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CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
About the Author
Prof. Nagoor Kani is a multifaceted personality with an efficient technical expertise and
management skills. He obtained his BE in EEE from Thiagarajar College of Engineering, Madurai,
and MS (Electronics and Control) through Distance Learning program of BITS, Pilani.
He started his career as a self-employed industrialist (1986–1989) and then moved to teaching in
1989. He has worked as lecturer in Dr MGR Engineering College (1989–1990) and as an Assistant
Professor in Sathyabama Engineering College (1990–1997). He started his own coaching centre for
BE students, named as Institute of Electrical Engineering and was renamed as RBA Tutorials in 2005.
He started his own companies in 1997 and his currently running companies are RBA Engineering
(manufacturing of lab equipment and microprocessor trainer kits), RBA Innovations (involved in
developing projects for engineering students and industries), RBA Tutorials (conducting coaching
classes for engineering and GATE students) and RBA Publications (publishing of engineering
books). His optimistic and innovative ideas brought up RBA GROUP successfully.
He is an eminent writer and till now he has authored thirteen engineering books which are popular
among engineering students. He is known by name through his books in all engineering colleges
in South India and in some colleges in North India.
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
A. Nagoor Kani
Founder, RBA Educational Group
Chennai
McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

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Circuit Analysis
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v
Dedicated to
Wife, Mrs. C. Gnanaparanjothi (B.Sc., M.L.)

Elder Son, N. Bharath Raj
Younger Son, N. Vikram Raj
vi
vii
CONTENT
PREFACE.............................................................................................. xv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT............................................................................ xvii
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVATIONS................................................. xix
CHAPTER 1 - BASIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS AND NETWORK TOPOLOGY......... 1.1
1.1 Introduction to Circuits and Networks....................................................................... 1. 1

1.1.1 Basic Phenomena........................................................................................... 1. 1
1.1.2 Ideal Elements ................................................................................................ 1. 1
1.1.3 Electric Circuits .............................................................................................. 1. 1
1.1.4 Units ................................................................................................................ 1. 4
1.1.5 Definitions of Various Terms.......................................................................... 1. 5
1.1.6 Symbols used for Average, RMS and Maximum Values.............................. 1. 7
1.1.7 Steady State Analysis and Transient Analysis............................................. 1. 8
1.1.8 Assumptions in Circuit Theory...................................................................... 1. 8
1.2 Basic Concepts of Circuits and Networks ................................................................ 1. 9
1.2.1 Basic Elements of Circuits............................................................................. 1. 9
1.2.2 Nodes, Branches and Closed Path................................................................. 1. 10
1.2.3 Series, Parallel, Star and Delta Connections................................................. 1. 12
1.2.4 Open Circuit and Short Circuit....................................................................... 1. 15
1.2.5 Sign Conventions ............................................................................................ 1. 16
1.2.6 Voltage and Current Sources.......................................................................... 1. 17
1.2.7 Ideal and Practical Sources............................................................................ 1. 17
1.2.8 DC Source Transformation............................................................................. 1. 18
1.2.9 Power and Energy............................................................................................ 1. 19
1.3 Ohm’s and Kirchhoff’s Laws........................................................................................ 1. 20
1.3.1 Ohm’s Law........................................................................................................ 1. 20
1.3.2 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)........................................................................ 1. 20
1.3.3 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)........................................................................ 1. 20
1.4 Resistive Elements........................................................................................................ 1. 21
1.4.1 Resistance........................................................................................................ 1. 21
1.4.2 Resistance Connected to DC Source ............................................................. 1. 22
viii
1.4.3 Resistance in Series........................................................................................ 1. 22

1.4.4 Resistance in Parallel...................................................................................... 1. 23
1.4.5 Analysis of Resistors in Series-Parallel Circuits........................................... 1. 23
1.4.6 Single Loop Circuit.......................................................................................... 1. 26
1.4.7 Single Node Pair Circuit.................................................................................. 1. 26
1.4.8 Solved Problems.............................................................................................. 1. 27
1.5 Mesh Current Method of Analysis for DC and AC Circuits....................................... 1. 36
1.5.1 Mesh Analysis of Resistive Circuits Excited by DC Sources........................ 1. 36
1.5.2 Mesh Analysis of Circuits Excited by Both Voltage
and Current Sources........................................................................................ 1. 62
1.5.3 Supermesh Analysis........................................................................................ 1. 62
1.5.4 Mesh Analysis of Circuits Excited by AC Sources
(Mesh Analysis of Reactive Circuits)............................................................. 1. 68
1.5.5 Mesh Analysis of Circuits Excited by Independent
and Dependent Sources.................................................................................. 1. 75
1.6 Node Voltage Method of Analysis for DC and AC Circuits....................................... 1. 86
1.6.1 Node Analysis of Resistive Circuits Excited by DC Sources........................ 1. 87
1.6.2 Node Analysis of Circuits Excited by Both
Voltage and Current Sources.......................................................................... 1. 105
1.6.3 Supernode Analysis......................................................................................... 1.106
1.6.4 Node Analysis of Circuits Excited by AC Sources
(Node Analysis of Reactive Circuits).............................................................. 1. 120
1.6.5 Node Analysis of Circuits Excited by Independent
and Dependent Sources.................................................................................. 1. 124
1.7 Network Terminology................................................................................................... 1. 131
1.7.1 Graph of a Network ......................................................................................... 1. 131
1.7.2 Trees, Link, Twig and Cotree.......................................................................... 1. 132
1.7.3 Network Variables .......................................................................................... 1. 134
1.7.4 Solution of Network Variables........................................................................ 1. 134
1.7.5 Link Currents (Independent Current Variables)............................................ 1. 135
1.7.6 Twig Voltages (Independent Voltage Variables)........................................... 1. 135
1.8 Incidence and Reduced Incidence Matrices............................................................... 1. 135
1.8.1 Network Analysis using Incidence Matrix..................................................... 1. 138
ix
1.9 Cut-Sets........................................................................................................................ 1. 143

1.9.1 Fundamental Cut-Sets ................................................................................... 1. 143
1.9.2 Cut-Set Matrix and Cut-Set Schedule............................................................ 1. 148
1.9.3 Node Analysis Using Cut-Sets....................................................................... 1. 151
1.10 Tie-Set.......................................................................................................................... 1. 164
1.10.1 Tie-Set Matrix and Tie-Set Schedule............................................................. 1. 165
1.10.2 Mesh Analysis Using Tie-Sets....................................................................... 1. 168
1.11 Duality.......................................................................................................................... 1. 180
1.11.1 Dual Graphs.................................................................................................... 1. 181
1.11.2 Duality of Network.......................................................................................... 1. 184
1.12 Summary of Important Concepts................................................................................ 1. 194
1.13 Short-answer Questions.............................................................................................. 1. 200
1.14 Exercises....................................................................................................................... 1. 213
CHAPTER 2 - NETWORK THEOREMS FOR DC AND AC CIRCUITS

2.1 Network Reduction....................................................................................................... 2. 1
2.1.1 Resistances in Series and Parallel.................................................................. 2. 1
2.1.2 Voltage Sources in Series and Parallel .......................................................... 2. 3
2.1.3 Current Sources in Series and Parallel .......................................................... 2. 6
2.1.4 Inductances in Series and Parallel................................................................. 2. 8
2.1.5 Capacitances in Series and Parallel............................................................... 2. 11
2.1.6 Impedances in Series and Parallel ................................................................. 2. 14
2.1.7 Reactances in Series and Parallel .................................................................. 2. 16
2.1.8 Conductances in Series and Parallel ............................................................. 2. 17
2.1.9 Admittances in Series and Parallel ................................................................ 2. 19
2.1.10 Susceptances in Series and Parallel .............................................................. 2. 22
2.1.11 Generalised Concept of Reducing Series/Parallel-connected Parameters... 2. 22
2.2 Voltage and Current Division ...................................................................................... 2. 25
2.2.1 Voltage Division in Series-connected Resistances ....................................... 2. 25
2.2.2 Voltage Division in Series-connected Impedances ....................................... 2. 26
2.2.3 Current Division in Parallel-connected Resistances ..................................... 2. 26
2.2.4 Current Division in Parallel-connected Impedances..................................... 2. 27
2.3 Source Transformation ................................................................................................ 2. 28
2.4 Star-Delta Conversion.................................................................................................. 2. 29
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2.4.1 Resistances in Star and Delta ........................................................................ 2. 29

2.4.2 Impedances in Star and Delta ........................................................................ 2. 31
2.5 Solved Problems in Network Reduction .................................................................... 2. 32
2.6 Network Theorems....................................................................................................... 2. 49
2.6.1 Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorems................................................................ 2. 49
2.6.2 Superposition Theorem .................................................................................. 2. 76
2.6.3 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem .............................................................. 2. 99
2.6.4 Reciprocity Theorem ....................................................................................... 2. 126
2.6.5 Reciprocity Theorem Applied to Mesh Basis Circuit.................................... 2. 126
2.6.6 Reciprocity Theorem Applied to Node Basis Circuit .................................... 2. 127
2.6.7 Millman’s Theorem.......................................................................................... 2. 137
2.7 Summary of Important Concepts................................................................................ 2. 141
2.8 Short-answer Questions .............................................................................................. 2. 144
2.9 Exercises....................................................................................................................... 2. 159
CHAPTER 3 - AC CIRCUITS, RESONANCE AND COUPLED CIRCUITS

3.1 AC Circuits.................................................................................................................... 3. 1
3.2 Sinusoidal Voltage........................................................................................................ 3. 1
3.2.1 Average Value................................................................................................... 3. 2
3.2.2 RMS Value........................................................................................................ 3. 2
3.2.3 Form Factor and Peak Factor........................................................................... 3. 3
3.3 Sinusoidal Current........................................................................................................ 3. 3
3.4 Inductance..................................................................................................................... 3. 4
3.5 Capacitance................................................................................................................... 3. 4
3.6 Voltage-Current Relation of R, L and C in Various Domains..................................... 3. 5
3.6.1 Voltage-Current Relation of Resistance.......................................................... 3. 5
3.6.2 Voltage-Current Relation of Inductance......................................................... 3. 6
3.6.3 Voltage-Current Relation of Capacitance....................................................... 3. 7
3.7 Sinusoidal Voltage and Current in Frequency Domain.............................................. 3. 8
3.8 Power, Energy and Power Factor................................................................................. 3. 8
3.9 Impedance..................................................................................................................... 3. 11
3.10 Solved Problems in AC Circuits.................................................................................. 3. 12
3.11 Resonance .................................................................................................................... 3. 16
3.12 Series Resonance ......................................................................................................... 3. 16
3.12.1 Resonance Frequency of Series RLC Circuit ................................................. 3. 16
xi
3.12.2 Variation of Current and Impedance with Frequency in

Series RLC Circuit ........................................................................................... 3. 17
3.12.3 Q-Factor (Quality Factor) of RLC Series Circuit ........................................... 3. 18
3.12.4 Bandwidth of Series RLC Circuit ................................................................... 3. 21
3.12.5 Selectivity of Series RLC Circuit .................................................................... 3. 25
3.12.6 Variation of Voltage across L and C with Frequency..................................... 3. 26
3.12.7 Solved Problems in Series Resonance ........................................................... 3. 27
3.13 Parallel Resonance ...................................................................................................... 3. 32
3.13.1 Resonant Frequency of Parallel RLC Circuits ............................................... 3. 33
3.13.2 Variation of Current and Impedance with Frequency in
Parallel RLC Circuit ......................................................................................... 3. 41
3.13.3 Q-Factor (Quality Factor) of RLC Parallel Circuit .......................................... 3. 42
3.13.4 Bandwidth of RLC Parallel Circuit ................................................................. 3. 45
3.13.5 Selectivity of Prallel RLC Circuit .................................................................... 3. 51
3.13.6 Variation of Current through L and C with Frequency.................................. 3. 52
3.13.7 Solved Problems in Parallel Resonance.......................................................... 3. 53
3.14 Coupled Circuits ........................................................................................................... 3. 61
3.15 Self-Inductance and Mutual Inductance ..................................................................... 3. 62
3.15.1 Self-Inductance ................................................................................................ 3. 62
3.15.2 Mutual Inductance ........................................................................................... 3. 62
3.15.3 Coefficient of Coupling .................................................................................... 3. 64
3.16 Analysis of Coupled Coils ............................................................................................ 3. 65
3.16.1 Dot Rule ........................................................................................................... 3. 66
3.16.2 Expression for Self-and Mutual Induced EMFs in Various Domains .......... 3. 69
3.16.3 Writing Mesh Equations for Coupled Coils .................................................... 3. 70
3.16.4 Electrical Equivalent of Magnetic Coupling
(Electrical Equivalent of a Transformer or Linear Transformer) ................... 3. 71
3.16.5 Writing Mesh Equations in Circuits with Electrical Connection
and Magnetic Coupling ................................................................................... 3. 74
3.16.6 Analysis of Multiwinding Coupled Coils (Coupled Inductors) ................. 3. 75
3.17 Series and Parallel Connections of Coupled Coils (Coupled Inductors) .................. 3. 76
3.17.1 Series Aiding Connection of Coupled Coils ................................................... 3. 76
xii
3.17.2 Series Opposing Connection of Coupled Coils .............................................. 3. 77

3.17.3 Parallel Aiding Connection of Coupled Coils ................................................. 3. 78
3.17.4 Parallel Opposing Connection of Coupled Coils ............................................ 3. 80
3.18 Tuned Coupled Circuits ................................................................................................ 3. 82
3.18.1 Single Tuned Coupled Circuits....................................................................... 3. 82
3.18.2 Double Tuned Coupled Circuits ...................................................................... 3. 87
3.19 Solved Problems in Coupled Circuits .......................................................................... 3. 90
3.20 Summary of Important Concepts. ................................................................................ 3. 116
3.21 Short-answer Questions ............................................................................................... 3. 123
3.22 Exercises ........................................................................................................................ 3. 134
CHAPTER 4 - TRANSIENT ANALYSIS

4.1 Transient Response....................................................................................................... 4. 1
4.1.1 Natural and Forced Response .......................................................................... 4. 1
4.1.2 First and Second Order Circuits ...................................................................... 4. 2
4.2 Transient Analysis Using Laplace Transform............................................................. 4. 3
4.2.1 Some Standard Voltage Functions................................................................... 4. 3
4.2.2 s-Domain Representation of R, L, C Parameters............................................. 4. 5
4.2.3 Solving Initial and Final Conditions Using Laplace Transform.................... 4. 9
4.3 Transient Response of RL Circuit................................................................................ 4. 10
4.3.1 Natural or Source-Free Response of RL Circuit.............................................. 4. 10
4.3.2 Step Response of RL Circuit
(Response of RL Circuit Excited by DC Supply)............................................. 4. 11
4.3.3 Impulse Response of RL Circuit....................................................................... 4. 16
4.3.4 Response of RL Circuit Excited by Exponential Signal................................. 4. 18
4.3.5 RL Transient With Initial Current I0 ................................................................ 4. 19
4.4 Transient Response of RC Circuit ............................................................................... 4. 22
4.4.1 Natural or Source-Free Response of RC Circuit.............................................. 4. 22
4.4.2 Step Response of RC Circuit
(Response of RC Circuit Excited by DC Supply)............................................. 4. 24
4.4.3 Impulse Response of RC Circuit....................................................................... 4. 28
4.4.4 Response of RC Circuit Excited by Exponential Signal ................................. 4. 30
4.4.5 RC Transient With Initial Voltage V0 .............................................................. 4. 31
xiii
4.5 Transient Response of RLC Circuit............................................................................. 4. 35

4.5.1 Natural or Source-Free Response of RLC Circuit............................................ 4. 35
4.5.2 Step Response of RLC Circuit
(Response of RLC Circuit Excited by DC Supply)........................................... 4. 35
4.5.3 s-Domain Current and Voltage Equation of RLC Circuit................................ 4. 42
4.5.4 Initial Conditions in RLC Circuit ..................................................................... 4. 43
4.5.5 Final Conditions in RLC Circuit....................................................................... 4. 45
4.6 Complete Response of Circuits Excited by Sinusoidal Source................................... 4. 47
4.6.1 RL Circuit Excited by Sinusoidal Source......................................................... 4. 47
4.6.2 RC Circuit Excited by Sinusoidal Source......................................................... 4. 49
4.6.3 RLC Circuit Excited by Sinusoidal Source....................................................... 4. 51
4.7 Solved Problems in RL Transient ................................................................................. 4. 53
4.8 Solved Problems in RC Transient................................................................................. 4. 69
4.9 Solved Problems in RLC Transient .............................................................................. 4. 90
4.10 Summary of Important Concepts.................................................................................. 4. 100
4.11 Short-answer Questions................................................................................................ 4. 103
4.12 Exercises ........................................................................................................................ 4. 106
CHAPTER 5 - TWO-PORT NETWORKS

5.1 Two-Port Networks........................................................................................................ 5. 1
5.2 Parameters of a Two-Port Network............................................................................... 5. 2
5.3 Impedance Parameters (or Z-Parameters)..................................................................... 5. 6
5.4 Admittance Parameters (or Y-Parameters).................................................................... 5. 7
5.5 Transmission Parameters (or ABCD-Parameters)........................................................ 5. 8
5.6 Inverse Transmission Parameters (or A’B’C’D’-Parameters)........................................ 5. 9
5.7 Hybrid Parameters (or h-Parameters)............................................................................ 5. 10
5.8 Inverse Hybird Parameters (or g-Parameters) .............................................................. 5. 12
5.9 Relationship Between Parameter Sets.......................................................................... 5. 13
5.10 Properties of Two-Port Networks.................................................................................. 5. 19
5.11 Inter-Connection of Two-Port Networks....................................................................... 5. 19
5.12 T and P Networks.......................................................................................................... 5. 21
5.12.1 Symmetrical Properties of T and P Networks................................................. 5. 22
5.13 Solved Problems ............................................................................................................ 5. 24
xiv
5.14 Summary of Important Concepts.................................................................................. 5. 59

5.15 Short-answer Questions................................................................................................ 5. 61
5.16 Exercises......................................................................................................................... 5. 65
APPENDIX 1 - USING CALCULATOR IN COMPLEX MODE .................................. A. 1

APPENDIX 2 - IMPORTANT MATHEMATICAL FORMULAE ................................. A. 3
APPENDIX 3 - LAPLACE TRANSFORM ............................................................ A. 5
APPENDIX 4 - CRAMER’S RULE ..................................................................... A. 8
APPENDIX 5 - EQUIVALENT OF SERIES/PARALLEL CONNECTED
PARAMETERS ......................................................................... A. 10
APPENDIX 6 - STAR-DELTA TRANSFORMATION .............................................. A. 12
APPENDIX 7 - SUMMARY OF THEOREMS ........................................................ A. 13
APPENDIX 8 - IMPORTANT EQUATIONS OF SERIES RESONANCE....................... A. 14
APPENDIX 9 - PARALLEL RESONANT CIRCUITS ............................................... A. 15
APPENDIX 10 - ELECTRICAL EQUIVALENT OF COUPLED COILS ........................... A. 16
APPENDIX 11 - EQUIVALENT OF SERIES AND PARALLEL CONNECTED
COUPLED COILS....................................................................... A. 17
APPENDIX 12 - INITIAL AND FINAL CONDITIONS IN RLC CIRCUITS EXCITED
BY DC SUPPLY......................................................................... A. 18
APPENDIX 13 - R,L,C PARAMETERS AND V-I RELATIONS IN
VARIOUS DOMAINS ................................................................. A. 19
APPENDIX 14 - SUMMARY OF PARAMETERS OF TWO-PORT NETWORK .............. A. 20
APPENDIX 15 - RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PARAMETER SETS .............................. A. 21
APPENDIX 16 - TWO-PORT NETWORK PARAMETERS OF T AND P-NETWORK....... A. 22
ANNA UNIVERSITY QUESTION PAPERS............................................................... Q. 1
INDEX.............................................................................................................. I. 1
xv
Preface
The main objective of this book is to explore the basic concepts of Circuit Analysis in a simple
and easy-to-understand manner.
This text on Circuit Analysis has been crafted and designed to meet students’ requirements.
Considering the highly mathematical nature of this subject, more emphasis has been given on
the problem-solving methodology. Considerable effort has been made to elucidate mathematical
derivations in a step-by-step manner. Exercise problems with varied difficulty levels are given in
the text to help students get an intuitive grasp on the subject.
This book, with its lucid writing style and germane pedagogical features, will prove to be a master
text for engineering students and practitioners.
Salient Features
The salient features of this book are:
- Proof of important concepts and theorems are clearly highlighted by shaded boxes
- Wherever required, problems are solved using multiple methods
- Additional explanations for solutions and proofs are provided in separate boxes
- Different types of fonts are used for text, proof and solved problems for better clarity
- Keywords are highlighted by bold and italic fonts
- Easy, concise and accurate study material
- Extremely precise edition where concepts are reinforced by pedagogy
- Demonstration of multiple techniques in problem solving-additional explanations and
proofs highlighted
- Ample figures and examples to enhance students’ understanding
- Practice through MCQ’s
- Pedagogy:
. Solved Numerical Examples: 232
. Short-answer Questions: 228
. Figures: 1517
. Practice Problems: 143
. Review Questions (T/F): 117
. MCQs: 139
. Fill in the blanks: 118
xvi
Organization of the Book

This text is designed for an undergraduate course in Circuit Analysis for engineering students. The
book is organized into five chapters. The fundamental concepts, steady state analysis and transient
state analysis are presented in a very easy and elaborative manner. Throughout the book, carefully
chosen examples are presented so that the reader will have a clear understanding of the concepts
discussed.
Chapter 1 starts with explanation of fundamental quantities involved in circuit analysis,
standard symbols and units used in circuit analysis. The basic concepts of circuits are also presented
in this chapter. The mesh and node analyses of circuits are discussed with special attention on
dependent sources.
The second half of Chapter 1 is devoted to basic concepts of network topology with detailed
explanation about formation of tie-sets and cut-sets, and development of mesh and node analyses
from tie-sets and cut-sets. The concepts of dual graph and dual circuits are presented at the end
of the chapter.
The concepts of series, parallel and star-delta network reduction are discussed in
Chapter 2. The analysis of circuits using theorems is also presented in this Chapter.
Chapter 3 starts with fundamental concepts of AC circuits which is a prerequisite for
understanding resonance and coupled circuits. The concepts of resonance are discussed in detail
in this chapter. The analysis of coupled circuits is also discussed.
The transient analysis of circuits is explained in Chapter 4 through Laplace transform.
Transient analysis of circuits excited by impulse, step and exponential signals is also presented in
the chapter.
The concept of two-port network parameters and its properties are presented in Chapter 5.
The relationship between various two-port parameters and symmetrical properties of T and
P network is also presented in this chapter.
The Laplace transform has been widely used in the analysis of electric circuits. Hence
an appendix on Laplace transform is included in this book. All the calculations in this book are
performed using calculator in complex mode. An appendix is also included to help the readers to
practice calculations in complex mode of calculator.
Online Learning Center
The OLC of the book can be accessed at http://www.mhhe.com/nagoorkani/ca/au
The author hopes that the teaching and student community will welcome the book. The readers
can feel free to convey their criticism and suggestions to kani@vsnl.com for further improvement
of the book.
A. Nagoor Kani
Publisher’s Note
McGraw Hill Education (India) invites suggestions and comments from you, all of which can be
sent to info.india@mheducation.com (kindly mention the title and author name in the subject line).
Piracy-related issues may also be reported.
xvii
acknowledgement
I express my heartfelt thanks to my wife, Mrs. C. Gnanaparanjothi Nagoor Kani, and
my sons, N. Bharath Raj alias Chandrakani Allaudeen and N. Vikram Raj, for the support,
encouragement and cooperation they have extended to me throughout my career. I thank
Ms. T. A. Benazir for the affection and care extended during my day-to-day activities.
I am grateful to Ms. C. Mohana Priya for her passion in book work and typesetting
of the manuscript and preparing the layout of the book. It is my pleasure to acknowledge
the contributions of our technical editors, Ms. E. R. Suhasini and Ms. R. Jenniefer Sherine,
for editing and proofreading of the book. I thank all my office staff for their cooperation in
carrying out my day-to-day activities.
My sincere thanks to all the reviewers for their valuable suggestions and comments
which helped me to explore the subject to a greater depth.
I am also grateful to Ms. Vibha Mahajan, Mr. Hemant K Jha, Ms. Vaishali Thapliyal,
Mr. Ganesh, Mr. Asarab, Mr. Satinder Singh and Ms. Taranpreet Kaur, of McGraw Hill
Education (India) for their concern and care in publishing this work.
Finally, a special note of appreciation is due to my sisters, brothers, relatives, friends,
students and the entire teaching community for their overwhelming support and encouragement
to my writing.
A. Nagoor Kani
xviii
xix
List of Symbols and Abbreviations

P - Active power
Y - Admittance
AC, ac - Alternating current
A - Ampere
ω - Angular frequency
ωr - Angular resonance frequency
S - Apparent Power
I ave - Average value of current
Vave - Average value of voltage
β - Bandwidth
B - Branch
C - Capacitance
XC - Capacitive reactance
BC - Capacitive susceptance
Q - Charge
k - Coefficient of coupling
j - Complex operator (j = - 1)
S - Complex Power
G - Conductance
C - Coulomb
kC - Critical coefficient of coupling
RC - Critical resistance
I - Current
i(0+) - Current at t = 0+
i(0−) - Current at t = 0–
i(∞) - Current at t = ∞
CC - Current Coil
I (jω), I - Current in frequency domain
I(s) - Current in Laplace domain
i(t) - Current in time domain
xx
ζ - Damping ratio
E - DC source voltage
D - Determinant of matrix
DC, dc - Direct current
Y - Driving point admittance
Z - Driving point impedance
hB - Efficiency of battery
W - Energy
Req - Equivalent resistance
F - Farad
φ - Flux
Ψ - Flux linkage
kf - Form factor
p - Half period
H - Henry
Hz - Hertz
ωh - Higher cut-off angular frequency
fh - Higher cut-off frequency
j - Imaginary part
Z - Impedance
θ - Impedance angle
L - Inductance
XL - Inductive reactance
BL - Inductive susceptance
e, e(t) - Instantaneous value of ac source voltage
q - Instantaneous value of charge
i, i(t) - Instantaneous value of current in time domain
iC - Instantaneous value of current through capacitor
iL - Instantaneous value of current through inductor
iR - Instantaneous value of current through resistor
w - Instantaneous value of energy
p - Instantaneous value of power
xxi
vC - Instantaneous value of voltage across capacitor

vL - Instantaneous value of voltage across inductor
vR - Instantaneous value of voltage across resistor
v, v(t) - Instantaneous value of voltage in time domain
J - Joule
K - Kelvin
kWh - kilowatt-hour
KCL - Kirchhoff’s Current Law
KVL - Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
L - Laplace operator
L - Links
IL - Load Current
VL - Load Voltage
RL - Load Resistance
ωl - Lower cut-off angular frequency
fl - Lower cut-off frequency
Z - Magnitude of impedance
Y - Magnitude of admittance
Im - Maximum value of current
Vm - Maximum value of voltage
m - Mesh
 - Mho
M - Mutual inductance
ωn - Natural frequency
IN - Neutral current
N - Neutral point
N - Nodes
Ω - Ohm
Ω-m - Ohm-metre
OC - Open circuit
kp - Peak factor
φ - Phase difference between voltage and current
xxii
pf - Power factor
φ - Power factor angle
P - Power or Active power
PC - Pressure Coil
Q - Quality factor
Qr - Quality factor at resonance
rad/s - Radians/second
X - Reactance
Q - Reactive Power
R - Resistance
ρ - Resistivity
fr - Resonance frequency
s - Second
SC - Short circuit
S - Siemen
SPDT - Single Pole Double Throw
RS - Source Resistance
B - Susceptance
T - Tesla
t - Time
τ - Time constant
V - Volt
VAR - Volt-Ampere-Reactive
V - Voltage
v(0 +) - Voltage at t = 0+
v(0−) - Voltage at t = 0−
v(∞) - Voltage at t = ∞
V ( jx ) , V - Voltage in frequency domain
V(s) - Voltage in Laplace domain
W - Watt
W-h - Watt-hour
W-s - Watt-second
Wb - Weber/Weber-turn
Chapter 1
BASIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS AND

NETWORK TOPOLGY
1.1 Introduction to Circuits and Networks
1.1.1 Basic Phenomena
The energy associated with flow of electrons is called electrical energy. The flow of electrons
is called current. The current can flow from one point to another point of an element only if there
is a potential difference between these two points. The potential difference is called voltage.
When electric current is passed through a device or element, three phenomena have been
observed. The three phenomena are,
(i) opposition to flow of current,
(ii) opposition to change in current or flux, and
(iii) opposition to change in voltage or charge.
The various effects of current like heating, arcing, induction, charging, etc., are due to the
above phenomena. Therefore, three fundamental elements have been proposed which exhibit only
one of the above phenomena when considered as an ideal element (of course, there is no ideal
element in nature). These elements are resistor, inductor and capacitor.
1.1.2 Ideal Elements
The ideal resistor offers opposition only to the flow of current. The property of opposition
to the flow of current is called resistance and it is denoted by R.
The ideal inductor offers opposition only to change in current (or flux). The property of
opposition to change in current is called inductance and it is denoted by L.
The ideal capacitor offers opposition only to change in voltage (or charge). The property
of opposition to change in voltage is called capacitance and it is denoted by C.
1.1.3 Electric Circuits
The behaviour of a device to electric current can be best understood if it is modelled using
the fundamental elements R, L and C. For example, an incandescent lamp and a water heater can
be modelled as ideal resistance. Transformers and motors can be modelled using resistance and
inductance.
Practically, an electric circuit is a model of a device operated by electrical energy. The
various concepts and methods used for analysing a circuit is called circuit theory. A typical circuit
consists of sources of electrical energy and ideal elements R, L and C. The practical energy sources
are batteries, generators (or alternators), rectifiers, transistors, op-amps, etc. The various elements
of electric circuits are shown in Figs 1.1 and 1.2.
1. 2 Circuit Analysis
Elements of Electric Circuits
Energy Sources Parameters or Loads

DC (Direct Current) Sources
DC Voltage Sources
E
Independent DC Voltage Source, +-
Dependent DC Voltage Source

mVx
Voltage Controlled DC Voltage Source, + -
RM Ix = Vx
Current Controlled DC Voltage Source, + -
DC Current Sources
I
Independent DC Current Source,
Dependent DC Current Source

GM Vx = Ix
Voltage Controlled DC Current Source,
AI Ix
Current Controlled DC Current Source,
AC (Alternating Current) Sources
AC Voltage Sources
o
- V
E+= EÐq
Independent AC Voltage Source, ~
Dependent AC Voltage Source
mVx
Voltage Controlled AC Voltage Source, + -
RM Ix = Vx
Current Controlled AC Voltage Source, + -
AC Current Sources
I = IÐq o A
Independent AC Current Source, ~
Dependent AC Current Source
GM Vx = Ix
Voltage Controlled AC Current Source,
AI I x
Current Controlled AC Current Source,
Fig. 1.1 : Elements of electric circuits - Energy source.

Chapter 1 - Basic Circuit Analysis and Network Topology 1. 3
Elements of Electric Circuits
Parameters or Loads Energy Sources
Fundamental Parameters
R
Resistance,
Inductance
L
Self-Inductance,
Mutual Inductance, M
C
Capacitance,
Derived Parameters
± jX
Reactance,
+jXL = +j2pfL
Inductive Reactance,
1
- jX C = - j
Capacitive Reactance, 2pfC
Z = R ± jX
Impedance,
Inverse Parameters
1
G=
R
Conductance,
1
m jB =
± jX
Susceptance,
1
- jB L = - j
Inductive Susceptance, 2pfL
+jBC = +j2pfC
Capacitive Susceptance,
Y = G m jB
Admittance,
1 1
Y= = = G m jB
Z R ± jX
Fig. 1.2 : Elements of electric circuits - Parameters or loads.

Elements which generate or amplify energy are called active elements. Therefore, energy
sources are active elements. Elements which dissipate or store energy are called passive elements.
Resistance dissipates energy in the form of heat, inductance stores energy in a magnetic field, and
capacitance stores energy in an electric field. Therefore, resistance, inductance and capacitance
are passive elements. If there is no active element in a circuit then the circuit is called a passive
circuit or network.
Sources can be classified into independent and dependent sources. Batteries, generators
and rectifiers are independent sources, which can directly generate electrical energy. Transistors
and op-amps are dependent sources whose output energy depends on another independent source.
Practically, the sources of electrical energy used to supply electrical energy to various devices
like lamps, fans, motors, etc., are called loads. The rate at which electrical energy is supplied is
called power. Power, in turn, is the product of voltage and current.
Circuit analysis relies on the concept of law of conservation of energy, which states that
energy can neither be created nor destroyed but can be converted from one form to other. Therefore,
the total energy/power in a circuit is zero.
1.1.4 Units
SI units are followed in this book. The SI units and their symbols for various quantities
encountered in circuit theory are presented in Table 1.1. In engineering applications, large values are
expressed with decimal multiples and small values are expressed with submultiples. The commonly
used multiples and submultiples are listed in Table 1.2.
Table 1.1 : Units and Symbols
Quantity Symbol Unit Unit Equivalent Equivalent

for quantity symbol unit unit symbol
Charge q, Q Coulomb C - -
Current i, I Ampere A Coulomb/second C/s
Flux linkages ψ Weber-turn Wb - -
Magnetic flux φ Weber Wb - -
Energy w, W Joule J Newton-meter N-m
Voltage v, V Volt V Joule/Coulomb J/C
Power p, P Watt W Joule/second J/s
Capacitance C Farad F Coulomb/Volt C/V
Inductance L, M Henry H Weber/Ampere Wb/A
Resistance R Ohm Ω Volt/Ampere V/A
Conductance G Siemens S Ampere/Volt A/V or M
or mho
Table 1.1: Continued...
Quantity Symbol Unit Unit Equivalent Equivalent

for quantity symbol unit unit symbol
Time t Second s - -
Frequency f Hertz Hz cycles/second -
Angular frequency ω Radians/second rad/s - -
Magnetic flux - Tesla T Weber/ meter Wb/m2

square
density
o
Temperature - Kelvin K - -
Table 1.2 : Multiple and Submultiple used for Units
Multiplying Prefix Symbol Multiplying Prefix Symbol

factor factor
1012 tera T 10 −1 deci d

9 −2
10 giga G 10 centi c
6 −3
10 mega M 10 milli m
103 kilo k 10 − 6 micro µ
2 −9
10 hecto h 10 nano n
101 deca da 10 −12 pico p
−15
10 femto f
10 −18 atto a
1.1.5 Definitions of Various Terms

The definitions of various terms that are associated with electrical energy like energy, power,
current, voltage, etc., are presented in this section.
Energy : Energy is defined as the capacity to do work. It can also be defined as stored work.
Energy may exist in many forms, such as electrical, mechanical, thermal, light,
chemical, etc. It is measured in joules, which is denoted by J (or the unit of energy
is joules).
In electrical engineering, one joule is defined as the energy required to transfer a power of
one watt in one second to a load (or Energy = Power ´ Time). Therefore, 1 J = 1 W-s.
In mechanical engineering, one joule is the energy required to move a mass of 1 kg
through a distance of 1 m with a uniform acceleration of 1 m/s2.
Therefore, 1 J = 1 N - m = 1 kg - m2 - m
s
In thermal engineering, one joule is equal to a heat of 4.1855 (or 4.186) calories, and one
calorie is the heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1o C.
Therefore, 1 J = 4.1855 calories
Power : Power is the rate at which work is done (or it is the rate of energy transfer). The unit of
power is watt and denoted by W. If energy is transferred at the rate of one joule per
second then one watt of power is generated.
An average value of power can be expressed as,
Energy
Power, P = = W .....(1.1)
Time t
A time varying power can be expressed as,
Instantaneous power, p = dw .....(1.2)
dt
dw dw dq
Also, p = = # = vi .....(1.3)
dt dq dt
Hence, power is also given by the product of voltage and current.
Charge : Charge is the characteristic property of elementary particles of matter. The
elementary particles are electrons, protons and neutrons. There are basically two
types of charges in nature: positive charge and negative charge. The charge of an
electron is called negative charge. The charge of a proton is called positive charge.
Normally, a particle is neutral because it has equal number of electrons and protons.
The particle is called charged if some electrons are either added or removed from it.
If electrons are added then the particle is called negatively charged. If electrons are
removed then the particle is called positively charged.The unit used for measurement
of charge is coulomb. One coulomb is defined as the charge which when placed
in vacuum from an equal and similar charge at a distance of one metre repels it
with a force of 9 × 10 9 N. The charge of an electron is 1.602 × 10 −19 C. Hence,
1/(1.602 × 10 −19) = 6.24 × 10 18 electrons make up a charge of one coulomb.
Current : Current is defined as the rate of flow of electrons. It is measured in amperes. One
ampere is the current flowing through a point if a charge of one coulomb crosses
that point in one second. In SI units, one ampere is defined as that constant current in
two infinite parallel conductors of negligible circular cross-section, one metre apart
in vacuum, which produces a force between the conductors of 2 × 10 − 7 newton per
metre length.
A steady current can be expressed as,
Charge Q
Current, I = = .....(1.4)
Time t
A time varying current can be expressed as,
dq
Instantaneous current, i = .....(1.5)
dt
where, Q = Charge flowing at a constant rate
t = Time
dq = Change in charge in a time of dt
dt = Time required to produce a change in charge dq
Voltage : Every charge will have potential energy. The difference in potential energy
between the charges is called potential difference. In electrical terminology, the
potential difference is called voltage. Potential difference indicates the amount of
work done to move a charge from one place to another. Voltage is expressed in volt.
One volt is the potential difference between two points, when one joule of energy
is utilised in transfering one coulomb of charge from one point to the other.
A steady voltage can be expressed as,
Energy
Voltage, V = = W .....(1.6)
Charge Q
A time varying voltage can be expressed as,
Instantaneous voltage, v = dw .....(1.7)
dq
Also, 1 V = 1 J = 1 J/s = 1 W .....(1.8)

1C 1 C/s 1A
` Voltage, V = Power = P .....(1.9)
Current I
One volt is also defined as the difference in electric potential between two points
along a conductor carrying a constant current of one ampere when the power
dissipated between the two points is one watt.
1.1.6 Symbols used for Average, RMS and Maximum Values
The quantities like voltage, current, power and energy may be constant or varying with
respect to time. For a time varying quantity we can define the value of the quantity as instantaneous,
average, rms and maximum value. The symbols used for these values are listed in Table 1.3.
Table 1.3 : Symbols of DC and AC Variables
AC or Time varying
Quantity DC Instantaneous Average Maximum RMS Phasors

value value value value or
Vectors
Current I i Iave Im or Ip I I
Voltage V v Vave Vm or Vp V V
Power P p P Pm - S
Energy W w W Wm - -
1.1.7 Steady State Analysis and Transient Analysis

Circuit analysis can be classified into steady state analysis and transient analysis. The analysis
of circuits during switching conditions is called transient analysis. During switching conditions,
the current and voltage change from one value to the other. In purely resistive circuits this may not
be a problem because the resistance will allow sudden change in voltage and current.
In inductive circuits, the current cannot change instantaneously. In capacitive circuits, the
voltage cannot change instantaneously. Hence, when the circuit is switched from one state to the
other, the voltage and current cannot attain a steady value instantaneously in inductive or capacitive
circuits. Therefore, during switching conditions there will be a small period during which the current
and voltage will change from an initial value to a final steady value. The time from the instant of
switching to the attainment of steady value is called transient period. Physically, the transient can
be realised in switching of tubelights, fans, motors, etc.
In certain circuits, the transient period is negligible and we may be interested only in steady
value of the response. Therefore, steady state analysis is sufficient. The analysis of circuits under
steady state (i.e., by neglecting the transient period) is called steady state analysis. Steady state
analysis of circuits is discussed in this book in all chapters except Chapter 4.
In certain circuits the transient period is critical and we may require the response of the circuit
during the transient period. Some practical examples where transient analysis is vital are starters,
circuit breakers, relays, etc. Transient analysis of circuits is discussed in Chapter 4.
1.1.8 Assumptions in Circuit Theory

In circuit analysis the elements of the circuit are assumed to be linear, bilateral and lumped
elements.
In linear elements, the voltage-current characteristics are linear and the circuit consisting of
linear elements is called linear circuit or network. The resistor, inductor and capacitor are linear
elements. Some elements exhibit non-linear characteristics. For example, diodes and transistors
have non-linear voltage-current characteristics, capacitance of a varactor diode is non-linear
and inductance of an inductor with hysteresis is non-linear. For analysis purpose, the non-linear
characteristics can be linearised over a certain range of operation.
In a bilateral element, the relationship between voltage and current will be the same for
two possible directions of current through the element. On the other hand, a unilateral element
will have different voltage-current characteristics for the two possible directions of current through
the element. The diode is an example of a unilateral element.
In practical devices like transmission lines, windings of motors, coils, etc., the parameters
(R, L and C) are distributed in nature. But for analysis purpose we assume that the parameters
are lumped (i.e., concentrated at one place). This approximation is valid only for low frequency
operations and it is not valid in the microwave frequency range. All analysis in this book is based
on the assumption that the elements are linear, bilateral and lumped elements.
1.2 Basic Concepts of Circuits and Networks

1.2.1 Basic Elements of Circuits
Circuits and Networks
An electric circuit consists of Resistors (R), Inductors (L), Capacitors (C), voltage sources
and/or current sources connected in a particular combination. When the sources are removed from
a circuit, it is called a network.
R1 R1
+
L R2 C L R2 C
E ~
E
Fig. a : Circuit. Fig. b : Network.

Fig. 1.3 : Example of circuit and network.
DC Circuits
The networks excited by dc sources are called dc circuits. In a dc source, the voltage and
current do not change with time. Hence, the property of capacitance and inductance will not arise
in steady state analysis of dc circuits.This chapter deals with steady state analysis of dc circuits.
Therefore, only resistive circuits are discussed in this chapter.
Active and Passive Elements
The elements of a circuit can be classified into active elements and passive elements. The
elements which can deliver energy are called active elements. The elements which consume energy
either by absorbing or storing are called passive elements.
The active elements are voltage and current sources. The sources can be of different nature.
The sources in which the current/voltage does not change with time are called direct current
sources or in short dc sources. (But in dc sources, the current/voltage changes with load). The
sources in which the current/voltage sinusoidally varies with time are called sinusoidal sources
or alternating current sources or in short ac sources.
The passive elements of a circuit are resistors, inductors and capacitors, which exhibit the
property of resistance, inductance and capacitance, respectively under ideal conditions. Resistance,
inductance and capacitance are called fundamental parameters of a circuit. Practically, these
parameters will be distributed in nature. For example, the resistance of a transmission line will exist
throughout its length. But for circuit analysis, the parameters are considered as lumped.
The resistor absorbs energy (and the absorbed energy is converted into heat). The inductor
and the capacitor store energy. When the power supply in the circuit is switched ON, the inductor
and the capacitor store energy, and when the supply is switched OFF, the stored energy leaks away
in the leakage path. (Hence, inductors and capacitors cannot be used as storage devices).
+ +
+ Is
E - E E = EÐq ~ Is = Is Ðq ~
- -
Fig. a : dc voltage Fig. b : dc current Fig. c : ac voltage Fig. d : ac current

source. source. source. source.
Vs + Is L
-
R C
Vs = RI or A vV Is = GV or A II
Fig. e : Dependent Fig. f : Dependent Fig. g : Fig. h : Fig. i :
voltage source. current source. Resistance. Inductance. Capacitance.
Fig. 1.4 : Symbols of active and passive elements of circuits.
Independent and Dependent Sources
Sources can be classified into independent and dependent sources. The electrical energy
supplied by an independent source does not depend on another electrical source. Independent
sources convert energy in some form into electrical energy. For example, a generator converts
mechanical energy into electrical energy, a battery converts chemical energy into electrical energy,
a solar cell converts light energy into electrical energy, a thermocouple converts heat energy into
electrical energy, etc.
The electrical energy supplied by a dependent source depends on another source of electrical
energy. For example, the output signal (energy) of a transistor or op-amp depends on the input
signal (energy), where the input signal is another source of electrical energy.
In the circuit sense, the voltage/current of an independent source does not depend on voltage/
current in any part of the circuit. But the voltage/current of a dependent source depends on the
voltage/current in some part of the same circuit.
1.2.2 Nodes, Branches and Closed Path
A typical circuit consists of lumped parameters, such as resistance, inductance, capacitance and
sources of electrical energy like voltage and current sources connected through resistance-less wires.
In a circuit, the meeting point of two or more elements is called a node. If more than two
elements meet at a node then it is called the principal node.
The path between any two nodes is called a branch. A branch may have one or more elements
connected in series.
A closed path is a path which starts at a node and travels through some part of the circuit
and arrives at the same node without crossing a node more than once.
The nodes, branches and closed paths of a typical circuit are shown in Fig. 1.5. The nodes
of the circuit are the meeting points of the elements denoted as A, B, C, D, E and F. The nodes A,
B, C and D are principal nodes because these nodes are meeting points of more than two elements.
E2 R3
+ E
F
E2 R3 A
+ C
E
A R2 B R4
F B C
R2 B R4 B
A C A C
R1 R1
R5 R6 R5 R6
E E
+ +
E1 E1
E E
D D D D
Fig. a : Typical circuit. Fig. b : Branches of the circuit in Fig. a.
E2 R3
+ E
R2 B R4 R1
R2 R4 R5 R6
E
A C + +
E1 E1
R1 R5 E E
R6 D
E2 R3
+ E
F
Fig. c : Nodes of the circuit in Fig. a.
E2 R3 E2 R3
+ E + E
F F
R2 B B R4 E2 R3
A C A C + E
F
R1 R2 R4
B
R5 R6 R5 A C
E
+
E1
E
E2 R3
D D + E
F
R2 B B R4
A C A C
R1 R1
R5 R5 R6 R6
E E
+ +
E1 E1
E E
D D D
Fig. d : Closed paths of the circuit in Fig. a.
Fig. 1.5 : A typical circuit and its branches, nodes and closed paths.
1.2.3 Series, Parallel, Star and Delta Connections

The various types of connections that we may encounter in electric circuits are series,
parallel, star and delta connections.
Series Connection
If two or more elements are connected such that the current through them is the same then
the connection is called a series connection. In a circuit if the current in a path is the same then
the elements in that path are said to be in series.
R1 R2 R3 I L1 L2 L3 C1 C2 C3
I I
Fig. a : Resistances in Fig. b : Inductances Fig. c : Capacitances

series. in series. in series.
V1 V2 V3 L C
I I R L I R C I R
E + E + E +
Fig. d : Voltage Fig. e : Resistance and Fig. f : Resistance and Fig. g : Resistance,
sources in series. inductance in series. capacitance in series. inductance and
capacitance in series.
Fig. 1.6 : Examples of series connected elements.
Ic
Ic
R3 L
R3 L
Ib R2 R4
B Id A C
A C A C
Ia Ie If Ia If
R1 R1
R5 R6 R6
+ +
~ E ~ E
E E
R7 D C R7 D D C
Fig. a : Typical circuit. Fig. b : Series paths in the circuit of Fig. a.

Fig. 1.7 : A typical circuit and its series paths.
Parallel Connection
If two or more elements are connected such that the voltage across them is the same then
the connection is called a parallel connection. In a circuit if the voltage across two or more paths
is the same then, they are said to be in parallel.
+ + + +
V R1 R2 R3 V L1 L2 L3 C1 C2 C3 V R L
V
E E E E
Fig. a : Resistances Fig. b : Inductances Fig. c : Capacitances Fig. d : R and L in parallel.

in parallel. in parallel. in parallel.
+ +
V R C V R L C I1 I2 I3
E E
Fig. e : R and C in parallel. Fig. f : R, L and C in parallel. Fig. g : Current sources in parallel.
Fig. 1.8 : Examples of parallel connected elements.
+ R1 R2 + R2 + R1
E ~ E ~ R1 E ~ R2
E E E
L C C L
Fig. a : The voltage source, series Fig. b : The voltage source, Resistance Fig. c : The voltage source,
combination of R1 and L and series R1 and series combination of R2 series combination of R1 and L
combination of R2 and C are in parallel. and C are in parallel. and resistance R2 are in parallel.
Fig. 1.9 : Simple circuits with parallel branches.
R6 G L
R2 R3 R3
B B B
A C C
R6 L +
G
R1
F R4 R5 R4 R5
V BD
+ VAC
E ~ + _
C A C C _
E
D A C D
E R2 B R3 E D
Fig. a : A typical circuit. Fig. b : The path AGC is parallel Fig. c : The path BCD is parallel
to the path ABC. to the path BED.
R2 R3
R2 A B B C
A B
A A C
+ _ B B _
+ VAB + VBC
R1 R1
F V AE R4 F R4 R4 R5
+ +
E ~ _ E
E E
~ C
E D
E E E
Fig. d : The path ABE is Fig. e : The path AFEB is parallel Fig. f : The path BEDC is parallel
parallel to the path AFE. to the resistance R2 . to the resistance R3 .
Fig. 1.10 : A typical circuit and its parallel paths.
R1 R3 R5 R5 D
A B C D CC
+
+
R4 VCE R6
E R2 R4 R6
E
_
E E E EE E
Fig. a : A typical circuit. Fig. b : R4 in parallel with series

combination of R5 and R6.
B B R3 C R1
A B B
+ +
+
R2 VBE R4 VBE
E R2
E
_ _
E E E E E
Fig. c : The path BCE is in parallel Fig. d : The path EAB is in parallel
to resistance R2 . to resistance R2 .
Fig. 1.11 : A typical circuit and its parallel paths.
Star-Delta Connection 1
R1 R2
N
R1 1 2
If three elements are connected
N
to meet at a node then the three R3 R2
R3
elements are said to be in a star 2
connection. If three elements with 3

3 3
a node in between any two elements Fig. a : Star connection. Fig. b : T-connection.
are connected to form a closed path 1 1
then they are said to be in a delta 1 2
R1 R2 R2
connection. The star connection
R1 R3
is also called T-connection and 3 2
R3 2
delta connection is also called 3 3
3
P-connection.
Fig. c : Delta connection. Fig. d : -connection.
Fig. 1.12 : Basic star and delta connections.
R5 R5
R1 B R3 R1 B R3 B R3
A C A C A C
+
E R2 R4 R2 R4
E
D D D
Fig. a : A typical circuit. Fig. b : Star connections in circuit of Fig. a.

R5 R3
B
C
R1 B R3 R2 R4
A C
D
Fig. c : Delta connections in circuit of Fig. a.
Fig. 1.13 : A typical circuit and its star and delta connections.
1.2.4 Open Circuit and Short Circuit

In a circuit if there is an open path or path of infinite resistance between two nodes then
that path is called an open circuit (OC). Since current can flow only in closed paths, the current
in the open circuit will be zero.
2 5
A A
A 1
Circuit OC 10 V +E 4 OC OC
N1
B 20 V +E
B B
1 3
Fig. 1.14 : Examples of open circuit (OC).
While applying KVL to closed paths, the open circuit can be included as an element of
infinite resistance in the path because a voltage exists across the two open nodes of a circuit.
In a circuit if there is a closed path of zero resistance between two nodes then it is called
short circuit (SC). Since the resistance of the short circuit is zero, the voltage across the short
circuit is zero.
2 5 A A
A
1
Circuit I SC 10 V +E 4 SC SC
N1
20 V +E
B
3 B B
1
Fig. 1.15 : Examples of short circuit (SC).
In a circuit if there are elements parallel to a short circuit then they will not carry any
current because the current will prefer the path of least resistance (or opposition) and so the entire
current will flow through the short circuit. Hence, the elements parallel to a short circuit need not
be considered for analysis as shown in the example circuit of Fig. 1.16.
1W 2W A 4W 2W 1W 2W A
10 V +- 2W SC 1W 1W Þ +
10 V - 2W SC
B B
2W A 2W A
5 V +- 3W 4W SC 5 V +- SC
Þ
6W
B B
6W
Fig. 1.16 : Examples of short circuit.
1.2.5 Sign Conventions

The elements of a circuit are two terminal elements. When a circuit is excited (i.e., power
supply is switched ON) a voltage is developed across the two terminals of the element such that
one end is positive and the other end is negative, and a current flows through the element. When
an element delivers energy, the current leaves the element from the positive terminal and when an
element absorbs energy, the current enters at the positive terminal.
In a circuit, normally the sources deliver energy and the passive elements−resistance,
inductance and capacitance absorb energy. Therefore, in a voltage/current source, when it delivers
energy, the current leaves from the positive terminal. In the parameters R, L and C, the current
enters at the positive terminal when they absorb energy.
I I I
+ + + +
+
E E I V R V L V C V
E E E E
Fig. a :Voltage Fig. b : Current Fig. c : Fig. d : Inductance Fig. e : Capacitance

source source Resistance absorbing absorbing energy.
delivering energy. delivering energy. absorbing energy. energy.
Fig. 1.17 : Sign conventions for sources when they deliver energy
and parameters when they absorb energy.
A chargeable battery is the best example I
for understanding the concept of energy delivery E +E

E
V
I
and absorption by sources. When the battery +
is connected to a load, it delivers energy. When

the battery is charged, it absorbs energy. When a Fig. a :Voltage source Fig. b : Current source
absorbing energy.
source absorbs energy, the current enters the source absorbing energy.
at the positive terminal, as shown in Fig. 1.18. Fig. 1.18 : Sign conventions for sources when
they absorb energy.
The resistance always absorbs energy but
the inductance and capacitance can deliver the stored energy temporarily. The inductance and
capacitance store energy when the supply is switched ON and when the supply is switched OFF
the stored energy is discharged in the available paths or leakage paths. When the inductance and
capacitance discharge energy, the current leaves from the positive terminal as shown in Fig. 1.19.
I I
+ +
L V C V
E E
Fig. a : Inductance discharging energy. Fig. b : Capacitance discharging energy.

Fig. 1.19 : Sign conventions for inductance and capacitance parameters when they discharge energy.
1.2.6 Voltage and Current Sources

Voltage and current are two quantities that decide the energy supplied by the sources of
electrical energy. Usually, the sources are operated by maintaining one of the two quantities as
constant and by allowing the other quantity to vary depending on the load.
When voltage is maintained constant and current is allowed to vary, the source is called a
voltage source. When current is maintained constant and voltage is allowed to vary, the source is
called a current source.
1.2.7 Ideal and Practical Sources
In ideal conditions the voltage across an ideal voltage source should be constant for
whatever current is delivered by the source. Similarly, the ideal current source should deliver a
constant current for whatever voltage across its terminals.
Is
E
I
+
+ V
E E Is
E
I V
Fig. a : Characteristics of an ideal voltage source. Fig. b : Characteristics of an ideal current source.
Fig. 1.20 : Characteristics of ideal sources.
In reality, ideal conditions never exist (but for analysis purpose, the sources can be
considered ideal). In a practical voltage source, the voltage across the source decreases with
increasing load current and the reduction in voltage is due to its internal resistance. In a practical
current source, the current delivered by the source decreases with increasing load voltage and
the reduction in current is due to its internal resistance.
E Is
I V
Fig. a : Characteristics of a practical Fig. b : Characteristics of a practical

voltage source. current source.
Fig. 1.21 : Characteristics of practical sources.
Let, Es = Voltage across ideal source (or internal voltage of the source)
Is = Current delivered by ideal source (or current generated by the source)
V = Voltage across the terminals of the source
I = Current delivered through the terminals of the source
Rs = Source resistance (or internal resistance).
A practical voltage source can be IRs I
V, E
+ E
considered as a series combination of an ideal +
Rs
voltage source and a source resistance, Rs. The E Vs I
E +E
}IRs
reduction in voltage across the terminals with V VV
sI
increasing load current is due to the voltage drop
E
in the source resistance. When the value of source I
resistance is zero, the ideal condition is achieved in V = E E IRs

voltage sources. Hence, “the source resistance for Fig. 1.22 : A practical dc voltage source.
an ideal voltage source is zero”.
Is, I
I
A practical current source can be +
Ish
considered as a parallel combination of an ideal Is Vs V
current source and a source resistance, Rs. The Is Rs I Vs

}Ish
V V
reduction in current delivered by the source is
due to the current drawn by the parallel source E V
resistance. When the value of source resistance is I = Is E Ish
infinite, the ideal condition is achieved in current Fig. 1.23 : A practical dc current source.
sources. Hence, “the source resistance for an ideal
current source is infinite”.
1.2.8 DC Source Transformation

A practical voltage source can be converted into an equivalent practical current source and
vice versa, with the same terminal behaviour. In these conversions the current and voltage at the
terminal of the equivalent source will be the same as that of the original source, so that the power
delivered to a load connected at the terminals of original and equivalent source is the same.
Rs
A A
+ + +
IRs - I Ish I
E +- V RL Þ Is Rs V RL
- -
B Is = E/Rs B
Fig. a : Voltage source. Fig. b : Equivalent current source of the

voltage source in Fig. a.
Fig. 1.24 : Conversion of voltage source to current source.
A voltage source with series resistance can be converted into an equivalent current source
with parallel resistance as shown in Fig. 1.24. Similarly, a current source with parallel resistance
can be converted into an equivalent voltage source with series resistance as shown in Fig. 1.25.
The proof for source conversions are presented in Chapter 2.
A Rs
A
+ + - +
V I IRs I
Rs
Is Rs V RL Þ E +- V RL
- -
B E = Is R s B
Fig. a : Current source. Fig. b : Equivalent voltage source of the

current source in Fig. a.
Fig. 1.25 : Conversion of current source to voltage source.
1.2.9 Power and Energy

Power is the rate at which work is done or it is the rate of energy transfer.
Let, w = Instantaneous value of energy
q = Instantaneous value of charge.
dq
Now, Instantaneous power, p = dw = dw #
dt dq dt Refer equations
dq (1.5) and (1.7).
We know that, dw = v and = i
dq dt
` p = vi
Therefore, power is the product of voltage and current. In circuits excited by dc sources,
the voltage and current are constant and so the power is constant. This constant power is called
average power or power and it is denoted by P.
\ In DC circuits,
Power, P = VI
Power is the rate of work done and Energy is the total work done. Hence, energy is given
by the product of power and time. When time is expressed in seconds, the unit of energy is watt-
second and when the time is expressed in hours, the unit of energy is watt-hour.
\ Energy, E = P t in W-s or W-h
The larger unit of electrical energy is kWh and commercially one kWh of electrical energy
is called one unit.
` Energy, E = Pt in kWh
1000 # 3600
1.3 Ohm’s and Kirchhoff’s Laws

The three fundamental laws that govern the electric circuit are Ohm’s law, Kirchhoff’s
Current Law (KCL) and Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL).
1.3.1 Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s law states that the potential difference (or voltage) across any two ends of a conductor is directly
proportional to the current flowing between the two ends provided the temperature of the conductor remains constant.
The constant of proportionality is the resistance R of the conductor.
\V a I ⇒ V = IR ..... (1.10)
From equation (1.10), we can say that when a current I flows through a resistance R, the
voltage V, across the resistance is given by the product of current and resistance.
1.3.2 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) (AU Dec’15, 2 Marks)
Kirchhoff’s Current Law states that the algebraic sum of currents at a node is zero.
∑I=0
I4
Hence, we can say that current cannot stay at a point. While
applying Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) to a node we have to R4
Node
assign polarity or sign (i.e., + or −) for the current entering and
leaving that node. Let us assume that the currents entering the I1 R1 R3 I3
node are negative and currents leaving the node are positive. R2
With reference to Fig. 1.26, we can say that currents I1 and

I2
I2 are entering the node and the currents I3 and I4 are leaving the
node.Therefore, by Kirchhoff’s Current Law we can write, Fig. 1.26 : Currents in a node.
−I1 − I2 + I3 + I4 = 0
∴ I1 + I2 = I3 + I4 ..... (1.11)
From equation (1.11), we can say “the sum of currents entering a node is equal to the sum
of currents leaving that node”. This concept is easier to apply while solving problems using KCL.
1.3.3 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

C R2 D R3 I E
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law states that the algebraic sum of + E + E
IR2 IR3
voltages in a closed path is zero. I
+
E
IR4 R4
∑V=0 R1 IR1
+ E
A closed path may have voltage rises and voltage falls B F

+ E
when it is traversed or traced in a particular direction.While E1 E2
IR5
+ +
applying KVL to a closed path we have to assign polarity E E
A I G
R5
or sign (i.e., + or -) to voltage fall and rise. Let us assume
Fig. 1.27 : A circuit with a single
voltage rise as positive and voltage fall as negative. closed path.
Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 1.27. Let us trace the circuit in the direction of
current I. In the closed path ABCDEFGA, the voltage rise are E1 and E2 and voltage fall are IR1,
IR2, IR3, IR4 and IR5.
Therefore, by KVL we can write,
E1 + E2 - IR1 - IR2 - IR3 - IR4 - IR5 = 0
∴ E1 + E2 = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 + IR4 + IR5 ..... (1.12)

From equation (1.12) we can say “the sum of voltage rise in a closed path is equal to the
sum of voltage fall in that closed path”. This concept is easier to apply while solving problems
using KVL.
1.4 Resistive Elements
The devices that can be operated by electrical energy can be modelled by fundamental
parameters R, L and C. In certain devices L and C are negligible and such devices can be
modelled by pure resistance and so can be called resistive elements. Examples of such devicces
are incandescent lamp, water heater, ironbox and copper and aluminium wires.
1.4.1 Resistance (AU May’15, 2 Marks)
Resistance is the property of an element (or matter) which opposes the flow of current
(or electrons). The current carrying element is called a conductor. The resistance of a conductor
(in the direction of current flow) is directly proportional to its length l and inversely proportional
to the area of cross section a.
` Resistance, R α l
a
The proportionality constant is the resistivity r of the material of the conductor.
ρl
` R =
a
The unit of resistivity is ohm-metre(Ω-m). The resistivity of a material at a given temperature
is constant. For example, the resistivity of copper is 1.72 ´ 10–8 W-m and that of aluminium is
2.69 ´ 10−8 Ω-m at 20o C.
The resistance of a conductor is distributed Lumped resistance
throughout the length of the conductor. For analysis R
purpose, the resistance is assumed to be concentrated

at one place, which is called lumped resistance. For
connecting the lumped resistance to the other part resistance-less wire
of the circuit, resistance-less wires are connected to Fig. 1.28 : A lumped resistance with
its ends as shown in Fig. 1.28. (Normally, the term resistance-less wires connected to its ends.
resistance in circuit theory refers only to lumped
resistance).
1.4.2 Resistance Connected to DC Source

Consider a resistance R connected to dc source of voltage V volts as shown in Fig. 1.29.
Since the resistance is connected across (or parallel to) the source, the voltage across the resistance
is also V volts.
By Ohm’s law, the current through the resistance is given by,
I = V ⇒ V = IR ..... (1.13)
R I
Power in the resistance, P = VI ..... (1.14)

+
Using equation (1.13), equation (1.14) can also be written as, V E
+ V R
2 E
P = VI = V # V = V and P = VI = IR ´ I = I2 R
R R
2 Fig. 1.29 : Resistance
` Power, P = VI or P = V or P = I2 R connected to a DC source.
R
1.4.3 Resistance in Series

R1 R2 Req = R1 + R2
Consider a circuit with + E + E
IR1 IR2
series combination of two
resistances R 1 and R 2 connected
to a dc source of voltage V as I
I
shown in Fig.1.30(a). Let the +
V
E + E
V
current through the circuit be I. Fig. a : Resistances in series. Fig. b : Equivalent circuit of Fig. a.
Fig. 1.30 : Resistances in series.
It can be proved that the
series-connected resistances R 1 and R 2 can be replaced by an equivalent resistance R eq given by
the sum of individual resistances R 1 and R 2 as shown in Fig. 1.30(b). The proof for resistance in
series is presented in Chapter 2.
Voltage Division in Series Connected Resistances

R1 R2
Equations (1.15) and (1.16) given below can be used I
+ +
to determine the voltages across series connected resistances V1
E
V2
E
shown in Fig. 1.31 in terms of total voltage across the series

combination and the values of individual resistances. Hence,
these equations are called voltage division rule. The proof for
+E
voltage division rule is presented in Chapter 2. V
Fig. 1.31 : Resistances in series.
V1 = V # R1 .....(1.15)
R1 + R2
V2 = V # R2 .....(1.16)
R1 + R2
The following equation will be helpful to remember the voltage division rule.
In two series connected resistances,
Total voltage across Value of the
#
series combination resistance
Voltage across one of the resistance =
Sum of the inidvidual resistances
1.4.4 Resistance in Parallel I

I1 I2
Consider a circuit with two resistances in parallel + +
V + V R1 V R2
and connected to a dc source of voltage V as shown in E
E E
Fig. 1.32(a). Let I be the current supplied by the source and
I 1 and I2 be the current through R1 and R2, respectively. Since
Fig. a : Resistances in parallel.
the resistances are parallel to the source, the voltage across I
them will be the same.
+
V +
eq V R
It can be proved that the inverse of the equivalent E
E 1 R R
Req a a 1 2
resistance of parallel connected resistances is equal to the 1
C
1 R1 C R2
R1 R2
sum of the inverse of individual resistances. The proof for Fig. b : Equivalent circuit of Fig. a.
resistance in parallel is presented in Chapter 2. Fig. 1.32 : Resistances in parallel.
Current Division in Parallel Connected Resistances
I
Equations (1.17) and (1.18) given below can be used to
I1 I2
determine the currents in parallel connected resistances shown in
Fig. 1.33 in terms of total current drawn by the parallel + +
+
V E V R1 V R2
combination and the values of individual resistances.
Hence, these equations are called current division rule.
E E
The proof for current division rule is presented in Chapter 2.

I1 = I # R2 .....(1.17) Fig. 1.33 : Resistances
R1 + R2 in parallel.
I2 = I # R1 .....(1.18)
R1 + R2
The following equation will be helpful to remember the current division rule.
In two parallel connected resistances,
Total current drawn by Value of the
#
parallel combination other resistance
Current through one of the resistance =
Sum of the inidvidual resistances
1.4.5 Analysis of Resistors in Series-Parallel Circuits

A typical circuit consists of a series-parallel connection of passive elements like resistance,
inductance and capacitance and excited by voltage/current sources. The sources circulate current
through all the elements of the circuit. Due to current flow, a voltage exists across each element
of the circuit.
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camp the picture of offended dignity. He himself had not brought
even so much as a sweet potato, so that we were the more abrupt in
our refusal. After his departure some of his elders and the
Wandorobbo stayed with us for an hour or so for a chat. They gave
us the general news of the district, and among other items of more or
less doubtful veracity, they included an impossible yarn about some
cannibal dwarfs who had visited Maranga since our stay in that
place. They described them as “watu wafupi sana” (“very short
men”), and indicated, by holding their hands that distance above the
ground, that they were about four feet in height. They further stated
that these dwarfs came to Maranga to buy people that they might eat
them. We cross-examined them closely, for we did not at all believe
their story. They were asked where these dwarfs came from. That
question rather stumped them, but after a few moments’ cogitation
they hit on the furthest place they could think of. “They came from
beyond Mombasa!” said they.
On receiving this reply, we were convinced that the story was a
pure fabrication, and said as much. They only smiled and changed
the subject. We inquired at Maranga afterwards, and were confirmed
in our opinion as to their untruthfulness. It is very strange that they
should find so much amusement in such senseless and purposeless
lies, though, to be sure, the practice is not wholly confined to the
African native.
It rained hard all night, and the whole of the next day, so that
travelling was impossible. We spent the day playing dominoes, going
outside at intervals to watch the sheep die, and to grumble at our
bad luck. It rained also all the next night and the greater part of the
next morning; but it cleared sufficiently at midday to enable us to
proceed. We therefore made a three-hour march and again camped.
The clay paths were very steep and extremely slippery after the rain,
causing us no small amount of trouble, while the sick and wearied
sheep stumbled about in a most distressing manner.
After we had camped, I and the guide went on ahead for an hour
or two in order to prospect the morrow’s road. To my great delight I
saw Doenyo Sabuk, away in the distance to the south-east, and
further to the south I saw the summits of the hills behind Nairobi,
which lay rather less than sixty miles away. It seemed very strange
to me to reflect that I was standing in the heart of Kikuyuland amid a
would-be hostile people, to all intents and purposes as far away from
civilization as if I was at the North Pole, and where at any moment a
dispute over a stolen sheep would resolve itself into a desperate and
pitiless fight for life; while there, scarcely sixty miles away, and on
this side of the range of hills which seemed so near, lay Nairobi with
its houses, its railway workshops, locomotives, Baboo clerks and
ticket collectors, and all the varied and busy life of a modern colonial
town.
During the night it rained again, and killed off some more of the
sheep. We started early in the morning in the hope of reaching
Maranga the same day, a hope, however, we did not realize.
The A’kikuyu made themselves rather obnoxious on the road, and
one or two shots were fired by our men. A calf and sheep were
stolen, the thieves getting clear away with their booty into the thick
bush. If we had let the matter pass we should have had further
trouble on the next march, so when we camped we sent for the chief
of the district. When he appeared we informed him of the
circumstance, and intimated at the same time that we should like to
see him stay in our camp until the stolen property was restored. This
apparently did not at all coincide with his ideas, as he immediately
made a dash for liberty, meanwhile shouting to his warriors, of whom
there were a great number in the camp, who disappeared into the
surrounding bush like shadows. We had, however, anticipated just
such a move on his part, and at a signal from us, Barri, the Somali,
seized the chief and secured him, and I was under the painful
necessity of handcuffing him to the tent-pole and putting a sentry
over him. He then took quite a different view of the case, and
despatched messengers, whom we had allowed into camp for that
purpose, to the people who had stolen our animals. An hour or two
afterwards the messengers returned with the missing beasts, and
they were handed over to us with profuse apologies. We thereupon
released the chief, telling him not to do it again, though, as a matter
of fact, he did not know of the theft till we ourselves so abruptly
informed him of it. We could not, however, but hold him responsible
for any indiscretion committed by his people. On his release, in order
to show him that we bore no malice, we presented him with a bead
necklace and a coloured cloth, and asked him to bring us some
sweet potatoes and yams, and anything else in the vegetable line
that he might wish to present to us, which he promised to do. He
accordingly returned in the evening with a supply of vegetables and
a dark brown fat-tailed Kikuyu sheep as a present. In return we
presented him with a couple of Rendili sheep, with which he was
delighted.
The chief informed us that Maranga was only one march away and
that the road was good, and, in addition, he himself would
accompany us thither, in order to prevent any more of our property
being stolen. He was as good as his word, and at eight o’clock the
next morning we resumed our journey. Just before we started I took
a photograph of Mount Kenia as it lay fully exposed to view in the
half-light of the early morning of a dull day. The result is not all that
could be desired, but it will give a very fair idea of the aspect of the
mountain from the south-west.
We found the road as steep and slippery as on the previous day,
and it tried the animals exceedingly. For that reason we made a
short march and camped at half-past ten.
Soon after the tents were pitched, our old friend Manga and his
son Koranja appeared. They had heard of our approach and had
come to meet us. They greeted us very heartily, expressing delighted
surprise at our safe return. We spent the rest of the day in discussing
the news with them.
During the afternoon the chief of the surrounding district who
answered to the name of Simba (lion), came into camp, and,
following the example of his neighbour, our friend of yesterday,
brought with him a sheep and some vegetables as a present. He
received a couple of Rendili sheep in return, and we parted with
mutual good wishes.
The next morning we marched straight into Maranga and camped
beside a brook, which ran into the Tana about half a mile further
down. Owing to the heavy rains we surmised that there would be a
lot of water in the Tana; even in this small brook the water was
breast high, with a current almost powerful enough to sweep one
bodily away. The natives affirmed that it would be impossible to cross
the Tana for at least three weeks, and perhaps longer. Accordingly
after lunch I went on to the Tana accompanied by two men, in order
to see for myself. My first view of the river was a revelation. It was
extraordinarily high, the constant heavy rains having greatly swelled
its volume; and it is not a small river at any time. The ford was under
six feet of water, with a muddy brown current swirling and eddying
past at a speed of between four and five miles an hour. It would have
been utterly impossible to cross with our loads and animals until the
flood had considerably subsided, and meanwhile the rain showed no
sign of ceasing. I returned to camp thoroughly dispirited.
On the way back I passed a magnificent waterfall which I had not
previously heard of. The whole volume of the river roared and
tumbled in great masses of foam over the naked black rock, plunging
down some twelve or fifteen feet in a yeasty smother, accompanied
by a thunderous roar which effectually precluded any attempt at
conversation in the immediate vicinity. At the foot of the fall the water
boiled and swirled in a great pool. Waves several feet high were
thrown against each other by the violence of the water, which was
seemingly gathering strength for its fierce mad rush through the only
outlet from the pool, a narrow channel with perpendicular sides, and
about 60 feet across, cut through the solid rock. Large rugged trees
hung over the falls and round the edges of the pool, their leaves
dripping moisture from the hissing clouds of spray cast high in the air
upon every side, the whole forming a scene of savage grandeur,
wonderfully impressive, and not easily forgotten.
CHAPTER XXI.
(CONCLUSION.)
FROM THE RIVER TANA TO NAIROBI.
Arrival at the Tana river—A visit to M’biri—Crossing the Tana—

Smallpox—I give Ramathani a fright—Peculiar method of
transporting goods across the river practised by the Maranga—
Kati drowned—The safari across—M’biri—Disposal of the sheep
—We resume the march—The Maragua once more—The Thika-
Thika—The swamps—Kriger’s Farm—Nairobi.
Early the next morning we sallied forth from our tents and spent an
hour and a half in the water of the brook, getting the sheep across.
They were unable to face the stream, and each separate animal
required to be passed across from hand to hand, the labour involved
being very great. We then went on to the Tana and camped beside
the ford. In the afternoon we got our Alpine rope out, and with
considerable trouble and some risk succeeded in getting one end of
it across the river and made fast to a tree on the opposite bank,
Jumbi with two or three other men and myself swimming across the
river for the purpose.
It was not until I was actually in the water that I realized the
tremendous power of the current. We had to go a long way up
stream before plunging in, as the swift current carried us rapidly
down river, and, but for this precaution, would have swept us past
the only landing-place on the other side. This made rather a long
swim of it. I was horribly afraid of the presence of crocodiles, but
fortunately they were conspicuous by their absence.
When at last, after many failures, we had got the rope across, it
was not of much assistance, as the water was too deep for the
porters, and the animals would not face it alone on any
consideration. Another circumstance which added to our difficulties
was there being only one landing-place on the opposite bank, a little
gully about four feet wide in the steep bank, made by the
hippopotamus who formerly came ashore here to feed, and
afterwards widened by natives using the ford. If by mischance
anybody had been swept past this landing-place they would almost
certainly have been drowned, as there was no other place to land for
a long way down the river.
Failing a bridge, our chances of getting across the Tana for
another month were very slender, and as I was anxious to reach Mr.
Hall’s station at M’biri in order to get a few newspapers, some
tobacco, and provisions, I sent word to the chief’s son, Koranja, that I
required a couple of guides. These he had great difficulty in
procuring, the natives declaring that it was impossible to cross the
river. However, on the promise of a heavy reward of cloth, I prevailed
upon two of the Maranga natives to accompany me. We three then
swam the Tana together, with my clothing done up in small bundles
on our heads. I was unable to get my rifle across, so I went without
it. Once on the other side, I dressed as speedily as possible, and we
set off at a good pace for M’biri.
We reached the Marathwa, another fair-sized river, an hour later,
which necessitated stripping again. The crossing safely
accomplished we resumed our apparel, and set off once more,
reaching the station at midday, after a couple of hours’ rough tramp
over the hills.
Mr. and Mrs. Hall were away shooting for a day or two, but Captain
Longfield, who was in charge of the troops, made me very welcome.
He invited me to stay with him until Mr. Hall’s return, an invitation I
gladly accepted. I sent the two guides back to the camp with a
supply of newspapers and provisions, and then sat down with
Captain Longfield to one of the most satisfactory luncheons I have
ever enjoyed. It was such a pleasing change to eat once more from
earthenware plates, with a real white tablecloth and glass tumblers
on the table, and a properly furnished cruet-stand. It is only after one
has been separated for a time from the minor conveniences of
civilization that one discovers how much they contribute to one’s
comfort.
One of the most peculiar effects of our late experiences was
noticeable when I retired to rest that night. It was the new and
strange sense of security. It seemed so utterly unbelievable that I
could go to sleep and sleep as soundly as I liked, without fear of
being rudely disturbed by hostile natives, or by prowling beasts of
prey. It was positively difficult to realize at first.
On the afternoon of the second day of my stay at the station Mr.
and Mrs. Hall returned. Mr. Hall had done wonders with the station
during the short time (about two months) that he had been
established there. A very large and solid stone wall surrounded the
various buildings and offices, and a ditch had been dug outside,
making it, perched as it was on the summit of a hill, a very strong
and secure position. The huts were lofty and well built, and in the
centre of the compound a large and handsome flagstaff carried the
flag of the East African Protectorate.
Next morning I returned to our camp on the Tana, where I found
that El Hakim and George had succeeded in getting a good many of
the sheep across, having employed a number of the Maranga to
swim them over, two men to one sheep—a very slow process at
best. The river had fallen a few inches, but it would need to fall at
least another foot before the men could attempt the passage with
their loads.
The day after, as the river was still falling, we got the remainder of
the sheep to the other side. Almost before they were across, the
river commenced to rise again, and consequently we could not
attempt to move the cattle or loads.
In the afternoon about seventy Wakamba, driven northwards by
famine, came to the opposite bank of the river and attempted to
cross over to Maranga by means of our rope. They were extremely
emaciated, and so weak that three or four of the first dozen were
washed away from the rope and drowned. Suddenly the Maranga
who were watching them raised a shrill cry of “Ndui! Ndui!” (small-
pox), and rushing at those of the Wakamba who had already landed,
they drove them into the water and across the river again. It seemed
hard to repulse the poor starving wretches, but the Maranga have
already suffered so heavily from the small-pox that they had no wish
to repeat the experience. There were quite a dozen of the Wakamba
in an advanced stage of confluent small-pox. From our camp we
could hear them moaning and wailing all night, for several nights. In
the daytime they used to come down to the only place at which they
could reach the water, a large flat rock a little way up stream, which
was just awash, where they would sit for hours laving themselves
with the cool water.
Three days later, on November 22nd, we found that the river had
gone down some six inches, and we made a determined effort to get
the loads and cattle across.
Stripping to my shirt, I swam across the river to superintend
operations at the landing-place on the opposite bank, I took four or
five men, and we stood in the water up to our breasts, under the
bank, where the current was a little less violent, and took the loads
from the porters, who were exhausted by their struggle with the
powerful current, as they brought them across. Young Koranja
annoyed me by bringing my camera across under water, but then he
was not very tall, and consequently received a ducking every time
the rope surged. If he had not had my camera, I should have been
highly amused at his predicament.
The better to shout instructions across the river, I climbed a large
tree that grew on the bank, its topmost branches hanging out over
the water for some yards. I found such a comfortable seat in the fork,
about twelve feet above the surface of the water, that I stayed there
for awhile to rest after the laborious work at the landing-place, and
also to get a bird’s-eye view of all that was going on.
Presently I heard some one swimming, with much puffing and
blowing, down the river, and almost underneath me. Peering through
the leafy screen that surrounded me, I saw that Ramathani, though
evidently in mortal terror, had at last faced the river, and was
swimming slowly and cautiously down stream to the landing-place.
The current was bringing him directly under my perch, though he had
not observed me, and I derived much amusement from the anxious
expression on his usually calm and expressionless visage. As he
passed underneath something suddenly impelled me to jump out of
the tree, and I did so, landing with a terrific splash right upon my
unfortunate servitor. He gave a fearful shriek, which was almost
instantaneously stifled in a gurgle as he disappeared beneath the
surface. When he came up again his face wore such a look of terror
that I half repented of the joke. The way his face changed when he
found me swimming quietly by his side, smiling cheerfully, was a
perfect study in expression.
“Oh, it was you, Bwana?” he gasped out. “I thought it was an
afreet” (devil) “or a kiboko” (hippopotamus).
I then challenged him to a race across the river, but he declined,
though ordinarily he was a good swimmer. He had had enough of the
water for one day, he said.
When I got down to the landing-place, I found that most of the
loads were across, our men having been reinforced by some of the
Maranga. These natives disdained the rope, and, strange to say,
though many of them could not swim, they could carry a 60 lb. load
across a ford 6 feet deep, though their own height rarely exceeded 5
feet 6 inches, and usually a great deal less. They surmounted the
difficulty in a rather ingenious manner, which at the same time
required no small skill.
They held the loads over their heads the full length of their arms,
and then walked into the river, some little distance up-stream. When
they got out of their depth they walked on the bottom, giving a jump
which brought their heads above water, when they wanted to
breathe. The heavy load held above their heads enabled them to
keep steady, in an upright position, in the swift current. They
consequently crossed the river in a series of jumps, the current
meanwhile carrying them down stream, while between the jumps
they walked a step or two towards the other side. It was a very
curious sight from the bank to see a large box or a rolled-up tent,
clasped by two black hands, apparently crossing the river of its own
accord. Our own men would not attempt this method at any price.
The loads were got across before midday, but it was extremely
hard and hazardous work, one of our best men, an N’yamwezi
named Kati, being unfortunately washed away and drowned.
In the afternoon, all the loads being across, George and I and a
dozen of the men unshipped the rope, and taking it further up-
stream, we prepared to get the cattle and donkeys across. After
chasing away the small-pox patients, we took up our station on the
flat rock already mentioned, as it was the most suitable place that we
could find, at which to land the cattle. By means of our old device of
tying a rope round the necks of the animals and hauling them bodily
across, we safely accomplished the task, though the labour was
enormous. Several of the cows were nearly drowned, and after we
had hauled them out of the water, lay on the rock to all appearance
dead. Some one suggested that perhaps artificial respiration would
facilitate their recovery, but as neither George or I knew how to
perform artificial respiration on a cow, we were unable to put it to the
proof. They eventually recovered without such aid, and rising slowly
and with difficulty they walked away, though I must confess that they
were very groggy on their pins.
At nine o’clock next morning, having thus, after a delay of only
eight days, safely negotiated the Tana, we started on our final march
to Nairobi. We crossed the Marathwa below M’biri, where it was
breast deep and very swift, camping on the opposite bank. We
stopped there four days, during which time we sold the sheep to
some Somalis who had a store just outside the Government station.
El Hakim went on a visit to Mr. Hall, and stayed a day or two with
him. I took to my blankets on the third day with a slight touch of
fever, which, considering that I had practically lived in the water for
four days, was not surprising.
On the morning of November 27th, we broke camp and resumed
our march, exceedingly thankful that we were no longer handicapped
on the march by the presence of the sheep. I was still rather shaky
after my touch of fever, so I rode the big mule for the first time since
leaving the Green Camp on the Waso Nyiro. The next day we
reached the Maragua, where we found a rough bridge, which had
been constructed by Captain Skene, who was on his way to M’biri to
relieve Captain Longfield. The latter had been ordered to Kismayu to
take part in the Ogaden Somali Expedition which was to avenge
Major Jenner’s murder. We crossed safely, and camped on the other
side. Three cows were stolen during the afternoon by the A’kikuyu,
but we sent Jumbi and half a dozen men immediately in pursuit, and
they recovered them without difficulty.
Four days later we reached the river Thika-Thika. Congoni once
more appeared on the scene, and we were able to shoot several for
food, and I also secured a roan antelope, the first we had seen
during the trip. Besides congoni there were numbers of zebras,
wildebeeste, wart-hog, grantei, and thompsonei; and George and I,
taking turns with the shot-gun, managed to secure some guinea-
fowl, and occasionally a wild duck.
Very heavy rain the night before we reached the Thika-Thika
delayed us a little. We reached the river at midday and found it full of
water, but the current was comparatively sluggish. We saw a couple
of hippo, and any number of crocodiles.
At a place where a fallen tree projected some way over the water
we constructed a rude bridge, resting the centre of the structure
upon a small island in the stream. It was not beautiful to look upon,
neither was it over strong; but it sufficed, and during the afternoon
the whole safari crossed by its means. The cattle were driven further
down the river to a spot where the banks shelved somewhat, and
they were then swum across, luckily without interference from any
too inquisitive crocodiles.
The next day was George’s turn to have a touch of fever, which,
though slight, made him very uncomfortable. We were now entering
a very marshy piece of country, traversed by numerous rivers and
streams, which drained into the Athi River.
Congoni were again numerous, and we were able to shoot
sufficient meat to feed the men. The congoni is remarkably tenacious
of life, one beast in particular giving me a lot of trouble. I put two
·303 soft-nosed bullets into it; and although one hind leg was broken,
and it was also badly wounded in the shoulder, it made off at a good
speed. Taking the Martini, I followed it, and, when it once more
stopped, I put a Martini bullet into it from behind, at a hundred-yards’
range. The bullet struck it in the hind quarters, and ploughed its way
through almost the whole length of the animal’s body. The beast was
unable to advance, but still kept its feet; and as I was unwilling to
waste another cartridge upon it, I walked up to it and threw it down
by seizing its horns and jerking its head sharply sideways, but not
until its throat was cut did it expire.
On December 5th we reached a papyrus swamp, about two
hundred yards wide, but apparently continuing indefinitely east and
west, so that we could not march round it. The men, therefore, were
sent to cut a path through it, and by laying the cut reeds and a
quantity of branches of trees across the roots a precarious roadway
was constructed, perfectly practicable for the men and loads, but
impossible for cattle. Jumbi, who was sent out prospecting for a
suitable place to get the cattle across, returned in the evening,
having discovered a place some miles away, which he thought they
might safely negotiate. Accordingly, before sunrise next morning, he
was sent with the cattle to make the attempt, while the porters and
loads crossed by the temporary path we had constructed the day
before. It was rather ticklish work, as in some places there was over
six feet of water under the reeds, we having to depend for support on
the elasticity of the cut reeds laid transversely across the roots, the
weaker places having been strengthened by the addition of branches
and brushwood well trodden down.
Jumbi was perfectly successful in getting the cattle across, and
they were on the other side of the swamp and opposite us some time
before all the men had crossed; but we were all across by ten
o’clock, and, resuming our nether garments, we proceeded. In an
hour we had reached a narrow river, flowing swiftly between two
upright walls of rock. A mile up-stream we discovered a crossing-
place at a spot just above a magnificent waterfall. This fall was quite
100 feet deep, and the water foamed and splashed into one of the
most beautiful glens imaginable. We did not stop to admire the
scenery. Personally, I was perfectly willing to exchange the prettiest
bit of scenery thereabouts for a sight of the Nairobi Post Office.
After we had left the river a few miles behind, we were confronted
by another wretched papyrus swamp. Yesterday’s experience was
repeated, a road having to be constructed in precisely the same
manner. It was not finished till sunset, so we camped for the night. It
rained hard in the evening, and during the night the mosquitos drove
us nearly frantic.
The next morning we crossed the swamp. It was rather deeper
than the other, and we had to strip to the “altogether” in order to get
across; the reeds often giving way under our weight, letting us down
with a splash into the ice-cold, dirty water. We got across, however,
without any serious mishap, and resuming our clothing we again
went on.
Three quarters of an hour later we struck yet another swamp. Off
came our clothes once more, and we waded it breast deep. The
water was very cold, and unspeakably stagnant and filthy. It took us
an hour to get across. Half an hour’s march further on, another
swamp appeared. Once more we had to strip and wade. This one
was not so cold, as the sun was by this time well up, and moreover
the water was cleaner; but there were a lot of horrible flies, like
horseflies, which bit most ferociously, and attacked every
unprotected portion of our anatomy, drawing blood at every bite.
However, that was the last of the swamps, and by four o’clock in the
afternoon we reached our old camp near Kriger’s farm, only seven
miles from Nairobi.
We camped for the night, and the following morning George and I
started for Nairobi. We left El Hakim in camp, as he wished to go
over and see Kriger during the morning. George and myself, with the
bulk of the men, therefore started on our seven-mile tramp. On the
way we critically examined each other, and a more ragged pair of
scarecrows one would not wish to see. The sole of one of my boots
had parted from the upper and flapped as I walked, while George
lacked a sole altogether on his left boot, and was walking on his
sock, which soon wore through, causing him so much inconvenience
as to materially impede our progress.
Such trifles, however, were unable to damp our ardour as we
tramped along in the direction of Nairobi. Each well remembered
spot recalling some incident or other. Here was the place where I fell
into the river the second night out. Further on was the clump of trees
where I shot the guinea-fowl, and beyond that, again, was the game-
pit which had bidden fair to put a summary end to my career over six
months before. What hardships they seemed at the time, though
subsequent events had dwarfed them into insignificance. Even our
stirring experiences on the Waso Nyiro and our long weeks of
anxiety in Kikuyuland seemed to suddenly recede into the limbo of
the past. Everything else was forgotten in the intoxicating thought
that at last we were almost home, and as we approached nearer to
Nairobi a feeling of elation impossible to describe took possession of
us. Pain, difficulties, anxieties—all were momentarily forgotten. Our
emotions were shared by the men, and when the first galvanized
roof appeared on the horizon a cheer broke forth, and we hurried
forward at increased speed.
Presently the railway station hove in sight, and a locomotive
shunting trucks in the goods-yard sent forth an ear-splitting whistle.
Never was there such a musical sound as that erstwhile discordant
speech. At length, to cut a long story short, we arrived, much to the
surprise of our friends, who had heard that we had all been killed in
Embe, the news of the Somali’s disaster having in some mysterious
manner filtered through.
I have only once since experienced such a sense of relief as I felt
on our arrival in Nairobi, and that is now, as I finish this account of
our journey; and my only hope is that it will not have wearied the
reader half as much as it wearied the writer.
INDEX
Abdullah ben Asmani, 12
Abdallah Arahalli, 94
Abdullah ben Selim, death of, 128
Aberdare Range, 3, 338, 342
A’kikuyu, assisted by the, 50;
brawl with the, 60;
return to the, 343;
attempts at theft by the, 344;
sheep stolen by the, 347;
arrest of the chief of the, 348;
steal three cows, 359
Aloes, 135, 160, 333
Ants, attacked by, 113;
red, 158
Asmani ben Selim, 12, 324
Assala, 53
Athi river, 26;
fishing in the, 27, 33, 35;
in flood, 36;
crossing the, 37
Baazi, 53
Baboons, 197, 249, 252
Baobabs, 79
Barri leaves the Somali camp, 276;
is pursued, 277;
is attacked by his pursuers, 277;
and shoots Ismail Robli, 278
Baringo, Lake, 4, 136
Bei Munithu, 84;
treachery of, 298;
insolence of, 316;
repentance of, 329
Bhotan, 94
Bilali, 14, 176
Blood-brotherhood, 84;
ceremony of, 113, 147
Borana country, 235;
people, 235
Buffalo hunt, 151;
herd of, 192;
horns destroyed by hyænas, 296
Burkeneji, nomadic habits of, 163;
first meeting with, 208;
village of, 209;
temerity of women of, 209;
chief of, 210;
belief in their weapons, 223;
dress, 223;
donkeys, 223;
insolence of, 224;
relations of, with the Rendili, 241
Camels, loss of the, 202;

reappearance of, 300
Camp on fire, 171
Cannibals, rumour of, 346
Carl Alexander Falls, 46
Castor-oil plant, 59
Chanjei Hills, 87;
character of people of, 87
Chanler, Mr. William Astor, F.R.G.S., 4, 88, 214, 226, 258, 265,
266
Chanler Falls, 203
Chiggers, 314, 329
“Cinder Heap”, 165
Congoni, 24;
The tenacity of life of, 359
Coja ben Sowah, 12
Crane, crested, 35
Crocodiles, 50, 212, 247;
immense size of, 254
Cumming, Gordon, 308
Dasturi, 331
Date palms, 175
Desertions, 20, 155, 259
Dhurra, 52
Dirito, 82;
arrival at village of, 82;
assists us to drive animals, 132;
treachery of, 298
Docere ben Ali, 12
Doenyo Sabuk, 18, 24;
in sight of once more, 347
Doenyo lol Deika, 136
Doenyo Ebor, 66
Doenyo Egere, 66
Donkeys, 16;
troubles with, 25, 38;
eaten by Wakamba, 137
Doti, measurement of a, 53
Doum palm, description of, 162
El Hakim, meeting with, 2;

and the Tomori people, 86;
robbery of goods of, 116;
experiences with elephants, 142;
shoots a rhinoceros, 185;
bitten by a scorpion, 245;
has a bright idea, 269;
adventure with a lion, 292;
shoots an elephant, 296
Elkonono, the, 315
Elephant, awkward meeting with an, 139;
hunting, 142-146, 296, 303
Elephant’s foot, 301, 310
Elgeyo, 136;
escarpment of, 137
Embe country, description of, 95;
the retreat from, 103;
explanation of reverse in, 110
Euphorbias, 333
Falls on the Tana River, 350

Falls, Chanler, 203
Falls, Carl Alexander, 46
Falls, Nairobi, 27
Falls, Sweinfurth, 46
Finlay and Gibbons, Messrs., disaster to, 17, 18, 57
Fire, difficulties with, 31;
camp on, 171;
grass, 188
Foa, Edward, F.R.G.S., 311
Forest, belt round Kenia, 84;
acacia, 90;
of North Kenia, 335
Formosa Bay, 4
Galla-land, 3
Game very numerous, 43;
vast herds of, 150, 172, 191;
scarcity of, 179;
absence of, 201
Game-pit, adventure in a, 21
George joins the expedition, 18;
takes a bath, 26;
sickness of, 33;
narrow escape of, 100;
illness of, 115;
drives hostile Wa’m’thara from camp, 134;
adventure with a rhinoceros, 267;
shoots a rhinoceros, 293
Giraffe hunt, 280, 285
Gilgil, 339
Gnainu, fight at, 118
Grant’s gazelle, good sport with, 294
Green Camp, 162, 188, 293
Gregory, Prof. J. W., D.Sc., 4, 180
Guinea fowl, 206
Hall, Mr., 49, 344
Hamisi ben Abdullah, 12;
death of, 128
Hannington, the late Bishop, 137
Hannington, Lake, 136
Hippopotamus, 54, 255;
an anxious moment, 261, 284, 287
Hohnel, Lieut. Ludwig von, 4, 213
Honey, 53
Hyænas, 296, 331
Igani, noisy reception in, 81

Imbe, entry into, 79;
chief of, 79;
audacious proposal of people of, 80
Impala, 296
Ismail Robli, 9;
appearance of, 93;
character of, 93;
murders N’Dominuki’s nephew, 100;
terror of, 106;
refuses to return to Embe, 113;
camped among the Rendili, 212;
grief of, 217;
letter to Nairobi of, 219;
his invitation, 269;
wounded by Barri, 288
Ivory, troubles of buying, 123, 129
Jamah Mahomet, 9;
refuses to cross M’bu, 57;
visit to, at Munithu, 83;
appearance of, 93;

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McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

Copyright © 2018, by McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited.

ISBN (13): 978-93-87572-72-0

Director—Science & Engineering Portfolio: Vibha Mahajan

Visit us at: www.mheducation.co.in

Wife, Mrs. C. Gnanaparanjothi (B.Sc., M.L.)

1.1 Introduction to Circuits and Networks....................................................................... 1. 1

1.4.3 Resistance in Series........................................................................................ 1. 22

1.9 Cut-Sets........................................................................................................................ 1. 143

CHAPTER 2 - NETWORK THEOREMS FOR DC AND AC CIRCUITS

2.4.1 Resistances in Star and Delta ........................................................................ 2. 29

CHAPTER 3 - AC CIRCUITS, RESONANCE AND COUPLED CIRCUITS

3.12.2 Variation of Current and Impedance with Frequency in

3.17.2 Series Opposing Connection of Coupled Coils .............................................. 3. 77

CHAPTER 4 - TRANSIENT ANALYSIS

4.5 Transient Response of RLC Circuit............................................................................. 4. 35

CHAPTER 5 - TWO-PORT NETWORKS

5.14 Summary of Important Concepts.................................................................................. 5. 59

APPENDIX 1 - USING CALCULATOR IN COMPLEX MODE .................................. A. 1

Organization of the Book

List of Symbols and Abbreviations

vC - Instantaneous value of voltage across capacitor

BASIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS AND

Energy Sources Parameters or Loads

Dependent DC Voltage Source

Dependent DC Current Source

AC (Alternating Current) Sources

Fig. 1.1 : Elements of electric circuits - Energy source.

Parameters or Loads Energy Sources

Fig. 1.2 : Elements of electric circuits - Parameters or loads.

Quantity Symbol Unit Unit Equivalent Equivalent

Quantity Symbol Unit Unit Equivalent Equivalent

Magnetic flux - Tesla T Weber/ meter Wb/m2

Table 1.2 : Multiple and Submultiple used for Units

Multiplying Prefix Symbol Multiplying Prefix Symbol

1012 tera T 10 −1 deci d

1.1.5 Definitions of Various Terms

Also, 1 V = 1 J = 1 J/s = 1 W .....(1.8)

Quantity DC Instantaneous Average Maximum RMS Phasors

1.1.7 Steady State Analysis and Transient Analysis

1.1.8 Assumptions in Circuit Theory

1.2 Basic Concepts of Circuits and Networks

Fig. a : Circuit. Fig. b : Network.

Fig. a : dc voltage Fig. b : dc current Fig. c : ac voltage Fig. d : ac current

Fig. a : Typical circuit. Fig. b : Branches of the circuit in Fig. a.

1.2.3 Series, Parallel, Star and Delta Connections

Fig. a : Resistances in Fig. b : Inductances Fig. c : Capacitances

Fig. a : Typical circuit. Fig. b : Series paths in the circuit of Fig. a.

Fig. a : Resistances Fig. b : Inductances Fig. c : Capacitances Fig. d : R and L in parallel.

Fig. a : A typical circuit. Fig. b : R4 in parallel with series

connection. If three elements with 3

Fig. a : A typical circuit. Fig. b : Star connections in circuit of Fig. a.

1.2.4 Open Circuit and Short Circuit

Fig. 1.14 : Examples of open circuit (OC).

Fig. 1.15 : Examples of short circuit (SC).

1.2.5 Sign Conventions

Fig. a :Voltage Fig. b : Current Fig. c : Fig. d : Inductance Fig. e : Capacitance

A chargeable battery is the best example I

for understanding the concept of energy delivery E +E

is connected to a load, it delivers energy. When

Fig. a : Inductance discharging energy. Fig. b : Capacitance discharging energy.