Root and Shoot System Some Notes:

• Petiole attaches the leaf to the stem

Root System • Rosette means arranged in a flower pattern
• Location: Commonly underground • Branch/lateral roots arose from the pericycle
• Functions:
o Obtains water and dissolved minerals for plant
o Anchors the plant firmly in place

Shoot System
• Location: Aerial
• Function: Obtains sunlight and carbon dioxide
• Consists of:
o Vertical stem bearing leaves (Main organs of
photosynthesis)
o Flowers and fruits (Reproductive structures)
o Buds (Underdeveloped embryonic shoots)

The Plant Body

Some Notes:
• Lenticels are pores that promote gas exchange. They are the
stomata’s equivalent in stems.
• Lateral buds are also called axillary buds
• Leaf scars are where dead leaves used to be located
• Terminal buds are previous points of cell division and cell
elongation in the previous year

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Overview of Plant Tissue Systems

Vascular Tissue System

• Phloem and xylem (in strands called vascular bundles)
o The vascular tissue is collectively-called the stele
• Conducts materials throughout the plant body

Dermal Tissue System

• Outer covering
• Exposed to the environment

Ground Tissue System

• All other tissues other than the vascular and dermal tissues
(usually in the pith and cortex)

Ground Tissue System

Parenchyma Cells
• Have relatively thin primary
walls
• Most lack secondary walls
Legend: • Generally have a large central
Blue – Dermal vacuole
Purple – Vascular • Retains ability to differentiate
Yellow – Ground • Functions:
o Photosynthesis
o Synthesis and
storage of organic
products
• Subtypes:
o Chlorenchyma
o Storage
parenchyma
o Aerenchyma
o Stellate parenchyma

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Chlorenchyma Stellate parenchyma
• Parenchyma cells that contain chloroplasts • Parenchyma cells that are branched

Storage parenchyma (aka Amyloplast/Leucoplast) Collenchyma Cells

• Parenchyma cells that contain amyloplasts and leucoplasts • Generally elongated
• e.g. Potato • Generally have unevenly thickened
primary walls (contains pectin?)
• Young stems and petioles have
these below their epidermis
• Function:
o Provide flexible support without restraining growth, unlike
sclerenchyma cells
§ Since they’re flexible, they elongate with the stems
and leaves they support

Aerenchyma Sclerenchyma Cells

• Parenchyma cells that store air • Has thick secondary cell
• Often hexagonal wall, which contains a
• Common in aquatic plants large amount of lignin
• Cannot elongate when
mature
o As such, they only
occur in regions in
the plant that have
stopped growing
• Many are dead at
functional maturity
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 • Function: Fibers
o Structural support • Grouped in strands
• Subtypes: • Long, slender, and tapered
o Sclereids • Usually in wood, bark,
§ Brachysclereids (Stone cells) leaves, and stems
§ Macrosclereids
§ Osteosclereids (Bone cells)
§ Astrosclereids (Star cells)
o Fibers

Sclereids
• Boxier than fibers
• Irregular in shape
• Very thick, lignified secondary walls
• Usually in fruits and seeds
• Function:
o Impart hardness to nutshells
and seed coats
o Impart the gritty texture to pear fruits

Subtypes of Sclereids
Brachysclereids (Stone cells) Macrosclereids
Found in stems and fruits Found in seed coats
Vascular Tissue System

Overview:
Xylem Phloem
Cells Dead Living
Cell walls
Astrosclereids (Star cells) Osteosclereids (Bone cells)
Thickness Thick Thin
Found in eudicot leaves Found in seed coats
Material Lignin Cellulose
Permeability Impermeable Permeable
Cross walls None Sieve plates
Cytoplasm None Yes
Functions Carries waters & salts Carries sugars
Direction of flow Upwards Down and up

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Xylem Vessel elements
• The conducting cells • Wider, shorter, thin walled,
of the xylem are the and less tapered than
tracheids and vessel tracheids
elements • Their end walls have
o Tracheids perforation plates that
occur in the enable water to flow freely
xylem of all through the vessels
plants
o Vessel
elements Phloem
occur in a few • The conducting cells of the phloem
gymnosperms are the sieve-tube elements,
and seedless assisted by companion cells
vascular
plants Sieve-tube elements (or members)
o Both have secondary walls of lignin, to prevent collapse • Lack a nucleus, ribosomes, a distinct
from water transport tension vacuole, and cytoskeletal elements
o Enables nutrients to pass
Tracheids more easily
• Long, thin cells with tapered ends • Sieve plates have pores that
• Water moves from cell to cell mainly facilitate the flow of fluid
through the pits (does not have to from cell to cell
pass through secondary wall) • The larger ones
o Pit pairs are permeable to • Where food passes throguh
water
Companion cell
• Connected to sieve-tube
elements by plasmodesmata
• Has a nucleus and ribosomes
o Serves adjacent
sieve-tube elements
• In some plant leaves, they
help load sugars to sieve-tube elements, which then transport
sugars to other parts of the plant
• The smaller ones

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Dermal Tissue System Growth in Plants
• The outermost coverings of the plant are the: Plants vs. Animals
o Epidermis Growth in Plants Growth in Animals
o Periderm (in secondary growth) • Grows in specific areas • All parts grow, but not at
called meristems the same rate
Epidermis (undifferentiated tissues • Location of growth is
• Usually one cell-thick where cells can different
• Covers the primary plant differentiate)
body (leaves, young • Involves cell division,
stems, and roots) elongation, and
• Cuticle differentiation
o Wax secreted by
the epidermis of
aerial parts Primary Growth
o Reduces water loss • Increase in stem and root length due to the activity of:
• Stoma o Apical meristem
o For gas exchange between the interior of the shoot system § Area of cell division
and the surrounding atmosphere § Located at the tip of a stem or root
o Bud
Periderm § Dormant embryonic shoot
• Outermost layer of cells in woody stems or roots § Develops into an apical meristem

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Primary Growth of Roots Primary Growth of Shoots

• Zone of cell division

o Where mitosis occurs
o Undifferentiated cells
• Zone of elongation
o Cells displaced from the meristem divide several more
times and differentiate into mature cells. These cells give
rise to the primary tissues (also applies to shoots):
§ Protoderm gives rise to the dermal tissues
§ Ground meristem gives rise to the ground tissues
§ Procambium gives rise to the vascular tissues
• Zone of maturation
o No more cell division • The entire biomass of a primary shoot—all leaves and stems—
derive from the shoot apical meristem
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Secondary Growth Summary of Primary and Secondary Growth
• Increase in stem and root girth/diameter due to the activity of the
lateral meristems:
o Vascular cambium
o Cork cambium
• Only in woody plants

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Comparison of Primary and Secondary Growth o Prevents soil erosion
Primary Growth Secondary Growth
Growth in length Growth in girth Functions of Roots
Apical meristems Lateral meristems • Anchorage
Meristems are cluster of Cylindrical meristems • Absorption
undifferentiated cells • Conduction
Occurs in regions of new growth Occurs in regions of a woody plant • Storage
where primary growth has ceased
Distinct Features from Stems
• Root cap
Roots o Protects meristematic tissue
o Orients root to grow downward
Types of Root Systems • Root hair
• Taproot and fibrous o Thin-fingerlike extension of epidermal cells
o Increases the surface area and thus, the absorptive
Taproot System capacity
• Consists of:
o One main vertical root (called the
taproot)
o Small lateral roots branching from the
taproot
• Occurs in most dicots (e.g. woody and large
herbaceous plants)
• Advantages:
o Anchorage to soil
o Enables plant to grow taller
o Specialization for food storage

Fibrous Root System

• Consists of:
o Several adventitious roots of approximately equal size that
arise from the base of the stem
§ Note: Adventitious because they grow from stems,
an unusual location
• Occurs in most monocots (e.g. grass)
• Advantages:
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Primary Eudicot Roots and its Parts Ground Tissues
• Cortex
o Consists of parenchyma cells
o Usually stores starch

Vascular Tissues
• Xylem
• Phloem

Others
• Endodermis
o Innermost layer of the cortex
o Prevent water and dissolved materials from entering the
xylem
o Casparian Strip
§ Waterproof material around the radial and
transverse cells of the endodermis
§ Ensures that water and minerals enter the xylem
only
• Pericycle
o Layer of cells
inside the
endodermis
o Gives rise to
lateral roots

Outer Protective Covering

• Epidermis
o Protects the root
o Has root hairs
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Monocot Roots Monocot vs. Eudicots
• Monocots have a pith in the center of the root
• Monocots do not have a vascular cambium, and therefore no
secondary growth

Water Movement in Primary Eudicot Roots

Root hair

Epidermis

Cortex (Symplast or
Apoplast Pathway)

Endodermis

Pericycle

Xylem
• Water is then transported upward through root xylem into stem
xylem and then to the rest of the plant

Symplast Pathway
• One cytoplasm to another,
connected from one cell to
the next by the
plasmodesmata

Apoplast Pathway
• Interconnected plant cell
walls where water moves
freely

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Modified Roots Significance of Roots
• Stores products of photosynthesis
Prop Root o Source of food for human consumption
• Adventitious • Flavorings (e.g. root beer)
• Arises from the stem • Root crops
• Provides additional support for the o Taproots (e.g. carrots, beets, parsnips, turnips, radish)
plant o Fibrous roots (e.g. sweet potato, cassava)

Contractile Root Other Terms

• Often found on bulbs or • Mycorrhiza
corms o Mutual beneficial association between fungi and roots
• Contracts and pulls the plant o Helps plants absorb minerals from the soil
to a desirable depth in the soil • Nodule
o Small swelling on the root where nitrogen-fixing bacteria
live
Pneumatophores
• Aerial roots in trees in swampy
habitats
• Facilitates gas exchange

Buttress Roots
• Swollen bases
• Holds tree upright
• Distribution of shallow
roots

Suckers
• Aboveground stems developed from adventitious buds on the
roots
• Asexual reproduction method of some roots

Parasitic Epiphytes
• à

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Stems Herbaceous Eudicot Stems

Functions
1. Support leaves and reproductive structures
2. Conduct water, dissolved minerals, carbohydrates
3. Produce new living tissues at apical meristems and lateral
meristems (for secondary growth)

Herbaceous Stems

Tissues in Herbaceous Stems

1. Epidermis
o Protective outer layer
o Covered by the water-conserving cuticle
2. Vascular tissues
o Xylem conducts water and dissolved minerals
o Phloem conducts dissolved carbohydrates (e.g. sucrose)
3. Storage tissues
o Cortex, which is smaller compared to roots
o Pith (parenchyma), which is larger compared to roots

Quick Comparison: Dicot and Monocot Stems

• Have vascular bundles arranged in circles

• Have distinct cortex and pith

Some Notes
• Fiber caps are next to
the phloem, and is for
tension strength
• The area in between
vascular bundles are
pith rays
• The vascular
cambium is always between the xylem and phloem
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Monocot Stems Roots vs. Stems
Roots Stems
No nodes or internodes Nodes and internodes
No leaves or buds Leaves and buds
Non-photosynthetic Photosynthetic
No pith Pith
No cuticle Cuticle
Root cap No cap
Root hairs Trichome
Pericycle No pericycle
Endodermis Endodermis is rare
Branches form internally from the Branches form externally from
pericycle lateral buds

Secondary Growth in Woody Eudicots

Formation of Secondary Xylem and Phloem

• Produced by the vascular cambium
o Initially, it’s not a continuous cylinder of cells, but becomes
continuous once secondary tissues begin to produce.
§ It becomes a continuous ring/cylinder as
parenchyma cells between the vascular bundles
connect to the vascular cambium cells

• Have scattered vascular bundles

• No distinct cortex and pith

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Some Notes: Formation of Heartwood and Sapwood
• The xylem grows faster. That’s why you can see annual rings

Formation of Bark
• Produced by the cork cambium
o Produces cork parenchyma to the inside
o Produces cork cells to the outside
o This eventually replaces the epidermis

• Heartwood is the older xylem while sapwood is the active xylem

(the most recently produced)
o Older xylem do not conduct water anymore
• Remember: The most recent xylem or phloem is nearest the
vascular cambium

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Specialized Stems

Rhizomes
• Horizontal, underground stem
• Serves as a storage organ and means of
reproduction

Tubers
• Enlarged ends of rhizomes
• Fleshy and enlarged for food storage

Bulb
• A rounded, fleshy underground
bud
• Has a short stem with fleshy
leaves

Corm
• Underground, thickened stem
• Food storage and reproduction
• Unlike the bulb, there’s no short
stem

Stolon
• Aerial, horizontal stem with
long internodes
• Often forms buds that
develop into separate plants
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