part .....(4.65)
where, Z = R 2 + ^ωLh2 ; φ = tan- 1 ωL

R
Proof:
Let, L #i (t) - = I (s) ; L # e ( t ) - = E ( s)
ωEm R sL
` E (s) = L #e (t) - = L #Em sin ωt - =
s 2 + ω2
The s-domain equivalent of the RL circuit is shown in Fig. 4.65. With
+
reference to Fig. 4.65, we can write,
E(s)
E (s) 1 ωE 1
~ I(s)
= 2 m2 #
E
I (s) = = E (s) #
R + sL L as + R k s +ω L as + R k
L L
ωE m
` I (s) = L Fig. 4.65.
R _s 2 + ω2 i
a Lk
s +
ωEm
L K1 K s + K3
I (s) = = + 22 .....(4.66)
R _
as + L k s + ω
2 2
i s+ R s + ω2
L
ωEm ωEm ωEm
L # s+ Rk L L
R _s 2 + ω2i a
K1 = = 2
= 2
a
L R ω2 L2
Lk
s + a− L k + ω
2 R +
s =- R L2
L
ωLEm ωLEm
= 2
=
R 2 + _ωL i Z2 In frequency domain, magnitude
On cross-multiplying equation (4.66), we get, of the impedance of an RL circuit
is given by,
ωEm
= K1 _s 2 + ω2 i + _K2 s + K3 i as + R k Z = R 2 + _ωL i
2
L L
2 2 2
ωEm ∴ Z = R + (ωL)
= K1 s 2 + K1 ω2 + K2 s 2 + K2 R s + K3 s + K3 R
L L L
ωEm
= _K1 + K2 i s 2 + aK2 R + K3 k s + K1 ω2 + K3 R .....(4.67)
L L L
On equating coefficients of s2 term of equation (4.67), we get,
K 1 + K2 = 0
ωLEm
` K2 = − K1 = −
Z2
On equating coefficients of s term of equation (4.67), we get,
K2 R + K3 = 0
L
ωLEm R ωREm
` K3 = − K2 R = − d− n =
L Z2 L Z2
By using the expressions for K1, K2 and K3 , equation (4.66) of I(s) can be expressed as,
ωLEm ωLEm ωREm
2 − 2
s+
I (s) = Z + Z Z 2 = ωLEm # 1 − ωLEm # s +
REm
# 2ω 2
2 2
s+ R s +ω Z2 s+ R Z2 s 2 + ω2 Z2 s +ω
L L
L - 1 # I (s) - = # L- % 2 s 2 / + # L- % 2 ω 2 /
ωLEm ωLEm REm
* s + R 4 Z2
# L-
1 1 − 1 1
Z2 s +ω Z2 s +ω
L
L #e- at - = 1 L #cos ωt - = s
ωLEm - R t ωLEm REm
s+a s 2 + ω2
` i ( t) = e L − cos ωt + sin ωt
Z2 Z2 Z2 L # sin ωt - = ω
s 2 + ω2
ωLEm - R t Em
= e L + 2 7 sin ωt # R − cos ωt # ωL A
Z2 Z .....(4.68)
Let us construct a right-angled triangle with R and ωL as two sides as shown in Fig. 4.66. With reference to
Fig. 4.66, we can write,
tan φ = ωL ⇒ φ = tan- 1 ωL .....(4.69)

R R
Z = R2 + (wL)2
Also, cos φ = R ⇒ R = Z cos φ .....(4.70) wL

Z
sin φ = ωL
f
⇒ ωL = Z sin φ .....(4.71)
Z R
Using equations (4.69) to (4.71), equation (4.68) can be written as, Fig. 4.66.
ωLEm - R t Em
i ( t) = e L + 2 7 sin ωt Z cos φ − cos ωt Z sin φ A
Z2 Z
ωLEm - R t Em
= e L + 2 # Z 7 sin ωt cos φ − cos ωt sin φ A
Z2 Z
ωLEm - R t E
= e L + m sin _ωt − φ i
Z2 1
Z
4 44 2 444 3
sin(A – B) = sinA cosB – cosA sinB
1 44 2 44 3 Steady state part
Transient part
where, Z = R 2 + ^ωLh2 ; φ = tan- 1 ωL

R
4.6.2 RC Circuit Excited by Sinusoidal Source t=0

R C
Consider the RC circuit with no initial voltage and excited
by a sinusoidal source e(t) = Emsin ωt, as shown in Fig. 4.67. Let the
+
switch be closed at t = 0. e(t)
~ i(t)
Let, i(t) = Current through the RC circuit E
Now, the response i(t) of the RC circuit excited by a sinusoidal

source as shown in Fig. 4.67 is,
Fig. 4.67.
E t E
i (t) = − m 2 e- RC + m sin (ωt + φ)
ωCZ Z
1 4 44 2 444 3 1 444 2 4 44 3 .....(4.72)
Steady state part
Transient part
2 1 ωC
where, Z = R2 + a 1 k ; φ = tan- 1
ωC R
Proof:
Let, L # i (t ) - = I (s) ; L # e (t ) - = E (s)
ωEm
` E (s) = L #e (t) - = L #Em sin ωt - = 1
s 2 + ω2 R sC
The s-domain equivalent of the RC circuit is shown in Fig. 4.68. With reference
to Fig. 4.68, we can write,
s +
E (s)
I (s) = = E (s) # 1 = 2ωEm 2 # R E(s)
~ I(s)
R+ 1 R s+ 1 s+ 1
sa RC k
s +ω E
sC RC
ωEm s
` I ( s) = R
1 Fig. 4.68
as + RC k _s + ω i
2 2
ωEm s
R K1 K s + K3
I (s) = = + 22 .....(4.73)
1
as + RC k _s + ω i
2 2
s+ 1 s + ω2
RC
ωEm s ωEm # − 1
a RC k − ωE2
m
R
K1 = R # as + 1 k = = R C
as + RC k _s + ω i −1 2 ω2
1 RC
< F
2 2 1 + R2
a RC k + ω
2
s = - 1 R 2 ω2 C 2
RC
− Em
= ωC
2
= − Em 2 In frequency domain, magnitude of the
R2 + a 1 k ωCZ
impedance of an RC circuit is given by,
ωC
2
On cross-multiplying equation (4.73), we get, Z = R2 + a 1 k
ωC
ωEm s = K _s 2 + ω2 i + K s + K s + 1
_ 2 3i a
RC k
2
R 1 ` Z2 = R2 + a 1 k
ωC
ωEm s = K s 2 + K ω2 + K s 2 + K2 s + K s + K3
1 1 2 3
R RC RC
d 3
RC n
ωEm s = (K + K ) s 2 + K + K2 s + K ω2 + K3
1 2 1 .....(4.74)
R RC
On equating coefficients of s 2 term of equation (4.74), we get,
K 1 + K2 = 0
` K2 = − K1 = Em
ωCZ 2
On equating coefficients of s term of equation (4.74), we get,
K3 + K2 = ωEm ⇒ K3 = ωEm − K2
RC R R RC
ωEm (ωC Z 2) − Em Em (ω2 C 2 Z 2 − 1)
2
` K3 = ωEm − Em 2 # 1 = =
R ωCZ RC ωRC 2 Z 2 ωRC 2 Z 2
Em <ω2 C 2 d R 2 + 1
n − 1F
ω2 C 2 E 7ω2 C 2 R 2 + 1 − 1 A
= 2 2
= m
ωRC Z ωRC 2 Z 2
Z2 = R2 + 1
Em ω2 C 2 R 2 ωREm
= = ω2 C 2
ωRC 2 Z 2 Z2
By using the expressions for K1, K2 and K3 , equation (4.73) of I(s) can be expressed as,
Em Em ωREm
− s+
I (s) = ωCZ 2 + ωCZ 2 Z 2 = − Em # 1 +
Em
# 2 s 2+
REm
# 2ω 2
s+ 1 s 2 + ω2 ωCZ 2 s+ 1 ωCZ 2 s +ω Z2 s +ω
RC RC
L - 1 # I (s) - = # L- % 2 s 2 / + # L- % 2 ω 2 /
− Em Em REm
* s + 1 4 ωCZ 2
# L-
1 1 + 1 1
ωCZ 2 s +ω Z2 s +ω
RC
L #e- at - = 1 L #cos ωt - = s
− Em - t Em REm s+a s 2 + ω2
` i ( t) = e RC + cos ωt + sin ωt
ωCZ 2 ωCZ 2 Z2 ω
L # sin ωt - =
s 2 + ω2
− Em - t E
= e RC + m2 9 sin ωt # R + cos ωt # 1 C .....(4.75)
ωCZ 2 Z ωC
Let us construct a right-angled triangle with R and 1 as two sides as shown in Fig. 4.69. With reference to
ωC
Fig. 4.69, we can write,
1 1
tan φ = ωC ⇒ φ = tan- 1 ωC .....(4.76)
R R
Also, cos φ = R ⇒ R = Z cos φ .....(4.77) F 1 IJ 2
Z = R2 + G
Z H wC K
1 1
sin φ = ωC ⇒ 1 = Z sin φ .....(4.78) wC
Z ωC
f
Using equations (4.76) to (4.78), equation (4.75) can be written as,
R
− Em - t E
i ( t) = e RC + m2 # 7 sin ωt # Z cos φ + cos ωt # Z sin φ A Fig. 4.69.
ωCZ 2 Z
− Em - t E
= e RC + m2 # Z 7 sin ωt cos φ + cos ωt sin φ A
ωCZ 2 Z
− Em - t E
= e RC + m sin _ωt + φ i
ωCZ 2 Z
1 4 44 2 4 44 3
1 4 4 2 44
43 Steady state part
Transient part sin(A + B) = sinA cosB + cosA sinB
2 1 ωC
where, Z = R2 + a 1 k ; φ = tan- 1
ωC R
4.6.3 RLC Circuit Excited by Sinusoidal Source

t=0
R L C
Consider the RLC circuit with no initial current and
voltage and excited by a sinusoidal source e(t) = Emsinωt, as
shown in Fig. 4.70. Let the switch be closed at t = 0. +
e(t)
Let, i(t) = Current through the RLC circuit ~
E
i(t)
L "i (t) , = I (s) ; L "e (t) , = E (s)

ωE m
` E (s) = L "e (t) , = L "E m sin ωt , = Fig. 4.70.
s + ω2
2
The s-domain equivalent of the RLC circuit is shown in Fig. 4.71. With reference to Fig. 4.71,
we can write, 1
R sL sC
E (s) 1
I (s ) = = E (s) #
R + sL + 1 R + sL + 1
sC sC +
ωE 1 E(s)
~
I ( s) = 2 m 2 # I(s)
s +ω L s2 + R s + 1 E
s ` L LC j
ωE m
s Fig. 4.71.
= L
^s + ω h `s + R s + 1 j
2 2 2
.....(4.79)
L LC
The roots of the quadratic factor in the denominator of equation (4.79) may be real or
complex. Hence, we may come across the following three cases of response.
Case i : The roots of quadratic are real and equal
Let, cs 2 + R s + 1 m = ^s + ah2, where s = − a, is the real root of the quadratic factor.

L LC
Now by partial expansion technique, equation (4.79) can be expressed as shown below :
ωE m ωE m
s s
I ( s) = L = 2 L
^s 2 + ω2h `s 2 + R s + 1 j ^s + ω h ^s + ah2
2
L LC
K1 K2 K s + K4
= + + 32 .....(4.80)
s + a ^s + ah2 s + ω2
On taking inverse Laplace transform of equation (4.80), we get the time domain response
shown in equation (4.81).
i (t) = K1 e − at + K 2 te − at + I m1 sin ^ωt ! φ1h
1 4 44 2 444 3 1 444 2 4 44 3
Transient part Steady state part .....(4.81)
where, I m1 = Maximum value of steady state current.

Note : The evaluation of a, K1 , K2 , K3 , K4 , I m1 and φ1 are left as an exercise for the readers.
Case ii : The roots of quadratic are real and unequal
Let, cs 2 + R s + 1 m = ^s + bh ^s + ch, where s = − b and s = − c are the real roots of the
L LC
quadratic factor.
Now, by partial fraction expansion technique, equation (4.78) can be expressed as shown below:
ωE m ωE m
s s
I ( s) = L = 2 L
^s + ω h `s + R s + 1 j
2 2 2 ^s + ω h ^s + bh ^s + ch
2
L LC
K5 K K s + K8
= + 6 + 72 .....(4.82)
s+b s+c s + ω2
i (t) = K5 e − bt + K6 e − ct + I m2 sin ^ωt ! φ 2h
1 444 2 4 44 3
Transient part
1 444 2 444 3
Steady state part
.....(4.83)

Note : The evaluation of b, c, K5 , K6 , K7 , K8 , I m2 and φ2 are left as an exercise for the readers.
Case iii : The roots of quadratic are complex conjugate
When the roots are complex conjugate, the quadratic factor can be rearranged as shown in
equation (4.84), and then by partial fraction expansion technique, equation (4.79) can be expressed
as shown in equation (4.85).
2 2 R 2
Let, `s 2 + R s + 1 j = ;s 2 + R s + ` R j E + ; 1 − ` R j E Add and subtract the term ` 2L j
L LC L 2L LC 2L
= ^s + dh2 + ωd2 .....(4.84)
where, d = R 1 − R 2
LC ` 2L j
and ωd =
2L
ωE m ωE m
s s
Now, I (s) = L = 2 L
^s 2 + ω2h `s 2 + R s + 1 j ^s + ω2h ^^s + dh2 + ωd2h
L LC .....(4.85)
K9 s + K10
K11 s + K12 .....(4.86)
= +
s 2 + ω2
^s + dh2 + ωd2
i (t) = I0 e − dt sin ^ωd t + θh + I m3 sin ^ωt ! φ 3h
1 44 44 2 44 44 3
Transient part
1 444 2 4 44 3
Steady state part
.....(4.87)
Note : The evaluation of K9 , K10 , K11 , K12 , I m3 , q and φ3 are left as an exercise for the readers.
4.7 Solved Problems in RL Transient

EXAMPLE 4.1 t=0
20
In the circuit of Fig. 1, a steady current of 5 A is established through the S1

inductance by connecting it to a current source. At time t = 0, the current source
is disconnected and switch S1 is closed to connect a 20 Ω resistance across the
5A 2H i(t)
inductance. Find the expression for i (t) and sketch the response. Also draw the
initial and final condition of the circuit.
SOLUTION
Fig. 1.
Let, L "i (t) , = I (s)
20
The s-domain equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 2. With reference to
2s
I (s) = 10 = 10
2s + 20 2 cs + 20 m I(s)
2 5´2 +
=10 V -
` I ( s) = 5
s + 10 .....(1)
Fig. 2.
Equation (1) is the s-domain response of the circuit. Let us take the inverse
Laplace transform of I(s) to get the time domain response.
L − 1 "I (s) , = L − 1 ' 5

1 L "e- at , = 1 di (t)
s + 10 s+a vL (t) = L
dt
\ i(t) = 5 e −10t A = 2 # d ( 5 e- 10t )
dt
Time constant, τ = L = 2 = 0.1 second = − 100 e- 10t V
R 20
t t
vL (3) = − 100 e- 3 = 0
` i ( t) = 5 e- 1/10 = 5 e- 0.1 A since, nL(∞) = 0 , the inductance
is represented by short circuit in
+ + 0
At t = 0 , i (0 ) = 5 × e = 5A final condition circuit.
0.1
At t = τ = 0.1 sec, i (t) = 5 # e − 0.1 = 5 # e- 1 = 5 # 0.3679 = 1.8395 A
At t = ∞, i (∞) = 5 × e−∞ = 5 × 0 = 0
From the above analysis, we can say that at t = 0 +, the initial current is 5 A and this current of 5 A
exponentially decays to zero as t tends to infinity.
i(t) 20 W 20 W
in A
5
4
3 5A i(0 + ) = 5 A OC i(¥) = 0
2
1.8395 A
1
t
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 in seconds
Fig. 3 : i(t) vs t. Fig. 4 : Initial condition. Fig. 5 : Final condition.
EXAMPLE 4.2 (AU June’14 & Dec’16, 16 Marks)

t=0
In the RL circuit of Fig. 1, the switch is closed at t = 0. Find the R = 5
current i (t) and the voltage across resistance and inductance. + E

vR(t)
SOLUTION + +
10 V i(t) vL(t) L = 0.5 H
Let, L "i (t) , = I (s), L "vR (t) , = VR (s) and L "vL (t) , = VL (s) E E
Also, L "10 , = 10
s
Fig. 1.
The s-domain equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 2. With reference
to Fig. 2, we can write, 5
+ E
10 VR(s)
I (s) = s
5 + 0.5s + +
10
I(s) VL(s) 0.5s
s
E E
= 10 # 1 20
s^s + 10h
=
s 0.5 cs + 5 m
0.5
Fig. 2.
By partial fraction expansion, I(s) can be expressed as,
20 K K2
I (s) = = 1 +
s^s + 10h s s + 10
K1 = 20 #s = 20 = 20 = 2
s^s + 10h s + 10 s=0
10
s=0
K2 = 20 # ^s + 10h = 20 = 20 = − 2
s^s + 10h s s = - 10
− 10
s = - 10
i(t)
` I (s) = 2 − 2 in A
s s + 10
6
On taking the inverse Laplace transform of I(s), we get,
4
L- 1 "I (s) , = L- 1 ' 2 − 2 1
s s + 10 L" A , = A 2
s
L " e- at , = 1 0
` i (t) = 2L- 1 ' 1 1 − 2L- 1 ' 1 1 s+a
Fig. 3 : i(t) Vs t. t
s s + 10
= 2 – 2 e–10t A vL(t)
Time constant, τ = L = 0.5 = 0.1 second 10

R 5
8
` i (t) = 2 c1 − e 1/10 m = 2 c1 − e 0.1 m

- t - t
A 6
With reference to Fig. 1, by Ohm’s law, we can write, 4
vR(t) = R i(t) 2
` vR (t) = 5 # 2 c1 − e 0.1 m = 10 c1 − e 0.1 m V

- t - t 0 t
Fig. 4 : i(t) Vs vL(t).
With reference to Fig. 1, by KVL, we can write, vR(t)

vR(t) + vL(t) = 10 10
\ vL(t) = 10 − vR(t) 8
10 − 10 c1 − e 0.1 m
- t - t 6
= = 10 e 0.1 V
4
RESULT
2
Current through RL series circuit, i (t) = 2 c1 − e 0.1 m
- t
A
0 t
10 c1 − e 0.1 m V
- t Fig. 5 : i(t) Vs vR(t).
Voltage across resistance, vR (t) =
- t
Voltage across inductance, vL (t) = 10 e 0.1 V
EXAMPLE 4.3 t=0

1 2
i(t) 5
In the RL circuit of Fig. 1, the switch is closed at position-1 for a long
time and then thrown to position-2 at time t = 0. Determine the response i(t).
E +
50 V + E 50 V
SOLUTION 2H
Case i : Switch in position-1

Fig. 1.
Since the switch remains closed at position-1 for a long time, the
circuit might have attained a steady state. The steady state (final condition)
of the RL circuit with switch in position-1 is shown in Fig. 2. Let the current in 5
the circuit be I 0. 50 V
E
I0
+
Now, I0 = 50 = 10 A SC
5
Case ii : Switch in position-2
Fig. 2 : Final condition with
When the switch is changed from position-1 to position-2, a steady
switch in position-1.
current I 0 is flowing in the inductance. Since the inductance does not allow
a sudden change in current, this steady current I0 will be the initial current
when the switch is closed to position-2. 5
50 V +E i(t)
–
∴ i (0 ) = i (0+ ) = I 0 = 10 A
2H
The time domain RL circuit with switch in position-2 is shown in Fig. 3. I0 = 10 A
Let, L " i (t) , = I (s) Fig. 3.
Also, L " 50 , = 50 +
s
5I(s) 5
The s-domain equivalent of the circuit of Fig. 3 is shown in Fig. 4. 50 + -
I(s) +
s -
2sI(s) 2s
-
5I (s) + 2sI (s) + 20 = 50

+ LI0
-
s = 2 ´ 10
= 20 V
Fig. 4.
I (s) [5 + 2s] = 50 − 20
s
I (s) # 2 a s + 5 k = 50 − 20s
2 s
` I (s) = 50 − 20s
s # 2 (s + 2.5)
= 25 − 10s
s (s + 2.5)
By partial fraction technique, I (s) can be expressed as,
K K2
I (s) = 25 − 10s = 1 +
s (s + 2.5) s s + 2.5
K1 = 25 − 10s # s = 25 − 10s = 25 = 10
s (s + 2.5) s = 0
s + 2.5 s = 0
2.5
25 − 10 # (− 2.5)
K 2 = 25 − 10s # (s + 2.5) = 25 − 10s = = − 20
s (s + 2.5) s = - 2.5
s s = - 2.5
− 2.5
` I (s) = 10 − 20
s s + 2.5 L" A , = A
s
On taking the inverse Laplace transform of I(s), we get, L " e- at , = 1
s+a i(t)
L- 1 "I (s) , = L- 1 ' 10 − 20 1 in A
s s + 2.5 C10
∴ i(t) = 10 – 20e–2.5t
Time constant, τ = L = 2 = 0.4 second

R 5
0 t
` i (t) = 10 c1 − 2 e 1/2.5 m = 10 c1 − 2 e 0.4 m A
- t - t
At t = 0 + , i(0 +) = 10(1 − 2 × e 0) = −10 A

E10
−∞
At t = ∞ , i(∞) = 10(1 − 2 × e ) = 10 (1 − 2 × 0) = 10 A Fig. 5 : i(t) Vs t.
EXAMPLE 4.4 t=0
10
In the RL circuit of Fig. 1, the switch is closed at t = 0. Find the current i (t)
di (t) d2 i (t)
for t ≥ 0. Also determine , at t = 0 +. +
dt dt2 5V 0.1 H
i(t)
SOLUTION E
Let, L " i (t) , = I (s) . Also, L " 5 , = 5

s
Fig. 1.
The s-domain equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 2. With reference to 10
5
I (s) = s +
10 + 0.1s 5 0.1s
s I(s)
E
= 5 # 1 = 50
s 0.1 c s + 10 m s (s + 100)
0.1
Fig. 2.
50 K K2
I ( s) = = 1 +
s (s + 100) s s + 100
K1 = 50 # s = 50 = 50 = 0.5
s (s + 100) s = 0
s + 100 s = 0
100
K2 = 50 # (s + 100) = 50 = 50 = − 0.5
s (s + 100) s = - 100
s s = - 100
− 100
` I (s) = 0.5 − 0.5

s s + 100
L- 1 "I (s) , = L- 1 ' 0.5 − 0.5 1

s s + 100 L" A , = A
s
` i (t) = 0.5L- 1 ' 1 1 − 0.5L- 1 ' 1 L"e , = 1

- at
s s + 100 1 s+a
= 0.5 − 0.5 e −100 t A
Time constant, τ = L = 0.1 = 0.01 sec

R 10
` i (t) = 0.5 c1 − e 1/100 m = 0.5 c1 − e 0.01 m

- t - t
A for t $ 0.
On differentiating i (t) with respect to t, we get,
= 0.5 f0 − e 0.01 # c − 1 m p
di (t) - t di (t) - t
dt 0.01
⇒ = 50 e 0.01 A/s
dt
di (t)
On differentiating with respect to t, we get,
dt
d 2 i ( t) - t d 2 i (t ) - t
2
= 50 e 0.01 c − 1 m ⇒ = − 5000 e 0.01 A/s 2
dt 0.01 dt 2
di (t) di (0+) - t
At t = 0+; = = 50 e 0.01 = 50 # e0 = 50 A/s
dt dt
t=0
d 2 i (t ) d 2 i (0+) - t
At t = 0+; 2
= 2
= − 5000 e 0.01 = − 5000 # e0 = − 5000 A/s 2
dt dt t=0
RESULT
= 0.5 c1 − e 0.01 m
- t
i ( t) A for t $ 0
di (0+)
= 5 0 A/s
dt
d2 i (0+)
= − 5000 A/s2
dt 2
1 2
In the RL circuit shown in Fig. 1, the switch is closed to position-1 2
+
at t = 0. After t = 100 ms, the switch is changed to position-2. Find i(t) and
5V E 0.2 H
sketch the transient. i(t)
E 20 V
+
SOLUTION
Fig. 1.
Let, L{i(t)} = I(s)
The s-domain equivalent of the RL circuit with switch in position-1 is shown in Fig. 2.
2
Let, I a(s) be the current delivered by 5 V source.
Ia(s)
5 + 0.2s
I(s)
Ia (s) = s = 5 # 1 25 5
s^ s + 10 h
=
2 + 0.2s s 0.2 c s + 2 m s
0.2 E
By partial fraction expansion, I a(s) can be expressed as,

Fig. 2.
25 K K2
I a (s) = = 1 +
s (s + 10) s s + 10
` K1 = 25 # s = 25 = 25 = 2.5
s (s + 10) s = 0
s + 10 s = 0
10
K2 = 25 # (s + 10) = 25 = 25 = − 2.5
s (s + 10) s = - 10
s s = - 10
− 10
` Ia (s) = 2.5 − 2.5

s s + 10
Here, I (s) = − Ia (s) = − 2.5 + 2.5

s s + 10
On taking the inverse Laplace transform of I (s), we get,
L- 1 "I (s) , = L- 1 ' − 2.5 + 2.5 1

s s + 10 L" A , = A
s
∴ i (t) = − 2.5 + 2.5 e –10 t A L " e- at , = 1
s+a
t
= − 2.5^1 − e- 1/10 h A
= − 2.5 c1 − e 0.1 m
- t
A
f p = − 2.5 a1 − e- 1 k = − 1.5803 A
-3
100 # 10
-
At t = 100 ms, i (t) = − 2.5 1 − e 0.1
Let, i ( t) = I0 = − 1.5803 A
t = 100ms
This current I 0 will be the initial current for circuit transient when the switch is moved from position-1
to position-2.
Case ii : Switch in position - 2

t’ = 0 2
Let us assume another time frame, where time is denoted by t′
I0 = E1.5803 A
and time t′ is related to the original time frame by the relation t′ = t − 0.1 2
(Because 100 ms = 0.1 second).
E 0.2 H
i(t’)
Now the switch is moved from position-1 to position-2 at the 20 V
time instant t′= 0, and at this instant there is a current of I 0 = − 1.5803 A +
flowing in the direction of i(t’). The time domain circuit is shown in Fig. 3.
The s-domain equivalent of the RL circuit with switch in position-2 Fig. 3.
is shown in Fig. 4.
In the s-domain equivalent, the initial current I 0 can be represented by a voltage source of value L I 0.
With reference to Fig. 4, by using KVL, we can write, 2

E +
2I(s)
0.2s I (s) + 2I (s) = 20 + LI0 + LI
s E E 0
20
I(s)
20 + sLI0 s E
+
I (s) 6 0.2s + 2 @ = 0.2sI(s) 0.2s
s
+
20 + sLI0 E2 A
20 + sLI0 20 + sLI0
` I (s) = = 0.2 0.2
s^ 0.2s + 2 h s ^ s + 10 h Fig. 4.
=
s # 0.2 c s + 2 m
0.2
s # 0.2 # ^ − 1.5803 h
100 +
= 0.2 = 100 − 1.5803s
s^ s + 10 h s^ s + 10 h
By partial fraction expansion, I (s) can be expressed as,
K K2
I (s) = 100 − 1.5803s = 1 +
s (s + 10) s s + 10
K1 = 100 − 1.5803s # s = 100 − 1.5803s = 100 = 10

s (s + 10) s = 0
s + 10 s = 0
10
100 − 1.5803 (− 10)

K2 = 100 − 1.5803s # (s + 10) = 100 − 1.5803s = = − 11.5803
s (s + 10) s = - 10
s s = - 10
− 10
` I (s) = 10 − 11.5803
s s + 10
L" A , = A
s
L -1
" I ( s) , = L -1
' s − s + 10 1
10 11.5803
L " e- at , = 1
s+a
` i^ tlh = 10 − 11.5803 e- 10tl
l
- t
= 10 c1 − 11.5803 e 1/10 m
10
` i (tl ) = 10 c1 − 1.15803 e 0.1 m

l
- t
A for t' $ 0
Put t’ = t – 0.1,
(t - 0.1)
` i (t − 0.1) = 10 c1 − 1.15803 e 0.1 m A
-
; for t $ 100 ms
For convenience, i (t − 0.1) can be written as i (t) for t $ 100 ms.

(t - 0.1)
` i (t) = 10 c1 − 1.15803 e 0.1 m A
-
; for t $ 100 ms
To sketch i (t)
Here, i (t) = − 2.5 c1 − e 0.1 m A

-t
; for 0 # t # 100 ms
- (t - 0.1)
and i (t) = 10 c1 − 1.15803 e 0.1 m A ; for 100 ms # t # 3
∴ At t = 0 +, i (t) = i (0 + ) = −2.5 (1−e 0 ) = 0

At t = 100 ms, i (t) = −1.5803 A
At t = ∞, i (t) = i (∞) = 10(1 − 1.15803e− ∞) = 10 A
Initially, the current is zero and it rises to −1.5803 A in a time of 100 ms. After the switch is moved to
position-2, the negative current becomes zero and rises to +10 A. Let us find the time instant t = t0 at which
the current is zero, when it changes from negative to positive.
^ t0 - 0.1 h
= i (t0) = 10 f1 − 1.15803 e p
-
i ( t) 0.1
t = t0
Here, at t = t0, i(t) = i(t0) = 0

i(t)
f p= 0
- (t0 - 0.1)
in A
` 10 1 − 1.15803 e 0.1
10
(t - 0.1)
- 0
` 1.15803 e 0.1 = 1 8
(t - 0.1) 6
- 0 1
e 0.1 =
1.15803 4
On taking the natural logarithm, we get, 2
−c 0 m = ln c
t − 0.1
1.15803 m
1 0.1
0.1
0
t0 0.2 t in s
0.3 0.4 0.5
E1.5803
t0 − 0.1 = − 0.1 ; ln
1.15803 E
1 E2 t0 = 0.1147 sec
Fig. 5 : i(t) Vs t.
` t0 = − 0.1 ; ln
1.15803 E
1 + 0.1
= 0.1147 second
= 0.1147 ´ 1000 ms
= 114.7 ms
RESULT
i (t) = − 2.5 c1 − e 0.1 m
- t
A ; for 0 # t # 100 ms
^ t - 0.1 h
i (t) = 10 f1 − 1.15803 e 0.1 p A
-
; for t $ 100 ms
Time at which i (t) is zero, t0 = 0.1147 second
EXAMPLE 4.6 t=0
In the circuit shown in Fig. 1, the switch is kept open for a long time.
The switch is closed at t = 0. Find i (t) and sketch.
10 40
SOLUTION +
10 V i(t) 0.4 H
Case i : Switch remains open E
Since the switch remains open for a long time, the circuit might
have attained a steady state. The steady state (final condition) of the
Fig. 1.
RL circuit with switch remains open as shown in Fig. 2. Let the steady
current flowing in the circuit be I0.
Now, I0 = 10 = 0.2 A
10 + 40
Case ii : Switch remains closed 10 40
When the switch is closed, the total circuit resistance is reduced to +

10 V I0 SC
10 Ω because the 40 Ω resistance is short-circuited.
E
The time instant at which the switch is closed is considered as the
origin of time and at this instant, and there is an initial current of I0 = 0.2 A
flowing in the direction of i(t). Fig. 2.
The s-domain equivalent of the circuit with the switch closed is shown in Fig. 3.
The initial current I0 is represented by a voltage source of value LI 0 in the s-domain equivalent circuit.
10
10 I (s) + 0.4sI (s) = 10 + LI0 +

10I(s)
E
s
+ LI0
E
+
10
10 + sLI0 I(s)
I (s) 610 + 0.4s @ = s +
s E
0.4sI(s) 0.4s
10 + sLI0 E
10 + sLI0 10 + sLI0
` I (s) = = = .4
0 0.4
s (10 + 0.4s) s # 0.4 # c 10 + s m s (s + 25) Fig. 3.
0.4
25 + s # 0.4 # 0.2
= 0.4 = 25 + 0.2s
s (s + 25) s (s + 25)
By partial fraction expansion, I (s) can be expressed as,
K K2
I (s) = 25 + 0.2s = 1 +
s (s + 25) s s + 25
K1 = 25 + 0.2s # s = 25 + 0.2s = 25 = 1
s (s + 25) s = 0
(s + 25) s = 0
25
25 + 0.2 (− 25)
K 2 = 25 + 0.2s # (s + 25) = 25 + 0.2s = = − 0.8
s (s + 25) s = - 25
s s = - 25
− 25
` I (s) = 1 − 0.8
s s + 25
L" A , = A
s
L- 1 "I (s) , = L- 1 ' 1 − 0.8 1
s s + 25 L " e- at , = 1
s+a
i(t)
i (t) = 1 – 0.8 e –25t A
1A
- t
= 1 − 0.8 e 1/25 A
- t
= 1 − 0.8 e 0.04 A
0.2 A
At t = 0, i (t) = i(0) = 1−0.8 e0 = 0.2 A t
0
–∞
At t = ∞, i(t) = i(∞) = 1−0.8 e = 1A Fig. 4 : i(t) Vs t.
EXAMPLE 4.7
t=0
In the circuit shown in Fig. 1, the switch is closed to position-1 at t = 0 10
and at t = t′ the switch is moved to position-2. Find the time instant t = t′ such 1 2
that the current i(t) remains constant at 1 A for t ≥ t′.

i(t) 0.5 H
20 V +E + 10 V
SOLUTION E

The s-domain equivalent of the RL circuit with switch in position-1 is Fig. 1.
shown in Fig. 2. With reference to Fig. 2, we can write,
20
I (s) = s = 20 = 40
10 + 0.5s s # 0.5 c 10 + s m s (s + 20) 10
0.5
By partial fraction expansion, I(s) can be expressed as, +
20 0.5s
40 K K2 I(s)
I (s) = = 1 + s
s (s + 20) s s + 20 E
K1 = 40 # s = 40 = 40 = 2
s (s + 20) s = 0
s + 20 s = 0
20 Fig. 2.
K2 = 40 # (s + 20) = 40 = 40 = − 2
s (s + 20) s = - 20
s s = - 20
− 20
` I (s) = 2 − 2 L" A , = A
s s + 20 s
On taking the inverse Laplace transform of I(s), we get, L " e- at , = 1

s+a
L- 1 "I (s) , = L- 1 ' 2 −

s + 20 1
2
s
i(t) = 2 − 2 e − 20t
= 2 c1 − e 1/20 m
- t
= 2 c1 − e 0.05 m
- t
A
10
When the switch is moved to position-2 there should not be any transient.
This is possible only if the initial current is equal to the steady state current in
position-2. The steady state condition of the RL circuit with switch in postion-2 10 V +E Iss SC
is shown in Fig. 3. With reference to Fig. 3,
Steady state current, ISS = 10 = 1 A

10
Fig. 3.
Now we have to find a time instant t = t′ at which the current i(t) with switch in position-1 is 1 A.
= i (tl ) = 2 c1 − e 0.05 m
l
- t
i ( t)
t = tl
Here, at t = t’, i(t’) = 1 A
` 2 c1 − e 0.05 m = 1
- tl
- tl - tl - tl
` 1 − e 0.05 = 1 ⇒ − e 0.05 = 1 − 1 ⇒ e 0.05 = 1
2 2 2
On taking natural logarithm, we get,
c2m
− tl = ln 1
0.05
` tl = − ln c 1 m # 0.05 = 0.0347 second

2
RESULT
At t = t’ = 0.0347 second, the switch can be moved from position-1 to position-2 to maintain the current
as 1 A with switch in position-2 .
EXAMPLE 4.8 (AU June’16 & May’17, 16 Marks)

An RL series circuit excited by a sinusoidal source e(t) = 10 sin 100t V by closing the switch at t = 0. Take
R = 10 Ω and L = 0.1 H. Determine the current i(t) flowing through the RL circuit.
SOLUTION
Given that, e(t) = 10 sin 100t V
Let, E(s) = L {e(t)}
3
` E (s) = L " e (t) , = L "10 sin 100t , = 10 # 100 = 210 4
2 2
s + 100 s + 10
The time domain and s-domain RL circuits excited by a sinusoidal source are shown in Figs 1 and 2.
t=0
R = 10 10
+ +
e(t) L = 0.1 H E(s) 0.1s
~
E
i(t) ~
E
I(s)
Fig. 1. Fig. 2.
E ( s)
I ( s) =
10 + 0.1s
103
s + 10 4
2
103 /0.1 10 4
^ h ^ h ^ h ^ s 2 + 10 4 h
= = 2 4
=
0.1 c 10 + sm s + 100 s + 10 s + 100
0.1
By partial fraction expansion technique, I(s) can be expressed as,
I (s) = 10 4 =
K1 K s + K3
+ 22
^ s + 100 h ^ s 2 + 10 4 h s + 100 s + 10 4
.....(1)
K1 = 10 4 # ^ s + 100 h = 10 4 = 10 4 = 0.5
^ s + 100 h ^ s 2 + 10 4 h s = - 100
s 2 + 10 4
s = - 100
^ − 100 h2 + 10 4
On cross-multiplying equation (1), we get,
10 4 = K1 (s2 + 10 4 ) + (K 2 s + K3 ) (s+100)
10 4 = K1 s2 + 10 4 K 1+ K2s2 + 100 K2 s + K3 s + 100 K3
10 4 = (K 1 + K2 ) s 2 + (100 K2 + K3 ) s + (10 4 K1 + 100 K3 ) .....(2)

2
On equating coefficients of s of equation (2 ), we get,
K 1 + K2 = 0
∴ K2 = − K 1 = − 0.5
On equating coefficients of s of equation (2 ), we get,
100 K 2 + K3 = 0
∴ K 3 = − 100 K 2 = − 100 × (−0.5) = 50
` I ( s) = 0.5 + − 02.5s + 50
s + 100 s + 10 4
= 0.5 1 − 0.5 2 s 2 + 50 2 100 2

s + 100 s + 100 100 s + 100
1 L"A, = A
= 0.5 − 0.5 2 s 2 + 0.5 2 100 2 s
s + 100 s + 100 s + 100 s
L "cos ωt , =
s 2 + ω2
L "sin ωt , = 2 ω 2
s +ω
` L- 1 "I (s) , = L- 1 ' 0.5 1 − 0.5 2 s 2 + 0.5 2 100 2 1
s + 100 s + 100 s + 100
` i (t) = 0.5 L- 1 '

s + 100 1
1 − 0.5 L- 1 ' 2 s 2 1 + 0.5 L- 1 ' 2 100 2 1
s + 100 s + 100
= 0.5e–100t – 0.5 cos100t + 0.5 sin100t
= 0.5e–100t + [sin100t × 0.5 – cos100t × 0.5]

Let us construct a right-angled triangle with 0.5 as two sides as shown in Fig. 3.
0.52 + 0.52 = 0.7071
tan φ = 0.5 = 1 0.5
0.5
∴ φ = tan −1 1 = 45o f
0.5
0.5
Also, cos φ =
0.7071 ⇒ 0.5 = 0.7071 cos φ = 0.7071 cos 45 o Fig. 3.
sin φ = 0.5
0.7071 ⇒ 0.5 = 0.7071 sin φ = 0.7071 sin 45 o
∴ i (t) = 0.5e–100t + [sin100t × 0.7071 cos 45 o − cos100t × 0.7071 sin 45 o ]
= 0.5e–100t + 0.7071 [sin100t cos 45o − cos100t sin 45 o ]
= 0.5e- 100t + 0.7071 sin ^100t − 45 oh A sin(A – B) = sinA cosB – cosA sinB
1 44 2 44 3 1 4 4 4 44
4 2 4 4 44 4 3
Transient part Steady state part
IPQ
it(t)
i(t) = it(t) + is(t)
0.5 1.207
0 0.707
t
0
is(t) (+) Þ
0.707
-0.707
t -1.207
-0.707
Fig 4: Waveform of current through inductance, it(t).
di (t)
vL (t) = L = L d 70.5e- 100t + 0.707 sin (100t − 45 o) A
dt dt
= 0.1 70.5e- 100t # (− 100) + 0.707 cos (100t − 45 o) # 100 A
= − 5e- 100t + 7.07 cos (100t − 45 o)
= − 5e- 100t + 7.07 sin (100t − 45 o + 90 o)

a cos θ = sin (θ + 90 o)
= − 5e- 100t + 7.07 sin ^100t + 45 oh V

1 44 2 4
43 1 4 4 4 44 2 4 4 4 44 3
Transient part Steady state part
IPQ
0 v(t) = vt(t) + vs(t)
t
12.07
5
vt(t)
(+) 7.05
Þ
vs(t)
7.05
0
t
0
t
-7.05
-7.05 -12.07
Fig 5: Waveform of voltage across inductance, v(t).

EXAMPLE 4.9 t=0
1
150 sin(200t + 30 )V
In the circuit of Fig. 1, the switch remains in position-1 until steady
o
2 20
state is reached. At time t = 0, the switch is changed to position-2. Find i(t). +
i(t)
SOLUTION
~
E 0.05 H

In position-1, the circuit has attained a steady state. Hence, we can Fig. 1.
perform steady state analysis. The steady state of the RL circuit with switch
in position-1 is shown in Fig. 2. The standard form of sinusoidal source is Em sin(ωt ± φ).
Here, E m sin (ωt ± φ) = 150 sin(200t + 30o ) V

20 W
+
∴ E m = 150 V, ω = 200 rad/s, φ = 30o 150 o
Ð30 ~ I0
2
-
Let, I 0 be the magnitude of rms value of current flowing in jwL
the circuit. = j ´ 200 ´ 0.05
= j10 W
150
2 Fig. 2.
Now, I0 = = 4.7434 A
20 2 + 10 2
This steady rms current I 0 will be the initial current when the switch is moved from position-1 to position-2.
When the switch is changed from position-1 to position-2, a steady current of I 0 is flowing in the induc-
tance. Since the inductance does not allow a sudden change in current, this steady current I0 will be the initial
current when the switch is closed to position-2.
` i^0-h = i^0+h = I0 = 4.7434 A

The time domain and s-domain RL circuits with switch in position-2 are shown in Figs 3 and 4, respectively.
+
20I(s) 20
20 W -
+
I(s)
i(t) 0.05sI(s) 0.05s
-
I0 0.05 H -
+ LI0
= 0.05 ´ 4.7434
= 0.23717 V
Fig. 3. Fig. 4.

20 I(s) + 0.05s I(s) = 0.23717
I (s) # 0.05 c 20 + s m = 0.23717

0.05
I(s) × 0.05 (400 + s) = 0.23717
` I ( s) = 0.23717
0.05^400 + sh
= 4.7434
s + 400
Let us take inverse Laplace transform of I(s).
L- 1 "I (s) , = L- 1 ' 4.7434 1

s + 400
i(t) = 4.7434e–400t A
EXAMPLE 4.10 t=0

4
In the circuit of Fig. 1, the switch is closed at a particular value of α

10 sin(20t + )V
so that there is no transient in the RL circuit. Find the value of α. +

e(t)
~ 0.1 H
SOLUTION E
i(t)
Given that, e(t) = 10 sin (20t + α) V

sin(A + B) = sinA cosB + cosA sinB
Let, L{e(t)} = E(s)
Fig. 1.
∴ E(s) = L{e(t)} = L{10 sin (20t + α)}
= 10 × L{sin 20t cos α + cos 20t sin α}
= 10 × cos α × L{sin 20t} + 10 × sin α × L{cos 20t}
20 4
= 10 # cos α # + 10 # sin α # 2 s 2
s 2 + 20 2 s + 20 +
4I(s)
E
= 200 cos2α + 102 sin α s + +

s + 20 .....(1) E(s) 0.1sI(s) 0.1s
~ I(s)
The s-domain equivalent of the given circuit is shown in Fig. 2. E E

4 I(s) + 0.1s I(s) = E(s) Fig. 2.
` I (s) # 0.1 c 4 + s m = 200 cos2α + 102 sin α s Using equation (1)

0.1 s + 20
I (s) # 0.1^s + 40h = 200 cos2α + 102 sin α s

s + 20
` I (s) = 200 cos α + 102 sin α2s

0.1^s + 40h ^s + 20 h
= 2000 cos α + 100 sin α s

^s + 40h ^s 2 + 202h
I (s) = 2000 cos α + 100 sin α s = K1 + K 2 s + K3

^s + 40h ^s 2 + 20 2h s + 40 s 2 + 20 2
K1 K s + K3
` I (s) = + 2
s + 40 s 2 + 20 2
K1 K
= + K2 2 s 2 + 3 2 20 2 L "e- at , = 1
s + 40 s + 20 20 s + 20 s+a
L "cos ωt , = s
s 2 + ω2
K1 K L "sin ωt , = 2 ω 2
` L- 1 "I (s) , = L- 1 ' + K 2 2 s 2 + 3 2 20 2 1 s +ω
s + 40 s + 20 20 s + 20
K
K e- 40t + K 2 cos 20t + 3 sin 20t
S
i (t ) = 1
20
Transient part 1 4 4 4 44
4 2 44444 43
Steady state part
For no transient in i(t), the transient part should be zero.
` K1 e- 40t = 0
At t = 0, e– 40t = e 0 = 1, and so e– 40t cannot be zero. Therefore, K1 = 0.
Let us determine an expression for K1 and equate to zero as shown below:
K1 = 2000 cos α + 100 sin α s # ^s + 40h

^s + 40h ^s 2 + 20 2h
s = - 40
2000 cos α + 100 sin α ^− 40h

= 2000 cos2α + 100 sin α s =
^s + 20 2h ^− 40h2 + 20 2
s = - 40
= 2000 cos α − 4000 sin α = cos α − 2 sin α

2000
Here, K 1 = 0 ; ∴ cos α − 2 sin α = 0
∴ 2 sin α = cos α
sin α = 1
cos α 2
tan α = 0.5
α = tan –1(0.5) = 26.6o

RESULT
For no transient in i(t), α = 26.6o
4.8 Solved Problems in RC Transient

t=0
EXAMPLE 4.11 R = 10 k
In the RC circuit of Fig. 1, a charge of 100 µC is stored in the capacitor

before closing the switch. At t = 0, the switch is closed to discharge the charge
+ +
through 10 kΩ resistance. Determine and sketch vC(t). Also draw the initial and vC(t) Q0
final condition of the circuit. Take C = 25 µF. E E
SOLUTION
Given that, Q 0 = 100 µC and C = 25 µF Fig. 1.

-6 3
Q0
` Initial voltage, V0 = = 100 # 10- 6 = 4 V R = 10 ´ 10
C 25 # 10 - + -
V2 + 1
V1
The s-domain equivalent of the given circuit is shown in Fig. 2. sC
+
With reference to Fig. 2, using voltage division rule, we get, 1
VC(s) =
25 ´ 10 -6 s
1 + V0 4
V0 sC _ =
V1 = # -
s s
s R+ 1
sC
Fig. 2.
V0 1
` V1 = #
s sRC + 1 .....(1)
V0 V0
VC (s) + V1 = ⇒ VC (s) = − V1
s s
V0 V 1
` VC (s) = − 0 #
s s sRC + 1
V0 V0 sRC + 1 − 1
c1 − m = c m
= 1 Using equation (1)
s sRC + 1 s sRC + 1
V0 sRC V0 4 4
= = = =
c m
s RC s + 1 s + 1 s + 1 s + 4
RC RC 3 6
10 # 10 # 25 # 10-
` VC (s) = 4
s+4
On taking the inverse Laplace transform of VC (s), we get,
L- 1 " VC (s) , = L- 1 ' 4 1

s+4
t
∴ vC(t) = 4e − 4t ⇒ vC (t) = 4e- 1/4
t
` vC (t) = 4e- 0.25 V
At t = 0 + , vC(0+) = 4e0 = 4 V
At t = ∞ , vC(∞ ) = 4e −∞ = 4 × 0 = 0
From the above analysis, we can say that at t = 0 +, the initial voltage is 4 V and this voltage of 4 V,
exponentially decays to zero as t tends to infinity.
vC(t) 10 k W 10 k W
4V
+ +
vC (0 + ) +- 4 V vC(¥) OC
- -
t
Fig. 3 : vC(t) Vs t. Fig. 4 : Initial condition. Fig. 5 : Final condition.

t=0
R
In the RC circuit of Fig. 1, the switch is closed at t = 0. Find the
current i(t). The initial charge in capacitor, Qo = 100 µC. Take R = 15W and
C = 200 µF. Sketch i(t). + +
50 V i(t) Qo(t) C
E E
SOLUTION
Given that, Q 0 = 100 µC and C = 200 µF R = 15 , C = 200 mF
Q0 -6 Fig. 1.
` Initial voltage , V0 = = 100 # 10- 6 = 0.5 V
C 200 # 10
The s-domain equivalent of the RC circuit is shown in Fig. 2.

With reference to Fig. 2, by KVL we can write,
R I (s) + 1 I (s) + 0.5 = 50

R
sC s s + E
R I(s)
+
1 1
` I (s) <R + 1 F = 50 − 0.5
+ I(s)
50 sC sC
sC s s s E
E I(s)
+ V0 0.5
a
` I (s) < sRC + 1 F = 50 − 0.5
E s s
sC s
Fig. 2.
RC ds + 1 n
I (s)
> RC H
= 49.5
sC s
> RC ds + 1 n H
` I (s) = 49.5 # sC
s
RC
` I (s) = 49.5 1
R s+ 1
RC
i(t)
On taking the inverse Laplace transform of above equation, we get,
3.3
- 1 t
i (t) = 49.5 e RC
R
- 1 t
= 49.5 e 15 # 200 # 10- 6
15
t
= 3.3 e−333.33t A Fig. 3 : i(t) Vs t.
EXAMPLE 4.13 t=0

R
In the RC circuit of Fig. 1, the switch is closed at t = 0. Find the + E
vR(t)
current i(t), and the voltage across resistance and capacitance.
+ +
25 V i(t) vC(t) C
E E
SOLUTION
Let, L{i(t)} = I(s), L{vR(t)} = VR(s) and L{vC (t)} = VC(s)

R = 100 , C = 5000 mF
Fig. 1.
Also, L "25 , = 25
s
The s-domain equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 2 (Please refer to Table 4.2 for the s-domain equivalent
of R and C parameters.) With reference to Fig. 2, we can write,
25
I (s) = s
R+ 1 R
sC
+ E
VR(s)
= 25 = 25 = 25
+ +
sR + 1 R cs + 1 m 100 cs + 1 m 25
VC(s)
1
C RC RC s
I(s) sC
E E
–6
Here, Time constant, t = RC = 100 × 5000 × 10 = 0.5 second
` I ( s) = 0.25 Fig. 2.
c + m
s 1
0.5
L- 1 "I (s) , = L- 1
*s + 1 4
0.25
L "e- at , = 1
0.5 s+a
t
` i (t) = 0.25 e- 0.5 A
With reference to Fig. 1, by Ohm’s law, we can write,
vR(t) = i(t) × R
t t
= 0.25 e- 0.5 # 100 = 25 e- 0.5 V
vR(t) + vC(t) = 25
∴ vC(t) = 25 − vR(t)
t t
= 25 − 25 e- 0.5 = 25^1 − e- 0.5 h V
RESULT
t
i (t) = 0.25 e- 0.5 A
t
vR (t) = 25 e- 0.5 V
t
vC (t) = 25^1 − e- 0.5 h V

In the RC circuit of Fig. 1,the switch in the circuit is moved 1 t=0
from position 1 to 2 at t = 0. Find the voltage across resistance and

2
capacitance, and energy in the capacitor for t > 0.
+ 5 kW
_
100 V
- 50 V
+
SOLUTION +
_ 1 mF
Case i : Switch in position-1 Fig. 1.
Given , C = 1 × 10−6 F
Let , V0 = Voltage across capacitor with switch in position-1
W0 = Energy stored in capacitor with switch in position-1
With switch in position-1, the circuit attains a steady state. The

+ 5 kW
steady state circuit is shown in Fig. 2. Therefore, the capacitor gets 100 V
-
charged to 100 V. i(¥)=0
+
V0 = 100 V
_
∴ V0 = 100 V
Fig. 2.
W0 = 1 CV02 = 1 # 1 # 10- 6 # 100 2 = 5 # 10- 3 Joules
2 2
When the switch is changed from position-1 to position-2, a steady voltage of V 0 exists across the
capacitance. Since the capacitance does not allow a sudden change in voltage, this steady voltage V 0 will be
the initial voltage and W0 will be the initial energy when the switch is closed to position-2.
Let, vC (t) = Voltage across capacitor
vR(t) = Voltage across resistance

i(t) = Current through capacitor.
The time domain and s-domain RC circuits are shown in Figs 3 and 4, respectively.
-
- VR(s) 5 kW
vR(t) 5 kW +
+
_ - V0
= 100
I(s) +
_ i(t) 50 -
s s
50 V s +
+ - + V = 100 V VC(s)
vC(t) 0
+ _ 1 mF 1
+ 1´10 -6 s
Fig. 3. Fig. 4.
Let, I(s) = L{i (t)}
50 + 100 150
I (s) = s s = s = 150
3
5 # 10 + 1 5000 + 1 5000s + 1
1 # 10- 6 s 1 # 10- 6 s 1 # 10- 6
= 150 = 0.03
5000 cs + 1 s + 200
m
1 # 10- 6 # 5000
` i (t) = L- 1 "I (s) , = L- 1 ' 0.03 1 = 0.03e- 200t A

s + 200
vR (t) = i (t) # R = 0.03e- 200t # 5000 = 150 e- 200t V
With reference to Fig. 3, by KVL,we can write,
vC (t) = 50 − vR (t) = 50 − 150e- 200t V
Let, pC(t) = Power in capacitor for t > 0
wC(t) = Energy in capacitor for t > 0
` pC (t) = vC (t) # i (t) = ^50 − 150e- 200th # 0.03e- 200t
= 1.5e- 200t − 4.5e- 400t W

t t
wC (t) = #p C ( t) dt = # ^1.5e
- 200t
− 4.5 e- 400th dt
Wo = Integral constant
0 0
= Initial energy
- 200t - 400t t
= ; 1.5e − 4.5e E + W0
− 200 − 400 0
- 200t - 400t 0 0
= 1.5e − 4.5e − 1.5e + 4.5e + 5 # 10- 3
− 200 − 400 − 200 − 400
= − 7.5 # 10- 3 e- 200t + 11.25 # 10- 3 e- 400t + 7.5 # 10- 3 − 11.25 # 10- 3 + 5 # 10- 3
= ^1.25 − 7.5 e- 200t + 11.25 e- 400th # 10- 3 Joules
EXAMPLE 4.15 t=0
In the circuit shown in Fig. 1, the capacitor C1 has an initial charge

of 12 × 10–4 C. Find the current through the RC circuit if the switch is closed
C1 = 12 mF
C2 = 6 mF
E
at t = 0. Q0 i(t)
+
SOLUTION
100 k
−4 −6
Given that, Q 0 = 12 × 10 C and C1 = 12 × 10 F.
Fig. 1.
Q -4
Initial voltage in capacitor C1 is, V0 = 0 = 12 # 10- 6 = 100 V
C1 12 # 10
Let, i(t) = Current through the circuit when the switch is closed at t = 0.
Let, L{i(t)} = I(s)
The s-domain equivalent of the RC circuit is shown in Fig. 2. With reference to Fig. 2, we can write,
V0
s V0 V0
I ( s) = = =
R+ 1 + 1 sR + 1 + 1 R cs + c 1 + 1 mm
1
sC1 sC 2 C1 C 2 R C1 C 2
V0 V0 1
= = sC1
R cs + c mm
C1 + C 2 1
f R c C1 C2 m p
1 R s+ 1
R C1 C 2 I(s)
sC2
C1 + C 2
V0 100 -
= + 3
s s
R = 100 ´ 10
C1 C 2 -6 -6
Here, R c m = 100 # 10 #
3 12 # 10 # 6 # 10 = 0.4
C1 + C 2 12 # 10- 6 + 6 # 10- 6 Fig. 2.
-3
` I (s) = 100 = 10
100 # 10 cs +
3 1
m s+ 1
0.4 0 .4
` L- 1 "I (s) , = L- 1 10- 3

*s + 1 4
0. 4
L "e- at , = 1
t t
` i ( t) = 10- 3 e- 0.4 A = e- 0.4 mA s+a
EXAMPLE 4.16 t=0

120
In the circuit of Fig. 1, the switch is open for a long time. On closing
the switch at t = 0, the capacitor voltage rises to 70 V in 10 ms. After the
+
steady state is reached, the switch is opened again and found that capacitor 120 V +E R vC(t) C
voltage is 90 V in 0.5 second. Find the value of R and C. E
SOLUTION Fig. 1.
Case i : Switch is closed at t = 0
120
When the switch is closed at t = 0, the source voltage 120 V is
applied across the series combination of 120 Ω and C. The s-domain
equivalent is shown in Fig. 2. + +
120 + 120 1
R VC(s)
s E
s sC
Here, L "120 , = 120
E E
and L "vC (t) , = VC (s)
s
With reference to Fig. 2, by voltage division rule, we can write,

Fig. 2.
1
VC (s) = 120 # sC
s 120 + 1
sC
= 120 # 1
s 120 # Cs + 1
1
= 120 # 1 = C
s 120C cs + 1
m s cs + 1
m
120C 120C
1
C K1 K2
Let, VC (s) = = +
s cs + Using partial fraction
m
1 s s+ 1
120C 120C expansion technique.
1 1 1
K1 = C #s = C = C = 120
s cs + 1
m s+ 1 1
120C 120C s=0
120C
s=0
1 1 1
K2 = C # cs + 1
m = C = C = − 120
s cs + 1
m
120C s s = -1
120C
− 1
120C 120C
s = -1
120C
` VC (s) = 120 − 120

s s+ 1
120C
Let us take the inverse Laplace transform of VC(s).

L' A 1 = A
L- 1 " VC (s) , = L- 1 120 −
* s 1 4
120 s
s +
120C L "e- at , = 1
s+a
t
` vC (t) = 120 − 120 e- 120C
t
= 120^1 − e- 120C h
Given that, at t = 10 ms, vC(t) = 70 V

-3
10 # 10-3 70 = 1 − e- 10120C
# 10
` 70 = 120 `1 − e- 120C
j ⇒ 120
10 # 10-3
` e- 120C = 1 − 70
120
On taking the natural logarithm of the above equation, we get,
-3 -3 120C 1
− 10 # 10 = In c1 − 70 m ⇒ − 10 # 10 = − 0.8755 ⇒ =
120C 120 120C 10 # 10- 3 0.8755
` C = 10 # 10- 3 = 9.5184 # 10- 5 F = 95.184 # 10- 6 F = 95.184 µF

0.8755 # 120
Steady state in Case i

120
The steady state condition of the circuit with the switch closed is
shown in Fig. 3.
+ +
With reference to Fig. 3, we can say that, +
120 V E 120 V R vC(t) OC
E E
At t = ∞, vC(t) = 120 V
This steady state voltage 120 V will be the initial voltage across
the capacitor for the analysis in Case ii. Fig. 3.
Case ii : Switch is opened after steady state in Case i
Let us denote the time by t’ in Case ii. Here the switch is opened at t’ = 0 and at this instant the capacitor
has an initial voltage of 120 V. The time domain and s-domain circuits are shown in Figs 4 and 5, respectively.
t’ = 0 120 120
+ E
+ 1
V1
+ sC
+
+
120 V E V0=120 C R V2
R VC(s)
E + 120
E s
_
_
Fig. 4. Fig. 5.
Here, V0 = 120 V
V0
` L " V0 , = = 120
s s
1
V1 = 120 # sC
s ^120 + Rh + 1
sC
Let, 120 + R = R 1
` V1 = 120 # 1
s sR1 C + 1 .....(1)
VC (s) + V1 = 120
s
` VC (s) = 120 − V1 = 120 − 120 # 1

s s s sR1 C + 1
Using equation (1)
sR C + 1 − 1
= 120 ;1 − 1 = 120 ; 1 E
s sR1 C + 1 E s sR1 C + 1
sR1 C
s >R C s + 1 H
= 120
1 c
R1 C m
` VC (s) = 120
s+ 1
R1 C
On taking the inverse Laplace transform of VC (s), we get,

tl
vC (t) = 120 e- R1 C
Given that, at t’ = 0.5 second, vC (t) = 90 V

0.5
` 90 = 120 e- R1 C
0.5
⇒ e- R1 C = 90
120
R1 C
− 0.5 = In c 90 m ⇒ − 0.5 = − 0.2877 ⇒ = 1
R1 C 120 R1 C 0.5 0.2877
` R1 = 0.5 = 0.5 = 18259 Ω

0.2877C 0.2877 # 95.184 # 10- 6
Here, R1 = 120 + R
∴ R = R 1 − 120 = 18259 − 120 = 18139 Ω = 18.139 k Ω
RESULT
R = 18.139 k Ω
C = 95.184 µF
100 V, Neon lamp
EXAMPLE 4.17
In Fig. 1, the neon lamp connected across the capacitor strikes at 100 V.
Find the value of R for the lamp to strike at 5 seconds after the switch is closed. R C = 4 mF
If R = 5 M Ω, how long will it take for the lamp to strike?
SOLUTION
Let, vC (t) = Voltage across the capacitor. + E
220 V
` L "vC (t) , = VC (s) . Also, L "220 , = 220 Fig. 1.

s
The s-domain equivalent of the given circuit is shown in Fig. 2. (For simplicity in analysis, the R , L and
C parameters of the lamp are neglected.)
1
With reference to Fig. 2, by voltage division rule, R sC
1 + E
VC(s)
VC (s) = 220 # sC
s R+ 1
sC
220
VC (s) = 220 # 1 = 220 # 1 = RC
s sRC + 1 s RC cs + 1 m s cs + 1 m
RC RC + E
220
s
By partial fraction expansion techniques, VC (s) can be expressed as,
Fig. 2.
220
RC K K2
VC (s) = = 1+
s cs + 1 m s s+ 1
RC RC
220 220 220

K1 = RC #s = RC = RC = 220
s cs + 1 m s+ 1 1
RC RC s=0
RC
s=0
220 220 220

K2 = RC # cs + 1 m = RC = RC = − 220
s cs + 1 m RC s
s =- 1 − 1
RC RC RC
s =- 1
RC
` VC (s) = 220 − 220

s s+ 1
RC
On taking the inverse Laplace transform, we get,
L- 1 " VC (s) , = L- 1 220 −

* s s + 1 4
220
RC
t
` vC (t) = 220 − 220 e- RC
t
= 220^1 − e- RC h V .....(1)
Case i : To find R for lamp to strike after 5 seconds
vC (t)
⇒ e- RC = 1 − vC (t)
t t t
vC (t) = 220^1 − e- RC h ⇒ = 1 − e- RC
220 220
v (t)
− t = In c1 − C m .....(2)
RC 220
` RC = − 1 R = t − 1
C> vC (t) H
⇒
t vC (t)
In c1 − m In c1 − m
220 220
Given that, t = 5 seconds ; C = 4 µF ; The lamp will strike when vC (t) = 100 V
4 # 10- 6 > In c1 − 100 m H

` R = 5 − 1
220
= 2062244.125 Ω = 2062244 .125 MΩ = 2.0622 MΩ

106
Case ii : To find time for lamp to strike if R = 5 MΩ
vC (t)
Time, t = − RC ;In c1 − mE
220
6
Here, R = 5 M Ω = 5 × 10 Ω , C = 4 µF = 4 × 10 − 6 F , vC (t) = 100 V
` t = − 5 # 106 # 4 # 10- 6 ;In c1 − 100 mE

220
= 12.1227 seconds
RESULT
1. For lamp to strike at 5 seconds after switching, R = 2.0622 M Ω
2. When R = 5 M Ω, the time for lamp to strike after switching, t = 12.1227 seconds
EXAMPLE 4.18
t=0
1000
In the RC circuit of Fig. 1, when the switch is closed at t = 0, the current
−50t
through the circuit is i (t) = 0.075 e A. Find the value of Q0 and its polarity.
+
SOLUTION 50 V Q0 20 mF
i(t)
Given that, E
Initial charge = Q 0
Q0 Fig. 1.
` Initial voltage, V0 =
C
R
Let, L "i (t) , = I (s), L "50 , = 50
s +
RI(s)
E +
1 1
I(s)
The s-domain equivalent of the given circuit is shown in Fig. 2. + sC sC
E
50
In Fig. 2, the polarity of Q 0 is assumed to be opposing the s E I(s)
+ V0 Q0
direction of current. a
E s sC
Q
Fig. 2.
RI (s) + 1 I (s) + 0 = 50
sC sC s
Q
I (s) <R + 1 F = 50 − 0
sC s sC
50C − Q0 50C − Q0
I (s) < sRC + 1 F = ⇒ I (s) =
sC sC sRC + 1
50C − Q0
` I (s) = c m 1
cs + m
RC 1
RC
L- 1 "I (s) , = L- 1 c m
50C − Q0
* 1 4
1
c + m
RC s L "e- at , = 1
RC s+a
50C − Q0 - t
` i (t ) = e RC A .....(1)
RC
Given that, i (t) = 0.075 e –50t A .....(2)
50C − Q0
= 0.075
RC
50 C − Q0 = 0.075 × R C
– Q0 = 0.075 RC − 50 C
∴ Q 0 = −0.075RC + 50C
= ^− 0.075 # 1000 # 20 # 10- 6h + ^50 # 20 # 10- 6h

R = 1000
–4
= −5 × 10 C = − 500 × 10–6 C
= −500 µC + E
50 V i(t) Q0 C = 20 mF
Since the initial charge is negative, the actual polarity of Q 0 is E +
opposite to that of the assumed polarity. The actual polarity of Q0 is
shown in Fig. 3.
Q0 = 500 mC
RESULT Fig. 3.
Initial charge, Q0 = 500 mC (with polarity as shown in Fig. 3)

EXAMPLE 4.19 t=0
In the RC circuit of Fig. 1, the capacitor has an initial charge of Q 0 = 120 µC.
When the switch is closed at t = 0, find the time taken for the capacitor voltage to +
drop from 50 V to 10 V. 100 2 mF Q0
E
SOLUTION
Given that,
Fig. 1.
Initial charge, Q 0 = 120 µC
Q0 -6
` Initial voltage, V0 = = 120 # 10 = 60 V
C 2 # 10- 6
Let, vC (t) be the voltage across the capacitor with a polarity same as that of Q0, as shown in Fig. 2.
The s-domain equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 3.
t=0
+ E
1
V1
+ + + sC
Q +
R vC(t) V0 a 0 R V2 VC(s)
C
E E E + V0
E s
E
C = 2 mF, R = 100
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
1
V0
V1 = # sC
s R+ 1
sC
V0 1
= # .....(1)
s sRC + 1

V0 V0
VC (s) + V1 = ⇒ VC (s) = − V1
s s
V0 V 1 Using equation (1)
` VC (s) = − 0 #
s s sRC + 1
V0 V0 sRC + 1 − 1 V0
c1 − m = c m =
= 1 sRC
c m
s sRC + 1 s sRC + 1 s RC s + 1
RC
V0
` VC (s) =
s+ 1 L "e- at , = 1
RC s+a
v (t)
vC (t)
⇒ In c CV m = − RC
t
t t
vC (t) = V0 e- RC ⇒ = e- RC
V0 0
vC (t)
` t = − RC ;In c mE
V0
–6 –6
Here, RC = 100 × 2 × 10 = 200 × 10 seconds
V0 = 60 V
vC (t)
` t = − 200 # 10- 6 ;In c mE .....(2)
60
Let, the time instant at which vC (t) = 50 V be t1.

From equation (2),
t1 = − 200 # 10- 6 ;In c 50 mE = 3.6464 # 10- 5 = 36.464 # 10- 6 seconds

60
Let the time instant at which vC (t) = 10 V be t2.
From equation (2),
t 2 = − 200 # 10- 6 ;In c 10 mE = 3.5835 # 10- 4 = 358.35 # 10- 6 seconds

60
3 = t 2 − t1
` Time for capacitor voltage
to drop from 50 V to 10 V
–6 –6
= 358.35 × 10 − 36.464 × 10
–6
= 321.886 × 10 seconds
= 321.886 µs
EXAMPLE 4.20
A capacitor has an initial charge of Q 0. A resistance R is connected across the capacitor at t = 0, to
discharge the charge. The power transient of the capacitor pC (t) = 800e–4000 t W. Find the value of R and Q 0.
Take C = 10 µF.
SOLUTION
Let, vC (t) = Voltage across capacitor
i(t) = Current through capacitor
∴ Power, p (t) = vC (t) × i(t)
The time domain and s-domain RC circuits are shown in Figs 1 and 2, respectively.
t=0
1
+ + + sC
vC(t) V0 vR(t) R R
i(t) I(s)
E E E V0 +
s E
Q0
V0 a
C
Fig. 1. Fig. 2.
V0
s V 1 V0 V0
I (s) = = 0 # = =
1 +R s 1 +R 1 + sR R cs + 1 m
sC sC C RC
V0 1
` I ( s) =
R s+ 1
RC
L- 1 "I (s) , = L- 1
V0
*R s+ 1 4
1
RC 1
L "e- at , =
V t s+a
` i (t) = 0 e- RC A
R
vR (t) = i (t) # R
V0 - t
` vR (t) = e RC # R
R
t
= V0 e- RC V
Also, vR(t) = vC (t)
t
` vC (t) = V0 e- RC V
Power in capacitor, p C (t) = vC (t) × i (t)

t V0 - t
= V0 e- RC # e RC
R
V02 - 2t
= e RC W
R .....(1)
Given that, p C (t) = 800e −4000t W .....(2)

2 = 4000 RC = 1
RC ⇒ 2 4000
` R = 2 # 1 = 2 # 1 = 50 Ω Given that, C = 10 µF
C 4000 10 # 10- 6 4000
Again on comparing equations (1) and (2), we get,
V02
= 800
R
` V0 = 800 # R = 800 # 50 = 200 V
We know that, Q0 = V0 C
–6 –6
∴ Q 0 = 200 × 10 × 10 = 2000 × 10 C
= 2000 µC
RESULT
R = 50 Ω, Q0 = 2000 µC
EXAMPLE 4.21
In the circuit of Fig. 1, the switch is closed for a long time. +
100 k
25 A vC(t) 150 mF
At t = 0, the switch is opened. Find vC (t). t=0 E
SOLUTION
When the switch is closed, the current source is shorted
and so no current will flow to R and C in parallel. Since the switch Fig. 1.
is closed for a long time, the charges in the capacitor might have discharged through 100 kΩ in parallel. Hence,
there is no initial charge in the capacitor.
VC(s)
Let, L "vC (t) , = VC (s), Also, L "25 , = 25 VC (s)
s VC (s) 1
The s-domain equivalent of the RC circuit is shown in Fig. 2. R sC
+
25 1
With reference to Fig. 2, by KCL we can write, R VC(s)
s sC
E
VC (s) VC (s)
+ = 25
R 1 s
sC
Fig. 2.
VC (s) c 1 + sC m = 25
R s
VC (s) C c 1 + s m = 25
RC s
VC (s) = 25 # 1
s C cs + 1 m
RC
25
` VC (s) = C
s cs + 1 m
RC
By partial fraction expansion technique, VC (s) can be expressed as,

25
C K K2
VC (s) = = 1 +
s cs + 1 m s s+ 1
RC RC
25 25 25
K1 = C #s = C = C = 25R
s cs + 1 m s+ 1 1
RC RC s=0
RC
s=0
25 25 25
K2 = C # cs + 1 m = C = C = − 25R
s cs + 1
m
RC s
s =- 1 − 1
RC RC RC
s =- 1
RC
` VC (s) = 25R − 25R

s s+ 1
RC
Let us take the inverse Laplace transform of VC (s).

L$ A . = A
L- 1 " VC (s) , = L- 1 ' 25R 1 − L- 1 25R
s
s *s + 1 4 L' -A A
1 = s + a
RC e at
t
` vC (t) = 25R − 25R e- RC
t
= 25R ^1 − e- RC h V
3 –6
Here, RC = 100 × 10 × 150 × 10 = 15 seconds
t
` vC (t) = 25 # 100 # 103 ^1 − e- 15 h V
t t
= 2.5 # 106 ^1 − e- 15 h V = 2.5 ^1 − e- 15 h MV

t=0
When a dc voltage is applied to the capacitor in the circuit of R
Fig. 1, the voltage across its terminals is found to build up in accordance with
vC(t) = 50(1 – e−100t) V. After 0.01 second the current flow is equal to 2 mA.
+ +
(1) Find the value of capacitance in Farad. E i(t) vC(t) C
E E
(2) How much energy is stored in the electric field?
SOLUTION Fig. 1.
The capacitor voltage and current in an RC series circuit is,
vC (t) = E d1 − e n
t
- RC
.....(1)
t
i ( t) = E e
- RC
.....(2)
R
Given that,
vC (t) = 50 _1 − e- 100t i .....(3)
E = 50 V ; 1 = 100
RC
On substituting the above values in equation (2), we get,
i (t) = 50 e- 100t .....(4)

R
Given that, at t = 0.01 second, i(t) = 2 mA = 2 × 10-3 A
On substituting the above values in equation (4), we get,
2 # 10-3 = 50 # e- 100 # 0.01 & R = 50 1

# e- = 9196.986 W
R 2 # 10-3
∴ R = 9196.986 W ≈ 9197 W
Here, 1 = 100
RC
` C = 1 = 1 = 1.0873 # 10-6 F = 1.0873 µF

R # 100 9197 # 100
The energy stored in the capacitor is,
WC = 1 C vC2 (3)
2
Here, vC (3) = vC (t) = 50 _1 − e- 3 i = 50 V

t=3
Energy, WC = 1 C vC2 (3) = 1 # 1.0873 # 10-6 # 50 2 = 1.3591 # 10-3 Joules

2 2
t=0
EXAMPLE 4.23 R
An RC circuit is excited by a sinusoidal source of voltage + E

vR(t)
50 sin 314 t V. Find the voltage and current in the capacitor. Take
+ +
R = 100 Ω and C = 20 µF. e(t) i(t) vC(t) C
E
~ E
SOLUTION
Given that, e(t) = 50 sin 314t V
Fig. 1.
–6
R = 100 Ω and C = 20 µF = 20 × 10 F
The time domain RC circuit is shown in Fig. 1.

Let, L{e(t)} = E(s) and L{i(t)} = I(s)
∴ E(s) = L{e(t)} = L{50 sin 314t }
= 50 # 314 = 215700 2
s 2 + 314 2 s + 314
The s-domain equivalent of the RC circuit is shown in Fig. 2. With reference to Fig. 2, we can write,
E ( s)
I ( s) =
R+ 1 R
sC
E ( s) sC
= = E ( s) # +
sRC + 1 RC cs + 1 m 1
sC RC E(s)
~ I(s) sC
E
= 15700 # s
s2 + 3142 R ds + 1 n
RC
Fig. 2.
−6
Here, RC = 100 × 20 × 10 = 0.002 second.
` I (s) = 15700 # s
s 2 + 314 2 100 cs + 1 m
0.002
= 157s
^s + 500h ^s 2 + 314 2h
By partial fraction expansion technique, we can write,
157s K1 K s + K3
I (s) = = + 2
^s + 500h ^s 2 + 314 2h s + 500 s 2 + 314 2 ..... (1)
157s 157 # ^− 500h

K1 = # ^s + 500h = = − 0.2252
^s + 500h ^s 2 + 314 2h ^− 500h2 + 314 2
s = - 500
On cross-multiplying equation (1), we get,

2
157s = K 1(s2 + 314 ) + (K 2 s + K 3 ) (s + 500)
2
157s = K1s2 + 314 K 1 + K2 s 2 + 500 K2 s + K 3 s + 500K 3
157s = (K1 + K2 )s 2 + (500 K2 + K 3 )s + 314 2 K 1 + 500 K 3 ..... (2)
On equating coefficients of s 2 of equation (2), we get,
K 1 + K2 = 0
∴ K2 = − K1 = 0.2252
On equating coefficients of s of equation (2), we get,
500 K 2 + K3 = 157
∴ K3 = 157 − 500K2
= 157 − 500 × 0.2252 = 44.4
` I (s) = − 0.2252 + 0.2252 s + 44.4

s + 500 s 2 + 314 2
= − 0.2252 + 0.2252 2 s 2 + 44.4 # 2 314 2

s + 500 s + 314 314 s + 314
= − 0.2252 #1 + 0.2252 # 2 s 2 + 0.1414 # 2 314 2

s + 500 s + 314 s + 314
Z 1 _
] − 0.2252 # + 0.2252 # 2 s 2 b
-1 -1 ] s + 500 s + 314 b L "e- at , = 1
L "I (s) , = L [ ` s + a
]] 314
2b
+ 0.1414 # 2 b
\ s + 314 a L "cos ωt , = 2 s
s + ω2
∴ i(t) = − 0.2252 e −500t + 0.2252 cos 314t + 0.1414 sin 314t L "sin ωt , = ω
s 2 + ω2
−500t
i(t) = − 0.2252 e + [sin 314t × 0.1414 + cos 314t × 0.2252]
Let us construct a right-angled triangle with 0.1414 and 0.2252 as

two sides as shown in Fig. 3. 0.14142 + 0.22522 = 0.2659

0.2252
tan φ = 0.2252 = 1.5926 f

0.1414
0.1414
−1
∴ φ = tan (1.5926) = 57.9 o ≈ 58o Fig. 3.
Also, cos φ = 0.1414 ⇒ 0.1414 = 0.2659 cos φ = 0.2659 cos 58 o

0.2659
sin φ = 0.2252 ⇒ 0.2252 = 0.2659 sin φ = 0.2659 sin 58 o

0.2659
∴ i(t) = − 0.2252 e −500t + [sin 314t × 0.2659 cos 58 o + cos 314t × 0.2659 sin 58o ]
= − 0.2252 e −500t + 0.2659 [sin 314t cos 58o + cos 314t sin 58o ]
= − 0.2252 e −500t + 0.2659 sin (314t + 58o ) A sin(A + B) = sinA cosB + cosA sinB
If i(t) is the current through the capacitor then the voltage across the capacitor vC (t) is given by,
vC (t) = 1
C # i (t) dt
` vC (t) = 1
C # 6− 0.2252 e- 500t + 0.2659 sin ^314t + 58 h@ dt
o
- 500t 0.2659 cos ^314t + 58 oh E

= 1
-6
; − 0.2252 e −
20 # 10 − 500 314
sin(q – 90o) = –cosq
= − 0.2252 e- 500t + 0.2659 sin ^314t + 58 o − 90 oh

20 # 10- 6 # ^− 500h 20 # 10- 6 # 314
= 22.52 e −500t + 42.34 sin (314t − 32o ) V
RESULT
i(t) = −0.2252 e −500t + 0.2659 sin (314t + 58o ) A
vC (t) = 22.52 e −500t + 42.34 sin (314t −32o ) V
EXAMPLE 4.24 t=0

In the circuit of Fig. 1, the switch remains in position-1 for a long
1 2
time. At t = 0, the switch is moved from position-1 to position-2. Find an 50
expression for the current through the RC circuit. +
SOLUTION e(t)
~ 50
E 20 mF
In position-1, the circuit has attained a steady state. Hence, we can o
e(t) = 100 sin(200t + 45 )V
perform steady state analysis. The steady state of the RC circuit with switch
in position-1 is shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 1.
The standard form of sinusoidal source is, E m sin (ωt ± φ).
Here, E m sin (ωt ± φ) = 100 sin(200t + 45 o ) V 50 W

+
100 o
E= Ð 45
∴ E m = 100 V, ω = 200 rad/s, φ = 45 o ~ 2
+
1
- V0
jwC
-
Em = 100+45 o V =
1
j ´ 200 ´ 20 ´ 10 -6
` Rms value of voltage, E = E m = 100 +45 o V Fig. 2. = - j250 W

2 2
Let V0 be the voltage across the capacitor in steady state. By voltage division rule,
− j250
V0 = 100 +45 o #
2 50 − j250
= 100 +45 o # 250+ − 90 o

2 254.951+ − 78.7 o
= 69.3375∠33.7 o V
Let, V0 = V0 = 69.3375 V
This steady state voltage V 0 = 69.3375 V will be the initial voltage when the switch is moved from
position-1 to position-2.
When the switch is changed from position-1 to position-2, a steady voltage of V 0 (and hence a charge
of Q 0 ) exists across the capacitance. Since the capacitance does not allow a sudden change in voltage, this
steady voltage V 0 will be the initial voltage when the switch is closed to position-2.
∴ vC (0 −) = vC (0 +) = V0 = 69.3375 V
The time domain and s-domain RC circuits with the switch in position-2 are shown in Figs 3 and 4,
respectively.
50 W
50 W
50 W 50 W 1 1
i(t) I(s) =
+ + sC 20 ´ 10 -6 s
vC(t) V0 + V0 69.3375
- =
- - s s
Fig. 3. Fig. 4.
Let, i(t) be the current through the RC circuit, when the switch is closed to position-2 at t = 0.
Let, I(s) = L{i (t)}
69.3375
I ( s) = s
50 + 50 + 1
20 # 10- 6 s
= 69.3375 # 1
s 100 + 1
20 # 10- 6 s
69.3375 69.3375 = 0.693375

^s + 500h
= =
1 1
100s + 100 c s + m
20 # 10- 6 100 # 20 # 10- 6
` I (s) = 0.693375 1
s + 500 L "e- at , =
s + a
i(t) = 0.693375 e −500t A
4.9 Solved Problems in RLC Transient

EXAMPLE 4.25 (AU June’14, 16 Marks) t=0
60 0.2 H
An RLC series circuit is excited by a dc source of 100 V. Find
+ E + E
an expression for current and voltage in the elements of the circuit. vR(t) vL(t)
Take R = 60 Ω, L = 0.2 H and C = 50 µF. Also draw the initial and final + +
state of the circuits. 100 V vC(t) 50 mF
i(t)
E E
SOLUTION
The time domain RLC circuit is shown in Fig. 1. Let the switch
be closed at t = 0 and i(t) be the current through the circuit.
Fig. 1.
Here, L "i (t) , = I (s) and L "100 , = 100 60 0.2s
s
The s-domain RLC circuit is shown in Fig. 2. With reference
+
to Fig. 2, we can write, 100 1
I(s) 50 ´ 10 -6 s
s
100 -
I ( s) = s
60 + 0.2s + 1
50 # 10- 6 s
Fig. 2.
= 100 = 100
1 60 s + 1
60s + 0.2s 2 + c m
2
0. 2 s +
50 # 10- 6 0.2 0.2 # 50 # 10- 6
= 500
s 2 + 300s + 105
Let us examine the roots of the denominator polynomial of I(s).

The roots of quadratic s 2 + 300s + 105 = 0 are,
2 5
s = − 300 ! 300 − 4 # 10 = − 300 ! − 310000
2 2
= − 300 ! − 1 310000 = − 150 ! j278.3882

2
Since the roots are complex conjugate the current i(t) will be damped sinusoid. Let us rearrange the
terms of denominator polynomial of I(s) as shown below:
I ( s) = 500 = 500
^s 2 + 2 # 150s + 150 2h + 105 − 150 2 ^s + 150h2 + 77500 Add and subtract 1502
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab +b2

= 500 = 500
2
^s + 150h2 + ^ 77500 h ^s + 150h2 + 278.4 2
= 500 # 278.4 = 1.796 # 278.4

278.4 ^s + 150h2 + 278.4 2 ^s + 150h2 + 278.4 2
L- 1 "I (s) , = L- 1 '1.796 # 278.4

1 L "e- at sin ωt , = ω
^s + 150h2 + 278.4 2 ^s + ah2 + ω2
∴ i(t) = 1.796 e −150t sin 278.4t A ..... (1)

vR (t) = R × i(t)
Using equation (1)
= 60 × 1.796 e −150t sin 278.4t
= 107.76 e −150t sin 278.4t V ..... (2)
We know that if i(t) is the current through inductance then voltage across the inductance is given by,
vL (t) = L d i (t)
dt Using equation (1)
= 0.2 d 61.796 e- 150t sin 278.4t @ d (uv) = u dv − v du

dt
= 0.2 × 1.796 [e −150t cos 278.4t × 278.4 + e −150t × (−150) sin 278.4t ]
= 100 e −150t cos 278.4t − 53.88 e −150t sin 278.4t ..... (3)
= e −150t [cos 278.4t × 100 − sin 278.4t × 53.88] ..... (4)
Let us construct a right-angled triangle with 100 and 53.88 as two sides as shown in Fig. 3.
tan φ = 53.88 = 0.5388

100
1002 + 53.882 = 113.592
−1 o
∴ φ = tan 0.5388 = 28.3
53.88
Also, sin φ = 53.88

113.592 ⇒ 53.88 = 113.592 sin φ f
100
` 53.88 = 113.592 sin 28.3 o Fig. 3. .....(5)
100
cos φ =
113.592
⇒ 100 = 113.592 cos φ
` 100 = 113.592 cos 28.3 o .....(6)
Using equations (5) and (6), equation (4) can be written as,
vL (t) = e−150t [cos 278.4t × 113.592 cos 28.3 o − sin 278.4t × 113.592 sin 28.3 o ]
= e −150t 113.592 [cos 278.4t cos 28.3 o − sin 278.4t sin 28.3 o ]
= 113.592 e −150t cos (278.4t + 28.3 o ) cos(A + B) = cosA cosB – sinA sinB
= 113.592 e −150t sin (278.4t + 28.3 o + 90o ) cosq = sin(q + 90o)
= 113.592 e −150t sin (278.4t + 118.3 o ) V
With reference to Fig. 1, by KVL, we get,
vR (t) + vL(t) + vC (t) = 100

∴ vC(t) = 100 − vR(t) − vL(t) Using equations (2) and (3)
= 100 − 107.76e −150t sin 278.4t − 100 e −150t cos 278.4t + 53.88 e −150t sin 278.4t
= 100 − 53.88 e −150t sin 278.4t − 100 e −150t cos 278.4t
= 100 − e −150t [sin 278.4t × 53.88 + cos 278.4t × 100] .....(7)

Let us construct a right-angled triangle with 53.88 and 100 as two sides as shown in Fig. 4.
53.882 + 1002 = 113.592
tan φ = 100 = 1.856
53.88
100
−1 o
∴ φ = tan 1.856 = 61.7 f
53.88 53.88
Also, cos φ = ⇒ 53.88 = 113.592 # cos φ
113.592 Fig. 4.
o
` 53.88 = 113.592 cos 61.7 .....(8)
sin φ = 100 ⇒ 100 = 113.592 sin φ

113.592
` 100 = 113.592 sin 61.7 o .....(9)
vC (t) = 100 − e −150t [sin 278.4t × 113.592 cos 61.7 o + cos278.4t × 113.592 sin 61.7 o ]
= 100 − 113.592 e−150t [sin 278.4t cos 61.7 o + cos278.4t sin 61.7 o ]
= 100 − 113.592 e −150t sin (278.4t + 61.7 o )

sin(A + B) = sinA cosB + cosA sinB
In summary
i(t) = 1.796 e−150t sin 278.4t A
vR (t) = 107.76 e −150t sin 278.4t V
vL (t) = 113.592 e −150t sin (278.4t + 118.3 o ) V
vC (t) = 100 − 113.592 e −150t sin (278.4t + 61.7 o ) V
Initial state circuit

+ +
At t = 0 , i(t) = i(0 ) = 1.796 × e 0 × sin0 = 0
+ +
At t = 0 , vR (t) = vR (0 ) = 107.76 × e 0 × sin0 = 0
+ +
At t = 0 , vL (t) = vL (0 ) = 113.592 × e 0 × sin 118.3 o = 100.0152 V ≈ 100 V
+ +
At t = 0 , vC (t) = vC (0 ) = 100 − 113.592 × e 0 × sin 61.7 o
= 100 − 100.0152 ≈ 0
+ 60 OC
From the above analysis we can say that at t = 0 , the inductance + E
100 V
behaves as an open circuit and the capacitance behaves as a short circuit.
+
Final state circuit 100 V i(0 C ) SC
E
At t = ∞, i(t) = i(∞) = 1.796 × e − ∞ × sin(∞) = 0
At t = ∞, vR (t) = vR (∞) = 107.76 × e − ∞ × sin(∞) = 0 Fig. 5 : Initial state circuit.
At t = ∞ , vL (t) = vL (∞) = 113.592 × e − ∞ × sin (∞) = 0 60 W SC
+ +
At t = ∞, vC (t) = vC(∞) = 100 − 113.592 × e− ∞ × sin(∞) = 100 − 0 = 100V 100 V i(¥) 100 V OC
- -
From the above analysis we can say that at t = ∞, i.e., at steady

state, the inductance behaves as a short circuit and the capacitance
behaves as an open circuit. Fig. 6 : Final state circuit.
EXAMPLE 4.26 t=0
2 10 H 4F
In the RLC circuit of Fig. 1, the capacitor has an initial voltage + E

40 V
of 40 V, when the switch is closed at t = 0. Find an expression for the
current i(t).
i(t)
SOLUTION
Let, L{i(t)} = I(s)
+ E
100 V
Also, L "100 , = 100 Fig. 1.
s
The s-domain equivalent of the given RLC circuit is shown in Fig. 2. 1 40

With reference to Fig. 2, we can write, 2 10s 4s s
+E
+ + E +
2I (s) + 10sI (s) + 1 I (s) + 40 = 100
E E
2I(s) 10sI(s) 1
4s s s 4s
I(s)
` I (s) ; 2 + 10s + 1 E = 100 − 40 I(s)

4s s s
I (s) ; 2 + 10s + 1 E = 60 +
4s s 100
E
s
` I (s) = 60 # 1 Fig. 2.
s 2 + 10s + 1
4s
= 60 = 60
2s + 10s 2 + 1 10 cs 2 + 2 s + 1 m
4 10 4 # 10
= 6
s 2 + 0.2s + 0.025
Let us examine the roots of the denominator polynomial of I(s).

The roots of quadratic s2 + 0.2s + 0.025 = 0 are,
2
s = − 0.2 ! 0.2 − 4 # 0.025
2
= − 0.2 ! − 0.06 = − 0.2 ! − 1 0.06 = − 0.1 ! j0.1225

2 2
Since the roots are complex conjugate, the current i(t) will be damped sinusoid. Let us rearrange the
terms of denominator polynomial of I(s) as shown below:
I (s) = 6 Add and subtract 0.12

^s 2 + 2 # 0.1s + 0.1 2h + 0.025 − 0.1 2
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab +b2
= 6 = 6
^s + 0.1h2 + 0.015 ^s + 0.1h2 + ^ 0.015 h
2
= 6 = 6 # 0.1225
^s + 0.1h2 + 0.1225 2 0.1225 ^s + 0.1h2 + 0.1225 2
= 48.9796 # 0.1225
^s + 0.1h2 + 0.1225 2
L- 1 "I (s) , = L- 1 ' 48.9796 # 0.1225

1
^s + 0.1h2 + 0.1225 2 L "e- at sin ωt , = ω
2
(s + a) 2 + ω
∴ i(t) = 48.9796 e –0.1t sin 0.1225t A
EXAMPLE 4.27 t=0

0.25 F
10.08 0.2 H
In the RLC circuit of Fig. 1, the inductor has an initial current of
10 A, when the switch is closed at t = 0. Find an expression for the current i(t). I0 = 10 A
SOLUTION
i(t)
Let, L{i(t)} = I(s)
Also, L "200 , = 200 + E

s 200 V
The s-domain equivalent of the given RLC circuit is shown in Fig. 2. Fig. 1.
With reference to Fig. 2, we can write, 1
10.08 0.2s 0.25s
10.08I (s) + 0.2s I (s) + 1 I (s) = 200 + 2 -+
0.25s s + - + - + -
10.08I(s) 0.2sI(s) LI0 1
= 0.2 ´ 10 I(s)
0.25s
I (s) ;10.08 + 0.2s + 1
E =
200 + 2s = 2V
0.25s s
I(s)
` I (s) = 200 + 2s # 1
s 10.08 + 0.2s + 1 + -
0.25s 200
s Fig. 2.
= 200 + 2s = 200 + 2s = 21000 + 10s
10.08s + 0.2s 2 + 1 0.2 cs 2 + 10.08 s + 1
m s + 50.4s + 20
0.25 0.2 0.2 # 0.25
The roots of quadratic, s2 + 50.4s + 20 = 0 are,

2
s = − 50.4 ! 50.4 − 4 # 20
2
= − 50.4 ! 49.6 = − 0.4, − 50

2
` I (s) = 1000 + 10s

^s + 0.4h ^s + 50h

1000 + 10s K1 K2
I (s) = = +
^s + 0.4h ^s + 50h s + 0.4 s + 50
K1 = 1000 + 10s # ^s + 0.4h

^s + 0.4h ^s + 50h
s = - 0.4
1000 + 10 # ^− 0.4h
= 1000 + 10s = = 20.0806 . 20
s + 50 s = - 0.4
− 0.4 + 50
K2 = 1000 + 10s # ^s + 50h

^s + 0.4h ^s + 50h
s = - 50
1000 + 10 # ^− 50h
= 1000 + 10s = = − 10.0806 c − 10
s + 0. 4 s = - 50
− 50 + 0.4
` I ( s) = 20 − 10
s + 0.4 s + 50
L- 1 "I (s) , = L- 1 ' 20 − 10

1 1
s + 0.4 s + 50 L "e- at , =
s+a
∴ i(t) = 20 e –0.4t − 10 e –50t A
= 10 c 20 e- 0.4t − e- 50t m A
10
= 10 (2 e −0.4t − e−50t ) A
EXAMPLE 4.28 t=0

20 2H
Find i(t) in the circuit of Fig. 1, if the switch is closed at t = 0.
SOLUTION E
i(t) 6V 0.02 F
Let, L{i(t)} = I(s) +
Also, L "18 , = 18 + E
s 18 V
Fig. 1.
The s-domain equivalent of the given circuit is shown in Fig. 2. With reference to Fig. 2, by KVL, we
can write,
1 I (s) = 18 + 6 20 2s
20 I (s) + 2s I (s) +
0.02s s s + E + E
20I(s) 2sI(s) +
1 1
I(s)
0.02s 0.02s
I (s) ; 20 + 2s + 1
E =
24 E
0.02s s I(s)
E 6
+
s
` I (s) = 24 # 1
s 20 + 2s + 1 + E
0.02s 18
s
24 24 Fig. 2.
= =
2 cs 2 + 20 s +
2 # 0.02 m
20s + 2s 2 + 1 1
0.02 2
= 12
s 2 + 10s + 25
The roots of quadratic, s2 + 10s + 25 = 0 are,

2
s = − 10 ! 10 − 4 # 25 = − 10 = − 5
2 2
` I (s) = 12
^s + 5h2

1
L- 1 "I (s) , = L- 1 ' 12
1 L " t e- at , =
^s + 5h2 (s + a) 2
i(t) = 12t e –5t A
EXAMPLE 4.29 R 1
t=0
In the circuit of Fig. 1, the switch is closed to position-1 for a long time. 2
At t = 0, the switch position is changed from position-1 to position-2. Find an +
expression for i(t). E
E C L
SOLUTION
i(t)
Since the switch is closed for a long time, the circuit might have attained
Fig. 1.
steady state. The steady state circuit with switch in position-1 is shown in Fig. 2. R
Here a steady current of I 0 flows through the inductance.

+
E
I0 SC
I0 = E
E
R
This current I 0 will be the initial current through the inductance when the
switch is moved to position-2. Fig. 2.
Let, L "i (t) , = I (s)
The s-domain equivalent of the given circuit with switch in position-2 is shown in Fig. 3.

sL
LE 1
I (s) = R I(s)
sC
1 + sL
sC E LI0
+
LE
a
R
= LE # 1 = LE # sC
Fig. 3.
R 1 + s 2 LC R LC cs 2 + 1 m
sC LC
= E s = E s
R s2 + 1 R 2 1 2
LC s + c m
LC
L- 1 "I (s) , = L- 1 E s
*R s2 + c 1 m 4
2 L "cos ωt , = s
s 2 + ω2
LC
` i (t) = E cos 1 t A
R LC
CONCLUSION
The current is sinusoidal in nature and does not decay because ideal inductance and capacitance do
not consume energy.
EXAMPLE 4.30 2
t=0
In the circuit of Fig. 1, the switch remains in position-1 for a long time.
At t = 0, the switch is closed to position-2. Determine the current response. 1 2
+
0.4 H
SOLUTION 10 V 0.1 F
E
In position-1, the circuit should have attained a steady state because Fig. 1.
the switch was closed for a long time. The steady state condition of the given
2
circuit with switch in position-1 is shown in Fig. 2. Here a steady current of I 0
flows through the inductance.
+ I0 SC
10 V
I0 = 10 = 5 A E
2
This current I0 will be the initial current when the switch is changed
from position-1 to position-2. Fig. 2.
Let, i(t) be the current through the circuit when the switch is closed to position-2.
Let, I(s) = L{i(t)}
The time domain and s-domain circuits with switch in position-2 are shown in Figs 3 and 4, respectively.
2W 2
0.4s
1
0.1 F i(t) I0 0.4 H
0.1s I(s)
-
+ LI0 = 0.4 ´ 5 = 2 V
Fig. 3. Fig. 4.
I ( s) = 2
2 + 0.4s + 1
0.1s
= 2 = 2 # 0.1s
2 # 0.1s + 0.4s # 0.1s + 1 0.2s + 0.04s 2 + 1
0.1s
= 0.2s = 2 5s
0.04 cs 2 + 0.2 s + 1 m s + 5s + 25
0.04 0.04
The roots of the quadratic, s2 + 5s + 25 = 0 are,
2
s = − 5 ! 5 − 4 # 25 = − 5 ! − 75
2 2
= − 5 ! − 1 75 = − 2.5 ! j4.3301
2
Since the roots are complex conjugate, the response will be damped sinusoid. Let us rearrange the
terms of denominator polynomial of I(s).
Add and subtract 2.52
I (s) = 5s = 5s
^s 2 + 2 # 2.5s + 2.5 2h + 25 − 2.5 2 ^s + 2.5h2 + 18.75 (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab +b2
5s 5^s + 2.5 − 2.5h

= 2
=
^s + 2.5h2 + ^ 18.75 h ^s + 2.5h2 + 4.33 2
5^s + 2.5h
= − 2.5 # 5 # 4.33
^s + 2.5h2 + 4.33 2 4.33 ^s + 2.5h2 + 4.33 2
^s + 2.5h 4.33
= 5# − 2.8868 #
^s + 2.5h2 + 4.33 2 ^s + 2.5h2 + 4.33 2
^s + 2.5h
L- 1 "I (s) , = 5 # L- 1 ) 3 − 2.8868 # L
-1
'
4.33
1
^s + 2.5h2 + 4.33 2 ^s + 2.5h2 + 4.33 2
∴ i(t) = 5 e –2.5t cos 4.33t − 2.8868 e –2.5t sin 4.33t
= e –2.5t [cos 4.33t × 5 − sin 4.33t × 2.8868] .....(1)

Let us construct a right-angled triangle with 5 and 2.8868 as two sides as shown in Fig. 5.
52 + 2.88682 = 5.7735
tan φ = 2.8868 = 0.5774
5 2.8868
∴ φ = tan−1 0.5774 = 30o f

5
Also, cos φ = 5 ⇒ 5 = 5.7735 cos φ
5.7735 Fig. 5.
` 5 = 5.7735 cos 30 o .....(2)
sin φ = 2.8868 ⇒ 2.8868 = 5.7735 sin φ

5.7735
` 2.8868 = 5.7735 sin 30 o .....(3)
i(t) = e − 2.5t [cos 4.33t × 5.7735 cos 30 o − sin 4.33t × 5.7735 sin 30o ]
= 5.7735 e − 2.5t [cos 4.33t cos 30 o − sin 4.33t sin 30o ]
= 5.7735 e − 2.5t cos (4.33t + 30o )

cos(A + B) = cosA cosB – sinA sinB
= 5.7735 e − 2.5t sin (4.33t + 30o + 90o )
cosq = sin(q + 90o)
− 2.5t o
= 5.7735 e sin (4.33t + 120 ) A
t=0
EXAMPLE 4.31
1 2
In the circuit of Fig. 1, the switch is closed to position-1 for a long 10
time. At t = 0, the switch position is changed from 1 to 2. Determine the +
current response. 20 V 0.2 H
E 100 mF
SOLUTION
Case i : Switch in position-1 Fig. 1.
In position-1, the circuit should have attained a steady state because
the switch was closed for a long time. The steady state condition of the
given circuit with switch in position-1 is shown in Fig. 2. Here the capacitor 10
is fully charged and behaves as an open circuit. Hence, the voltage across +
the capacitor V0 will be equal to the supply voltage 20 V. 20 V +
E V0 = 20 V OC
∴ V0 = 20 V E
This voltage V0 will be the initial voltage when the switch position is
moved from 1 to 2.
Fig. 2.
Let, i(t) be the current through the circuit when the switch is closed to position-2.
Let, I(s) = L{i(t)}

The time domain and s-domain circuits with the switch in position-2 are shown in Figs 3 and 4, respectively.
10
10 W
0.2s
0.2 H 1 1
i(t) I(s) =
+ sC 100 ´ 10 -6 s
20 V 100 mF 20
+
- -
s
Fig. 3. Fig. 4.
20
I ( s) = s
0.2s + 10 + 1
100 # 10- 6 s
= 20 = 20
1 0.2 cs + 10 1
m
2 2
0.2s + 10s + s+
100 # 10- 6 0.2 0.2 # 100 # 10- 6
100 100 Add and subtract 252

= 2
=
s + 50s + 50000 ^s 2 + 2 # 25s + 25 2h + 50000 − 25 2 (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab +b2
= 100 = 100 = 100

^s + 25h2 + 49375 ^s + 25h2 + ^ 49375 h
2
^s + 25h2 + ^222.2h2
= 100 # 222.2
222.2 ^s + 25h2 + ^222.2h2
= 0.45 # 222.2
^s + 25h2 + 222.2 2
L- 1 "I (s) , = L- 1 '0.45 # 222.2

1 L "e- at sin ωt , = ω
^s + 25h2 + 222.2 2 (s + a) 2 + ω
2
i(t) = 0.45 e–25t sin (222.2t) A

1. The study of the switching condition in a circuit is called transient analysis.
2. The state of a circuit from the instant of switching to attainment of steady state is called transient.
3. The duration from the instant of switching till the attainment of steady state is called transient
period.
4. The current and voltage of circuit elements during the transient period is called transient
response.
5. The transients are due to inductance and capacitance. There is no transient in purely resistive
circuits.
6. The response of a circuit due to stored energy alone is called natural response or
source-free response.
7. The response of a circuit due to an external source is called forced response.
8. In s-domain or Laplace domain, inductive reactance is represented as sL and capacitive
reactance as 1/sC.
9. In transient analysis using Laplace transform, intial current I0 in inductance can be
represented by a voltage source of value LI0 delivering current in the direction of I0 .
10. In transient analysis using Laplace transform, initial voltage V0 in capacitance can be
represented by a voltage source of value V0 /s with the same polarity/sign as that of V0.
11. The inital value theorem of Laplace transform can be used to determine the initial value
of voltages and currents form their s-domain equations.
12. The initial value theorem of Laplace transform states that if F(s) is Laplace transform of f(t) then
Lt f (t) = Lt s F (s)
t"0 s"3
` Initial value of f (t) = f (0) = Lt s F (s)
s"3
13. The final value theorem of Laplace transform can be used to determine the final values of
voltages and currents from their s-domain equations.
14. The final value theorem of Laplace transform states that if F(s) is Laplace transform of f(t) then
Lt f (t) = Lt s F (s)
t"3 s"0
` Final value of f (t) = f (3) = Lt s F (s)
s"0
15. When switched to dc supply, an inductance initially behaves as a current source if there
is an initial current or as an open circuit if there is no initial current and finally behaves
as a short circuit irrespective of inital current.
16. When switched to dc supply, a capacitance initially behaves as a voltage source if there is
an initial voltage or as a short circuit if there is no initial voltage and finally behaves as an
open circuit irrespective of inital voltage.
17. The source-free response i(t) in an RL circuit due to initial current I0 is given by,
t
i (t) = I0 e- x ; where, τ = L = Time constant.
R
18. The transient equations of an RL circuit excited by a dc supply of E volts are,
t
i (t) = E _1 − e- x i
R
t
vL (t) = E e- x
t
vR (t) = E _1 − e- x i
where, τ = L = Time constant.

R
19. The time constant of an RL circuit can be defined in the following four different ways.
inductance to reach steady value if the initial rate of rise is maintained.
 The time constant of an RL circuit is defined as the ratio of inductance and resistance
of the circuit.
inductance to reach 63.21% of the final steady value.
 The time constant of an RL circuit is defined as the time taken by the voltage across
the inductance to fall to 36.79% of the initial value.
20. The source-free response vC(t) in an RC circuit due to inital voltage V0 is given by,
t
vC (t) = − V0 e- x ; where, τ = RC = Time constant.
21. The transient equations of an RC circuit excited by a dc supply of E volts are,
t
vC (t) = E _1 − e- x i
t
i (t) = E e- x
R
t
vR (t) = E e- x
where, τ = RC = Time constant.
22. The time constant of an RC circuit can be defined in the follwing four different ways:
 The time constant of an RC circuit is defined as the time taken by the voltage across
the capacitance to reach steady value if the initial rate of rise is maintained.
 The time constant of an RC circuit is defined as the product of resistance and
capacitance of the circuit.
 The time constant of an RC circuit is defined as the time taken by the voltage across
the capacitance to reach 63.21% of the final steady value.
 The time constant of an RC circuit is defined as the time taken by the current through
the capacitance to fall to 36.79% of the initial value.
23. The response i(t) of an RLC circuit excited by a dc supply of E volts will take any one
of the following three forms depending on the value of R, L and C:
i (t) = E e- g~n t sin ω t ; 0 < ζ < 1 ; Underdamped response.
d
Lωd
i (t) = E t e- ~n t ; ζ = 1 ; Critically damped response.
L
i (t) = E
2
e- g~n t ae~n g2 - 1 t
− e- ~n g2 - 1 t k
; ζ > 1; Overdamped response.
2Lωn ζ − 1
where, ζ = R C = Damping ratio.
2 L
ωn = 1 = Natural frequency of oscillation.
LC
ωd = ωn 1 − ζ2 = Damped frequency of oscillation.
24. The ratio of resistance of a circuit and resistance for critical damping (or critical resistance) is
called damping ratio, ζ.
` Damping ratio, ζ = R = R = R C
RC 2 L 2 L
C
25. Critical resistance RC is the value of the resistance of a circuit to achieve critical damping
and it is given by, R C = 2 L .
C

Q4.1 What is transient?
The state (or condition) of a circuit from the instant of switching to the attainment of a steady
state is called transient state or simply transient.
Q4.2 Why does transient occur in electric circuits?
The inductance does not allow a sudden change in current and the capacitance does not
allow a sudden change in voltage. Hence, in inductive and capacitive circuits (or in general
in reactive circuits), transient occurs during a switching operation.
Q4.3 What are free and forced response? (AU June’14, 2 Marks)
The response of a circuit due to stored energy alone is called free response and the response
of a circuit due to an external source is called forced response.
Q4.4 What is a complementary function?
The part of the response or solution which becomes zero as t tends to infinity is called
complementary function. It is the transient part of the response or solution.
Q4.5 What is a particular solution?
The part of the solution or response which attains a steady value as t tends to infinity is called
particular solution. It is the steady state part of the solution.
Q4.6 Define time constant of an RL circuit. (AU June’14,’16, Dec’15, & May’17, 2 Marks)
The time constant of an RL circuit is defined as the time taken by the current through the
inductance to reach a steady value if the initial rate of rise is maintained.
Q4.7 Distinguish between steady state and transient state.

In transient state, the values of voltage and current will not be constant, whereas in steady
state, the values of voltage and current will attain a steady value.
Q4.8 What is the time constant of an RL circuit with R = 10 W and L = 20 mH ?

-3
Time constant, τ = L = 20 # 10 = 2 # 10- 3 second = 2 ms
R 10
0.3 H
Q4.9 What is the time constant of an RL circuit shown in Fig. Q4.9.1?
Let us find an equivalent inductance at terminals A-B using

E +E 0.9 H 10
Thevenin’s theorem as shown below:
Using Thevenin’s equivalent, the given network can be drawn as
shown in Fig. Q4.9.5.
Leq Fig. Q4.9.1.
Now, Time constant, τ = = 0.225 = 0.0225 second = 22.5 ms
R 10
0.3 H 0.3 H
A A A Leq = 0.225 H
0.3 ´ 0.9
E +- 0.9 H 12 W SC 0.9 H Leq L eq =
0.3 + 0.9 Vth +- 10 W
Leq = 0.225 H
B B B
Fig. Q4.9.2. Fig. Q4.9.3. Fig. Q4.9.4. Fig. Q4.9.5.
Q4.10 Define time constant of an RC circuit. (AU June’14 & Dec’15, 2 Marks)
The time constant of an RC circuit is defined as the time taken by the voltage across the
capacitance to reach a steady value if the initial rate of rise is maintained.
Q4.11 What is the time constant of an RC circuit with R = 10 kW and C = 40 mF ?

3 −6
Time constant, t = RC = 10 × 10 × 40 × 10 = 0.4 second.
10
Q4.12 What is the time constant of an RC circuit shown in Fig. Q4.12.1?
Let us find an equivalent resistance at terminals A-B using
Thevenin’s theorem as shown below: E +E 40 0.5 F
Using Thevenin’s equivalent, the given network can be drawn

as shown in Fig. Q4.12.5.
Now, Time constant, t = R eq C = 8 × 0.5 = 4 seconds. Fig. Q4.12.1.

10 W A 10 W A A Req = 8 W
10 ´ 40
E +- 40 W 0.5 F SC 40 W Req Req =
10 + 40 Vth +- 0.5 F
Req = 8W
B B B
Fig. Q4.12.2. Fig. Q4.12.3. Fig. Q4.12.4. Fig. Q4.12.5.
Q4.13 What is damping ratio?
The ratio of resistance of a circuit and resistance for critical damping is called damping ratio.
Q4.14 What is critical damping?

Critical damping is the condition of a circuit at which the oscillations in the response are just
eliminated. This is possible by increasing the value of resistance in the circuit.
Q4.15 What is critical resistance?

Critical resistance is the value of the resistance of a circuit to achieve critical damping.
Q4.16 Write the expression for critical resistance and damping ratio of an RLC series circuit.
Critical resistance, RC = 2 L
C
Damping ratio, ζ = R = R C
RC 2 L
Q4.17 What is natural and damped frequency?
The response of a circuit is completely oscillatory with a frequency ωn in the absence of

resistance and this frequency ωn is called natural frequency.
The response of an underdamped circuit is oscillatory with a frequency of ωd and these

oscillations are damped as t tends to infinity. The frequency of damped oscillatory response
is called damped frequency.
Q4.18 Write the condition for underdamping and critical damping in an RLC series circuit.
2
The condition for underdamping is, c R m < 1
2L LC
2
The condition for critical damping is, c R m = 1
2L LC
Q4.19 An RLC series circuit with L = 2 H and C = 5 mF. Determine the value of R to give critical
damping. (AU June’16, 2 Marks)
Let, RC = Value of R for critical damping
RC = 2 L = 2# 2 = 1264.911 Ω
C 5 # 10- 6
Q4.20 An RLC series circuit with R = 10 W and L = 2 H. Determine the value of C to give critical
damping. (AU Dec’16, 2 Marks)
For critical damping, the value of R is given by,
R = 2 L ⇒ R2 = 4 L ⇒ C = 4L2
C C R
Let, CC = Value of capacitor for critical damping.
` CC = 4L2 = 4 #22 = 0.08 F = 80 # 10- 3 F = 80 mF

R 10
Q4.21 An RL series circuit with R = 10 W is excited by a dc voltage source of 30 V by closing the

switch at t = 0. Determine the current in the circuit at t = 2 t.
t
Current, i (t) = E ^1 − e- x h
R
= 30 ^1 − e- 2h = 2.594 A
10
Q4.22 An RC series circuit is excited by a dc voltage source of 80 V by closing the switch at t = 0.
Determine the voltage across the capacitor in a time of one time constant.
t
Voltage across capacitor, vC (t) = E ^1 − e- x h
= 80 ^1 − e- 1h = 50.5696 V
Q4.23 A 50 mF capacitor is discharged through a 100 kW resistor. If the capacitor is initially
charged to 400 V, determine the initial energy.
Initial energy = 1 CV02 = 1 # 50 # 10- 6 # 4002
2 2
= 4 Joules
Q4.24 An RLC series circuit with R = 5 W is excited by a dc source of 10 V by closing the switch
at t = 0. Draw the initial and final conditions of the circuit.
5W OC SC 5W SC OC
+ _ + _ + _ + _
+
vL (0 ) = 10V vC (0 + ) = 0 vL(¥) = 0 vC(¥) = 10 V
+ +
10 V + 10 V
i(0 ) = 0 i(¥) = 0
- -
Fig. Q4.24.1 : Initial condition. Fig. Q4.24.2 : Final condition.
4.12 Exercises
1. The time duration from the instant of switching till the attainment of a steady state is called ________ .
2. The current and voltage of circuit elements during transient period is called ________ .
3. The response of a circuit due to ________ alone is called natural response.
4. The complementary function is also called ________ .
+
5. In _______, the current at t = 0− is equal to the current at t = 0 .
6. In circuits excited by a dc source at steady state, the _______ behaves as a short circuit and
________ behaves as an open circuit.
7. In circuits excited by a dc source when there is no stored energy at initial state, ________ behaves
as a short circuit and ________ behaves as an open circuit.
8. The time constant of an RL circuit with R = 5 Ω and L = 0.2 H is ________ .
9. The time constant of an RC circuit with R = 200 Ω and C = 10 µF is ________ .
10. The steady state current in an RC series circuit with R = 100 Ω excited by a dc source of 10 V
is ________ .
11. The steady state voltage across the inductance in an RL circuit with R = 5 Ω, excited by a dc source
of 20 V is ________ .
12. The ratio of resistance of a circuit and resistance for critical damping is called ________ .
13. The ________ is the condition for critical damping in an RLC series circuit.
14. The frequency of oscillatory response of a circuit with zero resistance is called ________ .
15. The resistance of a circuit at critical damping is called ________ .
ANSWERS
1. transient period 6. inductance, capacitance 11. zero
2. transient response 7. capacitance, inductance 12. damping ratio
2
3. stored energy 8. 0.04 second 13. c R m = 1
2L LC
4. natural response 9. 2 ms 14. natural frequency
5. inductance 10. zero 15. critical resistance

1. Transients are due to energy storage elements.
2. There is no transient in resistive circuits.
3. The complementary function depends on the nature of the exciting source.
4. The particular solution depends on the nature of the circuit.
+
5. In a capacitance, the voltage at t = 0− is equal to the voltage at t = 0 .
6. The steady state value does not depend on initial conditions.
7. The transient in a circuit exists for a period of five time constant.
8. The time constant of a circuit does not depend on R, L and C parameters.
9. In circuits with energy storage elements, the response can attain steady state in a time of one
time constant if the initial rate of change is maintained.
10. An inductance with stored energy behaves as a current source at t = 0.
11. A capacitance with stored energy behaves as a voltage source at t = 0.
12. The oscillations in response can be reduced by reducing the resistance of a circuit.
13. Damping ratio can be adjusted by varying the capacitance of a circuit.
14. Critical resistance does not depend on inductance and capacitance.
15. Natural frequency depends on damping ratio.
ANSWERS
1. True 4. False 7. True 10. True 13. True
2. True 5. True 8. False 11. True 14. False
3. False 6. True 9. True 12. False 15. False

1. The time constant of an RL series circuit with R = 5 W and L = 0.1 H is,

a) 0.05 ms b) 20 ms c) 0.5 ms d) 2 ms
2. The current through an RL circuit excited by a 10 V dc source is given by i(t) = 2 (1 – e –10t) A. What
is the value of R and L ?
a) 5 W, 0.5 H b) 2 W, 0.1 H c) 5 W, 0.2 H d) 20 W, 0.5 H
3. An RL series circuit with R = 10 W and L = 0.2 H is excited by a dc supply of 15 V by closing the

switch at t = 0. The voltage across the inductance is,
a) 1.5 e–50 t V b) 1.5 e–0.02 t V c) 15 e–50 t V d) 15 e–0.02 t V
4. The steady state voltage across the inductance in an RL circuit with R = 5 W and excited by a dc
source of 20 V is,
a) 20 V b) – 20 V c) 4 V d) 0 V
5. An RL circuit with R = 12 W and L = 0.2 H is excited by a dc source of 24 V by closing the

switch at t = 0. The initial and final currents through the circuit respectively are,
a) 2 A, 0 A b) 0 A, 2 A c) 0.50 A, 0 A d) 0 A, 0.5 A
6. The time constant of an RC series circuit with R = 200 W and C = 100 mF is,
a) 0.05 ms b) 5.0 ms c) 2 ms d) 20 ms
7. The current through an RC circuit excited by a 5 V dc source is given by, i(t) = 2.5 e –20 t A.
What is the value of R and C ?
a) 2 W, 0.025 F b) 0.5 W, 20 F c) 5 W, 0.2 F d) 12.5 W, 0.1 F
8. An RC series circuit with R = 10kW and C = 1mF is excited by a dc supply of 20 V by closing

the switch at t = 0. The voltage across the resistance is,
a) 2 e–100 t mV b) 20 e–0.01 t mV c) 20 e–100 t V d) 2 e–0.01 t V
9. The steady state current through the capacitance in an RC circuit with R = 100 W and
excited by a DC source of 10 V is,
a) 10 A b) –10 A c) 0.1 A d) 0 A
10. An RC circuit with R = 150 W and C = 2 mF is excited by a dc source of 15 V by closing the

switch at t = 0. The initial and final voltages across the capacitor respectively are,
a) 10 V, 15 V b) 15 V, 0 V c) 0 V, 15 V d) 0 V, 10 V
11. What is the time constant of the RC circuit shown in Fig. 11? 30
a) 4 ms
20V +E 60 0.002 F
b) 40 ms
c) 0.25 ms
Fig. 11.
d) 25 ms
12. What is the time constant of the RC circuit shown in Fig. 12? R
a) 3 RC
2R C 2C
b) 2 RC
9
c) 9 RC
2 Fig. 12.
d) 2 RC
13. What is the steady state current through the inductance in the circuit shown in Fig. 13?
a) 0.5 A
+ 60
120 V 0.1 F
b) 2 A E
12 mH
c) 3 A
Fig. 13.
d) 4 A
14. In a series RLC circuit, what is the condition for critically damped response?
R = 1 R = L R = 1 2 2
d) a R k = 1
a)
2L LC
b)
2L C
c)
2L a LC k 2L LC
15. An RLC series circuit with R = 10 W, L = 0.01 H and C = 1 mF is excited by a dc source of 16V by
closing the switch at t = 0. The initial and final voltages across the capacitor respectively are,
a) 0 V, 1.6 V b) 0 V, 16 V c) 1.6 V, 16 V d) 1.6 V, 0 V
ANSWERS
1. b 5. b 9. d 13. b
2. a 6. d 10. c 14. d
3. c 7. a 11. b 15. b
4. d 8. c 12. d
E4.1 A steady current of 12.5 A is established through an inductance of 0.4 H by connecting it to a

current source. At time t = 0, the inductance is disconnected from the source and connected to
a resistance of 32 W . Find an expression for the current through the resistance. Also draw the
initial and final conditions of the circuit.
E4.2 In the RL circuit shown in Fig. E4.2, the switch is closed at t = 0. Find the current through the
di (t) d 2 i (t)
circuit and voltage across inductance and resistance. Also determine and at t = 0 +.
dt dt 2
t=0 20
8 t=0
1 2
+
0.2 H 0.8 H
12 V i(t) 10 V +E + 24 V
E
E
Fig. E4.2. Fig. E4.3.
E4.3 In the RL circuit shown in Fig. E4.3, the switch is closed at position-1 for a long time and
then switched to position-2 at t = 0. Determine the response i(t). Also draw the initial and final
condition of the circuit.
E4.4 In the RL circuit of Fig. E4.4, the switch is closed to position-1 at t = 0. Then at t = 0.24 second,
the switch is moved to position-2. Determine the response i(t) and sketch the response. Also
determine the time at which i(t) is zero.
2
10 t=0
1 t=0
1 2
20
2 i(t)
+ 0.7 H
E e(t)
1.2 H 5V + ~
E +
10 V + E 12 V E
e(t) = 20 sin(120t + 150) V
Fig. E4.4. Fig. E4.5.
E4.5 The switch in the circuit of Fig. E4.5 is closed at position-1 for a long time. At time t = 0, the
switch is moved to position-2. Find i(t) for t ≥ 0.
E4.6 A voltage of 12 V is established across a capacitor of 100 mF by connecting it to a voltage source.

At time t = 0, the capacitor is disconnected from the source and connected to a resistance of
10 k W . Find an expression for current through the resistance. Also draw the initial and final
conditions of the circuit.
E4.7 In the RC circuit shown in Fig. E4.7, the switch is closed at t = 0. Determine the current and
dv (t) d 2 vC (t)
voltage in the resistance and capacitance. Also determine C and at t = 0 +.
dt dt 2
t=0 250 W
150 W t=0
1 2
+
vC(t) 160 mF
18 V +- 0.8 mF
5 V +- + 20 V
- -
Fig. E4.7. Fig. E4.8.
E4.8 In the RC circuit shown in Fig. E4.8, the switch is closed to position-1 for a long time. At time
t = 0, the switch is moved to position-2. Determine and sketch the voltage across the capacitance
for t ≥ 0. Also draw the initial and final conditions of the circuit.
E4.9 A capacitor of 100 mF has to be charged to a voltage of 160 V by connecting it to a dc source of

200 V. Determine the value of series resistance required to charge the capacitor in 0.1 second.
E4.10 In the RC circuit shown in Fig. E4.10, the capacitor has an initial charge of 300 mC. If the switch
is closed at t = 0, determine the time at which the capacitor voltage is zero. Also estimate and
sketch the current and voltage in the capacitor for t ≥ 0.
t=0 t=0
800 240
+ E + E
18 V 60 mF 300 mC 75 mF 0.45 mC
E +
e(t) ~
E +
Fig. E4.10. Fig. E4.11.

E4.11 The RC circuit shown in Fig. E4.11 is excited by a sinusoidal voltage source
e(t) = 60 sin (144t + φ) V by closing the switch at φ = 20o. Determine the current and voltage
in the capacitor.
E4.12 An RLC series circuit is excited by a dc source of 80 V. If the initial current through the inductance
is 2 A opposing the circuit current, determine the current through the circuit and voltage across
the capacitor. Take R = 10 W, L = 0.1 H and C = 4 mF. Also draw the initial and final state of the
circuits.
E4.13 An RLC series circuit with R = 40 W, L = 0.8 H and C = 200 mF is connected to a dc source of
100 V by closing the switch at t = 0. Determine the current and voltage in the inductance. Take
initial charge on the capacitor as 4 mC opposing the capacitor voltage.
E4.14 From the RLC circuit shown in Fig. E4.14, find an expression for i(t) for t ≥ 0. Also calculate
di (t) d 2 i (t)
the value of and at t = 0 +.
dt dt 2
t=0 t=0
32 50 mH 0.5 mF 147.2 0.08 H 32.552 mF
+ +
90 V e(t)
~
i(t) i(t)
E E
Fig. E4.14. Fig. E4.15.

E4.15 The RLC series circuit shown in Fig. E4.15 is excited by a sinusoidal source of value
e(t) = 40 sin (415t + φ) V by closing the switch at φ = 0. Find an expression for the response i(t).
ANSWERS
t
E4.1 i (t) = 12.5 e- 80t A = 12.5 e- 0.0125 A
i(0+) = 12.5 A ; i(∞) = 0
32 W 32 W
12.5 A i(0+) = 12.5 A OC i(¥) = 0
Fig : Initial condition. Fig : Final condition.
i (t) = 1.5 c1 − e 1/40 m A = 1.5 ^1 − e- 0.025 h A

- t t
E4.2
t t
vR (t) = 12 ^1 − e- 0.025 h V ; vL (t) = 12 e- 0.025 V
di (0+) d 2 i (0+)
= 60 A/s ; = − 2400 A/s2
dt dt 2
t
E4.3 i (t) = 1.2 − 1.7 e- 0.04 A ; i (0+) = − 0.5 A ; i (3) = 1.2 A
20 W 20 W
24 V +- +
i(0 ) = -0.5 A 0.5 A 24 V +- i(¥) = 1.2 A SC

t
E4.4 i (t) = − 1 + e- 0.12 A ; for 0 # t # 0.24 sec
^t - 0.24h
i (t) = 0.6 − 1.4647 e- 0.06 A ; for t $ 0.24 sec
t0 = 0.2935 sec, (Time at which i(t) is zero)
i(t)
in A
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 t in sec
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
E0.2
E0.4 t0
E0.6 t0 = 0.2935 sec

E0.8
E0.8647
E1.0
− 2.857t
E4.5 i(t) = −2.272e + 0.238 sin (120t − 73.6o ) A
−t
E4.6 i(t) = 1.2 e mA ; i(0 +) = 1.2 mA ; i(∞) = 0
−t
vC(t) = 12 e V ; vC(0 +) = 12 V ; vC(∞) = 0
+
vC (0 + ) =12 V +- 10 k W vC(¥) = 0 V i(¥) = 0 10 k W
i(0+) = 1.2 mA -

t t
E4.7 i (t) = 0.12 e- 0.12 A ; vR (t) = 18 e- 0.12 V
t dvC (0+)
vC (t) = 18 ^1 − e- 0.12 h V ; = 150 V/s
dt
d2 vC (0+)
= − 1250 V/s2
dt2
t
E4.8 vC (t) = 20 − 15 e- 0.04 V
vC(0+) = 5 V ; vC(∞) = 20 V
i(0+) = 0.06 A ; i(∞) = 0
250 W 250 W vC(t)

20 V
+ 15 V
5 V +- +
i(0 ) = 0.06 A
+
- V0 = 5 V 20 V +- i(¥) = 0 A vC(¥) = 20 V
- 10 V
5V
0 t
Fig : Initial condition. Fig : Final condition. Fig : Capacitor voltage.
E4.9 R = 1609 W
t
E4.10 vC (t) = 18 − 23 e- 0.048 V
t
i (t) = 28.75 e- 0.048 mA
t0 = 0.0118 second , (Time at which vC(t) = 0)

i(t) vC(t) in V
in mA 20
18
28.75mA 15
10
0 t
t0
0 t E5 t0 = 0.0118 sec
Fig : Capacitor current. Fig : Capacitor voltage.

− 55.556t o
E4.11 vC(t) = 10.278e + 21.593 sin (144t − 48.9 ) V
− 55.556t
i(t) = − 0.043e + 0.233 sin (144t + 41.1 o ) A
− 50t − 50t − 50t − 50t −50t −50t
E4.12 i(t) = 900t e − 2e A ; vR(t) = 9000t e – 20 e V ; vL(t) = 100 e – 4500t e V
− 50t − 50t
vC(t) = 80 − 4500t e − 80e V
+
i(0 ) = −2 A ; vR(0 +) = −20 V ; vL(0 +) = 100 V ; vC(0 +) = 0
i(∞) = 0 ; vR(∞) = 0 ; vL(∞) = 0 ; vC(∞) = 80 V

10 W 2A 10 W SC
+ - + - _ _
+ +
vR(0+) = -20V +
vR(¥) = 0V vL(¥) = 0V
vL(0 ) = 100V
+ + + + +
80 V SC vC(0 ) = 0V 80 V OC vC(¥) = 80 V
_ i(0 + ) = -2 A _ i(¥) = 0A
_ _
Fig : Initial condition circuit. Fig : Final condition circuit.

− 25t
E4.13 i(t) = 2 e sin 75t A
− 25t
vL(t) = 126.491 e sin(75t + 108.4 o ) V
E4.14 i (t) = 3.603 ê- 70.2t − e- 569.8th A
di (0+) d2 i (0+)
= 1800 A/s ; = − 1152038 A/s2
dt dt2
− 240t − 1600t
E4.15 i(t) = – 0.159 e + 0.0896 e + 0.261 sin (415t + 15.6o ) A
Chapter 5
TWO-PORT NETWORKS
5.1 Two-Port Networks
Generally, electrical and electronic devices have input and output terminals for connecting
source and load, respectively. For a useful connection, a pair of terminals is required and such a
pair of terminals is called a port.
When the construction of electrical/electronic devices is too complicated to develop a
mathematical model, an alternate approach is adopted and the devices are modelled based on the
voltage and current measurements at the input and output ports. In this approach, the devices are
represented by an equivalent RLC network with one or two ports. A popular model in electrical
engineering is the ABCD parameter model of a transmission line and a popular model in electronics
is the h-parameter model of a transistor.
Practically, one-port and two-port networks are models of devices (operated by electrical
energy) that are developed based on voltage and current measurements at the input and output
terminals.
Representation of a One-Port Network
A network with one pair of terminal (or two terminals) as shown in Fig. 5.1(a) is called a
one-port network, and it is represented by a rectangular box with two terminals as shown
in Fig. 5.1(b).
R1 R2
1
1
L RLC
C Port-1
Network
1¢
1¢
Fig. a : One-port network Fig. b : Representation of a one-port network

Fig. 5.1 : One-port network and its representation.
Representation of a Two-Port Network
A network with two pairs of terminals (or four terminals) as shown in Fig. 5.2(a) is called
two-port network, and it is represented by a rectangular box with four terminals as shown in
Fig. 5.2(b).
R1 L R2
1 2
1 2
RLC
C1 C2 Port-1 Port-2
Network
1¢ 2¢
1¢ 2¢
Fig. a : Two-port network. Fig. b : Representation of a two-port network.

Fig. 5.2 : Two-port network and its representation.
5.2 Parameters of a Two-Port Network

Two-port networks are models of devices/RLC networks with two pairs of terminals. A pair
of terminals is called port and so four terminals form two ports. In general, the two-port network
is represented by a rectangular box with four terminals or two ports as shown in Fig. 5.3.
Note : The rectangular box represents any RLC network with or without dependent
sources, or any electrically operated device like transistor, FET, etc. A two-port network does
not include any independent source. However, independent sources can be connected to port
terminals.
The two ports are called port-1 and port-2. Port-1 is also known as the input port and its
terminals are marked as 1,1′. Port-2 is also known as the output port and its terminals are marked
as 2,2′. The voltage across port-1 terminals and the current drawn by port-1 terminals are denoted
as V1 and I1, respectively. The voltage across port-2 terminals and the current drawn by port-2
terminals are denoted as V2 and I2, respectively.
I1 I2
1 + + 2
Port-1 RLC network with Port-2
(Input port) V1 or without V2 (Output port)
_ dependent sources _
1¢ 2¢
Fig. 5.3 : Currents and voltages of a two-port network.

In two-port network analysis, it is assumed that only four variables, i.e. V1, V2, I1 and
I2 are available for measurement and all internal variables are not accessable. Among the four
variables, usually any two variables are chosen as independent variables and the other two are
chosen as dependent variables. The dependent variables can be expressed as a linear combination
of independent variables.
For example, let X and Y be independent variables and U and V be dependent variables. Now
the dependent variables can be expressed mathematically as shown in equations (5.1) and (5.2).
U = k11 X + k12 Y ..... (5.1)
V = k21 X + k22 Y ...... (5.2)
where, k11, k12, k21 and k22 are constants.
The constants k11, k12, k21 and k22 are known as parameters of a two-port network.
Equations (5.1) and (5.2) can be expressed in a matrix form as shown below:
> H = > H > H

U k11 k12 X
V k21 k22 Y ..... (5.3)
In a two-port network, four quantities (V1, V2, I1 and I2) are available for measurement.
If we choose any two as independent variables and the other two as dependent variables we may
have six possible combinations of independent and dependent variables as listed in Table 5.1. Each
combination of an independent and dependent variable will give rise to a set of parameters. The
names of the parameters are chosen to indicate their dimensions (impendance or admittance) or
lack of consistent dimensions (hybrid) or the principal application (transmission).
Chapter 5 - Two-Port Networks 5. 3
In general, two-port network parameters can be evaluated by making one of the independent
variables as zero.
In equations (5.1) and (5.2), if Y = 0, we get
k11 = U and k21 = V
X X
In equations (5.1) and (5.2), if X = 0, we get
k12 = U and k22 = V
Y Y
This logic is used to evaluate two-port network parameters listed in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1 : Summary of Parameters of a Two-Port Network
S.No Independent Dependent Parameters Name of the Mathematical

variables variables k11, k12, k21, k22 parameter equation
V1 = Z11 I1 + Z12 I2
1. I1,I2 V1,V2 Z11,Z12,Z21,Z22 Impedance parameter
(Z-parameter or Open V2 = Z21 I1 + Z22 I2
> H=> H > H

circuit parameter) V1 Z11 Z12 I1
V2 Z21 Z22 I2
2. V1,V2 I1, I2 Y11,Y12,Y21,Y22 Admittance parameter I1 = Y11 V1 + Y12 V2

(Y-parameter or Short I2 = Y21 V1 + Y22 V2
> H=> H > H

circuit parameter) I1 Y11 Y12 V1
I2 Y21 Y22 V2
V1 = h11 I1 + h12 V2
3. I1,V2 V1, I2 h11,h12,h21,h22 Hybrid parameter
I2 = h21 I1 + h22 V2
(h-parameter)
> H=> H > H
V1 h11 h12 I1
I2 h21 h22 V2
I1 = g11 V1 + g12 I2
4. V1,I2 I1, V2 g11,g12,g21,g22 Inverse hybrid
parameter(g-parameter) V2 = g21 V1 + g22 I2
> H=> H > H
I1 g11 g12 V1
V2 g21 g22 I2
5. V2,I2 V1, I1 A, B, C, D Transmission parameter V1 = AV2 − BI2

(ABCD-parameter) I1 = CV2 − DI2
> H=> H > H

V1 A B V2
I1 C D − I2
V2 = Al V1 − Bl I1
6. V1,I1 V2, I2 A′, B′, C′, D′ Inverse transmission
I2 = Cl V1 − Dl I1
parameter
> H=> H > H
V2 Al Bl V1
(A′B′C′D′-parameter)
I2 Cl Dl − I1
The mathematical equations listed in Table 5.1 are used to define the two-port network
parameters when the network is purely resistive. When the two-port network has inductance
and capacitance, they are represented as a reactance either in frequency domain or in s-domain. In such
cases, the two-port network parmeters will be defined as shown in Tables 5.2 and 5.3.
Table 5.2 : Summary of Two-port Network Parameters in Frequency Domain
S.No Parameters Name of the Mathematical

Parameter Equation
1. Z11, Z12, Z21, Z22 Impedance parameter V1 = Z11 I1 + Z12 I2
Z = > H
Z11 Z12 (Z-parameter or Open V2 = Z21 I1 + Z22 I2
> H=> H > H

Z21 Z22 circuit parameter) V1 Z11 Z12 I1
V2 Z21 Z22 I2
2. Y11, Y12, Y21, Y22 Admittance parameter I1 = Y11 V1 + Y12 V2

(Y-parameter or Short
Y = > H
Y11 Y12 I2 = Y21 V1 + Y22 V2
> H=> H > H

Y21 Y22 circuit parameter) I1 Y11 Y12 V1
I2 Y21 Y22 V2
3. h11, h12, h21, h22 Hybrid parameter V1 = h11 I1 + h12 V2
h = > H
h11 h12 (h-parameter) I2 = h21 I1 + h22 V2
> H=> H > H

h21 h22 V1 h11 h12 I1
I2 h21 h22 V2
4. g11, g12, g21, g22 Inverse hybrid parameter I1 = g11 V1 + g12 I2

(g-parameter)
> H
g11 g12 V2 = g21 V1 + g22 I2
g =
> H=> H> H
g21 g22 I1 g11 g12 V1
V2 g21 g22 I2
5. A, B, C, D Transmission parameter V1 = A V2 − B I2
T = > H
A B (ABCD-parameter) I1 = C V2 − D I2
> H=> H > H

C D V1 A B V2
I1 C D − I2
6. Al , Bl , Cl , Dl Inverse transmission V2 = Al V1 − Bl I1
parameter I2 = Cl V1 − Dl I1
Tl = > H
Al Bl
> H=> H > H
Cl Dl V2 Al Bl V1
I2 Cl Dl − I1
Table 5.3 : Summary of Two-port Network Parameters in s-domain
S.No Parameters Name of the Mathematical

parameter Equation
1. Z11(s), Z12(s), Z21(s), Z22(s) Impedance parameter V1 (s) = Z11 (s) I1 (s) + Z12 (s) I2 (s)
(Z-parameter or Open V2 (s) = Z21 (s) I1 (s) + Z22 (s) I2 (s)
circuit parameter)
> H=> H > H
V1 (s) Z11 (s) Z12 (s) I1 (s)
V2 (s) Z21 (s) Z22 (s) I 2 ( s)
2. Y11(s), Y12(s), Y21(s), Y22(s) Admittance parameter I1 (s) = Y11 (s) V1 (s) + Y12 (s) V2 (s)
(Y-parameter or Short I2 (s) = Y21 (s) V1 (s) + Y22 (s) V2 (s)
circuit parameter)
> H=> H > H
I1 (s) Y11 (s) Y12 (s) V1 (s)
I 2 ( s) Y21 (s) Y22 (s) V2 (s)
3. h11(s), h12(s), h21(s), h22(s) Hybrid parameter V1 (s) = h11 (s) I1 (s) + h12 (s) V2 (s)
(h-parameter) I2 (s) = h21 (s) I1 (s) + h22 (s) V2 (s)
> H=> H > H

V1 (s) h11 (s) h12 (s) I1 (s)
I 2 (s) h21 (s) h22 (s) V2 (s)
4. g11(s), g12(s), g21(s), g22(s) Inverse hybrid parameter I1 (s) = g11 (s) V1 (s) + g12 (s) I2 (s)
(g-parameter) V2 (s) = g21 (s) V1 (s) + g22 (s) I2 (s)
> H=> H > H

I1 (s) g11 (s) g12 (s) V1 (s)
V2 (s) g21 (s) g22 (s) I 2 ( s)
5. A(s), B(s), C(s), D(s) Transmission parameter V1 (s) = A (s) V2 (s) − B (s) I2 (s)
(ABCD-parameter) I1 (s) = C (s) V2 (s) − D (s) I2 (s)
> H=> H > H

V1 (s) A (s ) B (s ) V2 (s)
I1 (s) C (s ) D (s ) − I 2 ( s)
6. A′(s), B′(s), C′(s), D′(s) Inverse transmission V2 (s) = Al(s) V1 (s) − Bl(s) I1 (s)
parameter
I2 (s) = Cl(s) V1 (s) − Dl(s) I1 (s)
> H=> H > H
V2 (s) Al(s) Bl(s) V1 (s)
I 2 ( s) Cl(s) Dl(s) − I1 (s)
Note : Refer Chapter 3, Table 3.1 for representation of R, L, C parameters in various domain.
5.3 Impedance Parameters (or Z-Parameters) (AU May’15, 16 Marks)

The equations defining Z-parameters are,
V1 = Z11 I1 + Z12 I2 ..... (5.4)
V2 = Z21 I1 + Z22 I2 ..... (5.5)
The Z-parameters can be evaluated by conducting the following two tests.

Test 1: Excite port-1 by a voltage source, while port-2 is open
I2 = 0
I1
+ +
Two-port
V1 V1 V2 OC
network
_ _
Fig. 5.4 : Excite port-1 while port-2 is open.
With reference to Fig. 5.4, when port-2 is open, I2 = 0. Now we can measure the three port
quantities V1, I1 and V2.
V1
From equation (5.4), when I2 = 0, Z11 = in Ω
I1
V2
I1
I1 = 0
I2
+ +
Two-port
OC V1 network V2 V2
_ _
V1
I2
V
From equation (5.5), when I1 = 0, Z22 = 2 in Ω
I2
Z-Parameter Model of a Two-Port Network
From the above two tests the Z-parameters are evaluated and the units are found to be ohms.
Hence, we can say that equations (5.4) and (5.5), are KVL equations and so they can be used to
construct a model of a two-port network as shown in Fig. 5.6.
I1 Z11 Z22 I2
+ _ _ +
+Z I +
11 1 Z22I2
Z12I2 + +
V1 E E Z21I1 V2
_ _
Fig. 5.6 : Z-parameter model of a two-port network.
Names of Z-Parameters
Z11 = Input impedance when output port is open.
Z12 = Reverse transfer impedance when input port is open.
Z21 = Forward transfer impedance when output port is open.
Z22 = Output impedance when input port is open.
5.4 Admittance Parameters (or Y-Parameters) (AU May’15, 16 Marks)

The equations defining Y-parameters are,
I1 = Y11 V1 + Y12 V2 ..... (5.6)
I2 = Y21 V1 + Y22 V2 ..... (5.7)
The Y-parameters can be evaluated by conducting the following two tests.

Test 1: Excite port-1 by a voltage source, while port-2 is shorted
I1 I2
+ +
Two-port
V1 V1 V2 = 0 SC
network
_ _
Fig. 5.7 : Excite port-1 while port-2 is shorted.

With reference to Fig. 5.7, when port-2 is shorted, V2 = 0. Now we can measure the three
port quantities V1, I1 and I2.
I1
From equation (5.6), when V2 = 0, Y11 = in M
V1
I2
From equation (5.7), when V2 = 0, in M Y21 =
V1
Test 2 : Excite port-2 by a voltage source, while port-1 is shorted
I1 I2
+ +
Two-port V2
SC V1 = 0 V2
network
_ _

I1
From equation (5.6), when V1 = 0, Y12 = in M
V2
I
From equation (5.7), when V1 = 0, Y22 = 2 in M
V2
Y-Parameter Model of a Two-Port Network
From the above two tests, the Y-parameters are evaluated and the units are found to be mhos.
Hence, we can say that equations (5.6) and (5.7) are KCL equations and so they can be used to
construct a model of a two-port network as shown in Fig. 5.9.
I1 I2
+ Y11V1 Y22V2 +
V1 Y11 Y12V2 Y21V1 Y22 V2
_ _
Fig. 5.9 : Y-Parameter model of a two-port network.
Names of Y-Parameters
Y11 = Input admittance when output port is shorted.
Y12 = Reverse transfer admittance when input port is shorted.
Y21 = Forward transfer admittance when output port is shorted.
Y22 = Output admittance when input port is shorted.
5.5 Transmission Parameters (or ABCD-Parameters)

The equations defining ABCD-parameters are,
V1 = AV2 + B (−I2) = AV2 − BI2 .....(5.8)
I1= CV2 + D (−I2) = CV2− DI2 .....(5.9)
The ABCD-parameters can be evaluated by conducting the following two tests.
Note: In transmission parameters the current I2 entering the port-2 is considered as negative.
I2 = 0
I1
+ +
Two-port
V1 V1 V2 OC
network
_ _
V1
From equation (5.8), when I2 = 0, A = ^ no dimensionh
V2
From equation (5.9), when I2 = 0, I1
C= in M
V2
I1 I2
+ +
Two-port
V1 V1 V2 = 0 SC
network
_ _

V1
From equation (5.8), when V2 = 0, B =- in Ω
I2
I1
From equation (5.9), when V2 = 0, D =- ^ no dimensionh
I2
Names of ABCD-Parameters
A = Reverse voltage transfer ratio when output port is open.
B = Reverse transfer impedance when output port is shorted.
C = Reverse transfer admittance when output port is open.
D = Reverse current transfer ratio when output port is shorted.
5.6 Inverse Transmission Parameters (or A′B′C′D′-Parameters)

The equations defining A’ B’ C’ D’ parameters are,
V2 = A’ V1 + B’ (−I1) = A’ V1 − B’ I1 ..... (5.10)
I2 = C’ V1 + D’ (−I1) = C’ V1 − D’ I1 ..... (5.11)
The A’ B’ C’ D’-parameters can be evaluated by conducting the following two tests.
Note : In inverse transmission parameter, the current I1 entering the port-1 is considered as negative.
I1 = 0 I2
+ +
Two-port
V1 network V2 V2
_ _
V2
From equation (5.10), when I1 = 0, ^ no dimensionh
Al =
V1
I
From equation (5.11), when I1 = 0, Cl = 2 in M
V1
I1 I2
+ +
SC Two-port V2
V1 = 0 V2
network
_ _

V
From equation (5.10), when V1 = 0, Bl = - 2 in Ω
I1
I
From equation (5.11), when V1 = 0, Dl = - 2 ^ no dimensionh
I1
Names of A’B’C’D’-Parameters
A’ = Forward voltage transfer ratio when input port is open.
B’ = Forward transfer impedance when input port is shorted.
C’ = Forward transfer admittance when input port is open.
D’ = Forward current transfer ratio when input port is shorted.
5.7 Hybrid Parameters (or h-Parameters) (AU May’15, 16 Marks)

The equations defining h-parameters are,
V1 = h11 I1 + h12 V2 .....(5.12)
I2 = h21 I1 + h22 V2 .....(5.13)
The h-parameters can be evaluated by conducting the following two tests.
I1 I2
+ +
Two-port
V1 V1 V2 = 0 SC
network
_ _
V1
From equation (5.12), when V2 = 0, h11 = in Ω
I1
I2
From equation (5.13), when V2 = 0, h21 = ^ no dimensionh
I1
I1 = 0 I2
+ +
Two-port
OC V1 network V2 V2
_ _
V1
From equation (5.12), when I1 = 0, h12 = ^ no dimensionh
V2
From equation (5.13), when I1 = 0, I2

h22 = in M
V2
h-Parameter Model of a Two-Port Network
From the above two tests, the h-parameters are evaluated. The unit of h11 is ohm, the unit of h22
is mho, and h12and h21 are dimensionless constants. Hence, we can say that equation (5.12) is a KVL
equation and equation (5.13) is a KCL equation. Therefore, they can be used to construct a model of
a two-port network as shown in Fig. 5.16.
h11 I2
I1
+ + h I _ h22V2
+
11 1
+ V2
V1 h12V2 E
h21I1 h22
_ _
Fig. 5.16 : h-Parameter model of a two-port network.
Names of h-Parameters
h11 = Input impedance when output port is shorted.
h12 = Reverse voltage transfer ratio when input port is open.
h21 = Forward current transfer ratio when output port is shorted.
h22 = Output admittance when input port is open.

5.8 Inverse Hybrid Parameters (or g-Parameters)

The equations defining g-parameters are,
I1 = g11 V1 + g12 I2 .....(5.14)
V2 = g21 V1 + g22 I2 .....(5.15)
The g-parameters can be evaluated by conducting the following two tests.
I1 I2 = 0
+ +
Two-port
V1 V1 V2 OC
network
_ _
I1
From equation (5.14), when I2 = 0, g11 = in M
V1
V2
From equation (5.15), when I2 = 0, g21 = ^ no dimensionh
V1
I1 I2
+ +
Two-port V2
SC V1 = 0 V2
network
_ _
I1
From equation (5.14), when V1 = 0, g12 = ^ no dimensionh
I2
From equation (5.15), when V1 = 0, V2

g22 = in Ω
I2
g-Parameter Model of a Two-Port Network
From the above two tests g-parameters are evaluated. The unit of g11 is mho, the unit of g22
is ohm, and g12 and g21 are dimensionless constants. Hence, we can say that equation (5.14) is a
KCL equation and equation (5.15) is a KVL equation. Therefore, they can be used to construct a
model of a two-port network as shown in Fig. 5.19.
I1 g22
I2
+ g11V1 _ + +
g22I2
g11 g12I2 + g21V1

V1 E
V2
_ _
Fig. 5.19 : g-Parameter model of a two-port network.

Names of g-Parameters
g11 = Input admittance when output port is open.
g12 = Reverse current transfer ratio when input port is shorted.
g21 = Forward voltage transfer ratio when output port is open.
g22 = Output impedance when input port is shorted.
5.9 Relationship Between Parameter Sets

All the six parameter sets discussed so far have a definite relationship between them. The
complete relationship between the parameters is tabulated in Table 5.4. The general concept of
converting one parameter set into another, involves rearrangement of the defining equations. The
conversion of Z-parameters into another parameter sets is presented in this section. All other
possible conversions can be solved as an exercise by the readers.
Conversion of Z-Parameters to Y-Parameters
The Y-parameters Y11,Y12,Y21 and Y22 can be expressed in terms of Z-parameters as shown below:
Z22 Z12 Z21 Z11
Y11 = ; Y12 = - ; Y21 = - ; Y22 =
DZ DZ DZ DZ
` Y=> H = D1 > H
Y11 Y12 Z22 - Z12
Y21 Y22 Z -Z Z11 .... (5.16)
21
Z11 Z12
where, DZ = .....(5.17)
Z21 Z22
Proof:
Let, P be a square matrix
Consider Z-parameter equations,
Now,
= G = = G = G
V1 = Z11 I1 + Z12 I2 V1 Z11 Z12 I1 Transpose of cofactor matrix of P
⇒ P -1 =
V2 = Z21 I1 + Z22 I2 V2 Z21 Z22 I2 Determinant of P
If P is a square matrix of size 2 × 2 then its
Z11 Z12 - 1
Let us premultiply the above equation by = G transpose of cofactor matrix is obtained by
Z21 Z22 interchanging the elements of the main diagonal
and changing the sign of the other two elements
Z11 Z12 - 1 V1 Z11 Z12 - 1 Z11 Z12 I1
` = G = G = = G = G = G as shown in the following example.
Z21 Z22 V2 Z21 Z22 Z21 Z22 I2 ..... (5.18)
P == G ; 1 = P22 − P12 G
P11 P12
1 4 4 444 2 4 4 4 44 3
UNIT MATRIX P- 1 =
P21 P22 ∆P − P21 P11
Z11 Z12 - 1
Here, = G = 1 = G
Z22 − Z12 P11 P12
..... (5.19) where, ∆ p =
Z21 Z22 ∆Z − Z21 Z11 P21 P22
Z11 Z12
where, ∆Z = = Z11 Z22 − Z12 Z21
Z21 Z22
Z11 Z12 - 1
Also, = G = G = G = = G
Z11 Z12 I1 I1
Z21 Z22 Z21 Z22 I2 I2 .....(5.20)
Using equations (5.19) and (5.20), equation (5.18) can be written as shown below:
1 = Z22 − Z12 G =V1 G = = I1 G

∆Z − Z21 Z11 V2 I2
The above matrix equation can be expanded as
Z22 Z
I1 = V + c− 12 m V2 .....(5.21)
∆Z 1 ∆Z
Z21 Z
I2 = − V1 + 11 V2 .....(5.22)
∆Z ∆Z
The general form of Y-parameter equations are,
I1 = Y11 V1 + Y12 V2
I2 = Y21 V1 + Y22 V2
On comparing the above Y-parameter equations with equations (5.21) and (5.22), we get,
Z22 Z12 Z Z11
Y11 = ; Y12 = − ; Y21 = − 21 ; Y22 =
∆Z ∆Z ∆Z ∆Z
Conversion of Z-Parameters to h-Parameters

The h-parameters h11, h12, h21 and h22 can be expressed in terms of Z-parameters as shown below:
Dz Z12 Z
h11 = ; ; h21 = - 21 ;
h12 = h22 = 1
Z22 Z22 Z22 Z22
R V
S DZ Z12 W
` h= > H= S
h11 h12 S Z22 Z22 W
W .... (5.23)
h21 h22 S- Z21 1 W
S Z22 Z22 W
T X
Z11 Z12
where, DZ =
Z21 Z22
Proof:
V1 = Z11 I1 + Z12 I2 .....(5.24)
V2 = Z21 I1 + Z22 I2 .....(5.25)
Equation (5.25), can be rearranged as shown below:
Z21
I2 = − I + 1 V2 .....(5.26)
Z22 1 Z22
On substituting for I2 from equation (5.26) in equation (5.24), we get,

Z21
V1 = Z11 I1 + Z12 c− I + 1 Vm ⇒ V1 = Z11 I1 −
Z12 Z21 Z
I + 12 V
Z22 1 Z22 2 Z22 1 Z22 2
Z11 Z22 − Z12 Z21 Z

` V1 = I1 + 12 V2
Z22 Z22
∆Z Z
` V1 = I + 12 V .....(5.27)
Z22 1 Z22 2
Z11 Z12
where, ∆Z = = Z11 Z22 − Z12 Z21
Z21 Z22
The general form of h-parameter equations are,
V1 = h11 I1 + h12 V2
I2 = h21 I1 + h22 V2
On comparing the above h-parameter equations with equations (5.27) and (5.26), we get,
∆Z Z12 Z 1
h11 = ; h12 = ; h21 = − 21 ; h22 =
Z22 Z22 Z22 Z22
Conversion of Z-Parameters to g-Parameters

The g-parameters g11, g12, g21 and g22 can be expressed in terms of Z-parameters as shown below:
Z12 Z DZ
g11 = 1 ; ; g21 = 21 ;
g12 = - g22 =
Z11 Z11 Z11 Z11
R V
S 1 - Z12 W
` g= > H= S
g11 g12 S Z11 Z11 W
W
g21 g22 S Z21 DZ W .... (5.28)
S Z11 Z11 W
T X
Z11 Z12
where, DZ =
Z21 Z22
Proof:
V1 = Z11 I1 + Z12 I2 .....(5.29)
V2 = Z21 I1 + Z22 I2 .....(5.30)
The equation (5.29), can be rearranged as shown below:
I1 = 1 V − Z12 I .....(5.31)
Z11 1 Z11 2
Z Z21 Z Z
V2 = Z21 c 1 V1 − 12 I2 m + Z22 I2 ⇒ V2 = V − 12 21 I2 + Z22 I2
Z11 Z11 Z11 1 Z11
Z21 Z Z − Z12 Z21

` V2 = V + c 11 22 m I2
Z11 1 Z11
Z21 ∆
` V2 = V + Z I .....(5.32)
Z11 1 Z11 2
Z11 Z12
where, ∆Z = = Z11 Z22 − Z12 Z21
Z21 Z22
The general form of g-parameter equations are,
I1 = g11 V1 + g12 I2
V2 = g21 V1 + g22 I2
On comparing the above g-parameter equations with equation (5.31) and (5.32), we get,
1 Z12 Z21 ∆Z
g11 = ; g12 = − ; g21 = ; g22 =
Z11 Z11 Z11 Z11
Conversion of Z-parameters to Transmission Parameters

The transmission parameters A, B, C and D can be expressed in terms of Z-parameters as
shown below:
Z D Z
A = 11 ; B = Z ; C = 1 ; D = 22
Z21 Z21 Z21 Z21
R V
S Z11 DZ W
` T = > H= S
A B S Z21 Z21 W
W
C D S 1 Z22 W .... (5.33)
S Z21 Z21 W
T X
Z11 Z12
where, DZ =
Z21 Z22
Proof:
V1 = Z11 I1 + Z12 I2 .....(5.34)
V2 = Z21 I1 + Z22 I2 .....(5.35)

1 V − Z22 I .....(5.36)
I1 =
Z21 2 Z21 2
Z
V1 = Z11 c 1 V2 − 22 I2 m + Z12 I2 ⇒ V1 =
Z11 Z Z
V − 11 22 I2 + Z12 I2
Z21 Z21 Z21 2 Z21
Z11 Z Z − Z12 Z21

` V1 = V − c 11 22 m I2
Z21 2 Z21
Z11 ∆
` V1 = V − Z I2 .....(5.37)
Z21 2 Z21
Z11 Z12
where, ∆Z = = Z11 Z22 − Z12 Z21
Z21 Z22
The general form of transmission parameter equations are,
V1 = A V2 − B I2
I 1 = C V2 − D I2
On comparing the above transmission parameter equations with equations (5.37) and (5.36), we get,
Z11 ∆Z 1 Z22
A = ; B = ; C = ; D =
Z21 Z21 Z21 Z21
Conversion of Z-Parameters to Inverse Transmission Parameters

The inverse transmission parameters A, B, C and D can be expressed in terms of
Z-parameters as shown below :
Z22 D Z
Al = Bl = Z ; Cl = 1 ;
; Dl = 11
Z12 Z12 Z12 Z12
R V
S Z22 DZ W
Al Bl S Z12 Z12 W
` Tl = = G= S W
Cl Dl S 1 Z11 W .... (5.38)
S Z12 Z12 W
T X
Z11 Z12
where, DZ =
Z21 Z22
Proof:
V1 = Z11 I1 + Z12 I2 .....(5.39)
V2 = Z21 I1 + Z22 I2 .....(5.40)
I2 = 1 V − Z11 I .....(5.41)
Z12 1 Z12 1
Z
V2 = Z21 I1 + Z22 c 1 V1 − 11 I1 m ⇒ V2 = Z21 I1 −
Z11 Z22 Z
I + 22 V
Z12 Z12 Z12 1 Z12 1
Z22 Z Z − Z12 Z21
` V2 = V − c 11 22 m I1
Z12 1 Z12
Z22 ∆
` V2 = V− Z I
Z12 1 Z12 1 .....(5.42)
Z11 Z12
where, ∆Z = = Z11 Z22 − Z12 Z21
Z21 Z22
The general form of inverse transmission parameter equations are,
V2 = A’ V1 − B’ I1
I2 = C ’ V1 − D’ I1
On comparing the above inverse transmission parameter equations with equations (5.42) and (5.41), we get,
Z ∆Z Z
A' = 22 ; B' = ; C' = 1 ; D' = 11
Z12 Z12 Z12 Z12
Table 5.4 : Summary of Relationship between Parameter Sets
[Z] [Y] [T] [T] [h] [g]
Y22 Y A DT Dl 1 ∆h h12 1 g
Z11 Z12 − 12 − 12
[Z] ∆Y ∆Y C C Cl Cl h22 h22 g11 g11
Z21 Z22 Y21 Y11 1 D DTl Al h 1 g21 ∆g
− − 21
∆Y ∆Y C C Cl Cl h22 h22 g11 g11
Z22 Z D ∆ 1 h ∆g g12
− 12 Y11 Y12 − T Al 1 − 12
− h11 h11 g22 g22
[Y] ∆Z ∆Z B B Bl Bl
Z21 Z11 Y21 Y22 1 A ∆ Dl h21 ∆h g 1
− − − Tl − 21
∆Z ∆Z B B Bl Bl h11 h11 g22 g22
Y22 1 Dl Bl ∆h h 1 g22
Z11 DZ − − − − 11
Y21 Y21 A B DTl DTl h21 h21 g21 g21
[T] Z21 Z21
∆ Y Cl Al h 1 g11 Dg
1 Z22 − Y − 11 − 22 −
Z21 Z21 Y21 Y21 C D DTl DTl h21 h21 g21 g21
Z22 DZ Y11 1 1 h ∆g g
− − D B − 11 − − 22
Z12 Z12 Y12 Y12 DT DT Al Bl h12 h12 g12 g12
[T]
1 Z11 ∆ Y C A h22 ∆h g11 1
− Y − 22 Cl Dl −
Z12 Z12 Y12 Y12 DT DT h12 h12 g12 g12
∆Z Z12 g22 g12

1 Y B ∆T Bl 1
Z22 Z22 − 12 h11 h12 ∆g ∆g
[h] Y11 Y11 D D Al Al
Z 1 1 C ∆ Cl g g
− 21 Y21 ∆Y − − Tl h21 h22 − 21 11
Z22 Z22 Y11 Y11 D D Al Al ∆g ∆g
1 Z ∆Y Y12 C ∆ Cl 1 h22 h
− 12 − T − − 12 g11 g12
[g] Z11 Z11 Y22 Y22 A A Dl Dl ∆h ∆h
Z21 ∆Z Y 1 1 B ∆Tl Bl h21 h11
Z11 Z11 − 21 − g21 g22
Y22 Y22 A A Dl Dl ∆h ∆h
Note : 1. In Table 5.4, the DZ , DY , Dh , Dg , DT and TT l represent the following determinants.

Z11 Z12 Y11 Y12 h11 h12 g g A B Al Bl
∆Z = ; ∆Y = ; ∆h = ; ∆g = 11 12 ; ∆T = ; ∆Tl =
Z 21 Z 22 Y21 Y22 h 21 h 22 g 21 g 22 C D Cl Dl
2. The following relations holds good for parameters.
-1 -1
> H = > H ; > H = > 11 12 H ; > H = < F
1
Z11 Z12 Y11 Y12 h11 h12 g g A B Al Bl -
Z 21 Z 22 Y21 Y22 h 21 h 22 g 21 g 22 C D Cl Dl
-1 -1 - 1
> H = > H ; > H = > H ; < F = > H
Y11 Y12 Z11 Z12 g11 g12 h11 h12 Al Bl A B
Y21 Y22 Z 21 Z 22 g 21 g 22 h 21 h 22 Cl Dl C D
5.10 Properties of Two-Port Networks

The properties of a two-port network are passivity, reciprocity and symmetry. A
two-port network is called a passive network if it has only passive elements like resistance,
inductance and capacitance. If the two-port network has active elements like dependent source
then it is called as active network. (AU May’17, 2 Marks)
If a two-port network satisfies the reciprocity theorem then it is called a reciprocal network.
The reciprocity theorem says that the ratio of excitation to response remains invariant when the
position of source and response are interchanged.
Hence, by the reciprocity theorem, we can say that in a reciprocal two-port network the
ratio of excitation at port-1 and the response at port-2 will be the same as the ratio of excitation
at port-2 and the response at port-1. In a two-port network if the forward and reverse
transfer impedances are the same then the network will be a reciprocal network. Also, it can be
observed that all passive networks are reciprocal.
A symmetrical two-port network is one which can be exactly divided into two identical
sections. In a symmertrical two-port network, the looking back impedance from port-1 and port-2
will be the same. Hence, in a symmetrical network, the input and output ports can be exchanged.
The conditions to be satisfied by a two-port network for passivity, reciprocity and symmetry
are listed in Table 5.5.
Table 5.5 : Conditions to Satisfy Passivity, Reciprocity and Symmetry
Parameter Condition for Passive and Condition for Electrical

Reciprocal Network Symmetry
Z Z12 = Z21 Z11 = Z22

Y Y12 = Y21 Y11 = Y22
ABCD AD − BC = 1 A=D
A’ B’ C’ D’ A’D’ − B’C’ = 1 A’ = D’
h h12 = −h21 Dh = 1
g g12 = −g21 Dg = 1
5.11 Interconnection of Two-Port Networks

Complicated two-port networks can be divided into two numbers of smaller two-port
networks and they can be connected in series or parallel or cascade to represent the original
network. When a complicated network is divided into smaller networks, it may be easier to
determine certain parameters of smaller networks, and parameters of the original network can be
obtained either as the sum or product of the parameters of smaller networks.
When the sections of a two-port network can be connected in series to represent the original
network, the Z-parameters of the original network can be obtained as the sum of Z-parameters of
the individual network.
When the sections of a two-port network can be connected in parallel to represent the original
network, the Y-parameters of the original network can be obtained as the sum of Y-parameters of
the individual network.
When the sections of a two-port network can be connected in cascade to represent the
original network, the ABCD-parameters of the original network can be obtained as the product of
ABCD-parameters of the individual network.
When the sections of a two-port network are connected, such that the input ports are in series
and the output ports in parallel to represent the original network, the h-parameter of the original
network can be obtained as the sum of h-parameters of the individual network.
Two-Port Networks in Series
When two two-port networks are connected in series as shown in Fig. 5.20, the overall
Z-parameters are given by the sum of individual Z-parameters as shown below:
> H + > H = > H

Zl11 Zl12 Zll11 Zll12 Z11 Z12
Zl21 Zl22 Zll21 Zll22 Z 21 Z 22
I1 I2
+ + Z11
¢ Z12
¢ +
V1¢ V2¢
_ Z ¢21 Z ¢22 _ I1 I2
I1 I2 + Z11 Z12 +
V1 V2 Þ V1 V2
I1 I2 _ Z 21 Z 22 _
+ Z11
¢¢ Z12
¢¢ +
_ V1¢¢ V2¢¢
_ Z ¢¢
21 Z 22
¢¢ _
I1 I2
Fig. 5.20 : Two-port networks in series.
Two-Port Networks in Parallel
When two two-port networks are connected in parallel as shown in Fig. 5.21, the overall
Y-parameters are given by the sum of individual Y-parameters as shown below:
> H + > H = > H

Yl11 Yl12 Yll11 Yll12 Y11 Y12
l l
Y 21 Y 22 ll ll
Y 21 Y 22 Y21 Y22
I1 I1¢ I¢2 I2
+ Y11
¢ Y12
¢ +
V1 V2
_ Y21
¢ Y22
¢ _ I1 I2
+ Y11 Y12 +
Þ V1 V2
_ Y21 Y22 _
I1¢¢ I¢¢2
+ Y ¢¢
11 Y ¢¢
12 +
V1 V2
_ Y ¢¢21 Y ¢¢22 _
Fig. 5.21 : Two-port networks in parallel.

Two-Port Networks in Cascade

When two two-port networks are connected in cascade as shown in Fig. 5.22, the overall
ABCD parameters are given by the product of individual ABCD parameter matrices as shown below:
> H # > H = > H

A1 B1 A2 B2 A B
C1 D1 C2 D2 C D
I1 I¢2 I1¢ I2 I1 I2
+ A1 B1 + + A2 B2 + + A B +
V1 V2¢ V1¢ V2
Þ V1 V2
_ C1 D1 _ _ C2 D2 _ _ C D _
Fig. 5.22 : Two-port networks in cascade.

Input in Series and Output in Parallel
When two two-port networks are connected such that the input in series and output in
parallel as shown in Fig. 5.23, the overall h-parameters are given by the sum of individual
h-parameters as shown below:
> H+> H=> H

hl11 hl12 hll11 hll12 h11 h12
hl21 hl22 hll21 hll22 h21 h22
I2
I1 I¢2
+ + h11
¢ h12
¢ +
V¢ V
_ 1 h¢21 h22
¢ _2
I1 I2
I1
+ h11 h12 +
V1 Þ V1 V2
I1 I¢¢2 _ h21 h22 _
+ h¢¢11 h¢¢12 +
_ V ¢¢ V
_1 h¢¢21 h¢¢22 _2
I1
Fig. 5.23 : Input in series and output in parallel.
5.12 T and P Networks

When three impedances are connected to meet at a node, the impedances are said to be
in T-connection (star connection). A network of three impedances in T-connection with input
and output ports is called T-network.
When three impedances with a node in between any two impedances are connected to
form a closed path, the impedances are said to be in P-connection (delta connection). A network
of three impedances in P-connection with input and output ports is called P-network.
Z1 Z2 Z1
1 2 1 2
Z3 Z2 Z3
1¢ 2¢ 1¢ 2¢
Fig. 5.24 : T-network. Fig. 5.25 : P-network.
T and P-networks are popularly used for modelling transmission lines. In T-network model
of transmission lines, Z1 and Z2 are inductive reactances and Z3 is capactive reactance. In P-network
model of transmission lines, Z1 is inductive reactance and Z2 and Z3 are capactive reactances.
jwL jwL
Z1= Z2 = Z 1 = jwL
2 2
1 2 1 2
L L
2 2 2 C C 2
1 Z 2 = -j Z 3 = -j
C Z 3 = -j wC 2 2 wC
wC
1¢ 2¢ 1¢ 2¢
Fig. 5.26 : T-network model of Fig. 5.27 : P-network model of

transmission line. transmission line.
5.12.1 Symmetrical Properties of T and P Networks
The Z-parameters of T-network are,
Z11 = Z1 + Z3
Z12 = Z21 = Z3
Z22 = Z2 + Z3
Note : Refer Example 5.19 for derivation of Z-parameters of T-network.
In symmetrical network, Z11 = Z22 . In T-network, symmetrical condition will be satisfied if

Z1 is equal to Z2 . The transmission line model of T-network shown in Fig. 5.26 is a symmetrical
T-network.
Z1 Z2 = Z1 Z1
1 2 1 2
Z3 Z2 Z3 = Z2
1¢ 2¢ 1¢ 2¢
Fig. 5.28 : Symmetrical Fig. 5.29 : Symmetrical
T-network. P-network.
The Y-parameters of P-network are,
Z1 + Z2
Y11 =
Z1 Z2
Y21 = Y12 = − 1
Z1
Z1 + Z3
Y22 =
Z1 Z3
Note : Refer Example 5.21 for derivation of Y-parameters of P-network.

In symmetrical network, Y11 = Y22 . In P-network, symmetrical condition will be satisfied if
Z2 is equal to Z3 . The transmission line model of P-network shown in Fig. 5.27 is a symmetrical
P-network.
The transmission (or ABCD) parameters of T-network are,
Z1
A = 1+
Z3
Z1 Z2
B = Z1 + Z2 +
Z3
C = 1
Z3
Z2
D = 1+
Z3
Note : Refer Example 5.20 for derivation of transmission (or ABCD) parameters of T-network.
When symmetry condition, Z1 = Z2 is applied to transmission (or ABCD) parameters of
T-network, they are modified as shown below:
Z1
A = D = 1+
Z3
2
Z1
B = 2Z1 +
Z3
C = 1
Z3
The transmission (or ABCD) parameters of P-network are,
Z1
A = 1+
Z3
B = Z1
Z1 + Z2 + Z3
C =
Z 2 Z3
Z1
D = 1+
Z2
Note : Refer Example 5.22 for derivation of transmission (or ABCD) parameters of P-network.
When symmetry condition, Z2 = Z3 is applied to transmission (or ABCD) parameters of
P-network, they are modified as shown below:
Z1
A = D = 1+
Z2
B = Z1
Z1 + 2Z2
C = 2
Z2
5.13 Solved Problems 1

2W 2W
EXAMPLE 5.1
5W 4W
Determine the driving point impedance of the network shown in Fig. 1.
1¢
SOLUTION Fig. 1.
The driving point impedance of the network shown in Fig. 1 is given by the looking back impedance
from the port terminals, which can be obtained by step-by-step reduction of the given network to a single
equivalent resistance as shown below:
2W 2W 2W
1 1 1
4´2 4
5W 4W Þ 5W Þ 5W 2+
3
4+2
8 4 10
1¢ 1¢ = = W 1¢ = W
6 3 3
Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3.

10
5 #
3
Driving point impedance, Z11 =
10
5 +
3
50
3 50
= = = 2Ω
15 + 10 25
3
4W
EXAMPLE 5.2 1
Determine the driving point admittance of the network shown in Fig. 1. 3W

6W
1¢ 5W
SOLUTION
2W 1W
Connect a source of voltage V1 to the port terminals as shown in Fig. 2.
Let I1 be the current delivered by the source.
Fig. 1.
Now the driving point admittance is given by,
I1
Y11 =
V1 4W
1
I1
The current variables in the circuit of Fig. 1 can be solved by mesh I1
V1 3W
analysis. Let I1, I2 and I3 be the mesh currents. The mesh basis matrix equation 6W
is formed by inspection as shown below : 1¢ I2 5W
R V R V R V 2W
I3 1W
S4 + 3 + 6 -3 -6W SI1 W S V1 W
S W S W S W
S -3 3 + 5 + 1 -1W SI2 W = S0 W Fig. 2.
S W S W S W
S -6 -1 2 + 6 + 1W SI3 W S0 W
T X T X T X
R V R V R V
S 13 - 3 - 6 W SI1 W S V1 W
S W S W S W
S- 3 9 - 1 W SI2 W = S0 W
S W S W S W
S- 6 - 1 9 W SI3 W S0 W
T X T X T X
The current I1 and hence Y11 can be solved as shown below :
13 - 3 - 6
= 13 × [92 – (–1)2] – (–3) × [–3 × 9 – (–1) × (–6)] + (–6) × [(–3) × (–1) – (–6) × 9]
D = -3 9 -1
-6 -1 9 = 1040 – 99 – 342 = 599
V1 - 3 - 6
D1 = 0 9 - 1 = V1 # 69 # 9 - (- 1) # (- 1) @ = 80 V1
0 -1 9
D1
We know that, I1 =
D
80V1
` I1 =
599
From the above equation, we can write,
I1 80
Driving point admittance, Y11 = = = 0.1336 M
V1 599
EXAMPLE 5.3 (AU Dec’15, 8 Marks) 1

2H 2H
Determine the driving point impedance and admittance of the network

1W 2W
shown in Fig. 1.
1¢
SOLUTION Fig. 1.
The s-domain representation of the given network is shown in Fig. 2.
Now the driving point impedance is given by the looking back impedance from the terminals of the port, which
can be obtained by step-by-step reduction of the network to a single equivalent impedance as shown below:
2s 2s 2s
1 1 1
2 ´ 2s 2s 2s + 2s2 + 2s
1 2 Þ 1 Þ 1 2s + =
2 + 2s 1+ s 1+ s
4s 2s 2s2 + 4s
1¢ 1¢ = = 1¢ =
2 + 2s 1 + s 1+ s
Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4.
2s2 + 4s 2s2 + 4s
1#
1+ s 1+ s
Driving point impedance, Z11 (s) = =
2s2 + 4s 1 + s + 2s2 + 4s
1+
1+ s 1+ s
2s2 + 4s 2^s2 + 2sh s2 + 2s

= 2
= =
2s + 5s + 1 2^s + 2.5s + 0.5h
2 2
s + 2.5s + 0.5
1 s2 + 2.5s + 0.5
Driving point admittance, Y11 (s) = =
Z11 ^s h s2 + 2s
EXAMPLE 5.4 1
j2W -j3W
Determine the driving point impedance and admittance of the network

shown in Fig. 1. 2W j1W
1W
SOLUTION 4W
1¢
The driving point impedance of the network shown in Fig. 1 is given by Fig. 1.
the looking back impedance from the port terminals, which can be obtained by
step-by-step reduction of the given network to a single equivalent impedance as shown below:
j2W -j3W j2W -j3W
1 j2W
1 1
2W
1W
j1W Þ 2W 1 ´ j1
Þ 2W -j3 +0.5 + j0.5
1 + j1
4W 4W = 0.5 - j2.5 W
1¢ 1¢ = 0.5 + j0.5 W 4W
1¢
Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
Þ
j2W
1
1
j2 + 1.2 - j0.8 + 4
Ü
b
2 ´ 0 .5 - j 2 .5 g
= 5.2 + j1.2 W 2 + 0.5 - j 2 .5
1¢ 4W
1¢ = 1.2 - j0.8 W
Fig. 5.
Fig. 4.
Driving point impedance, Z11 = 5.2 + j1.2 Ω = 5.3367+13 o Ω
1
Driving point admittance, Y11 =
5.2 + j1.2
= 0.1826 - j0.0421 M = 0.1874+ - 13 o M
2W 2W 2W
EXAMPLE 5.5 1 2
Determine the Z-parameters of the 2-port network shown in Fig. 1.

1W 1W
SOLUTION
1¢ 2¢
Fig. 1.
V1 = Z11 I1 + Z12 I2 .....(1)
V2 = Z21 I1 + Z22 I2 .....(2) I2 = 0

I1 2W 2W 2W
1 2
To determine Z11 and Z21 Ia Ib +
+
Let us connect a source of voltage V1 to port-1 and leave V1 1W 1W V2 V2 OC
port-2 as an open circuit as shown in Fig. 2. Now, I2 = 0. _
_
1¢ 2¢
When I2 = 0, from equations (1) and (2), we get, Fig. 2.
V1
Z11 =
I1
V2
Z21 =
I1
The circuit shown in Fig. 2 can be reduced to a single equivalent resistance with respect to source
terminals as shown below :
I1 2W 2W 2W I1 2W 2W I1
Ia Ib Ia Ib
+ +
V1 1 ´ (2 + 1)
V1 1W 1W V2 Þ V1 1W 1W V2 Þ 2+
1 + (2 + 1)
_ _ 3 11
= 2+ = W
4 4
Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Fig. 5.
With reference of Fig 5,
V1 11
Driving point impedance at port -1, Z11 = = Ω = 2.75 Ω
I1 4
With reference to Fig 4, we can say that the current I1 delivered by the source divides as Ia and Ib in
the parallel paths. Hence, by current division rule, we get,
1 I1
I b = I1 # =
1 + ^2 + 1h 4

I1
V2 = 1 # I b =
4
From the above equation, we get,
V2 1
Forward transfer impedance, Z 21 = = = 0.25 Ω
I1 4
To determine Z22 and Z12
The given network can be divided into two identical sections and so it is a symmetrical network.
∴ Driving point impedance at port-2, Z22 = Z11 = 2.75 Ω
The given network does not have any active element (dependent source) and so it is reciprocal.
∴ Reverse transfer impedance, Z12 = Z21 = 0.25 Ω
Z-parameter matrix
Z = > H=> H
Z11 Z12 2.75 0.25
Z21 Z22 0.25 2.75
EXAMPLE 5.6 0.5 F
Determine the Z-parameters of the network shown in Fig. 1. 2W 2W

1 2
SOLUTION
0.2 H
The s-domain equations defining Z-parameters are,
1¢ 2¢
V1(s) = Z11(s) I1(s) + Z12(s) I2(s) .....(1) Fig. 1.
V2(s) = Z21(s) I1(s) + Z22(s) I2(s) .....(2)

To determine Z11(s) and Z21(s)
The s-domain equivalent of the given network is shown in Fig. 2.
1 2 2
=
0.5s s s
2 2 I1(s) 2 2 I2(s) = 0
1 2 1 2
+
0.2s V1(s) 0.2s V2(s) OC

_
1¢ 2¢ 1¢ 2¢
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
Let us connect a source of voltage V1(s) to port-1 and open circuit port-2 as shown in Fig. 3. Now, I2(s) = 0.
When I2(s) = 0, from equations (1) and (2), we get,
V1 ^s h
Z11 ^s h =
I1 ^s h
V2 ^s h 2
Z21 ^s h =
I1 ^s h s
In order to solve the above Z-parameters, let us choose two mesh

currents as shown in Fig. 4. The mesh basis matrix equation is formed by Ib(s)
I1(s) 2 2
inspection as shown ahead.
_ +
R V 2I (s) +
S2 + 0.2s - 2 W I a ^s h + b
2W > H=> H
V1 ^s h V1(s) V2(s)
S 0.2s 0.2s Ia(s)
S - 2 2 + 2 + W I b ^s h 0 Ia(s) _ _
s
T X
R V Fig. 4.
S2 + 0.2s - 2 W I a ^s h
2 + 4s W > H=> H
V1 ^s h
S
S -2
s W I b ^s h 0
T X
2 + 0.2s -2
2 + 4s
D = 2 + 4s = ^2 + 0.2sh # c m - ^- 2h2
-2 s
s
4 + 8s + 0.4s + 0.8s2 - 4s 0.8s2 + 4.4s + 4

= =
s s
4.4 4
0.8 cs2 + s+ m
0.8 0.8
=
s
0.8 b s2 + 5.5s + 5 l
=
s
2
V1 ^s h -2 4 cs + m
2 + 4s = V1 ^s h #
4
V1 ^s h
2 + 4s
Da = =
0 s s
s
4^s + 0.5h
= V1 ^s h
s
2 + 0.2s V1 ^s h
Db = = 2V1 ^s h
-2 0
We know that,
Da ^s h 1 4 (s + 0.5) s
I1 (s) = Ia ^s h = = Da ^s h # = V1 (s) #
D D s 2
0.8^s + 5.5s + 5h
5^s + 0.5h
= V1 ^s h
2
s + 5.5s + 5
From the above equation we can write,
V1 ^s h s2 + 5.5s + 5
Z11 ^s h = =
I1 ^s h 5 (s + 0.5)
0.2 b s2 + 5.5s + 5 l
=
s + 0.5
V2 ^s h 0.2sIa ^s h + 2Ib ^s h
Z21 ^s h = = With reference to Fig. 4, by KVL,
I1 ^s h I a ^s h we get,
2Ib ^s h = 0.2s + 2I (s) # 1 V2(s) = 0.2 s Ia (s) + 2 Ia(s)
= 0.2s + b
I a ( s)
I a ^s h
Tb T 1
` Z21 ^s h = 0.2s + 2 # # = 0.2s + 2 # Tb #
T Ta Ta
s
= 0.2s + 2 # 2 V1 (s) #
4 (s + 0.5) V1 (s)
2
= 0.2 s + s = 0.2 s + 0.1s + s
s + 0.5 s + 0.5
0.2s2 + 1.1s 0.2s^s + 5.5h

= =
s + 0.5 s + 0.5
To determine Z12(s) and Z22(s)
The given network can be divided into two equal sections. Hence, it is symmetrical.
0.2s^s2 + 5.5s + 5h
` Z22 ^s h = Z11 ^s h =
s + 0.5
The given network does not have any active elements like dependent source. Hence, it is reciprocal.
0.2 s^s + 5.5h

` Z12 ^s h = Z21 ^s h =
s + 0.5
Z-parameter matrix
R 2 V
R V S 0.2s ^s + 5.5s + 5h 0.2s ^s + 5.5h W
S Z11 ^s h Z12 ^s hW S s + 0.5 s + 0.5 W
Z ^s h = S W = S W
SZ21 ^s h S 0.2 ^s2 + 5.5s + 5h WW
Z22 ^s hW S
0.2s ^s + 5.5h
T X S W
s + 0.5 s + 0.5
T X
EXAMPLE 5.7 2W
1 2
Determine the Z-parameters of the lattice network shown in Fig. 1.
j2
W
SOLUTION
W
j2
The frequency domain equations defining Z-parameters are,
1¢ 2¢
2W
V1 = Z11 I1 + Z12 I2 .....(1)
Fig. 1.
V2 = Z21 I1 + Z22 I2 .....(2)
To determine Z11 and Z 21
Let us connect a source of voltage V1 to port-1 and open circuit port-2 as shown in Fig 2. Now, I2 = 0.
When I2 = 0, from equations (1) and (2), we get,
V1
Z11 =
I1
V2
Z21 =
I1
I1 2W I2 = 0 I1
1 2 1 I1
+ + +
2W V Vc j2 W
_a
j2
_
W
2 2¢
V1 V2 OC Þ V1
+ V2 _
Þ 2 + j2
+ + V1
W
j2 W 2
j2
V Vd 2W
_ _b _ = 1 + j1W
1¢ 2¢ 1¢
2W
Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4.
The circuit of Fig. 2 can be redrawn as shown in Fig. 3, and can be reduced as shown in Fig 4.
V1 = I1 ^1 + j1h .....(3)
V1
` Driving point impedance at port -1, Z11 = = 1 + j1 Ω
I1
With reference to Fig. 3, by voltage division rule, we get,
2
Va = V1 #
2 + j2
j2
Vc = V1 #
2 + j2
With reference to Fig. 3, by KVL, we get,
V2 + Va = Vc
j2 2
` V2 = Vc - Va = V1 # - V1
2 + j2 2 + j2
j2 - 2 j^2 + j2h
= V1 # = V1 # = jV1
2 + j2 2 + j2
= j I1 ^1 + j1h Using equation (3)
V2
` Forward transfer impedance, Z 21 = = j^1 + j1h = - 1 + j1 Ω
I1
To determine Z12 and Z 22
The given lattice network is symmetrical and reciprocal.
` Z 22 = Z11 = 1 + j1 Ω
Z12 = Z 21 = - 1 + j1 Ω
Z-parameter matrix
Z = > H=> H
Z11 Z12 1 + j1 - 1 + j1
Z21 Z22 - 1 + j1 1 + j1
EXAMPLE 5.8 (AU Dec’16, 8 Marks) 5W 10 W 4I1

1 2
+
-
Determine the Z-parameters of the two-port network shown in Fig. 1.
SOLUTION 20 W

1¢ 2¢
V1 = Z11 I1 + Z12 I2 .....(1) Fig. 1.
V2 = Z21 I1 + Z22 I2 .....(2)
Let us connect a source of voltage V1 to port-1 and leave port-2 as open circuit as shown in Fig. 2.
Now, I2 = 0.
V1
Z11 =
I1
V2
Z21 =
I1
With reference of Fig. 2, by KVL,
V1
V1 = 5I1 + 20I1 ⇒ V1 = 25I1 ⇒ = 25Ω
I1
V1
∴ Driving point impedance at port -1, Z11 = = 25 Ω
I1
With reference of Fig. 2 by KVL,
V2
V2 = 4I1 + 20I1 ⇒ V2 = 24I1 ⇒ = 24 Ω
I1
V2
∴ Forward transfer impedance, Z21 = = 24 Ω
I1
To determine Z22 and Z12 I1 5W 10 W 4I1 I2 = 0

1 2
+
_
-
+ +
Let us connect a source of voltage V2 to port-2 and leave 5I1 No voltage
I1 +
port-1 as open circuit as shown in Fig. 3. Now, I1 = 0. V2 OC
V1 20 W 20I
_ 1
When I1 = 0, from equations (1) and (2), we get, _
1¢ 2¢
V1
Fig. 2.
Z12 =
I2
V2
Z 22 =
I2
I 1= 0 5 W 10 W 4I1 I2 I1 = 0
5W 10 W I2 I2
SC
1 2 1 2
+
-
+ +
No
voltage + 10 + 20
V1 20 W V2 Þ V1
V = 20I2 V2 Þ = 30 W
V2
20 W
_ _1
1¢ 2¢ _
1¢ 2¢
Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Fig. 5.
V2
= 30 Ω
I2
V2
∴ Driving point impedance at port - 2, Z 22 = = 30 Ω
I2
With reference to Fig.4, by KVL, we get,
V1 = 20 I2
V1
∴ Re verse transfer impedance, Z12 = = 20 Ω
I2
It can be observed that, Z12 ≠ Z21 and so the network is non-reciprocal network. This is due to
presence of a dependent source.
Z-parameter matrix
Z = > H=> H
Z11 Z12 25 20
Z 21 Z 22 24 30
8W 10 W
EXAMPLE 5.9 (AU May’17, 16 Marks) 1 2
Determine the Z-parameters and draw the T-equivalent network for the
20 W 20 W
given two-port network shown in Fig. 1. Also derive the transmission line (ABCD)
parameters from Z-parameters. 1¢ 2¢
SOLUTION Fig. 1.
V1 = Z11 I1 + Z12 I2 .....(1)
V2 = Z21 I1 + Z22 I2 .....(2)

I1 8W 10 W I2 = 0
1 2
Let us connect a source of voltage V1 to port-1 and leave Ia Ib +
port-2 as an open circuit as shown in Fig. 2. Now, I2 = 0. +
V1 20 W 20 W V2 V2 OC
_
_
V1 1¢ 2¢
Z11 =
I1 Fig. 2.
V2
Z21 =
I1
terminals as shown below :
I1 8W 10 W I1
Ia Ib
+
20 ´ (10 + 20)
V1 20 W 20 W
V2 Þ V1 8+
20 + (10 + 20)
_
= 8 + 12 = 20 W
Fig. 3. Fig. 4.
With reference of Fig. 4,
V1
Driving point impedance at port -1, Z11 = = 20 Ω .....(3)
I1
With reference to Fig. 3, we can say that the current I1 delivered by the source divides as Ia and Ib in
the parallel paths. Hence, by current division rule, we get,
20 2
I b = I1 # = I1
20 + ^10 + 20h 5
2 V2
V2 = 20 # I b ⇒ V2 = 20 # I ⇒ = 8Ω
5 1 I1
V2
Forward transfer impedance, Z 21 = = 8Ω .....(4)
I1
Let us connect a source of voltage V2 to port-2 and leave port-1 as an open circuit as shown in
Fig. 5. Now, I1 = 0.
I1 = 0 8 W 10 W I2 10 W I2
1 2 2
+ + Id Ic
Id Ic
OC V1 20 W 20 W V2 Þ V1 20 W 20 W V2
_ _
1¢ 2¢ 2¢
Fig. 5. Fig. 6.
Þ
I2
2
30 ´ 20
30 + 20 V2
= 12W
With reference to Fig. 7, by Ohm’s law, we get, 2¢

Fig. 7.
V2
= 12 Ω
I2
V2
∴ Driving point impedance at port -1, Z 22 = = 12 Ω .....(5)
I2
With reference to Fig. 6, by current division rule, we get,
20 2
Ib = I 2 # = I2
20 + (20 + 10) 5
By Ohm’s law, we get

2 V1
V1 = 20 × Ib ⇒ V1 = 20 # I ⇒ = 8Ω
5 2 I2
V1
∴ Re verse transfer impedance Z12 = = 8Ω
I2
Z-parameter matrix
Z = > H=> H
Z11 Z12 20 8
Z 21 Z 22 8 12
T-equivalent matrix
Consider a two-port T-network circuit as shown in Fig. 8,
Z1 Z2
1 2
Z3
1¢ 2¢
Fig. 8.
Let us connect a source of voltage V1 to port-1 and leave port-2 as I1 I2 = 0
Z1 Z2
1 2
an open circuit as shown in Fig. 9. Now, I2 = 0 and so the circuit of Fig. 9 can I1 + +
be compared with the circuit of Fig. 2. V1 Z3 V2 V2 OC
_ _
Driving point impedance at port -1, Z11 = Z1 + Z3 1¢ 2¢
Fig. 9.
From equation (3), Z11 = 20 Ω
∴ Z1 + Z3 = 20 Ω .....(6)
Also from Fig. 9, V2 = Z3I1 ⇒ V2

Z3 =
I1
V2
From equation (4), Z 21 =
I1
Z3 = Z21 = 8 Ω .....(7)
I2
I1= 0 Z1 Z2
Similarly connect a source of voltage V2 to port-2 and leave port-1 as 1 2
+ + I2
an open circuit as shown in Fig. 10. Now, I1 = 0 and so the circuit of Fig. 10
OC V1 V1 Z3 V2
can be compared with the circuit of Fig. 5. _ _
1¢ 2¢
Driving point impedance at port - 2, Z 22 = Z 2 + Z3 Fig. 10.
From equation (5), Z22 = 12 Ω

12 W 4W
1 2
∴ Z2 + Z3 = 12 Ω .....(8)
8W
Using equation (7) in equations (6) and (8), we get,
1¢ 2¢
Z1 = 20 − Z3 = 20 − 8 = 12 Ω
Fig. 11.
Z2 = 12 − Z3 = 12 − 8 = 4 Ω
The resultant T-equivalent network for the given two-port network is shown in Fig. 11.
To determine Transmission line (ABCD)-parameters
The equation for ABCD-parameters are
V1 = AV2 − BI2 .....(9)
I1 = CV2 − DI2 .....(10)
The above equations are rearranged in the form of Z-parameter equations.
From equation (8),
C V2 = I1 + D I2
1 D .....(11)
` V2 = I + I
C 1 C 2
On substituting for V2 from equation (11) in equation (9), we get,
1 D
V1 = A c I + I m - BI 2
C 1 C 2
A AD
V1 = I +c - B m I2 .....(12)
C 1 C
A
Z11 = .....(13)
C
AD
Z12 = -B .....(14)
C
1
Z 21 = .....(15)
C
D
Z 22 = .....(16)
C
1 1
From equation (15), C = = = 0.125
Z 21 8
From equation (13), A = C Z11 = 0.125 × 20 = 2.5
From equation (16), D = C Z22 = 0.125 × 12 = 1.5
AD 2.5 # 1.5
From equation (14), B = - Z12 = - 8 = 22
C 0.125
Transmission parameter matrix
T = > H=> H
A B 2.5 2.2
C D 0.125 1.5
20 W
EXAMPLE 5.10 1 2
Determine the admittance parameters of the π-network shown in Fig. 1.

5W 10 W
SOLUTION 1¢ 2¢
The equations defining Y-parameters are, Fig. 1.
I1 = Y11 V1 + Y12 V2 .....(1)
I2 = Y21 V1 + Y22 V2 .....(2)

To determine Y11 and Y21

I1 20 W I2
Let us connect a source of voltage V1 to port-1 and short circuit 2
port-2 as shown in Fig. 2. Now, V2 = 0. 1
V2 = 0
V1 5W 10 W
When V2 = 0, from equations (1) and (2), we get, SC
I1 1¢ 2¢
Y11 = Fig. 2.
V1
Þ
I1 20 W I2
I2
Y21 =
V1
V1 5W
The circuit of Fig. 2 can be reduced as shown in Fig. 4. With
reference to Fig. 4, we get,
V1 Fig. 3.
I1 = .....(3)
Þ
4
I1
I1 1
` Driving point admittance at port - 1, Y11 = = M
V1 4
V1 20 ´ 5
= 4W
With reference to Fig. 3, by current division rule, we can write, 20 + 5
5 1
I 2 = - I1 # = - I1 # Using equation (3) Fig. 4.
5 + 20 5
V1 1 V1 I2 1
=- # =- ⇒ =-
4 5 20 V1 20 I1 20 W I2
I2 1
` Forward transfer admittance, Y21 = =- M V1 = 0
V1 20 SC
5W 10 W V2

Fig. 5.
Let us connect a source of voltage V2 to port-2 and short circuit
Þ
port-1 as shown in Fig 5. Now, V1= 0. I1 20 W I2
When V1 = 0, from equations (1) and (2), we get,

10 W V2
I1
Y12 =
V2
Fig. 6.
I2
Þ
Y22 =
V2 I2
The circuit of Fig. 5 can be reduced as shown in Fig. 7. With

20 ´ 10
reference to Fig. 7, we get, V2
20 + 10
20
V2 = W
I2 = .....(4)
3
20/3
Fig. 7.
I2 3
` Driving point admittance at port - 2, Y22 = = M
V2 20
With reference to Fig 6, by current division rule, we can write,
10 1
I1 = - I 2 # = - I2 #
10 + 20 3
V2 1 1 I1 1
` I1 = - # = - V2 # ⇒ V = - 20 Using equation (4)
20/3 3 20 2
I1 1
` Reverse transfer admittance, Y12 = =- M
V2 20
Note : It can be observed that, Y12 = Y21 and so the network is a reciprocal network. This is due to
absence of any active elements like a dependent source.
Y - parameter matrix
R V
S 1 - 1 W
Y = > H = S 1
Y11 Y12 S 4 20 W
Y21 Y22 S- 3 WW
S 20 20 W
T X
EXAMPLE 5.11 1F
Determine the Y-parameters of the bridged-T network shown in Fig 1. 1W 1W

1 2
SOLUTION
1F
The s-domain equations defining Y-parameters are,
1¢ 2¢
I1(s) = Y11(s) V1(s) + Y12(s) V2(s) .....(1)
Fig. 1.
I2(s) = Y21(s) V1(s) + Y22(s) V2(s) .....(2)
To determine Y11(s) and Y21(s)

The s-domain equivalent of the given network is shown in Fig. 2.
1
1
s
s
I1(s) I3(s) I2(s)
1 1 1 1
2 1 2
1
1 V2(s) = 0
1 V1(s) I1(s) s I2(s)
s SC
1¢ 2¢ 1¢ 2¢
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
Let us connect a source of voltage, V1(s) to port-1 and short circuit port-2 as shown in Fig 3. Now, V2(s) = 0.
When V2(s) = 0, from equations (1) and (2), we get,
I1 (s)
Y11 (s) =
V1 (s)
I 2 ( s)
Y21 (s) =
V1 (s)
The current I1(s) and I2(s) can be solved by mesh analysis. The mesh basis matrix equation for the
circuit of Fig. 3 is given below :
R V R V R V
S1 + 1 1
- 1 W SI1 (s) W S V1 (s) W
S s s W S W S W
S 1 1 WS W S W
S 1+ 1 W S I2 (s) W = S 0 W
S s s WS W S W
S 1W S W S W
1 1 2
s W S I3 (s) W S 0 W
S - +
T X T X T X
1 1
1+ -1
s s
1 1
D = 1+ 1
s s
1
-1 1 2+
s
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= c1 + m ;c1 + m c2 + m - 1 E - ; c2 + m + 1 E - ; + c1 + mE
s s s s s s s s
m 1 + + 2 H - >1 + + 2 H - ;1 + E
s >
1 3 1 1 2 1 2
= c1 +
s s s s s s
3 1 1 3 1 1 2 1 2
= 1+ + + + + - - - -1-
s s 2 s s 2 s3 s s 2 s3 s
1 2 s+2
= + =
s s2 s2
1
V1 (s) -1
s
1
D1 = 0 1+ 1
s
1
0 1 2+
s
= V1 (s) ;c1 + mc2 + m - 1 E = V1 (s) f1 + + 2 p

1 1 3 1
s s s s
s 2 + 3s + 1
= V1 (s)
s2
1
1+ V1 (s) -1
s
1
D2 = 0 1
s
1
-1 0 2+
s
1 1
= - V1 (s) ; c2 + m + 1 E
s s
s 2 + 2s + 1
= - V1 (s) >1 + + 2 H = - V1 (s) > H
2 1
s s s2
^s + 1h2
=- V1 (s)
s2
Now,
D1 1 s 2 + 3s + 1 s2 s 2 + 3s + 1
I1 (s) = = D1 # = V1 (s) # = V1 (s)
D D s2 s+2 s+2

I1 (s) s 2 + 3s + 1
Driving point admittance, Y11 (s) = =
V1 (s) s+2
2 2
D2 1 ^s + 1h s2 ^s + 1h
I 2 ( s) = = D2 # =- V1 (s) # =- V1 (s)
D D s 2 s + 2 s+2
I 2 ( s) ^s + 1h2
Forward transfer admittance, Y21 (s) = =-
V1 (s) s+2
To determine Y12(s) and Y22(s)

The given bridged-T network can be divided into two equal sections. Hence, the given network is
symmetrical.
s 2 + 3s + 1
` Y22 (s) = Y11 (s) =
s+2
The given network does not have any active elements like a dependent source. Hence, it is reciprocal.
^s + 1h2
` Y12 (s) = Y21 (s) = -
s+2
Y-parameter matrix
R 2 V
S s + 3s + 1 ^s + 1h2 W
S s+2 -
s + 2 WW
Y (s) = > H = S
Y11 (s) Y12 (s)
Y21 (s) Y22 (s) S ^s + 1h2 s + 3s + 1 W
2
SS - WW
s+2 s+2
T X
EXAMPLE 5.12 2 + j2 W 2 + j2 W
1 2
Determine the admittance parameters of the T-network shown in Fig. 1.
-j2 W
SOLUTION
The frequency domain equations defining Y-parameters are, 1¢ 2¢
Fig. 1.
I1 = Y11 V1 + Y12 V2 .....(1)
I2 = Y21 V1 + Y22 V2 .....(2)

Let us connect a source of V1 to port-1 and short circuit port-2 as shown in Fig. 2. Now, V2 = 0.
I1
Y11 =
V1
I2
Y21 =
V1
I1 2+j2 W 2+j2 W I2 I1 2+j2 W I1

1 2
V2 = 0 b 2 + j 2 g ´ b - j 2g 2 + j2 + 2 - j2
V1 -j2 W Þ V1 2 + j2 - j2 Þ V1
SC
= 4W
= 2 - j2 W
1¢ 2¢
Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4.
The circuit of Fig. 2, can be reduced to a single equivalent impedance with respect to source terminals
as shown in Fig. 4.
V1
I1 = .....(3)
4
I1 1
` Y11 = = 0.25 M
=
V1 4
- j2
I2 = - I1 #
2 + j2 - j2
V1
=- # ^- jh Using equation (3)
4
` I2 = j0.25 V1
I2
` Y21 = = j0.25 M
V1
The given T-network is symmetrical and reciprocal.
` Y22 = Y11 = 0.25 M
` Y12 = Y21 = j0.25 M
Y-parameter matrix
Y = > H = > H
Y11 Y12 0.25 j0.25
Y21 Y22 j0.25 0.25

Determine the h-parameters of the two-port network shown in Fig. 1.
10 W
SOLUTION 2
1
The equations defining h-parameters are, 20 W
V1 = h11 I1 + h12 V2 .....(1)

1¢ 2¢
I 2 = h 21 I1 + h 22 V2 .....(2) Fig. 1.
To determine h11 and h21
Let us connect a source of voltage V1 to port-1 and short circuit port-2 as shown in Fig. 2. Now, V2 = 0.
I1 10 W I2
When V2 = 0, from equations (1) and (2), we get, 2
1
V1 V2 = 0
h11 = V1 20 W
SC
I1
I2 1¢ 2¢
h 21 =
I1 Fig. 2.
Þ
In the circuit of Fig. 2, the 20Ω resistance is shorted and so it can be
removed and the circuit can be drawn as shown in Fig. 3.
I1 10 W I2
Now, with reference to Fig. 3, by Ohm’s law, we can write,

V1
V1 = 10 I1.
V1
` Input impedance, h11 = = 10 Ω
I1 Fig. 3.
Also in the circuit shown in Fig. 3, I2 = −I1.
I2
` Forward current transfer ratio, h 21 = = -1
I1
Let us connect a source of voltage V2 to port-2 and open circuit port-1 as shown in Fig. 4. Now, I1 = 0.
When I1 = 0, from equations (1) and (2), we get, I1 = 0 10 W I2

V1 1 + 2
h12 =
V2
OC V1 20 W V2
I2 _
h 22 =
V2 1¢ 2¢
With reference to Fig. 4, by Ohm’s law, we can write, Fig. 4.
V2
I2 =
20
I2 1
` Output admittance, h 22 = = = 0.05 M
V2 20
Also in the circuit shown in Fig. 4, V1 = V2 .

V1
` Reverse voltage transfer ratio, h12 = =1
V2
It can be observed that, h12 = – h21 and so the network is a reciprocal network. This is due to the
h-parameter matrix
h = > H = > H
h11 h12 10 1
h 21 h 22 -1 0.05
EXAMPLE 5.14 (AU Dec’16, 8 Marks) 2W 3W

1 2
Determine the h-parameters of the two-port network shown in Fig. 1.
6W
SOLUTION
1¢ 2¢
The equations defining h-parameters are, Fig. 1.
V1 = h11 I1 + h12 V2 .....(1)
I 2 = h 21 I1 + h 22 V2 .....(2)
Let us connect a source of voltage V1 to port-1 and short circuit I1 2W 3W I2

2
1
port-2 as shown in Fig. 2. Now, V2 = 0.
V2 = 0
V1 6W
When V2 = 0, from equations (1) and (2), we get, SC
V1 1¢ 2¢
h11 = Fig. 2.
I1
Þ
I2 I1
h 21 = 2W
I1
The circuit of Fig. 2, can be reduced to a single equivalent 6´3

V1 = 2W
6+ 3
resistance with respect to source terminals as shown in Fig. 4.
Now, with reference to Fig. 4, by Ohm’s law, we can write, Fig. 3.

Þ
V1 = 4 I1 I1
V1
` Input impedance, h11 = = 4Ω
I1
V1 2 + 2 = 4W
6
I 2 =- I1 #
6+3 Fig. 4.
- 2I1 I2 2
I2 = ⇒ =-
3 I1 3
I2 2
` Forward current transfer ratio, h 21 = =-
I1 3
I1= 0 2 W 3W I2
Let us connect a source of voltage V2 to port-2 and open circuit
1 2
port-1 as shown in Fig. 5. Now, I1 = 0. + +
V1 V1 6W V2
OC
_ _
V1 1¢ 2¢
h12 =
V2 Fig. 5.
I2
h 22 =
V2
The circuit of Fig. 5, can be reduced to a single equivalent resistance with 3W I2
2
respect to source terminals as shown in Fig. 7. +
With reference to Fig. 7, by Ohm’s law, we can write, 6W V2
V1
_
V2 I2 1
I2 = ⇒ = 2¢
9 V2 9
Fig. 6.
I2 1
Þ
` Output admittance, h 22 = = M I2
V2 9
Also in the circuit shown in Fig. 6,
6+3
V2
V1 =9W
6 2 2
V1 = V = V2 ⇒ =
6+3 2 3 V2 3
V1 2 Fig. 7.
` Reverse voltage transfer ratio, h12 = =
V2 3
It can be observed that, h12 = – h21 and so the network is a reciprocal network. This is due to the
h-parameter matrix
h = > H = > H
h11 h12 4 2/ 3
h 21 h 22 - 2/ 3 1/ 9
EXAMPLE 5.15 1W
Determine the h-parameters of the bridged-T network shown in Fig. 1.

2W 2W
1 2
SOLUTION
4W
The equations defining h-parameters are,
V1 = h11 I1 + h12 V2 .....(1) 1¢ 2¢
Fig. 1.
I2 = h21 I1 + h22 V2 .....(2)
V1
h11 =
I1
I2 1W
h 21 =
I1
I3
The currents I1 and I2 can be solved by mesh analysis. The mesh I1 2W 2W I2
1 2
basis matrix equation for the circuit of Fig. 2 is given below:
SC
R V R V R V V1 I1 4W I2 V2 = 0
S 6 4 -2W SI1 W S V1 W
S W S W S W
S 4 6 2W SI 2 W = S 0 W 1¢ 2¢
S W S W S W Fig. 2.
S- 2 2 5W SI3 W S0 W
T X T X T X
6 4 -2
T = 4 6 2 = 6 # 630 - 4 @ - 4 # 620 + 4 @ - 2 # 68 + 12 @ = 20
-2 2 5
V1 4 -2
T1 = 0 6 2 = V1 # 630 - 4 @ = 26V1
0 2 5
6 V1 - 2
T2 = 4 0 2 = - V1 # 620 + 4 @ = - 24V1
-2 0 5
D1 26V1 13
` I1 = = = V1
D 20 10
D2 24V1 12
I2 = =- =- V1
D 20 10
V1 V1 10
Input impedance, h11 = = = Ω
I1 13 13
V1
10
12
- V1
I2 10 12
Forward current transfer ratio, h 21 = = =-
I1 13 13
V1
10
1W
Let us connect a source of voltage V2 to port-2 and open circuit port-1
I1 = 0 Ib I2
as shown in Fig. 3. Now, I1 = 0. 2W 2W
1 _ 2
+ +
2Ib +
V1 4Ia 4W V2
a I
V1 _
h12 = _
V2 1¢ 2¢
I2 Fig. 3.
h 22 =
V2
The above h-parameters can be solved by mesh analysis of the circuit of Fig. 3. Let the mesh currents
be Ia and Ib. The mesh basis matrix equation for the circuit of Fig. 3 is given below:
> H > H = > H

6 -2 Ia V2
-2 5 Ib 0
6 -2
T = = 6 # 5 - (- 2) 2 = 26
-2 5
V2 - 2
Ta = = 5V2
0 5
6 V2
Tb = = 2V2
-2 0
Da 5V2
` Ia = =
D 26
Db 2V2
Ib = =
D 26
In the circuit of Fig. 3, by KVL, we can write,
2 5 24 V1 24 12
V1 = 2 Ib + 4 Ia = 2 # V2 + 4 # V2 = V2 ⇒ = =
26 26 26 V2 26 13
V1 12
` Reverse voltage transfer ratio, h12 = =
V2 13
In the circuit of Fig. 3, I2 = Ia.
5V2 I2 5
` I 2 = Ia = ⇒ = M
26 V2 26
I2 5
` Output admittance, h 22 = = M
V2 26
h-parameter matrix
R V
S 10 12 W
h = > H = S 12
h11 h12 S 13 13 W
h 21 h 22 S- 5 WW
S 13 26 W
T X
CONCLUSION
1. Here, h12 = −h21, hence the network is reciprocal. Also the network does not have any dependent source.
10 12
h11 h12 13 13 10 5 12 12 10 2.5 12 12 25 144
2. D h = = = # + # = # + # = + =1
h 21 h 22 12 5 13 26 13 13 13 13 13 13 169 169
-
13 26
Since, ∆h = 1, the network is symmetrical. Also the network can be divided into two identical sections.
EXAMPLE 5.16
1W 4W 1W
1 2
Determine the g-parameters of the network shown in Fig. 1.
SOLUTION 2W 2W
The equations defining g-parameters are, 1¢ 2¢
I1 = g11 V1 + g12 I2 .....(1) Fig. 1.
V2 = g21 V1 + g22 I2 .....(2)
To determine g11 and g21
Let us connect a source of voltage V1 to port-1 and an open circuit port-2 as shown in Fig. 2. Now, I2 = 0.
I1
g11 =
V1
V2
g21 =
V1
terminals as shown in Fig. 5.
I1 1W 4W 1W I2=0 I1 1W 4W I1 1W
1 2
+ Ia Ib
+
V1 2W 2W V2 OC Þ V1
2W 2W V2 Þ V1 b
2´ 4+2 g
2+4+2
_ _
1¢ 2¢ = 1.5 W
Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4.

Þ
I1
V1 = 2.5 I1 .....(3)
I1 1
` g11 = = = 0.4 M V1
V1 2.5 1+1.5
= 2.5 W
2 Fig. 5.
I b = I1 # ⇒ Ib = 0.25 I1 .....(4)
4+2+2
V2 = 2 Ib
` V2 = 2 # 0.25 I1 ⇒ V2 = 0.5 I1 .....(5) Using equation (4)
V2 0.5 I1
Now, g21 = =
V1 2.5 I1
Using equations (3) and (5)
∴ g21 = 0.2
To determine g22 and g12

The given network does not have any active elements and so it is reciprocal.
∴ g12 = –g21 = – 0.2
The given network can be exactly divided into two sections and so it is symmetrical.
g11 g12
` Dg = 1 ⇒ = 1 ⇒ g11 g 22 − g 21 g12 = 1
g 21 g 22
1 + g21 g12 1 + 0.2 # ^- 0.2h

` g22 = = = 2.4 Ω
g11 0.4
g-parameter matrix
g = > H=> H
g11 g12 0.4 - 0.2
g21 g22 0.2 2.4
10 W
EXAMPLE 5.17 1 2
Determine the transmission parameters of the two-port network shown
in Fig. 1. 4W 4W
1¢ 2¢
Fig. 1.
SOLUTION
The equations defining transmission parameters are,
V1 = A V2 – B I2 .....(1)
I1 = C V2 – D I2 .....(2)
To determine A and C
I1 10 W I2 = 0
Let us connect a source of voltage V1 to port-1 and open circuit 1 2
+
port-2 as shown in Fig. 2. Now I2 = 0.
V1 4W 4W V2 OC
_
V1 1¢ 2¢
A =
V2 Fig. 2.
I1
C =
Þ
V2
I1
4 4 2 4 ´ (10 + 4) 56
V2 = V1 # = V1 = V1 .....(3) V1 =
4 + 10 14 7 4 + (10 + 4) 18
28
From the above equation, we get, = W
9
V1 7 Fig. 3.
A = =
V2 2
With reference to Fig. 3, by Ohm’s law, we can write, Using equations (3) and (4)
V1 9
I1 = = V1 .....(4)
28/9 28
I1 10 W I2
I1 1 9V1 7 9
` C = = I1 # = # = M 1
2
V2 V2 28 2V1 8
V1 4W 4W SC
To determine B and D V2 = 0
1¢ 2¢
Let us connect a source of voltage V1 to port-1 and short circuit
port-2 as shown in Fig. 4. Now, V2 = 0.
Fig. 4.
Þ

I1 10 W I2
V1
B =-
I2
V1 4W
I1
D =-
I2
In the circuit of Fig. 4, the 4Ω resistance is shorted. Hence, it can Fig. 5.
be removed and the circuit is redrawn as shown in Fig. 5.
Þ
With reference to Fig. 5, by current division rule, we get, I1
4 2
I 2 = - I1 = - I1 10 ´ 4 40
4 + 10 7 .....(5) V1 =
10 + 4 14
From the above equation, we get, =
20
W
7
I1 7
D =- = Fig. 6.
I2 2
20 .....(6)
V1 = I1
7
V1 1
` B =- = - V1 #
I2 I2
20I1 7
=- # c- m = 10 Ω Using equations (5) and (6)
7 2I1
Transmission parameter matrix
R V
S 7 10 W
T = > H = S9 7 W
A B S2 W
C D S W
S8 2 W
T X
CONCLUSION
1. Here, A = D, hence the network is symmetrical. Also it can be observed that the network can be divided into
two identical sections.
7 7 9 49 90 98 - 90 8
2. AD - BC = # - 10 # = - = = =1
2 2 8 4 8 8 8
Here AD − BC = 1, hence the network is reciprocal. Also the network does not have any dependent source.
EXAMPLE 5.18 1
4W 4W
2
Determine the inverse transmission parameters of the two-port network 4W
4W
shown in Fig. 1. 8W
SOLUTION 1¢ 2¢
The equations defining inverse transmission parameters are, Fig. 1.
V2 = A′ V1 – B′ I1 .....(1)
I2 = C′ V1 – D′ I1 .....(2)
To determine A′ and C′
I1=0 4W 4W I2
Let us connect a source of voltage V2 to port-2 and open circuit port-1 1 2
+
as shown in Fig. 2. Now, I1 = 0. 4W
4W
V1 8W V2
_
V2 1¢ 2¢
Al =
V1 Fig. 2.
I2
Cl =
V1
The circuit of Fig. 2, can be reduced to a single equivalent resistance with respect to source terminals
as shown in Fig. 5.
I2 4W I2 I2
4W 4W
2 _
+ +
Va b 4 + 4g ´ 4
4W +
4W
V1 8W V2 Þ b 4 + 4g ´ 8 Vb 4W Vc Þ 4+4+4 Vc
_ 4+4+8 _ 32 8
= = W
= 4W 12 3
2¢
Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Fig. 5.
With reference to Figs. 4 and 3, by voltage division rule, we can write,
4 V2
Vb = V2 # =
4+4 2
4 Vb 1 V2 V2
V1 = Vb # = = # = .....(3)
4+4 2 2 2 4
From the above equation, we get,
V2
Al = = 4
V1

V2 3 .....(4)
I2 = = V2
8 3 8
I2 1 3 4 Using equations (3) and (4)

` Cl = = I2 # = V2 # = 1.5 M
V1 V1 8 V2
To determine B′ and D′
The given network can be divided into two identical sections and so it is symmetrical.
∴ D′ = A′ = 4
The given network does not have any active elements like a dependent source and so it is reciprocal.
` Al Dl - Bl Cl = 1
Al Dl - 1 4#4-1
` Bl = = = 10 Ω
Cl 1.5
Inverse transmission parameter
H = > H
Al Bl 4 10
Tl = >
Cl Dl 1.5 4
EXAMPLE 5.19 Z1 Z2
1 2
Determine the Z-parameters of the T-network shown in Fig. 1. Also express
the parameters of T-network in terms of Z-parameters. Z3
SOLUTION 1¢ 2¢
The equations defining Z-parameters are, Fig. 1.

- -
V1 = Z11 I 1 + Z12 I 2 .....(1)
- -
V2 = Z 21 I 1 + Z 22 I 2 .....(2)
I1 I2 = 0
Z1 Z2
To determine Z11 and Z 21 1 _ 2
+
Z1 I1 No Voltage +
+
V1 Z I V2 OC
Let us connect a source of voltage V1 to port-1 and leave port-2 as _3 1
- _
open circuit as shown in Fig. 2. Now, I2= 0. 1¢ 2¢
Fig. 2.
-
When I 2 = 0, from equations (1) and (2), we get,
V1
Z11 = -
I1
V2
Z 21 = -
I1
With reference to Fig 2, by KVL,
- - V1
V1 = Z1 I 1 + Z3 I 1 ⇒ -
= Z1 + Z3
I1
V1
∴ Driving point impedance at port-1, Z11 = -
= Z1 + Z3
I1
With reference to Fig 2, by KVL,
_
V2 = Z3 I1
V2
` Forward transfer impedance, Z 21 = -
= Z3
I1
To determine Z 22 and Z12
Let us connect a source of voltage V2 to port-2 and leave port-1 as open circuit as shown in Fig. 3.
-
Now, I1 = 0.
I2 = 0 I2
Z1 Z2
1 _ 2
+ +
No Voltage + Z2 I2
OC V1 Z3 I2 V2
_
_
1¢ 2¢
Fig. 3.
-
When I 1 = 0, from equations (1) and (2), we get,
V1
Z12 = -
I2
V2
Z 22 = -
I2
With reference to Fig. 3, by KVL,
_ _ V2
V2 = Z 2 I 2 + Z3 I 2 ⇒ _
= Z 2 + Z3
I2
V2
∴ Driving point impedance at port-2, Z 22 = _ = Z 2 + Z3
I2
_
V1 = Z3 I 2
V1
` Reverse transfer impedance, Z12 = -
= Z3
I2
It can be observed that, Z12 = Z 21 and so the network is a reciprocal network. This is due to the absence
of dependent source.
The Z-parameters of T-network shown in Fig. 1 are,
Z11 = Z1 + Z3 .....(3)
Z12 = Z 21 = Z3 .....(4)
Z 22 = Z 2 + Z3 .....(5)
Elements of T-network in terms of Z-parameters
The elements of T-network in terms of Z-parameters obtained from equations (3),(4) and (5) are,
Z1 = Z11 - Z 21
Z 2 = Z 22 - Z12
Z3 = Z12 = Z 21
EXAMPLE 5.20 Z1 Z2
1 2
Determine the ABCD-parameters of the T-network shown in Fig. 1. Also
express the parameters of T-network in terms of ABCD-parameters.
Z3
SOLUTION 1¢ 2¢
The equations defining ABCD-parameters are, Fig. 1.
- -
V1 = A V2 - B I 2 .....(1)
_ - -
I1 = C V2 - D I 2 .....(2)
_
Note : In transmission parameters the current I 2 entering the port-2 is considered as negative.
I1 Z1 Z2 I2 = 0
Let us connect a source of voltage V1 to port-1 and leave port-2 as 1 _ 2
-
+
Z1 I1 No Voltage +
open circuit as shown in Fig. 2. Now, I 2 = 0. +
V1 Z3 I1 V2 OC
_
- _
When I 2 = 0, from equations (1) and (2), we get, 1¢ 2¢
V1 Fig. 2.
A =
V2
-
I1
C =
V2
With reference to Fig. 2, by Voltage division rule, we can write,
Z3 V1 Z1 + Z3 V1 Z1
V2 = V1 # ⇒ = ⇒ = +1
Z1 + Z3 V2 Z3 V2 Z3
V1 Z1
` A = = 1+
V2 Z3
_
V2 = Z3 I1
-
I1 1
∴ C = =
V2 Z3
To determine B and D
I1 Z1 Z2 I2 I1
1 2 1
Z2 Z3
V1 V2 = 0 SC
Þ V1
Z1+
Z 2 +Z 3
Z3
Z 1 Z 2 +Z 1 Z 3 +Z 2 Z 3
1¢ 2¢ 1¢ =
Z 2 +Z 3
Fig. 3. Fig. 4.
V1
B =- _
I2
-
I1
D =- -
I2

_ _
_ _ Z3 I1 Z3 + Z 2 I1 Z2
I 2 =- I1 # ⇒ -_ = ⇒ - _ = 1+ .....(3)
Z 2 + Z3 I2 Z3 I2 Z3
_
I1 Z2
` D =- _ = 1+
I2 Z3
V1 = f p I1
Z1 Z 2 + Z1 Z3 + Z 2 Z3 _ Z1 Z 2 + Z1 Z3 + Z 2 Z3 _ Z 2 + Z3
⇒ V1 = # - I2
Z 2 + Z3 Z 2 + Z3 Z3
V1 Z1 Z 2 + Z1 Z3 + Z 2 Z3
` B =- _ =
I2 Z3 Using equation (3)
Z1 Z 2
` B = Z1 + Z 2 +
Z3
The ABCD parameters of the T-network shown in Fig. 1 are,
Z1
A = 1+ .....(4)
Z3
Z1 Z 2
B = Z1 + Z 2 + .....(5)
Z3
1
C = .....(6)
Z3
Z2
D = 1+ .....(7)
Z3
Elements of T-network in terms of ABCD-parameters
From equation (6),
1
Z3 = .....(8)
C
From equation (7),
Z2 Z2
D = 1+ ⇒ = D-1 ⇒ Z 2 = Z3 (D - 1)
Z3 Z3
D-1
` Z2 = Using equation (8)
C
From equation (4),
Z1 Z1
A = 1+ ⇒ = A -1 ⇒ Z1 = Z3 (A - 1)
Z3 Z3
A-1
∴ Z1 = Using equation (8)
C
The elements of T-network in terms of ABCD parameters are,
A-1
Z1 =
C
D-1
Z2 =
C
1
Z3 =
C
EXAMPLE 5.21 Z1
1 2
Determine the Y-parameters of the P-network shown in Fig. 1. Also
express the parameters of P-network in terms of Y-parameters.
Z2 Z3
SOLUTION 1¢ 2¢
Fig. 1.
-
I1 = Y11 V1 + Y12 V2 .....(1)
-
I2 = Y21 V1 + Y22 V2 .....(2)
I1 I2 I1
Z1
1 2
V1 Z2 Z3 V2 = 0 SC Þ V1 Z1Z 2
Z1+ Z 2
1¢ 2¢
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
I1
Y11 =
V1
I2
Y21 =
V1
V1 Z1 Z 2
I1 = ⇒ I1 = V1 .....(3)
Z1 Z 2 / ^Z1 + Z 2h Z1 + Z 2
I1 Z1 Z 2
∴ Driving point admittance at port-1, Y11 = =
V1 Z1 + Z 2
_ _ Z2
I 2 =- I1 #
Z1 + Z 2
_ Z1 + Z 2 Z2 -
` I 2 =- V1 # ⇒ I2 = − V1 1
Z1 Z 2 Z1 + Z 2 Z1
I2 1
∴ Forward transfer admittance, Y21 = =- Using equation (3)
V1 Z1
I1 I2 I2
Z1
1 2
V1 = 0
SC Z2 Z3 V2 Þ Z1Z 3 V2
Z1+ Z 3
1¢ 2¢
Fig. 4. Fig. 5.
I1
Y12 =
V2
I2
Y22 =
V2
V2 Z1 + Z3
I2 = ⇒ I 2 = V2 .....(4)
Z1 Z3 / ^Z1 + Z3h Z1 Z3
_
I2 Z1 + Z3
∴ Driving point admittance at port-2, Y22 = =
V2 Z1 Z3
Since network is reciprocal,
Y12 = Y21 = − 1
Z1
The Y-parameters of the P-network shown in Fig. 1 are,
Z1 + Z 2
Y11 = .....(5)
Z1 Z 2
1
Y21 = Y12 =- .....(6)
Z1
Z1 + Z3
Y22 = .....(7)
Z1 Z3
Elements of P-network in terms of Y-parameters
From equation (6),
1 1
Z1 =- =- .....(8)
Y12 Y21
From equation (5),
Z 2 + Z1 Z2 Z1 Z2
Z 2 Y11 = ⇒ Z 2 Y11 = + ⇒ Z 2 Y11 = +1
Z1 Z1 Z1 Z1
1
` Z 2 fY11 - p=1 ⇒ Z 2 ^Y11 + Y21h = 1 Using equation (8)
Z1
1
∴ Z2 =
Y11 + Y21
From equation (7),
Z1 + Z3 Z1 Z3 Z3
Z3 Y22 = ⇒ Z3 Y22 = + ⇒ Z3 Y22 = 1+
Z1 Z1 Z1 Z1
∴ Z3 fY22 - p=1
1
⇒ Z3 ^Y22 + Y21h = 1 Using equation (8)
Z1
1
` Z3 =
Y22 + Y21
The elements of P-network in terms of Y-parameters are,

1
∴ Z1 = -
Y12
1
Z2 =
Y11 + Y21
1
Z3 =
Y22 + Y21
EXAMPLE 5.22 Z1
1 2
Determine the ABCD-parameters of the P-network shown in Fig. 1. Also
express the parameters of P-network in terms of Y-parameters.
Z2 Z3
SOLUTION
1¢ 2¢
The equations defining ABCD-parameters are, Fig. 1.
- -
V1 = A V2 - B I 2 .....(1)
_ - -
I1 = C V2 - D I 2 .....(2)
-
Let us connect a source of voltage V1 to port-1 and open circuit port-2 as shown in Fig. 2. Now, I 2 = 0.
I1 I2 = 0 I1
Z1
1 2
+
V1 Z2 Z3 V2 OC
Þ V1 e
Z 2 Z1+ Z 3 j
-
e
Z 2 + Z1+ Z 3 j
1¢ 2¢
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
-
V1
A =
V2
-
I1
C =
V2
With reference to Fig. 2, by Voltage division rule, we can write,

Z3 V1 Z3 + Z1 V1 Z1
V2 = V1 # ⇒ = ⇒ = 1+
Z3 + Z1 V2 Z3 V2 Z3
V1 Z1
` A = = 1+ .....(3)
V2 Z3
_ V1 _ Z1 + Z 2 + Z3
I1 = ⇒ I1 = V1 #
Z 2 (Z1 + Z3) / ^Z1 + Z 2 + Z3h Z 2 (Z1 + Z3)
_ Z3 + Z1 Z1 + Z 2 + Z3
` I1 = V2 #
Z3 Z 2 (Z1 + Z3)
_
I1 Z1 + Z 2 + Z3
` C = = .....(4)
V2 Z 2 Z3
To determine B and D
I1 I2 I1
Z1
1 2
V1 Z2 Z3 V2 = 0 Þ V1
Z1Z 2
SC Z1+ Z 2
1¢ 2¢
Fig. 4. Fig. 5.
V1
B =- _
I2
-
I1
D =- -
I2

_ _
_ _ Z2 I1 Z1 + Z 2 I1 Z1
I 2 =- I1 # ⇒ - _ = ⇒ - _ = 1+
Z1 + Z 2 I2 Z2 I2 Z2 .....(5)
_
I1 Z1
` D =- _ = 1+ .....(6)
I2 Z2
_ Z1 Z 2 _ Z1 + Z 2 Z1 Z 2 V1
V1 = I1 ⇒ V1 =- I 2 # ⇒ _ =- Z1
Z1 + Z 2 Z2 Z1 + Z 2 I2
Using equation (5)
V1
` B =- _ = Z1 .....(7)
I2
The ABCD parameters of P-network shown in Fig. 1 are,

Z1
A = 1+
Z3
B = Z1
Z1 + Z 2 + Z3
C =
Z 2 Z3
Z1
D = 1+
Z2
Elements of P-network in terms of ABCD parameters
From equation (7),
Z1 = B
From equation (6),
Z1 Z1
D = 1+ ⇒ = D -1
Z2 Z2
Z1 B
` Z2 = = Here, Z1 = B
D-1 D-1
From equation (3),
Z1 Z1
A = 1+ ⇒ = A -1
Z3 Z3
Z1 B
` Z3 = = Here, Z1 = B
A-1 A-1
The elements of P-network in terms of ABCD parameters are,
Z1 = B
B
Z2 =
D-1
B
Z3 =
A-1

1. A pair of terminal of a network that can be used to connect a source/load is called a port.
2. A network with one pair of terminals is called a one-port network.
3. A network with two pair of terminals is called a two-port network.
4. One-port and two-port networks are models of devices that are developed based on voltage
and current measurements at the input and output terminals.
5. The parameters of one-port network are driving point impedance and driving point admittance.
6. Driving point impedance of a port is defined as the ratio of voltage to current in that port.
7. Driving point admittance of a port is defined as the ratio of current to voltage in that port.
8. Driving point impedance is the inverse of driving point admittance and vice versa.
9. Driving point impedance and admittance are commonly referred to as immittance.
10. In a two-port network, four quantities (V1, V2, I1 and I2) are available for measurements.
A two-port network parameter model is developed by choosing any two quantities as
independent variables and the other two as dependent variables.
11. The Z-parameter model of a two-port network is developed by choosing input and output
currents as independent variables and input and output voltages as dependent variables.
12. The Y-parameter model of a two-port network is developed by choosing input and output
voltages as independent variables and input and output currents as dependent variables.
13. The h-parameter model of a two-port network is developed by choosing input current
and output voltage as independent variables and input voltage and output current as
dependent variables.
14. The g-parameter model of a two-port network is developed by choosing input voltage and
output current as independent variables and input current and output voltage as dependent
variables.
15. The ABCD-parameter model of a two-port network is developed by choosing output
voltage and current as independent variables and input voltage and current as dependent
variables.
16. The A′B′C′D′-parameter model of a two-port network is developed by choosing input
voltage and current as independent variables and output voltage and current as dependent
variables.
17. A network with passive elements R, L and C is called a passive network and a network with
both passive and active elements (like dependent sources) is called an active network.
18. A reciprocal network is one that satisfies the reciprocity theorem.
19. In a reciprocal two-port network, the forward and reverse transfer impedances are the same.
Similarly, the forward and reverse transfer admittances are the same.
20. A symmetrical two-port network is one which can be exactly divided into two identical sections.
21. In a symmetrical two-port network, the input and output impedances are the same.
Similarly, the input and output admittances are the same.
22. When two two-port networks are connected in series, the overall Z-parameters are given by
the sum of individual Z-parameters.
23. When two two-port networks are connected in parallel, the overall Y-parameters are
given by the sum of individual Y-parameters.
24. When two two-port networks are connected in cascade, the overall ABCD parameters are
given by the product of individual ABCD parameter matrices.
25. When two two-port networks are connected such that the input is in series and output is in
parallel, the overall h-parameters are given by the sum of individual h-parameters.

Q5.1 What are one-port and two-port networks?
An RLC network with one pair of terminal (or two terminals) is called a one-port network.
An RLC network with two pair of terminal (or four terminals) is called a two-port network.
Q5.2 What are the parameters of a one-port network?

The parameters of a one-port network are driving point impedance and driving point admittance.
Q5.3 List the various parameter sets that are used to model a two-port network.
The various parameter sets of a two-port network are,
i) Impedance parameters iv) Inverse hybrid parameters

ii) Admittance parameters v) Transmission parameters
iii) Hybrid parameters vi) Inverse transmission parameters.
Q5.4 List the h-parameters of a two-port network.

The h-parameters of a two-port network are,
h11 = Input impedance when output port is shorted.

h12 = Reverse voltage transfer ratio when input port is open.
h21 = Forward current transfer ratio when output port is shorted.
h22 = Output admittance when input port is open.
Q5.5 List the transmission parameters of a two-port network.

The transmission parameters of a two-port network are,
A = Reverse voltage transfer ratio when the output port is open.
B = Reverse transfer impedance when the output port is shorted.
C = Reverse transfer admittance when the output port is open.
D = Reverse current transfer ratio when the output port is shorted.
1W 2W
Q5.6 Determine the parameter z11 for the network shown in Fig. Q5.6.1. 1 2
Solution 3W
The parameter z11 is defined as,

1¢ 2¢
V1 Fig. Q5.6.1.
Z11 =
I1 I2 = 0
Hence, connect a source of voltage V1 to port-1 and open circuit port-2 as shown in Fig. Q5.6.2.
I1 I2 = 0
With reference to Fig. Q5.6.2, we get, 1W 2W
1 2
V1 = ^1 + 3hI1
V1 3W OC
V1
` Z11 = = 4Ω
I1 1¢ 2¢
Fig. Q5.6.2.
Q5.7 On performing a short circuit test in a two-port network, the following results were obtained:
Test - 1 : I1 = 1 mA Test - 2 : I1 = –1 mA
I2 = – 0.5 mA I2 = 10 mA
V1 = 25 V V2 = 50 V
V2 = 0V V1 = 0 V
Determine the Y-parameters.
Solution
I1 = Y11 V1 + Y12 V2 .....(1)
I2 = Y21 V1 +Y22 V2 .....(2)
In test-1, V2= 0V, on substituting V2 = 0 in equations (1) and (2), we get,

I1 1 # 10- 3
Y11 = = = 0.04 # 10- 3 = 40 # 10- 6 M = 40 µM
V1 25
I2 - 0.5 # 10- 3
Y21 = = = - 0.02 # 10- 3 = - 20 # 10- 6 M = - 20 µM
V1 25
In test-2, V1 = 0V, on substituting V1 = 0 in equations (1) and (2), we get,
I1 - 1 # 10- 3
Y12 = = = - 0.02 # 10- 3 = 20 # 10- 6 M = - 20 µM
V2 50
I2 10 # 10- 3
Y22 = = = 0.2 # 10- 3 = 200 # 10- 6 M = 200 µM
V2 50
Q5.8 For the two-port network shown in Fig. Q5.8.1, determine parameter, h21 .
R R
1 2
Solution
I2 R
By definition, h 21 =
I1 V2 = 0
1¢ 2¢
Hence, short circuit port-2 and connect a source of voltage V1 to Fig. Q5.8.1.
port-1 as shown in Fig. Q5.8.2. With reference to Fig. Q5.8.2,by I1 I2
R R
current division rule,
R R I1 V2 = 0
I 2 = - I1 # = - I1 =- V1 R
R+R 2R 2 SC
I2 1
` h 21 = =- Fig. Q5.8.2.
I1 2
Q5.9 For the two-port network shown in Fig. Q5.9.1, determine the 2R 2R
1 2
transmission parameter, A.
R
Solution 2
V1
By definition, A = 1¢ 2¢
V2 I2 = 0 Fig. Q5.9.1.
Hence, open circuit port-2 and connect a source of voltage V1 to port-1 as shown in Fig. Q5.9.2.
I1 2R 2R I2 = 0
With reference to Fig. Q5.9.2, by voltage division rule,
+
+
R R
R 1 V1 V2 V2
2 2
V2 = V1 # = V1 = V1 _
R R ^4 + 1 h 5 _
2R +
2
V1 Fig. Q5.9.2.
` A = = 5
V2
Q5.10 The Z-parameters of a two-port network are,
Z11 = Z22 = 3Ω, Z12 = Z21 = 1Ω
Determine the Y-parameters.
Solution
Given that, Z = > H = > H
Z11 Z12 3 1
Z 21 Z 22 1 3
3 1
Let, Dz = = 3#3-1#1 = 8
1 3
R V
-1 S 3 -1 W
Now, Y = Z- 1 = > H = > H= > H = S 1 3W
3 1 1 3 -1 1 3 -1 S 8 8W
1 1 D z -1 3 8 -1 3 S- W
S 8 8W
R V T X
S 3 -1 W
` Y = > H = S 1 3W
Y11 Y12 S 8 8W
Y21 Y22 S- W
S 8 8W
T X
Therefore, the Y-parameters are,
3 1
Y11 = Y22 = M ; Y12 = Y21 = - M
8 8
Q5.11 The admittance parameter matrix of a two-port network is given as
Y = > H
0.9 0.2
0.2 0.6
Determine the parameter, Z22 of the two-port network.
Solution
Y11 0.9 0.9
Z22 = = = = 1.8 Ω
∆Y 0.9 0.2 0.9 # 0.6 - 0.22
0.2 0.6
Q5.12 The Y-parameters of a two-port network are Y11 = Y22 = 3 M

Y12 = Y21 = 2 M . Determine the h-parameter, h22 of the network.
Solution
Y11 Y12 3 2
DY Y21 Y22 2 3 3#3-2#2 5
h 22 = = = = = M
Y11 Y11 3 3 3
Q5.13 The Z-parameters of a two-port network are Z11 = Z22 = 4 Ω and Z12 = Z21 = 1 Ω . Determine the
transmission parameter, B of the network.
Solution
Z11 Z12 4 1
∆z Z 21 Z 22 1 4 4#4-1
B = = = = = 15 Ω
Z 21 Z 21 1 1
Q5.14 The admittance matrix of a two-port network is, Y = > H.

2 -1
3 -1
If two such identical networks are connected in parallel then what will be the overall Y-parameters
of the parallel combination?
Solution
Let, Y0 = Admittance matrix of overall network
` Y0 = Y + Y = > H+> H = > H

2 -1 2 -1 4 -2
-1 3 -1 3 -2 6
Q5.15 The admittance matrix of a two-port network is, Y = > H.

2 -1
-1 3
If two such identical networks are connected in series then what will be the overall Z-parameters of
the series combination?
Solution
The impedance matrix Z, is given by inverse of admittance matrix, Y.
1
2 -1 -
` Z = Y- 1 = > H = # > H
1 3 1
-1 3 2 -1 1 2
-1 3
R V
S3 1W
> H = > H = S1 = > H
1 1 3
3 1 1 S5 5 W 0.6 0.2
2 WW
=
6-1 1 2 5 1 2 S 0.2 0.4
S5 5W
T X
Let, Z0 = Impedance matrix of overall network
Now, Z0 = Z + Z = > H+> H= > H

0.6 0.2 0.6 0.2 1.2 0.4
0.2 0.4 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.8
Q5.16 Two transmission lines are connected in cascade. Their individual ABCD-parameters are,
> H= > H ; > H = > H

A1 B1 1 10+30 o A2 B2 1 0
C1 D1 0 1 C2 D2 0.25+ - 30o 1
Determine the overall ABCD-parameters of the cascade combination of the two transmission lines.
Solution
Let, A0, B0, C0, D0 be the ABCD-parameters of the cascade combination.
Now, > H = > H#> H = > H# > H

A0 B0 A1 B1 A2 B2 1 10+30 o 1 0
C0 D0 C1 D1 C2 D2 0 1 0.25+ - 30 o 1
= > H = > H
1 + 2.5+0 o 10+30 o 3.5 10+30 o
0.25+ - 30 o 1 0.25+ - 30 o 1
5 KW
Q5.17 Find the frequency response V2 / V1 for the two-port circuit shown +
in Fig. Q5.17.1. +
1250 W
V1 1mF V2
Solution -
5000 W 5000 W -
+ +
Fig. Q5.17.1.
+ 1 +
1250 W
-6
W
V1 jw ´ 1´ 10 V2 Þ V1 Z V2
- -
- -
Fig. Q5.17.2. Fig. Q5.17.3.

1
# 1250
jω # 10- 6 1250 1250
Z = = =
1 1 + 1250 # jω # 10- 6 1 + j1.25 # 10- 3 ω
+ 1250
jω # 10- 6
1250
Z 1 + j1.25 # 10- 3 ω
V2 = V1 # = V1 #
5000 + Z 1250
5000 +
1 + j1.25 # 10- 3 ω
1250
= V1 #
5000^1 + j1.25 # 10- 3 ωh + 1250
V2 1250
` Frequency response, =
V1 6250 + j6.25ω
5.16 Exercises
1. A network with two terminals is called ____________ network.
2. A network with two pairs of terminal is called _______________network.
3. The ratio of voltage to current of a port is called _________________.
4. The impedance parameters are also known as ___________________ parameters.
5. The admittance parameters are also known as _________________ parameters.
6. The parameter h21 gives the ________________ gain of the two-port network.
7. The ABCD-parameters are used for analysis of _______________.
8. The inverse of Y11 gives ____________ of h-parameter.
9. The inverse of Z22 gives _____________ of h-parameter.
10. The negative of the inverse of Y21 gives the transmission parameter____________.
11. In a __________ two-port network Z12= Z21.
12. In a ___________ transmission line A = D.
13. When two-port networks are in series, the overall ____________ parameters are given by the sum
of ____________ parameters of individual sections.
14. In parallel connection of two-port networks, the overall ____________ parameters are given by the
sum of _____________ paramaters of individual sections.
15. If two two-port networks are connected such that the input is in series and the output is in parallel then
the overall ____________ parameters are given by the sum of ____________ parameters of
individual sections.
ANSWERS
1. one-port 6. current 11. reciprocal
2. two-port 7. transmission lines 12. symmetrical
3. driving point impedance 8. h11 13. impedance, impedance
4. open circuit 9. h22 14. admittance, admittance
5. short circuit 10. B 15. hybrid, hybrid

1. A two-port network consists of R,L,C parameters and sources.
2. In two-port network analysis, the assumed currents always flow away from the ports.
3. In two-port network analysis, the network is modelled using voltages and currents measured at port
terminals.
4. Using Z-parameters, a two-port network is modelled as a dependent voltage source.
5. Using Y-parameters, a two-port network is modelled as a dependent current source.
6. The units of all h-parameters are the same.
7. The inverse of the parameter h12 gives the voltage gain of the two-port network.
8. In transmission parameters, the current I2 entering port-2 is considered negative because
the input and output current flows in the same direction in transmission lines.
9. The inverse of impedance parameter matrix gives the admittance parameter matrix.
10. The transmission parameter C is the same as the inverse of Z12 of impedance parameter.
11. For a reciprocal network, the driving point impedances of both the ports should be the same.
12. For an electrical symmetry, the forward and reverse transfer admittances should be the same.
13. A symmetrical network can be exactly divided into two identical sections.
14. All reciprocal networks are passive networks.
15. When two-port networks are in cascade, the overall transmission parameters are given by the
sum of individual transmission parameters.
ANSWERS
1. False 4. True 7. True 10. False 13. True
2. False 5. True 8. True 11. False 14. True
3. True 6. False 9. True 12. False 15. False

1. The driving point impedance of the network shown in Fig. 1 is,
1W 1W 1W
1
a) 0.5 Ω
2W 2W 2W 1W
b) 1 Ω
c) 2 Ω 1¢
Fig. 1.
d) 4 Ω
2. The driving point admittance of the network shown in Fig. 2 is, 4
W
2
W
1
a) 5 M W
1 1
W
W
b) 4 M 2
W
2
W 2
c) 2 M 1¢
Fig. 2.
d) 1 M
3. The driving point impedance function of the network shown in Fig. 3 is, 1W
1
a) s+2 b) s
s2 + s + 1 s2 + s + 1 1F 1H
2
c) s+1 d) s + s + 1 1¢
s2 + s + 1 s+1 Fig. 3.
4. The driving point admittance of the network shown in Fig. 4 is,

1
a) 0.5 + j0.5 M
2W
2W
b) 0.5 − j0.5 M
j2 W
c) j0.5 M -j2 W
1¢
d) 0.5 M Fig. 4.
5. The input and output impedances of the two-port network shown in Fig. 5 respectively are,
4W
a) 4 Ω, 3 Ω 1 2
b) 4 Ω, 2 Ω 8W 4W
c) 3 Ω, 2 Ω
1¢ 2¢
d) 2 Ω, 1 Ω Fig. 5.
6. The forward and reverse transfer impedances of the two-port network shown in Fig. 6
respectively are,
6W 6W
1 2
a) 3 Ω, 6 Ω
b) 6 Ω, 6 Ω 6W
c) 12 Ω, 6 Ω 1¢ 2¢
d) 12 Ω, 12 Ω Fig. 6.
7. The individual Z-parameters of the two two-port network in series are,
Zl = > H and Zll = > H

2 0.5 4 1.5
0.5 2 1.5 4
The overall Z-parameters of the series combination is,
a) > H b) > H c) > H d) > H

2 1 −2 −1 6 2 8 0.75
1 2 −1 −2 2 6 0.75 8
8. The input and output admittance of the two-port network shown in Fig. 8 respectively are,
10 W 10 W
a) 1 M, 1 M b) 1 M, 1 M 1 2
10 10 6 6 10 W
10 W
10 W
c) 1 M, 1 M d) 1 M, 1 M 1¢ 2¢
10 6 5 10
Fig. 8.
9. The forward and reverse transfer admittance of the two-port network shown in Fig. 9
respectively are, 1
1W
2
a) − 1 M, − 1 M b) − 1 M, − 1 M 1W 2W
2 2 4 2
2W
c) − 1 M, − 1 M
1¢ 2¢
d) − 1 M, − 1 M
4 8 5 5 Fig. 9.
10. The individual Y-parameters of the two two-port network in parallel are,
Yl = > H ; Yll = > H

0.5 − 1 4 − 0.7
−1 2 − 0.7 3
The overall Y-parameters of the parallel combination is,
a) > H b) > H c) > H d) > H

− 3.5 − 0.3 4.5 − 1.7 2 0.7 2.7 − 3.35
− 0.3 − 1 − 1.7 5 0.7 6 − 5.4 6.7
11. In a two-port symmetrical and reciprocal network, h11 = 4 Ω and h12 = 2. What is the value of h22 ?
a) 4 M b) 0.25 M c) − 0.5 M d) − 0.75 M
12. In a two-port symmetrical and reciprocal network, if h11 = 0.88 Ω and h22 = –0.5 M then the values of
h12 and h21 respectively are,
a) 1.2, –1.2 b) 0.25, –0.25 c) 1.76, –1.76 d) 0.44, –0.44

13. The h-parameter matrix of a two-port network is,
h = > H
1.25 1.5
− 1.5 − 0.2
The g-parameter matrix of the network is,
a) > H b) > H c) > H d) > H

− 0.2 − 1.5 − 0.1 − 0.75 − 2.5 − 3 − 1.25 − 1.5
1.5 1.25 0.75 0.625 3 0.4 1.5 0.2
14. The individual transmission parameters of the two-port networks in cascade are,
T1 = > H T2 = > H
2 4 1.5 2.5
0.75 2 0.5 1.5
The overall transmission parameters of the cascade combination is,
a) > H b) > H c) > H d) > H

0.5 1.5 3.5 6.5 3 10 5 11
0.25 0.5 1.25 3.5 0.375 3 2.125 4.875
15. The condition for reciprocal two-port network in inverse transmission parameters is,
a) A′D′ – B′C′ = 0 b) A′D′ – B′C′ = 1 c) A′B′ – C′D′ = 0 d) A′B′ – C′D′ = 1
ANSWERS
1. b 4. d 7. c 10. b 13. b
2. a 5. a 8. b 11. d 14. d
3. c 6. b 9. d 12. a 15. b

E5.1 Determine the driving point impedance and admittance of the network shown in Fig. E5.1.
4W 4W 2F 2F
1 1
10 W 8W 1W 2W
1¢ 1¢
Fig. E5.1. Fig. E5.2.
E5.2 Determine the driving point impedance and admittance of the network shown in Fig. E5.2.
E5.3 Determine the impedance and admittance parameters of the T-network shown in Fig. E5.3.
1F
1 2
2W 4W
1 2
2W
5W
2W
1¢ 2¢ 1¢ 2¢
1F
Fig. E5.3.
Fig. E5.4.
E5.4 Find the impedance parameters of the two-port network shown in Fig. E5.4.
E5.5 Determine the Y-parameters of the two-port network shown in Fig. E5.5.
1W 1W 1W 2H 1F
1 2 1 2
1W 1W 4W
1¢ 2¢ 1¢ 2¢
Fig. E5.5. Fig. E5.6.
E5.6 Determine the Y-parameters of the T-network shown in Fig. E5.6.
E5.7 Determine the h-parameters of the two-port network shown in Fig. E5.7.
4W
1 2
2W 2W
1 2
1W
4W 4W
1W
1¢ 2¢ 1¢ 2¢
4W
Fig. E5.7.
Fig. E5.8.
E5.8 Determine the g-parameters of the two-port network shown in Fig. E5.8.
E5.9 Determine the transmission parameters of the two-port network shown in Fig. E5.9.
3W
j2 W j2 W
3W 3W 1 2
1 2
3W -j4 W
1¢ 2¢ 1¢ 2¢
Fig. E5.9. Fig. E5.10.
E5.10 Determine the inverse transmission parameters of the two-port network shown in Fig. E5.10.
ANSWERS
8s + 1 8s2 + 10s + 1
E5.1 Z11 = 4 Ω ; Y11 = 0.25 M E5.2 Z11 ^s h = ; Y11 ^s h =
2
8s + 10s + 1 8s + 1
R V R V
S 9 - 5 W S 2s + 1 2s - 1 W
Z = > H ;
7 5 S 38 38 W S 2s 2s W
E5.3 Y = S E5.4 Z ^s h = S
5 9 S- 5 7 WW S 2s - 1 2s + 1 WW
S 38 38 W S 2s 2s W
T X T X
R V R V
S 5 -1 W S 4s + 1 - 4s W
S 8 8W S 8s2 + 2s + 4 8s2 + 2s + 4 W
E5.5 Y = S E5.6 Y ^s h = S W
S- 1 5 WW S - 4s 2s2 + 4s W
S 8 8W SS 2 W
8s + 2s + 4 8s2 + 2s + 4 W
T X T X
R V R V
S 10 2W S 2 3 W
S 3 3W S 5 5 W
E5.7 h = S E5.8
5 WW
g = S W
S- 2 S- 3 17 W
S 3 12 W S 5 5 W
T X T X
R V
S5 9W
Tl = > H
S4 4W 0.5 j3
E5.9 T = S E5.10
S1 5 WW j0.25 0.5
S4 4W
T X
Appendix-1
USING CALCULATOR IN COMPLEX MODE
1. Addition/Subtraction/Multiplication/Division of Complex Numbers
Let, A1 = − 4 + j2
A 2 = 3 + j5
Choose complex mode in claculator and enter the complex numbers as shown below:
For addition (–4 + 2 i) + (3 + 5 i)
For subtraction (–4 + 2 i) – (3 + 5 i)
For multiplication (–4 + 2 i) × (3 + 5 i)
For division (–4 + 2 i) ÷ (3 + 5 i)
To perform the operation press = .
To view the real and imaginary part of the result press SHIFT Re * I m .
2. Polar to Rectangular Conversion
Let, A1 = 5+ − 30 o
Method-1 : Choose complex mode in calculator and enter the complex number as shown below:
(5+ − 30) SHIFT a + bi
To perform the conversion press = .
To view the real and imaginary part press SHIFT Re * I m .
5 × cos 30 + 5i × sin 30 or 5 cos 30 + 5i sin 30
To view the real and imaginary part press SHIFT Re * I m .
Method-3 : Choose normal computation mode in calculator and enter the complex number
as shown below:
SHIFT Re c (5, - 30)

To view the real part press ALPHA E .
To view the imaginary part press ALPHA F .
A. 2 Circuit Analysis
3. Rectangular to Polar Conversion
Let, A1 = 2 + j5
(2 + 5 i) SHIFT r+θ
To view the absolute value and argument press SHIFT Re * I m .
Method-2 : Choose complex mode in calculator.

i) To calculate the absolute value enter the complex number as shown below:
SHIFT Abs (2 + 5 i)
To view the absolute value press = .
ii) To calculate the argument enter the complex number as shown below:
SHIFT arg (2 + 5 i)
To view the argument press = .
Method-3 : Choose normal computation mode in calculator and enter the complex number
as shown below:
SHIFT Pol (2, 5)
To view the absolute value press ALPHA E .
To view the argument press ALPHA F .
Note : The calculator treats the real and imaginary part as separate numbers, hence enclose the real
and imaginary part of a complex number by parenthesis.
Appendix A. 3
Appendix-2
IMPORTANT MATHEMATICAL FORMULAE
Trigonometric Identities
tan θ = sin θ , cot θ = 1

cos (θ ! 90%) = " sin θ
cos θ tan θ
sec θ = 1 , cosec θ = 1 sin (θ ! 90%) = ! cos θ

cos θ sin θ
sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1, 1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ tan (θ ! 90%) = − cot θ
1 + cot2 θ = cosec2 θ cos (θ ! 180%) = − cos θ
sin (A ! B) = sin A cos B ! cos A sin B sin (θ ! 180%) = − sin θ
cos (A ! B) = cos A cos B " sin A sin B tan (θ ! 180%) = tan θ
2 sin A sin B = cos (A − B) − cos (A + B) sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ
2 sin A cos B = sin (A + B) + sin (A − B) cos 2θ = cos2 θ − sin2 θ
2 cos A cos B = cos (A + B) + cos (A − B) cos2 θ = 1 + cos 2θ

2
sin A + sin B = 2 sin A + B cos A − B sin2 θ = 1 − cos 2θ

2 2 2
sin A − sin B = 2 cos A + B sin A − B tan 2θ = 2 tan θ2

2 2 1 − tan θ
cos A + cos B = 2 cos A + B cos A − B ji - ji ji

sin θ = e − e , cos θ = e + e
- ji
2 2 2j 2
cos A − cos B = − 2 sin A + B sin A − B e! ji = cos θ ! j sin θ
2 2
Complex Variables
A complex number, Z may be represented as,
Z = x + jy = r+θ = re ji = r (cos θ + j sin θ)
where, x = Re ^Zh = r cosθ; y = Im ^Zh = r sinθ

y
r= Z = x2 + y2 ; θ = tan- 1
x
j= −1, 1 = − j; j2 = − 1
j
The conjugate of the complex number, Z = x + jy , may be represented as,
Z = x − jy = r+ − θ = reji = r (cos θ − j sin θ)

)
The following relations hold good for a complex number, Z = x + jy .

i
Z = x + jy = re ji = r ej2 = r +θ
2
n
Z = (x + jy) n = r n e jni = r n +nθ , where n is an integer
= (x + jy)1/n = r1/n e ji/n = r1/n + a θ + 2πk k , for k = 0, 1, 2, ........n − 1

1/n
Z
n n
ji ji
,n Z = ,n (re ) = ,n r + ,n e = ,n r + j (θ + 2kπ) , where k is an integer.
n
Demovier's theorem : ê jih = e jni = cos nθ + j sin nθ
Let, Z1 and Z2 be two complex numbers defined as,
Z1 = x1 + jy1 = r1 +θ1 = r1 e ji1
Z2 = x2 + jy2 = r1 +θ2 = r2 e ji2
Now, Z1 = Z2 only if x1= x2 and y1= y2.
Z1 ! Z2 = (x1 + x2) ! j (y1 + y2)
Z1 Z2 = (x1 x2 − y1 y2) + j (x1 y2 + x2 y1) or Z1 Z2 = r1 r2 e j (i1 + i2) = r1 r2 + (θ1 + θ2)
Z1 = (x1 + jy1) # (x2 − jy2) = x1 x2 + y1 y2 + j x2 y1 − x1 y2

Z2 (x2 + jy2) (x2 − jy2) x22 + y22 x22 + y22
or Z1 = r1 e j (i1 - i2) = r1 + (θ1 − θ2)

Z2 r2 r2
Derivatives and Integrals
Let, U = U(x), V = V(x), and a = constant.

d âUh = a dU
dx dx
d ÛVh = U dV + V dU
dx dX dx
V dU − U dV
d U = dx dx
dx 9 V C V2
# a dx = ax + c
# UV = U # V − # ; # V dU E or # U dV = U V − # V dU
Appendix A. 5
Appendix-3
LAPLACE TRANSFORM
The Laplace transform is used to transform a time domain function to complex frequency
domain called s-domain.
In order to transform a time domain function f(t) to s-domain multiply the function
by e-st and then integrate from 0 to ∞. The transformed function is represented as F(s). Here
s = s + jw, and it is called complex frequency. This transformation was first proposed by Laplace
(in the year 1780) and later adopted for circuit analysis for solving differential equations.
Hence this transformation is called Laplace transform and the transformation is denoted by
the script letter L.
i.e., Symbolically the Laplace transform of f(t) is denoted as,
F(s) = L [f(t)]
Mathematically the Laplace transform of f(t) is defined as,

t=3
F (s) = # f (t) e -st

dt
t=0
Definition of Laplace Transform
Let f(t) be a function of t defined for all positive values of t, now the Laplace transform
of f(t) denoted by L[f(t)] or F(s) is defined as,
t=3
L{f(t)} = F(s) = # f (t) e -st

dt
t=0
Definition of Inverse Laplace Transform
The s-domain function can be transformed to time domain by inverse Laplace transform.
The inverse Laplace transform of F(s) is defined as,
s = v + j~
1
-1
L [F(s)] = f(t) =
2πj
# F (s) e st
ds
s = v - j~
Here the path of integration is a straight line parallel to the jw-axis, such that all the
poles of F(s) lie to the left of this line.
Table - A3.1 : Laplace Transform Pairs
Sl.No. f(t) F(s)
1. Unit impulse, δ(t) 1
2. Unit step, u(t) 1/s
3. t 1/s2
4. t n - 1 ^n = 1, 2, 3 ...h 1/sn
(n - 1) !
1
5. e −at s+a
6. tn (n = 1, 2, 3 ... ) n!
sn + 1
1
7. t e −at (s + a) 2
8. 1 t n - 1 e- at (n = 1, 2, 3 ...) 1
(n − 1) ! (s + a) n
9. tn e −at (n = 1, 2, 3 ... ) n!
(s + a) n + 1
ω
10. sin wt s2 + ω2
s
11. cos wt s2 + ω2
12. sinh wt ω
s2 − ω2
s
13. cosh wt s2 − ω2
ω
14. e −at sin wt ^s + ah2 + ω2
15. e −at cos wt s+a

(s + a) 2 + ω2
Appendix A. 7
Table - A3.2 : Properties of Laplace Transform
Note : L{f(t)} = F(s); L{f1(t)} = F1(s); L{f2(t)} = F2(s)
Property Time domain signal s-domain signal
Amplitude scaling A f(t) A F(s)
Linearity a1f1(t) ± a2 f2(t) a1 F1(s) ± a2 F2(s)
d
Time differentiation f (t) s F(s) − f (0)
dt
dn n d^K- 1h f (t)
dt n
f (t) s n F (s) - / sn - K
dt K - 1
K =1 t =0
where n = 1, 2, 3 .....
; # f (t) dt E
F (s)
Time integration # f (t) dt s
+
s
t =0
# ..... # f (t) (dt) n F (s)

n
+ /s
n
1
n - K +1
; # ..... # f (t) (dt) K
E
s K =1 t =0
where n = 1, 2, 3 .....
Frequency shifting e! at f (t) F (s " a)
Time shifting f (t ! α) e!as F (s)

dF (s)
Frequency t f (t) -
ds
differentiation
t n f (t) n dn
^- 1 h F (s)
where n = 1, 2, 3 ..... ds n
3
1
Frequency integration
t
f (t) # F (s) ds
s
1 s
Time scaling f(at) Fa k
a a
T
1
Periodicity f(t + nT)
1 - e- sT 0
# f (t) e -sT
dt
Initial value theorem Lt f (t) = f (0) Lt s F (s)

t"0 s"3
Final value theorem Lt f (t) = f (3) Lt s F (s)

t"3 s"0
Appendix-4
CRAMER’S RULE
I. Cramer’s Rule for Mesh Basis Equation

The mesh basis matrix equation for resistive circuit is,
RR R R g R V R I V R V
S 11 12 13 1m
W S 1W S E11 W
S R21 R22 R23 g R2m W S I2 W S E22 W
S R31 R32 R33 g R3m W S I3 W = S E33 W
S W S W S W
S h h h h h W Sh W S h W
SR m1 R m2 R m3 g R mm W SI m W SE mm W
T X T X T X
The kth mesh current Ik by Cramer’s rule is,
m
Ik = 1
∆
/∆ jk E jj
j =1
where, m = Number of meshes in the circuit.

∆jk = Cofactor of Rjk.
Ejj = Sum of voltage sources in mesh-j.
∆ = Determinant of resistance matrix.
For circuit with three meshes, the mesh currents by Cramer’s rule are,
∆11 ∆ ∆
I1 = E11 + 21 E22 + 31 E33
∆ ∆ ∆
∆12 ∆ ∆
I2 = E11 + 22 E22 + 32 E33
∆ ∆ ∆
∆13 ∆ ∆
I3 = E11 + 23 E22 + 33 E33
∆ ∆ ∆
The mesh currents for a circuit with three meshes using short-cut procedure for Cramer’s rule are,
∆1
I1 =
∆
∆2
I2 =
∆
∆3
I3 =
∆
R11 R12 R13 E11 R12 R13 R11 E11 R13 R11 R12 E11
where, ∆ = R 21 R 22 R 23 ; ∆1 = E 22 R 22 R 23 ; ∆2 = R 21 E 22 R 23 ; ∆3 = R 21 R 22 E 22
R31 R32 R33 E33 R32 R33 R31 E33 R33 R31 R32 E33
Appendix A. 9
II. Cramer’s Rule for Node Basis Equation
The node basis matrix equation for resistive circuit is,

RG G G g G V RV V RI V
S 11 12 13 1n
W S 1W S 11 W
SG 21 G 22 G 23 g G 2n W S V2 W SI 22 W
SG31 G32 G33 g G3n W S V3 W = SI33 W
S W S W S W
SG n1 G n2 G n3 g G nn W SVn W SI nn W
T X T X T X
th
The k node voltage Vk by Cramer’s rule is,
n
Vk = 1
∆l
/ ∆l jk I jj
j=1
where, n = Number of independent nodes in a circuit

∆l jk = Cofactor of Gjk
∆l = Determinant of conductance matrix
For circuit with three nodes excluding the reference node, the node voltages by Cramer’s rule are,
∆l11 ∆l ∆l
V1 = I + 21 I + 31 I
∆l 11 ∆l 22 ∆l 33
∆l12 ∆l ∆l
V2 = I + 22 I + 32 I
∆l 11 ∆l 22 ∆l 33
∆l13 ∆l ∆l
V3 = I + 23 I + 33 I
∆l 11 ∆l 22 ∆l 33
The node voltages of a circuit with three nodes excluding the reference using short-cut procedure
for Cramer’s rule are,
∆l1
V1 =
∆l
∆l 2
V2 =
∆l
∆l 3
V3 =
∆l
G11 G12 G13 I11 G12 G13
where, ∆l = G 21 G 22 G 23 ; ∆l1 = I 22 G 22 G 23 ;
G31 G32 G33 I33 G32 G33
G11 I11 G13 G11 G12 I11

l l
∆ 2 = G 21 I 22 G 23 ; ∆ 3 = G 21 G 22 I 22
G31 I33 G33 G31 G32 I33
Summary of Equivalent of Series/Parallel-Connected Group-1 Parameters
A. 10
Group-1 Series Connection of Parameters Parallel Connection of Parameters

Parameter and their equivalent and their equivalent
Resistance R1 R2 Rn Req
R Þ R1 R2 Rn
Þ Req
Req = R1 + R2 +.....+ Rn
1
R =
eq 1 1 1
+ + .....+
R R R
1 2 n
Inductance L1 L3 Leq
L2
L
Þ L1 L2 Ln
Þ Leq
Leq = L1 + L2 +.....+ Ln
1
L eq =
1 1 1
+ + .....+
L L L
1 2 n
Reactance ± jX1 ± jX2 ± jXn ± jXeq

± jX
Þ ± jX1 ± jX2 ± jXn Þ ± jXeq
± jXeq = ± jX1 ± jX2 ± ..... ± jXn
1
± jX =
eq 1 1 1
+ + .....+
± j X1 ± j X 2 ± j Xn
EQUIVALENT OF SERIES/PARALLEL CONNECTED PARAMETERS
Impedance Z1 Z Z eq
2 Zn
Z1 Z Zn Z eq
2 Þ
Z Þ
Z eq = Z1 + Z2 + .....+ Zn
Appendix-5
1
Z =
eq 1 1 1
+ + .....+
Z1 Z Z
2 n
Circuit Analysis
Summary of Equivalent of Series/Parallel-Connected Group-2 Parameters
Group-2 Parameter Series Connection of Parameters Parallel Connection of Parameters

Appendix
Conductance G1 G2 Gn Geq
G G1 G2 Gn
Þ Þ Geq
1
G =
eq 1 1 1
+ + .....+
G G G Geq = G1 + G2 +.....+ Gn
1 2 n
Capacitance
C1 C2 Cn Ceq
C C1 C2 Cn Ceq
Þ Þ
1
C =
eq 1 1 1
+ + .....+
C C C Ceq = C1 + C2 +.....+ Cn
1 2 n
Susceptance
± jB ± jB1 ± jB2 ± jBn ± jBeq
Þ ± jB1 ± jB2 ± jBn Þ ± jBeq
1
± jB =
eq 1 1 1
+ + .....+
± jB1 ± jB 2 ± jBn
± jBeq = ± jB1 ± jB2 ± ..... ± jBn
Admittance Y1 Y
2 Yn Y eq
Y Þ Y1 Y Yn Y eq
2 Þ
1
Y =
eq 1 1 1
+ + .....+
Y1 Y Y
2 n
Y eq = Y 1 + Y 2 + .....+ Y n
A. 11
Appendix-6
STAR-DELTA TRANSFORMATION
1
1
Z1 Z31 Z12
Z3 Z2
Þ
2 2
Z23
3 3
Fig. a : Star-connected impedances. Fig. b : Delta-connected impedances.

Fig. A.6 : Star to delta transformation.

R1 R2
R12 = R1 + R2 +
R3
R23 = R 2 + R3 + 2 R3
R
R1
R31 = R3 + R1 + R 3 R1
R2
Product of the resistances
Sum of resistances connected to the two
connected to the terminals in star network
Delta equivalent resistance between two terminals = #
two terminals in The third resistance in
star network star network
R12 R31
R1 =
R12 + R23 + R31
R23 R12
R2 =
R12 + R23 + R31
R31 R23
R3 =
R12 + R23 + R31
Product of resistances
connected to the two
terminals in delta network
Star equivalent resistance at one terminals =
Sum of three resistance s in
delta network
Appendix A. 13
Appendix-7
SUMMARY OF THEOREMS
S.No Theorem Definition

1. Superposition theorem The superposition theorem states that the
response in a circuit with multiple sources is
given by algebraic sum of responses due to
individual sources acting alone.
2. Thevenin’s theorem Thevenin’s theorem states that a circuit with
two terminals can be replaced by an equivalent
circuit, consisting of a voltage source in series
with a resistance (or impedance).
3. Norton’s theorem Norton’s theorem states that a circuit with two
terminals can be replaced by an equivalent
circuit, consisting of a current source in parallel
with a resistance (or impedance).
4. Reciprocity theorem The reciprocity theorem states that, in a linear,
bilateral, single source circuit, the ratio of
excitation to response is constant when the
position of excitation and response are
interchanged.
Nature of Source and Variable Element Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

DC source with internal resistance connected Maximum power is transferred from source
to a variable resistive load. to load, when the load resistance is equal
to source resistance.
AC source with internal resistance connected Maximum power is transferred from source
to a variable resistive load. to load, when the load resistance is equal
to source resistance.
AC source with internal impedance connected Maximum power is transferred from source
to a variable resistive load. to load, when the load resistance is equal to
magnitude of source impedance.
to a load with variable resistance and variable to load, when the load impedance is equal to
reactance. complex conjugate of source impedance.
to a load with variable resistance and fixed to load when load resistance is equal to
reactance. absolute value of the rest of the impedence
of the circuit.
` to a load with fixed resistance and variable to load when load reactance is equal to
reactance. conjugate of source reactance.
Appendix-8
IMPORTANT EQUATIONS OF SERIES RESONANCE
1. Angular resonant frequency, ωr = 1 in rad/s

LC
2. Resonant frequency, fr = 1 in Hz
2π LC
ωr L 1
3. Q-factor at resonance, Q r = ; Qr = ; Qr = 1 L
R ωr CR R C
Note : When ω # ωr, Q = 1 ; When ω $ ωr, Q = ωL

ωCR R
ω
4. Bandwidth, β = R in rad/s ; β = r in rad/s
L Qr
β
Bandwidth in Hz =
2π
5. Half-power (or cut-off) frequencies
ωl = − R + R 2 1 ωh = R + R 2 1
2L a 2L k + LC in rad/s ;
2L a 2L k + LC in rad/s
ωl = ωr ; − 1 + 1 + 1 2 E in rad/s ; ωh = ωr ; 1 + 1 + 1 2 E in rad/s
2Q r 4Q r 2Q r 4Q r
ωl ωh
2π 2π
6. Total reactance at half-power frequencies
ωL − 1 = ! R ; ωh L − 1 = R ; ωl L − 1 = − R
ωC ωh C ωl C
7. Selectivity
β
Selectivity = ; Selectivity = 1
ωr Qr
RLC parallel circuit Resonant frequency Dynamic resistance
Appendix
wr in rad/s fr in Hz Rdynamic in Ω
+ wr = 1 fr = 1
Rdynamic = R
V, w ~ R L C LC 2π LC
-
Rdynamic = 1
PARALLEL RESONANT CIRCUITS
+ R1 R2 R1 R2
1 L − CR12 1 L − CR12 2 2 + 2 2
V, w ~ ωr = fr = R1 + X Lr R 2 + XCr
-
L C
LC L − CR 22 2π LC L − CR 22
X Lr = wr L ; XCr = 1
wr C
R1
+
V, w
1 1−
CR12 1 CR12 L
C ωr = fr = 1− Rdynamic =
~
- LC L 2π LC L R1 C
L
+ R2
ωr = 1 L fr = 1 L Rdynamic = L
V, w L
~ LC L − CR 22 2π LC L − CR 22 R2 C
-
C
Appendix-9
A. 15
Appendix-10
ELECTRICAL EQUIVALENT OF COUPLED COILS
Electrical equivalent of group-I coupled coils
M M
Þ
Þ
Lj - M Lk - M
Note : In electrical equivalent the

M mesh currents orientation should be
same as that of original circuit.
Þ
Þ
M M
Electrical equivalent of group-II coupled coils
M M
Þ
Þ
Lj + M Lk + M
Note : In electrical equivalent the

-M mesh currents orientation should be
same as that of original circuit.
Þ
Þ
M M
Appendix A. 17
Appendix-11
EQUIVALENT OF SERIES AND PARALLEL CONNECTED COUPLED COILS
Connection Circuit Equivalent

circuit
M
Series Aiding I I
I
L1 L2 Leq = L1 + L2 + 2M
M
Series Opposing I I
I
Leq = L1 + L2 E 2M
L1 L2
I I
I1 M I2
Parallel Aiding
L1 L2 L 1 L 2 E M2
L eq a
L1 C L 2 E 2 M
Parallel Opposing
I I
I1 I2
M L 1 L 2 E M2
L1 L2 L eq a
L1 C L 2 C 2 M
Appendix-12
INITIAL AND FINAL CONDITIONS IN RLC CIRCUITS EXCITED BY DC SUPPLY
Element Initial condition Final condition

t = 0+ t=∞
R R R
O.C. S.C.
I0 I0
S.C.
I0 I0
S.C.
S.C. O.C.
V0 V0
+ _ O.C.
+E
C
V0 V0
_ + O.C.
E+
C
Appendix A. 19
Appendix-13
R,L,C PARAMETERS AND V- I RELATIONS IN VARIOUS DOMAINS
S.No. Parameter Time domain s-domain Frequency

domain
i + v _ I(s) + V(s) _ I + V _
1. Resistance, R
R R R
v = iR V(s) = I(s)R V a IR
i + v _ I(s) + V(s) _
2. Inductance, L L sL
di V(s) = I(s) ´ sL
v=L
dt
sL I(s) LI0 V
i + v _ I(s) + _ I + _
-+
L I0 sL jwL
di V(s) _ V = I ´ jwL
3. Inductance, L v=L
dt
; i 0 = I0 bg +
with initial current V(s) = I(s) ´ sL - LI 0
sL I(s) LI0
i + v _ I(s) + _
+-
L I0 sL
di V(s) _
v =L bg
; i 0 = -I 0 +
dt
V(s) = I(s) ´ sL + LI 0
v _ V(s) _
i + I(s) +
4. Capacitance, C
C 1
1 sC
v=
C
z
i dt
V(s) = I(s) ´
1
sC
+ v _ 1
I(s)
V0
V0 _ sC s V _
5. Capacitance, C i + I(s) + _
+-
I +
with initial voltage C 1/sC 1
1 V(s) _ jwC
v=
C
z i dt ; v(0) = V 0
+
1 V
V=I´
1
V(s) = I(s) ´ + 0
sC s jwC
+ v _ 1
I(s)
V0
i _ V0 + I(s) +sC _ -s+
C 1/sC
1
v=
C
z i dt ; v(0) = -V 0 +
V(s) _
V
1
V(s) = I(s) ´ - 0
sC s
Appendix-14
SUMMARY OF PARAMETERS OF TWO-PORT NETWORK
S.No Independent Dependent Parameters Name of the Mathemetical

variables variables k11, k12, k21, k22 parameter equation
1. I1,I2 V1,V2 Z11,Z12,Z21,Z22 Impedance parameter V1 = Z11 I1 + Z12 I2

(Z-parameter or Open V2 = Z21 I1 + Z22 I2
circuit parameter)
> H=> H > H
V1 Z11 Z12 I1
V2 Z21 Z22 I2
2. V1,V2 I1, I2 Y11,Y12,Y21,Y22 Admittance parameter I1 = Y11 V1 + Y12 V2
(Y-parameter or Short
I2 = Y21 V1 + Y22 V2
circuit parameter)
> H=> H > H
I1 Y11 Y12 V1
I2 Y21 Y22 V2
3. I1,V2 V1, I2 h11,h12,h21,h22 Hybrid parameter V1 = h11 I1 + h12 V2

(h-parameter) I2 = h21 I1 + h22 V2
> H=> H > H

V1 h11 h12 I1
I2 h21 h22 V2
4. V1,I2 I1, V2 g11,g12,g21,g22 Inverse hybrid I1 = g11 V1 + g12 I2

parameter V2 = g21 V1 + g22 I2
(g-parameter)
> H=> H > H
I1 g11 g12 V1
V2 g21 g22 I2
5. V2,I2 V1, I1 A, B, C, D Transmission V1 = AV2 − BI2

parameter(ABCD-
parameter) I1 = CV2 − DI2
> H=> H > H

V1 A B V2
I1 C D − I2
V2 = Al V1 − Bl I1
6. V1,I1 V2, I2 A′, B′, C′, D′ Inverse transmission
parameter I2 = Cl V1 − Dl I1
> H=> H > H

(A′B′C′D′-parameter) V2 Al Bl V1
I2 Cl Dl − I1
Appendix A. 21
Appendix-15
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PARAMETER SETS
[Z] [Y] [T] [T′] [h] [g]
Y22 Y A ∆T Dl 1 ∆h h12 1 − g12

[Z] Z11 Z12 − 12 h22 h22 g11 g11
∆y ∆y C C Cl Cl
∆Tl Al h
Z21 Z22
−
Y21 Y11 1 D − 21 1 g21 ∆g
∆y ∆y C C Cl Cl h22 h22 g11 g11
1 − h12 ∆g g12
Z22 Z12
− D − ∆T Al − 1
[Y] ∆z ∆z Y11 Y12 B B Bl Bl h11 h11 g22 g22
Z21 Z11 Y21 Y22 1 A ∆Tl Dl h21 ∆h g
− −
B B
−
Bl Bl h11 h11 − 21 1
∆z ∆z g22 g22
Y22 Dl Bl ∆h h 1 g22
[T] Z11 ∆z − − 1 −
h21
− 11
h21
Z21 Z21 Y21 Y21 A B ∆Tl ∆Tl g21 g21
h
1 Z22 −
∆y Y
− 11
C D Cl Al − 22 − 1 g11 ∆g
Z21 Z21 Y21 Y21 ∆Tl ∆Tl h21 h21
g21 g21
Y11 1 − h11 ∆g g
[T′]
Z22 ∆z − − 1 D B − − 22
Z12 Z12 Y12 Y12 ∆T ∆T Al Bl h12 h12 g12 g12
1 Z11 ∆y Y22 C A Cl Dl h22 ∆h g11 1
− − −
Z12 Z12 Y12 Y12 ∆T ∆T h12 h12 g12 g12
∆z Z12 g22 g12

[h] 1 − Y12 B ∆T Bl 1
Z22 Z22 Y11 Y11 Al Al h11 h12 ∆g ∆g
D D
Z ∆y ∆ Cl h21 h22 g g
− 21 1 Y21 −1 C − Tl − 21 11
Z22 Z22 Y11 Y11 D D Al Al ∆g ∆g
1 − Z12 ∆y Y12 Cl − 1 h22 h12

[g] C − ∆T −
Z11 Z11 Y22 Y22 A A Dl Dl ∆h ∆h g11 g12
Z21 ∆z Y 1 B ∆Tl Bl h21 h11 g21 g22
Z11 Z11 − 21 1 A A Dl Dl −
Y22 Y22 ∆h ∆h
Note : 1. In the above table the ∆Z , ∆Y , ∆h , ∆g , ∆T and ∆T’ represent the following determinants.
Z11 Z12 Y11 Y12 h11 h12 g g A B Al Bl
∆z = ; ∆y = ; ∆h = ; ∆g = 11 12 ; ∆T = ; ∆Tl =
Z 21 Z 22 Y21 Y22 h 21 h 22 g 21 g 22 C D Cl Dl
2. The following relations holds good for parameters.
-1
g11 g12 - 1
> H = > H ; > H = > H ; > H = ; E
Z11 Z12 Y11 Y12 h11 h12 A B Al Bl - 1
Z 21 Z 22 Y21 Y22 h 21 h 22 g 21 g 22 C D Cl Dl
1 1 1
H ; ; E = >
Z11 Z12 - h11 h12 - A B-
> H = > H ; > H = > H
Y11 Y12 g11 g12 Al Bl
Y21 Y22 Z 21 Z 22 g 21 g 22 h 21 h 22 Cl Dl C D
Appendix-16
TWO-PORT NETWORK PARAMETERS OF T AND P NETWORK
Parameters
Network
Z-parameters ABCD parameters
T-network Z1
Z11 = Z1 + Z3 A = 1+
Z3
Z1 Z2
1 2 Z1 Z2
Z12 = Z21 = Z3 B = Z1 + Z2 +
Z3
Z3
Z22 = Z2 + Z3 C = 1
1¢ 2¢ Z3
Z2
D = 1+
Z3
Y-parameters ABCD parameters

P-network
Z1 + Z2 Z1
Y11 = A = 1+
Z1 Z1 Z2 Z3
1 2
Y12 = Y21 = − 1 B = Z1
Z2 Z3 Z1
1¢ 2¢ Z1 + Z3 Z1 + Z2 + Z3
Y22 = C =
Z1 Z3 Z2 Z3
Z1
D = 1+
Z2
B.E/ B.Tech. DEGREE EXANMINATION, MAY/ JUNE 2014
Second Semester
Electrical and Electronics Engineering
EE 6201 – CIRCUIT THEORY
(Regulation 2013)
Time: 3 hours Maximum: 100 marks
Answer all questions
PART A – (10 × 2 = 20 marks)
1. Find the equivalent resistance of the circuit shown in Fig 1.

2
2
RT 1.2

1
Fig. 1
Chapter 2, SA - Q2.6 [ Page No - 2.146 ]

2. Define RMS voltage.
Chapter 3, Section - 3.2.2 [ Page No - 3.2 ]
3. What is reciprocity theorem?
4. Why do you short circuit the voltage source and open the current source when you find
Thevenin’s resistance of a network?
Usually Thevenin’s resistance is obtained by network reduction technique. When this
technique is applied the circuit should be converted to a network by deactivating or killing
all the sources. An ideal voltage source is deactivated, when it is short circuited and ideal
current source is deactivated, when it is open circuited.
5. Define quality factor in the resonant circuit.
6. Determine the quality factor of a coil for the series resonant circuit consisting of R = 10 ohm,
L = 0.1H, and C = 10 microfarad.
7. Distinguish between natural and forced response.
8. What is the time constant for RL and RC circuit?
Chapter 4, SA - Q4.6 & 4.10 [ Page No - 4.103 & 4.104 ]
Q. 2 Anna University Question Papers
9. Write the effect of power factor in energy consumption billing.

Energy = Power × Time = VI cos f × Time = VI × Power factor × Time
From the above relation it is clear that energy is directly proportional to power factor.
Therefore, a high power factor will result in large energy consumption and higher value of
billing.
Note: The power factor is defined as ratio of active power and apparent power. The
apparent power is the power supplied to consumer and active power is the power utilized
by the consumer. If power factor is 0.8, then the consumer utilize only 80% of power and
return back 20% to source. The power returned to the source increase the energy loss in
transmission and so electricity boards insist for maintaining higher power factor at consumer
end. In ideal case, the power factor should be unity so that the entire transmitted power is
consumed which result is low transmission losses.
10. Distinguish between unbalanced source and unbalanced load.
Not in Regulation 2017
PART B - (5 × 16 = 80 marks)
11. (a) (i) Find the current I and voltage across 30W of the circuit shown in Fig. 11(a)(i)
(8)
8 2
+ E
40V 100 V
I C
E
30
Fig. 11(a) (i).
(ii) Determine the current in all the resistors of the circuit shown in Fig.11(a) (ii) (8)
A
I1 I2 I3
+
50 A 2 1 5
E
B
Fig. 11(a) (ii).
Chapter 1, Example - 1.11 [ Page No - 1.35 ]

(OR)
Anna University Question Papers Q. 3
(b) (i) Determine the current through each resistor in the circuit shown in Fig 11.(b) (i)
(6)
12 A
+
VS 4 4 4
E
I1 I2 I3
Fig. 11(b) (i).
(ii) When a dc voltage is applied to a capacitor, voltage across its terminals is found
to build up in accordance with vc = 50(1 – e-100t). After 0.01 S the current flow is
equal to 2 mA.
(i) Find the value of capacitance in farad.
(ii) How much energy stored in the electric field? (10)
Chapter 4, Example 4.22 [ Page No - 4.85 ]
12. (a) (i) Determine the current in the 5W resistor in the network shown in the Fig.12(a)(i)
(8)
10 2
+ 2A
50V
E
5 1
Fig. 12(a) (i).
(ii) Find out the current in the each branch of the circuit shown in Fig.12(a)(ii) (8)
3 1
+
5A 10 5 10 V
E
Fig. 12(a) (ii).

(OR)
(b) (i) Determine the current in each mesh of the circuit shown in Fig.12 (b) (i) (8)
C
10 V
E
10 A 3 1
2
Fig. 12(b) (i).
(ii) Determine the voltages at each node of the circuit shown in Fig.12 (b) (ii) (8)
3
10 3 2
+
10 V 5 5A 1 6
E
Fig. 12(b) (ii).
13. (a) For the circuit shown in the Fig. 13 (a), determine the impedance at resonant frequency,
10 Hz above resonant frequency, and 10Hz below resonant frequency. (16)
10W 0.1H 10 mF
+ ~VS
-
Fig. 13(a).
(OR)
(b) Explain that how to derive Q factor of parallel resonance. (16)
Chapter 3, Section 3.13.3 [ Page No - 3.42 ] S 30
14. (a) A series RL circuit with R = 30W and L = 15H has a

constant voltage V = 60v applied at t = 0 as shown in +
60V 15 H
Fig. 14(a). Determine the current i,the voltage across i
E
resistor and the voltage across the inductor.
(16)
Fig. 14(a).
(OR)
(b) The circuit shown in the Fig. 14(b) consist of resistance, inductance and capacitance in
series with 100V DC when the switch is closed at t = 0. Find the current transient (16)
S
R
20 W
+ L 0.05 H
100V i(t)
-
C 20mF
Fig. 14(b).
Note : For the given values of R,L and C the response will be damped oscillatory
same as that of Example 4.25
15. (a) (i) A symmetrical three-phase; three wire 440V supply to a star connected load.
The impedance in each branch are ZR = 2 + j3W, ZY = 1 - j2W, and ZB = 3 + j4W. 
Find its equivalent delta connected load. (8)
(ii) A three phase, balanced delta-connected load of 4 + j8W, is connected across
a 400V, 3f balanced supply. Determine the phase currents and line currents.
(Phase sequence is RYB). (8)
(OR)
(b) (i) A symmetrical three-phase, three wire 400V, supply is connected to a delta-connected
load. Impedance in each branch are ZRY = 10∠300 W, ZYB = 10∠450 W and
ZBR = 2.5∠600 W. Find its equivalent star-connected load. (8)
(ii) A balanced star connected load having an impedance 15 + j20W per phase is
connected to 3f, 440V, 50Hz. Find the line current and power absorbed by the
load. (8)
B.E./B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2014

Second Semester
Electronics and Communication Engineering
(Regulation 2013)

PART A - (10 × 2 = 20 Marks)
1. An electrical appliance consumes 1.2 kWh in 30 minutes at 120 V. What is the current drawn
by the appliance?
2. Calculate the equivalent resistance between the terminals ''a'' and ''b'', in Fig. 1.
10
10
5 10
a b
Fig. 1
3. Calculate the value of IN for the circuit shown in Fig. 2.
20
+ 100
12V
E IN
360 RL
Fig. 2
4. State maximum power transfer theorem for DC networks.
Chapter 2, Section - 2.63, case (i) [ Page No - 2.100 ]
33 mH 47 mH
5. Calculate the total inductance of the circuit, if the coefficient of
coupling (k) between the two coils is 0.6, as shown in Fig.3. k
Fig. 3
6. Define quality factor of a series resonant circuit.
7. A coil of resistance 2.2 W and an inductance 0.01 H is connected in series with a capacitor
across 220 V mains. Find the value of capacitance such that maximum current flows in the
circuit at a frequency of 190 Hz. Also find the maximum current.
8. A 50 mF capacitor is discharged through a 100 kW resistor. If the capacitor is initially charged
to 400 V, determine the initial energy.
9. Write the equations for the phasor difference between the potentials of the delta connected
networks.
10. Three coils, each having a resistance of 20 W and an inductive reactance of 15 W are connected
in star to a 400 V, 3-phase, and 50 Hz supply. Calculate (a) the line current, (b) power factor,
and (c) power supplied
PART B – (5 × 16 = 80 marks)
11. (a) (i) Using node analysis, find the node voltages and the currents through all the resistors
for the circuit shown in Fig. 4. (12)
V1 10 V2 1
+
25 A 4 20 A 2 10 20 V
E
Fig. 4.
(ii) Find the equivalent resistance between the terminals 'a' and 'b' for the network shown
in Fig. 5. a (4)
4 2
6
RT
3 3
b
Fig. 5.

(OR)
(b) For the circuit shown in Fig. 6, find the (i) currents in different branches, (ii) current
supplied by the battery, (iii) potential difference between terminals A and B. (16)
2 6
+
10V E
A B
4
3 8
Fig. 6.
12. (a) Find the current I, through the 20 W resistor shown in Fig. 7 using Thevenin's theorem.
1 9V (16)
+ E
50V 20
+ E I
+ +
20 V 10 5 10V 2
E E
Fig. 7.

(OR)
(b) Find the current through 5W resistor using superposition theorem, in the circuit shown
in Fig. 8. (16)
4
I1
32 V 2
EE
+
9A 5 10 4A
I2
Fig. 8.

13. (a) Impedance Z1 and Z2 are parallel and this combination is in series with an impedance
Z3 ,connected to a 100 V, 50 Hz ac supply. Z1 = 5 − jX C Ω , Z2 = 5 + j0 Ω ,
Z3 = 6.25 + j1.25 Ω . Determine the value of capacitance such that the total current
of the circuit will be in phase with the total voltage. Find the circuit current and
power. (16)
(OR)
(b) The switch in the circuit shown in Fig. 9, is moved from position 1 to 2 at t = 0.
Find the expression for voltage across resistance and capacitor, energy in the capacitor
for t > 0. (16)
1 t=0
2
+ 5 kW
100 V
- _
i(t)
50 V +
+
_ 1 mF
Fig. 9.
14. (a) (i) For a magnetically coupled circuit, derive the expression for mutual inductance(M) in
terms of L1 and L2. (6)
Chapter 3, Section 3.15.2 [ Page No - 3.62 ]
14. (a) (ii) For the coupled circuit shown in Fig. 10, find the value of V2 so that the current I1 = 0.
(10)
5W 2W
j2W
+ +
10Ð900
~ I1 j8W j2W I2 V2
- -
Fig. 10.

(OR)
14. (b) With neat illustration describe the parallel resonant circuit and the equivalent parallel
network for a series RL combination. Also derive the unity power factor fp. (16)
Chapter 3, Section 3.13 and Example 3.16 [ Page No - 3.32 and 3.57 ]
Note : 1. Explain any one parallel RLC circuit and derive its resonance frequency
2. The unity power factor frequency, fp is resonance frerquency of parallel
RLC circuit.
15. (a) Show that three phase power can be measured by two wattmeters. Draw the phasor
diagrams. Derive an expression for power factor interms of wattmeter readings. (16)
(OR)
(b) (i) A 400 V(line-to-line) is applied to three star-connected identical impedances each
consisting of a 4 W resistance in series with 3 W inductive reactance. Find (1) line
current and (2) total power supplied. (8)
15. (b) (ii) Three star-connected impedances Z1 = 20 + j37.7 Ω per phase are in parallel with
three delta-connected impedance Z2 = 20 + j37.7 Ω per phase . The line voltage is
398 volts. Find the line current, power factor, power and reactive volt-ampere taken
by the combination. (8)
B.E/ B.Tech DEGREE EXANMINATION, APRIL/ MAY 2015

Second Semester
(Regulation 2013)
PART A – (10 × 2 = 20 marks)
1. Write briefly about resistance in a circuit.
2. Obtain the current in each branch of the network shown below using Kirchhoff’s Current Law.
5 a 2
C E C E
I3
C
20 V + I1 10 +
E I2 E 8V
E
b
3. State maximum power transfer theorem.
4. Write briefly about network reduction technique.
Chapter 2, Section - 2.1 [ Page No - 2.1 ]
5. Define mutual inductance.
6. Write the dot rule.
7. Define the frequency response of series RLC circuit.
8. Find the frequency response V2 /V1 for the two-port circuit shown below.
5 KW
+ +
1250 W
V1 1mF V2
- -

9. Write the distortion power factor equation of the three phase circuits.
10. Distinguish between unbalanced source and unbalanced load.

PART B – (10 × 16 = 80 marks)
11. (a) Use branch currents in the network shown below to find the current supplied by the 60 V
source. Solve the circuit by the mesh current method (16)
7
I1 I2 I3 I4
60 V +
E 12 6 12

(OR)
(b) Solve the network given below by the node voltage method. (16)
10
1 2
5
4
2
+
25V
E
2
E
+
50V
ref
12. (a) (i) Compute the current in the 23 W resistor of the following figure shown below by
applying the superposition principle. (8)
4
47
27 I23
20 A
+
E
200 V
(ii) Derive the equation for transient response of RC and RL circuit for DC input. (8)
Chapter 4, Section 4.3.2 & 4.4.2 [ Page No - 4.11 & 4.24 ]

(OR)
(b) Obtain the Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits for the active network shown
below. (16)
3
a
3 6
E
20 V + + 10 V
E
b

13. (a) With neat illustration and necessary derivations, explain the linear transformer. (16)

(OR)
(b) Derive the mutual inductance and the coupling coefficient of the transformer with
necessary illustration. (16)
Chapter 3, Section 3.15.2, 3.15.3 [ Page No - 3.62, 3.64 ]
14. (a) Explain in detail with neat illustrations the High pass and Low pass networks and
derive the network parameters. (16)
Refer [ Page No - Q.14 ]

(OR)
(b) Explain the characterization of two port networks in terms of Z, Y and h parameters.
(16)
Chapter 5, Section 5.3, 5.4 and 5.7 [ Page No - 5.6, 5.7 and 5.10 ]
15. (a) Discuss in detail the three phase 3-wire circuits with star connected balanced loads. (16)
(OR)
(b) Explain in detail the phasor diagram of the voltage of the voltage and currents of a
three phase unbalanced circuits. (16)
14.(a) Explain in the detail with neat illustrations the High pass and Low pass network and derive the network
parameters.
SOLUTION
The low pass and high pass filters are best examples of two port network. A low pass filter will pass
all low frequency signals less than a cut-off frequency. A high pass filter will pass all high frequency signals
greater than a cut-off frequency.
The low pass and high pass filters can be designed using LC network and popular configurations
of such filters are constant-K, T-type and P-type filters shown in Figs.1 and 2. Here the product Z1 Z2 is a
constant independent of frequency and so such filters are called constant-K filters.
Z1 Z1
2 2 Z1
1 2 1 2
Z1 2Z 2 2Z2
1¢ 2¢ 1¢ 2¢
Fig.1: Constant-K Fig.2: Constant-K
T-type filter P-type filter
Low pass Filter
For a low pass filter,
1
Z1 = jωL and Z2 =
jωC
1 L
` Z1 Z2 = jωL # =
jωC C
L
Here, is a constant independent of frequency.
C
L
Let, = K2
C
L
` K =
C
Here, K is also called design impedance or load impedance of the low pass filter.
The cut-off frequency, fc of low pass filter is given by,
1
fc =
π LC
Z1 jwL Z1 jwL
= = Z 1 = jwL
2 2 2 2
1 2
1 2
L/2 L
L/2 1
2Z 2 = C C 1
1 C 2Z 2 =
Z2 = C jw 2 C
jwC 2 jw
2 2
1¢ 2¢
1¢ 2¢

T-type low pass filter P-type low pass filter
High pass Filter
For a high pass filter,
1
Z1 = and Z2 = jωL
jωC
1 L
` Z1 Z2 = # jωL =
jωC C
L
Here, is a constant independent of frequency.
C
L
Let, = K2
C
L
` K =
C
Here, K is also called design impedance or load impedance of the high pass filter.
The cut-off frequency, fc of the high pass filter is given by,
1
fc =
4π LC
Z1 1 Z1 1 1
= = Z1 =
2 jw 2C 2 jw 2C jwC
1 2 1 2
2C 2C C
Z 2 = jwL L 2Z 2 = jw 2L 2L 2L 2Z 2 = jw 2L
1¢ 2¢ 1¢ 2¢

T-type high pass filter P-type high pass filter
Z - Parameters of T-type filter
Consider the T-type filter shown in Fig. 7. The equations defining Z1 Z1

I1 I2
Z- parameters are, 2 2
1 2
+ +
V1 = Z11 I1 + Z12 I2 .....(1) V1 Z2 V2
- -
V2 = Z21 I1 + Z22 I2 .....(2) 1¢ 2¢
Let us connect a voltage source to port-1 and open circuit port-2 as

Fig.7: T-type filter
shown in Fig.8.
Now, I2 = 0
Therefore,when I2 = 0 , from equations (1) and (2) we get,
V1 V2
Z11 = ; Z21 =
I1 I1
From Fig.9, by Ohm’s law,
Z1 Z1
I1 I2
2 2
V1 = f + Z2 p I1
Z1 1 2
.....(3) +
2 +
V1 Z2 V2 O.C
V1 Z1 -
` Z11 = = + Z2 -
I1 2 1¢ 2¢
From Fig.9, by voltage division rule, Fig.8.
Z2
Þ
V2 = V1 #
Z1
+ Z2
2 Z1
I1
= f + Z2 p I1 #
Z1 Z2 2
Using equation (3)
2 Z1 + +
+ Z2 V1
2 Z2 V2
-
V1 -
` Z11 = = Z2
I1 Fig.9.
The T-type filter is symmetrical.
Z1
` Z22 = Z11 = + Z2
2
The T-type filter is reciprocal.
` Z12 = Z21 = Z2
The Z- parameter matrix of constant-K, T-type filter is,

R V R V
S Z11 Z12 W S Z1 + Z Z
W
S W S2 2 2 W
Z = S W= S W
S W S Z Z1
Z
W
SZ21 Z12 W SS 2
2
+ 2W
W
T X T X
The Z- parameter matrix of constant-K, T-type low pass filter is,
R V R jωL V
S Z1 W S 1 1 W
S 2 + Z2 Z2 W
S 2
+
jωC jωC W
Z = S W= S W
S Z1 W S 1 jω L 1 W
SS Z2 2
+ Z2 W
W S jωC 2
+
jωC W
T X T X
The Z- parameter matrix of constant-K, T-type high pass filter is,

R V R V
S Z1 W S 1 + jωL W
S2 + Z Z W jωL
2 2 S jω2C W
Z = S W= S W
S Z1 W S j L
1
j L W
SS Z + Z 2W S ω + ω W
2
2 W jω2C
T X T X
B.E/ B.Tech DEGREE EXANMINATION, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2015

Second Semester
(Regulation 2013)
PART A – (10 × 2 = 20 marks)
1. State Kirchoff's Current law.
Chapter 1, Section 1.3.2 [ Page No - 1.20 ] 1 3.2
A B
2. Find the equivalent resistance of the circuit shown in Fig. 1.
4.27
Fig. 1
3. List the applications of Thevenin's theorem.
Chapter 2, SA - Q2.30 [ Page No - 2.153 ] 4
30 A
4. Two resistors of 4W and 6W are connected in parallel. If the total
current is 30 A. Find the current through each resistor shown in Fig. 2. Fig. 2
6
5. Define selectivity.
6. What is co-efficient of coupling?

7. Distinguish steady state and transient state.

8. What is time constant for RL and RC circuit?

Chapter 4, SA - Q4.6 & Q4.10 [ Page No - 4.103 & 4.104 ]
9. What are the advantages of three phase system?

10. When a 3-phase supply system is called balanced supply system?
PART B – (10 × 16 = 80 marks)

E +
4V 2
E
11. (a) (i) Determine the magnitude and direction of the current in +
2V 3
the 2 V battery in the circuit shown in Fig. 3. (8) Fig. 3
+ E
Chapter 1, Example 1.4 [ Page No - 1.29 ] 3V 1.5
(ii) Determine the power dissipation in the 4W resistor of the given circuit shown in
Fig. 4. (8)
5 2 6
+ +
50 V 3 4 10 V
E E
Fig. 4
(OR)
(b) Using node analysis, find the voltage Vx for the circuit shown in Fig 5. (16)
+
4A 2 2A
Vx 4
2 E
1 1
5Vx
+
E
Fig. 5
12. (a) Find the Thevenin's equivalent of the network shown in Fig. 6. (16)
3 1
A
2 2
5A
10V + 5A
E
E
+ 10V
B
Fig. 6
(OR)
(b) Determine the value of resistance that may be connected across A and B so that
maximum power is transferred from the circuit to the resistance. Also, estimate the
maximum power transferred to the resistance shown in Fig. 7. (16)
2 4 5V
E+ A
20 V +E 8 10
Fig. 7
13. (a) For the circuit shown in Fig. 8, determine the frequency at which the circuit resonates.
Also find the quality factor, voltage across inductance and voltage across capacitance
at resonance. (16)
5W 0.03 H 100mF
+ ~
20 V
-
Fig. 8
(OR)
(b) Find the mutual reactance Xm in the coupled coils shown in Fig. 9. (16)
5W
Xm
+
0
100Ð0 ~
-
j5W j12W 8W
Fig. 9
14. (a) In the RL circuit shown in Fig. 10, the switch is closed to position-1 at t = 0. After
t = 100 ms, the switch is changed to position-2. Find i(t) and sketch the transient.
1 2 (16)
2
+
5V 0.2 H
E E i(t)
20 V
+
Fig. 10
(OR)
(b) (i) Determine the driving point impedance of the network shown in Fig. 11. (8)
1
2H 2H
1 2
1’
Fig. 11
(ii) Determine the h-parameters of the two port network shown in Fig. 12. (8)
1 2
10
20
1’ 2’
Fig. 12
15. (a) Show that three phase power can be measured by two wattmeters. Draw the phasor
diagrams. Derive an expression for power factor interms of wattmeter readings.
(16)
(OR)
(b) (i) Three equal impedancces, each of 8 + j 10W are connected in star. This is further
connected to a 440 V, 50 Hz, three phase supply. Calculate the active and reactive
power and line and phase currents. (8)
(ii) Two wattmeter connected to measure the input to a balanced, three phase circuit
indicate 2000 W and 500 W respectively. Find the power factor of the circuit.
(1) When both readings are positive and
(2) When the later is obtained after reversing the connections to the current coil
of one instrument. (8)

B.E/ B.Tech DEGREE EXANMINATION, MAY/JUNE 2016

Second Semester
(Regulation 2013)
PART A – (10 × 2 = 20 marks)
1. The resistance of two wires is 25 W when connected in series and 6 W when connected in
parallel. Calculate the resistance of each wire.
2. Distinguish between mesh and loop of a circuit.
3. State reciprocity theorem.
4. What is the condition for the maximum power transfer in DC and AC circuits?
Chapter 2, Table 2.3 [ Page No - 2.105 ]
5. Define co-efficient of coupling.
6. In a series RLC circuit, if the value of L and C are 100 mH and 0.1 mF, find the resonance
frequency in Hz.
7. In a series RLC circuit, L = 2 H and C = 5 mF. Determine the value of R to give critical damping.
8. Define time constant of RL circuit.
9. A 3 phase 400 V is given to balanced star connected load of impedance 8 + 6j W. Calculate
line current.
10. List out the advantages of three phase system over single phase system.
PART B – (5 × 16 = 80 marks)
11. (a) (i) Determine the current IL in the circuit shown in Fig. 11 (a) (i). (8)
4V
3
+
E
3 IL 3
+
8V E
5 1
+
E 6V
1
Fig. 11 (a) (i)

(ii) Calculate the voltage across A and B in the circcuit shown in Fig. 11 (a) (ii). (8)
6 12 V
A
E
+
E
6V 4 4 10
E
+ +
12 V
B
Fig. 11 (a) (ii)

Chapter 1, SA-Q1.20 [ Page No - 1.203 ]
(OR)
(b) (i) Three loads A, B, C are connected in parallel to a 240 V source. Load A takes
9.6 kW, load B takes 60 A, and load C has a resistance of 4.8 W. Calculate RA and
RB, the total current, total power and equivalent resistance. (8)
Chapter 2, SA-Q2.11 [ Page No - 2.147 ]
(ii) For the circuit shown in Fig. 11 (b) (ii), determine the total current and power factor.
100 mF
(8)
10 W
IT
50 V 30 W 0.1 H
100 Hz ~
Fig. 11 (b) (ii)

12. (a) Find the voltage across 5 W resistor for the circuit shown in Fig. 12 (a) using source
transformation technique and verify the results using mesh analysis. (16)
3 6 57 V 2
4 6
42 V 4V
25 V 70 V
Fig. 12 (a)
Chapter 1, Example 1.25 [ Page No -1.60 ]
(OR)
(b) Obtain the Nortan's model and find the maximum power that can be transferred to
the 100 W load resistance, in the circuit shown in Fig. 12(b). (16)
220 RL = 100 200
+ +
10 V 470 380 5V
E E
Fig. 12(b)
13. (a) Determine the resonant frequency, bandwidth and quality factor of the coil for the
series resonant circuit considering R = 10 W, L = 0.1 H and C = 10 mF. Derive the
formula used for bandwidth. (16)
Chapter 3, Section 3.12.4 and Example 3.9 [ Page No - 3.21, 3.31 ]
(OR)
(b) (i) Derive the expression for equivalent inductance of the parallel resonant circuit as
shown in Fig. 13 (b) (i). (8)
M
IT
+
I1 L1 I2 L2
j6W
j5W j10W
E
Fig. 13 (b) (i)
3W
+
Chapter 3, Section 3.17.3 [ Page No - 3.78 ] 0
50Ð0 V ~ I1 I2
5W
(ii) Write the mesh equations and obtain the conductively j4 W
coupled equivalent circuit for the magnetically

coupled circuit shown in Fig. 13 (b) (ii). (8) Fig. 13 (b) (ii)
Chapter 3, Example 3.33 and Section 3.16.3 [ Page No - 3.106, 3.70 ]
14. (a) A sinusoidal voltage of 10 sin 100 is connected in series with a switch and R = 10 W
& L = 0.1 H. If the switch is closed at t = 0, determine the transient current i(t).(16)
(OR)
(b) In the circuit shown in Fig. 14(b). Determine the transient current after switch is
closed at time t = 0, given that an initial charge of 100 mC is stored in the capacitor.
Derive the necessary equations. (16)
15 W
t=0
50 V
i(t) 200 mF
Fig. 14(b)
15. (a) Obtain the readings of two wattmeters connected to a three phase, 3 wire, 120 V
system feeding a balanced D connected load with a load impedance of 12∠ 30o W.
Assume RYB phase sequence. Determine the phase power and compare the total
power to the sum of wattmeter readings. (16)

(OR)
(b) (i) If W1 & W2 are the readings of two wattmeters which measures power in the three
phase balanced system and if W1/W2 = a, show that the power factor of the circuit
is given by (8)
cos φ = 2 a2 + 1
a −a+1
(ii) A symmetrical, three phase, three wire 440 V ABC system feeds a balanced
Y-connected load with ZA = ZB = ZC = 10∠ 30o W obtain the line currents. (8)
B.E/ B.Tech DEGREE EXANMINATION, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2016

Second Semester
(Regulation 2013)
PART A – (10 × 2 = 20 marks)
1. What are the limitations of Ohm's law?

2. The equivalent resistance of four resistors joined is parallel is 30 ohms. The current flowing
through them are 0.5, 0.4, 0.6 and 0.1 A. Find the value of each resistor.
3. Determine the value of current Io of the given figure. 3 I0

o
3Ð0 A -j2 W
j8 W
4. State reciprocity theorem. Fig. 3

5. Draw the frequency response characteristics of parallel resonant circuit.

6. Determine the equivalent inductance of the circuit comprising two inductors in series opposing
mode.
7. Determine the Laplace transform of unit step function u(t) and sinusoidal function sin (wt).
Chapter 4, Table 4.1 [ Page No - 4.5 ]
8. A RLC series circuit has R = 10 ohms and L = 2H. What value of capacitance will make the
circuit critically damped?
9. What is a phase sequence of 3 phase system?

10. List any two advantages of three phase system over single-phase system.
PART B – (5 × 16 = 80 marks)
11. (a) (i) Calculate the node voltages of given circuit in fig. 11(a) (i). (8)
5A
4
2
1
2 6
10 A
Fig. 11(a) (i)

(ii) Determine current Io for the given circuit in Fig. 11(a) (ii) when vs = 12 V. (8)
2 8
+ vx E I0
4
4
6 i1 i2
E
+
vs E
+
3vxx
Fig. 11 (a) (ii)

(OR)
(b) (i) Using mesh analysis for the given fig. 11(b) (i), find the current I2 and drop across
1W resistor. (12)
XL1= 2 W I2
XC 8W
R1 1W
XL2 6W
R2 4W
+
o
E1 = 8 V Ð 20
-
~ -
E2 = 10 V Ð 0o
~ +
Fig. 11 (b) (i)

5 mF 60 mF
a
(ii) Find the equivalent capacitance
C between terminals A and B Ceq
of fig. 11(b) (ii). (4) 20 mF 6 mF 20 mF
b
Chapter 2, Example 2.11 [ Page No - 2.44 ] Fig. 11 (b) (ii)
12. (a) (i) Obtain the equivalent resistance Rab of the circuit given in fig 12 (a) (i) and calculate
the total current i. i a 2
(8)
24 10
20
100 V +
E
30 50
b
Figure 12 (a) (i)

(ii) Find the value of RL in fig. 12(a)(ii) for maximum power to RL and calculate the
maximum power. R1 E1 (8)
+ E
3 68 V
I 6 A R2 10 RL
R3
2
Figure 12 (a) (ii)
(OR)
(b) Apply superposition theorem to determine current i through 3W resistor for the
given circuit in fig. 12(b). 24 V 8
(16)
+E
4 4
i
+
12 V E 3A
3 E
Figure 12 (b)
13. (a) For the series resonant circuit of Fig. 13(a),
find I, VR, VL and VC at resonance. Also,if
VR VL
resonant frequency is 5000Hz, determine + - + -
bandwidth Q factor, half power frequencies, I R=2W XL = 10 W
and power dissipated in the circuit at +
o +
E = 10 V Ð 0 ~ XC = 10 W VC
resonance and at the half power frequencies. - -
Derive the expression for resonant frequency.
Fig. 13 (a)
(16)
-j 4 W j3W
(OR)
(b) (i) Obtain the conductively coupled
equivalent circuit for the given circuit o +
12Ð0 V - I1 j5W j6W I2 12 W
in Fig. 13(b)(i) and find the voltage drop
across 12 W resistor. (8) Fig. 13 (b) (i)
(ii) The number of turns in two coupled coils are 500 turns and 1500 turns respectively.
When 5 A current flows in coil 1, the total flux in this coil is 0.6 × 10-3 wb and the
flux linking in second coil is 0.3 × 10-3 wb. Determine L1, L2, M and K. (8)
R
14. (a) A series RL circuit with R = 50 W and L = 30 H has a t=0 i
constant voltage V = 50 volts applied at t = 0 as shown in Vs +
+
L v(t)
fig.14 (a). Determine the current i, voltage across inductor.
E
E
Derive the necessary expression and plot the respective
Fig. 14 (a)
curves. (16)
(OR)
(b) (i) Determine the impedance (Z) parameter of the given two port network in Fig. 14(b)(i)
I 51
10
4I I 1 2 (8)
E
+
+ +
V1 20 V2
E E
Fig. 14 (b) (i).

(ii) Find the hybrid (h) parameter of the two port network in Fig. 14(b)(ii). (8)
2 3
6
Fig. 14 (b) (ii).

15. (a) (i) For the D-D system shown in Fig. 15(a)(i), find the phase angle q2 and q3 for
the specified phase sequence. Also, find the phase current and line current in each
phase of the load. (8)
A a
+
IAa - Iab V ab
EAB = 120 VÐ qo
5W 5W
V
3-phase ca
D-connected ac 5W 5W
generator -
Phase sequence: ACB ECA = 120 VÐ q3 + 5W
Ibc
ICc
c b
IBb 5W
B
ICc - Vbc +
C
EBC = 120 VÐ q2
Fig. 15 (a) (i)
(ii) A 3 phase 400V supply is given to balanced star connected load of impedance
(8 + 6j) ohms in each branch. Determine line current, power factor and total power.
(8)
(OR)
(b) The two wattmeter produces wattemeter readings P1 = 1560W and P2 = 2100W
when connected to a delta connected load. If the line voltage is 220 V, calculate (i)
the per phase average power (ii) total reactive power, (iii) power factor and (iv) the
phase impedance. Is the impedance inductive or capacitive? Justify. (16)
B.E/ B.Tech DEGREE EXANMINATION, APRIL/MAY 2017

Second Semester
(Regulation 2013)
PART A – (10 × 2 = 20 marks)
1. Find 'R' in the circuit shown below.
R
16 V 8 4V
4
Chapter 2, SA - Q2.8 [ Page No - 2.146 ] 1H 1F
2. Determine the current i(t) for the given circuit

10 cos t +
E i(t) 1
3. A star connected load of 5W each is to be cconverted in to an equivalent delta connected
load. Find the resistance be used.
4. A load is connected to a network of the terminals to which load is connected, Rth = 10 ohms
and Vth = 40 V. Calculate the maximum power supplied to the load.
5. Define self inductance and mutual inductance of a coil.
Chapter 3, SA - Q3.47, Q3.48 [ Page No - 3.131 ]
6. Given the circuit, what is the equivalent inductance of the system shown below.
M
i i
L1 L2
+VE +VE
1 2
7. Define time constant for RL circuit. Draw the transient current characteristics
Chapter 4, SA - Q4.6 & Section 4.3.2 [ Page No - 4.103, 4.11 ]
8. When a two port network is said to be reciprocal
Chapter 5, Section 5.10 [ Page No - 5.19 ]
9. Draw the phasor diagram of line currentts and line voltages of a balanced delta connected load.
10. Distinguish between unbalanced supply and unbalanced load.
PART B – (5 × 16 = 80 marks)
11. (a) (i) Determine the potential difference between points A and B given in fig. 11(a)(i)(8)
A
3
5 + 2
E 8 10 2
+
E
5 4
B
Fig. 11 (a) (i)
(ii) Using Mesh analysis,find the current Ion the circuit shown fig. 11(a)(ii). (8)
10 W Io
j8W
-j 4 W 0
2Ð0 A
0 +
50Ð0 V -
5W -j 6 W
Fig. 11 (a) (ii)

(OR)
(b) (i) Determine vx and ix in the given fig 11 (b) (i). (10)
ix 10
3A vx 5
4
50 V +
E
+
+ 4i
vx 2 E x
E
Fig 11 (b) (i)

(ii) Write the mesh equation and nodal equation for the network in fig. 11(b) (ii) by
inspection method. (6)
8 10 4
100 V 4 10 40 V
Fig. 11 (b) (ii)

12. (a) (i) Apply source transformation technique to determine current io in fig. 12(a)(i). (8)
5V 1
E+
E+
io
6 5A 3 7 3A 4
Fig. 12 (a) (i)

(ii) Find the power delivered by the 20V source using superposition theorem. (8)
22 10
68
A
+ 10 V
47 E
10
B + E
20 V 33
Fig. 12 (a) (ii)
(OR)
(b) Apply Norton theorem to determine current Io for the given circuit in Fig. 12(b).(16)
a
0 Io
5W 3Ð0 A
8W -j 2 W 20 W
10 W
j 15 W
0 +
40Ð90 V -
j4W
b
Fig. 12(b)
13. (a) (i) Derive the expression for resonant frequency and bandwidth for a series RLC
resonant circuit. (8)
Chapter 3, Section 3.12.1, 3.12.4 [ Page No - 3.16, 3.21 ]
(ii) In the parallel RLC circuit of Fig. 13(a)(ii), let R = 8kW, L = 0.2 mH and C = 8 mF.
Calculate w0, Q, half power frequencies and BW. (8)
io
10 sin wt +
- R L C
Fig. 13 (a) (ii)

(OR)
(b) (i) Find the voltage drop across 12W resistor for the given circuit in Fig. 13(b)(i). Also,
draw the conductively coupled equivalent circuit. (8)
-j 4 W j3W
o +
12Ð0 V - I1 j5W j6W I2 12 W
Fig. 13 (b) (i)
(ii) The number of turns in two coupled coils are 500 turns and 1500 turns respectively.
When 5 A current flows in coil, the total flux in this coil is 0.6 × 10-3 wb and the
flux linking in second coil is 0.3 × 10-3 wb. Determine L1, L2M and K. (8)

14. (a) A series RL circuit with R = 10W and L = 0.1H is supplied by an input voltage
v(t) 10 sin 100t Volts applied at t = 0 as shown in fig. 14(a). Determine the
current i, voltage across inductor. Derive the necessary expression and plot the
respective curves. (16)
R
t=0 i
+ +
Vs
-
~ L v(t)
-
Fig. 14 (a)
(OR)
(b) Determine the impedance (Z) parameter and draw the T-equivalent circuit for the
given two port network in Fig. 14 (b). Also, derive the transmission line (ABCD)
parameters from Z parameter. (16)
I1 I2
8 10
+ +
V1 20 20 V2
E E
Fig. 14 (b)
15. (a) (i) A balanced D-connected load having an impedance 20 - j15W is connected to a
D-connected, positive sequence supply Vab = 330∠0o V. Calculate the phase currents
of the load and the line currents. (8)

(ii) The input power to a 3f load is 10kw at 0.8 pf. Two wattmeters are connected to
measure power, find the individual readings of the wattmeters. (8)

(OR)
(b) For the unbalanced circuit in Fig. 15(b), determine the line currents and voltage
across each load impedance. Draw the phasor diagram. (16)
Ia
a A
0
120Ð0 rms +
- j5W
n
N
0 -j 10 W
0
120Ð120 rms + - - + 120Ð-120 rms
Ib 10 W
c C
b B
I2
Ic
Fig. 15(b)

INDEX
A Coupled coils 3.61
Cramer's rule 1.39, 1.40, 1.89
ABCD parameters 5.8
Critical coupling 3.84
A'B'C'D' parameters 5.9
Critical damping 4.37
AC circuit 4.1
Critically damped response 4.40
AC source 1.9, 4.1
Critical resistance 4.38
Active elements 1.4, 1.9
Current 1.1, 1.6
Active power 3.9
Current controlled current source 1.196, 1.2
Active network 5.19
Current controlled voltage source 1.196, 1.2
Additivity 2.143
Current division rule 1.23, 2.26, 2.27
Alternating current source 1.9
Current magnification 3.42
Ampere 1.6
Current source 3.1
Angular frequency 3.1
- ideal 1.17
Anti-resonance 3.32
- practical 1.17
Apparent power 3.9
Current variables 1.134
Average power 1.19, 3.8
Cycle 3.1
- value 3.2
B D
Damped oscillatory response 4.39
Bandwidth 3.21, 3.22
Damping ratio 4.38
Bilateral element 1.8
DC circuit 1.9
Branch 1.10
DC source 1.9
Delta connection 1.14
C Dependent source 1.10
Calorie 1.6 Derived parameters 1.3
Capacitance 1.1, 2.11, 2.12, 3.4 Direct current source 1.9
Capacitive reactance 3.7 Dot rule 3.66
- in s-domain 3.7 Double tuned coupled circuit 3.82
Charge 1.6 Double tuned coupled coil 3.82
Chord 1.132 Duality 1.180
Circuit theory 1.1 Dual graph 1.181
Closed path 1.10 Dual network 1.184
Coefficient of coupling 3.64 Dynamic resistance 3.32
Complementary function 4.2
Complex power 3.9 E
Conductive coupling 3.61 Effective value 3.2
Conductor 1.21 Electric circuit 1.1
Connected graph 1.131 Electrical energy 1.1
Cosinusoidal voltage 4.4 Energy 1.5, 3.10
Cotree 1.33 Energy stored in
Coulomb 1.6 - capacitance 3.5
Coupled Circuits 3.61 - inductance 3.4
I. 2 Circuit Analysis
F
Farad 3.4 L
Final condition (value) 4.14, 4.26 Law of conservation of energy 1.4
Forced response 4.2 Lenz's law 3.67
Form factor 3.3 Linear 2.76
Frequency 3.1 - circuit 1.8
Fundamental parameter 1.9 - element 1.8, 2.76
- network 1.8
G Linear transformer 3.67
Graph 1.131 Link 1.132, 1.133
G-parameters 5.12 Loads 1.4
Load set reference 1.134
Looking back impedance 2.31
H Looking back resistance 2.29, 2.50
Half-power frequencies 3.21 Lower cut-off frequency 3.21, 3.45
Higher cut-off frequency 3.21, 3.45
H-parameters 5.10
M
Henry 3.4
Hertz 3.1, 3.4 Magnetic coupling 3.61
Magnetic flux 3.61
Maximum power transfer theorem 2.100, 2.101, 2.102, 2.104
I Mesh 1.36
Ideal - analysis 1.36
- capacitor 1.1 - current 1.36
- current source 1.17 Millman's theorem 2.6, 2.137
- inductor 1.1 Mutual-conductance 1.88
- resistor 1.1 Mutual induced emf 3.61
- voltage source 1.17 Mutual-resistance 1.38
Impedance 3.11
Impedance angle 3.11
N
Impedance triangle 3.12
Independent current variables 1.135 Natural frequency of oscillation 4.38
Independent source 1.10 Natural response 4.2
Independent voltage variables 1.135 Natural transformer 3.67
Inductance 1.1, 3.4 Negative charge 1.6
Inductive reactance 3.6 Network 1.9
- in s-domain 3.6 Network topology 1.131
Initial condition (value) 4.14, 4.26 Network variables 1.134
Internal resistance 1.17 Node 1.10, 1.86
Inverse parameter 1.3 Node analysis 1.86
Node voltage 1.87
J Norton's current source 2.51
Norton's resistance 2.51
Joule 1.5
Norton's theorem 2.51
K O
Kirchoff ’s current law 1.20 Ohm's law 1.20
Kirchoff ’s voltage law 1.20 One-port network 5.1
Index I. 3
Open circuit 1.15 Reference 1.134
Optimum mutual inductance 3.84 Reference node 1.87
Orientation 1.134 Rejector circuit 3.45
Oriented graph 1.131 Resistance 1.1, 1.21
Overdamped response 4.41 Resistivity 1.21
Resonance 3.16
P Resonant frequency 3.32
Rms value 3.2
Parabolic voltage 4.4
Parallel aiding 3.76
Parallel connection 1.12 S
Parallel fed double tuned circuit 3.87 Secondary coil 3.82
Parallel opposing 3.76 Secondary winding 3.61
Parallel resonance 3.32 Selectivity 3.26
Parameters 1.3 Selector circuit 3.45
Particular solution 4.2 Self-conductance 1.88
Passive Self induced emf 3.61
- circuit 1.4 Self inductance 3.62
- element 1.4, 1.9 Self-resistance 1.38
- network 1.4, 5.19 Series aiding 3.76
Path 1.131 Series connection 1.12
Peak factor 3.3 Series fed double tuned circuit 3.87
Planar circuits 1.36 Series opposing 3.76
Port 5.1 Series resonance 3.16
Positive charge 1.6 Short circuit 1.15
Potential difference 1.7 Single loop circuit 1.26
Power 1.4, 1.6, 1.19 Single node pair circuit 1.26
Power factor 3.10 Single tuned coupled circuit 3.82
Power triangle 3.9 Single tuned coupled coil 3.82
Practical Sinusoidal current 3.3
- current source 1.18 Sinusoidal source 1.9, 3.1
- voltage source 1.18 Sinusoidal voltage 3.1
Primary coil 3.82 Source-free response 4.2
Primary winding 3.61 Source resistance 1.18
Principal node 1.10, 1.87 Source transformation 1.18
Principle of superposition 2.76 Stagger tuned circuit 3.82
p-connection 1.14 Star connection 1.14
Steady state analysis 1.8
Q Subgraph 1.132
Supermesh 1.62
Quality factor 3.18, 3.42
Supernode 1.106
Superposition theorem 2.76
R Symmetrical two-port network 5.19
Rated current 2.6

Rated voltage 2.3 T
Reactive power 3.9 T-connection 1.14
Reciprocal network 2.126, 5.19 Thevenin's resistance 2.50
Reciprocity theorem 2.126, 5.19 Thevenin's theorem 2.50
I. 4 Circuit Analysis
Thevenin's voltage source 2.50
Tie-set 1.164
Time period 3.1, 3.2
Topology 1.131
Total response 2.77
Transient analysis 1.8, 4.1
Transient period 1.8, 4.1
Transient response 4.1
Transient state 4.1
Tree 1.132
Tuning circuit 3.25
Twig 1.133
Two-port network 5.1
U
Undamped response 4.38
Under damped response 4.39
Unilateral element 1.8
Unit 1.19, 3.10
V
Volt 1.7
Voltage 1.1, 1.7
Voltage controlled current source 1.2, 1.196
Voltage controlled voltage source 1.2, 1.196
Voltage division rule 1.22, 2.25, 2.26
Voltage magnification 3.18
Voltage source 1.17, 3.1
Voltage variables 1.134
W
Watt 1.6
Weber-turns 3.4
Winding sense 3.66
X
Y
Y-parameters 5.7
Z
Zero value source 2.51
Z-parameters 5.6

Circuit Analysis by A Nagoor Kani - 9387572722 (FileCR)

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McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

Copyright © 2018, by McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited.

ISBN (13): 978-93-87572-72-0

Director—Science & Engineering Portfolio: Vibha Mahajan

Visit us at: www.mheducation.co.in

Wife, Mrs. C. Gnanaparanjothi (B.Sc., M.L.)

1.1 Introduction to Circuits and Networks....................................................................... 1. 1

1.4.3 Resistance in Series........................................................................................ 1. 22

1.9 Cut-Sets........................................................................................................................ 1. 143

CHAPTER 2 - NETWORK THEOREMS FOR DC AND AC CIRCUITS

2.4.1 Resistances in Star and Delta ........................................................................ 2. 29

CHAPTER 3 - AC CIRCUITS, RESONANCE AND COUPLED CIRCUITS

3.12.2 Variation of Current and Impedance with Frequency in

3.17.2 Series Opposing Connection of Coupled Coils .............................................. 3. 77

CHAPTER 4 - TRANSIENT ANALYSIS

4.5 Transient Response of RLC Circuit............................................................................. 4. 35

CHAPTER 5 - TWO-PORT NETWORKS

5.14 Summary of Important Concepts.................................................................................. 5. 59

APPENDIX 1 - USING CALCULATOR IN COMPLEX MODE .................................. A. 1

Organization of the Book

List of Symbols and Abbreviations

vC - Instantaneous value of voltage across capacitor

BASIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS AND

Energy Sources Parameters or Loads

Dependent DC Voltage Source

Dependent DC Current Source

AC (Alternating Current) Sources

Fig. 1.1 : Elements of electric circuits - Energy source.

Parameters or Loads Energy Sources

Fig. 1.2 : Elements of electric circuits - Parameters or loads.

Quantity Symbol Unit Unit Equivalent Equivalent

Quantity Symbol Unit Unit Equivalent Equivalent

Magnetic flux - Tesla T Weber/ meter Wb/m2

Table 1.2 : Multiple and Submultiple used for Units

Multiplying Prefix Symbol Multiplying Prefix Symbol

1012 tera T 10 −1 deci d

1.1.5 Definitions of Various Terms

Also, 1 V = 1 J = 1 J/s = 1 W .....(1.8)

Quantity DC Instantaneous Average Maximum RMS Phasors

1.1.7 Steady State Analysis and Transient Analysis

1.1.8 Assumptions in Circuit Theory

1.2 Basic Concepts of Circuits and Networks

Fig. a : Circuit. Fig. b : Network.

Fig. a : dc voltage Fig. b : dc current Fig. c : ac voltage Fig. d : ac current

Fig. a : Typical circuit. Fig. b : Branches of the circuit in Fig. a.

1.2.3 Series, Parallel, Star and Delta Connections

Fig. a : Resistances in Fig. b : Inductances Fig. c : Capacitances

Fig. a : Typical circuit. Fig. b : Series paths in the circuit of Fig. a.

Fig. a : Resistances Fig. b : Inductances Fig. c : Capacitances Fig. d : R and L in parallel.

Fig. a : A typical circuit. Fig. b : R4 in parallel with series

connection. If three elements with 3

Fig. a : A typical circuit. Fig. b : Star connections in circuit of Fig. a.

1.2.4 Open Circuit and Short Circuit

Fig. 1.14 : Examples of open circuit (OC).

Fig. 1.15 : Examples of short circuit (SC).

1.2.5 Sign Conventions

Fig. a :Voltage Fig. b : Current Fig. c : Fig. d : Inductance Fig. e : Capacitance

A chargeable battery is the best example I

for understanding the concept of energy delivery E +E

is connected to a load, it delivers energy. When

Fig. a : Inductance discharging energy. Fig. b : Capacitance discharging energy.