Metabolic demands

Herbaceous dicots

• O2 and glucose need to be • Soft tissues, relatively short life

transported around the plant, and cycle

the waste products of cell Describe the two types of

metabolism removed
dicots Woody (arborescent) dicots

• Hormones need to be transported

• Hard lignified tissues, long life
• Mineral ions absorbed by the roots cycle
need to be transported to all cells
to make proteins and enzymes The vascular system of herbaceous
required for cell structure
dicots, made up of xylem and
phloem tissue
Size
What is are vascular
Give 3 reasons why
• Plants continue to grow bundles?
multicellular plants need throughout their lives

transport systems? • Perennial plants are large

• An effective transport system is

needed to move substances both Vascular bundles in the stem Around the edge to give strength
up and down from the tip of the and support
roots to the very topmost leaves
and stems

SA:V

• Relatively small SA:V ratio so they

can’t rely on diffusion alone to
supply their cells with everything Vascular bundles in the roots In the middle to help the plant
they need withstand the tugging strains that
result as the stems and leaves are
Plants that produce seeds
blown in the wind
containing two cotyledons, which
act as food stores for the developing
What are dicotyledonous embryo and form the first leaves
plants (dicots)? when the seed germinates
 • The midrib of a dicot leaf is the • The transport of water and mineral
Vascular bundles in leaves main vein carrying the vascular ions

tissue through the organ

• Support

• Helps to support the structure of

What is the function of the • The flow of materials in the xylem
the leaf
xylem? is up from the roots to the shoots
• Many small, branching veins and leaves
spread through the leaf,
functioning in both transport and
support A living tissue that transports food in
the form of organic solutes around
• Xylem is a largely non-living tissue
the plant from the leaves where they
• Made up of several types of cells, are made by photosynthesis
most of which are dead
What is the phloem?
• Xylem vessels are the main
structures: long, hollow structures
made by several columns of cells
fusing together end to end

• Main transporting vessels are the

• They have no cytoplasm or sieve tube elements

organelles present

• Sieve tubes are made up of many

Describe the structure of the • Thick-walled xylem parenchyma cells joined end to end to form a
xylem packs around the xylem vessels long, hollow structure

storing food and containing tannin

• Phloem tubes are not lignified

deposits (bitter tasting chemical

• In the areas between the cells,
that protects plant tissues from walls become perforated to form
herbivore attacks)
sieve plates, which let the phloem
• Xylem fibres are long cells with contents flow through

lignified secondary walls that

Describe the structure of the • Tonoplast, nucleus and some of
provide extra mechanical strength the other organelles break down

(and waterproofing) but do not phloem • Mature phloem cells have no

transport water nucleus

• Can form rings, spirals or relatively • Companion cells are linked to the
solid tubes with lots of small sieve tube elements by many
How can lignin be laid down unlignified areas called bordered plasmodesmata. They are active
pits
cells with a nucleus and all their
in the walls of xylem organelles

• This is where water leaves the

vessels? xylem and moves into other cells • Phloem tissue also contains
of the plant supporting tissues including fibres
and sclereids (cells with extremely
thick cell walls)
 • Turgor pressure (or hydrostatic
pressure) as a result of osmosis in
plant cells provides a hydrostatic
skeleton to support the stems and
leaves
SA:V ratio, and there are
How is water important for • Turgor pressure in leaf cells is 100
the structure of plants? times greater than human systolic
blood pressure
How are root hairs adapted (just cell wall and cell-surface
• Turgor also drives expansion - it is
the force that enables plant roots
to force their way through tarmac
and concrete
• The loss of water by evaporation
helps to keep plants cool
gradient between the soil water
• Mineral ions and the products of
How is water important for photosynthesis are transported in
the metabolism of plants? aqueous solutions
• Soil water has a very low
• Water is a raw material for
photosynthesis
Cells found just behind the growing
tip of a plant root that have long
hair-like extensions that greatly
What are root hair cells? increase the surface area available
for the absorption of water and
mineral ions from the soil
A long, thin extension from a root
hair cell, a specialised epidermal cell
found near the growing root tip
What is a root hair?
• Microscopic size means they can
penetrate easily between soil
particles
• Each microscopic hair has a large
thousands on each growing tip
• Each hair has a thin surface layer
as exchange surfaces? membrane) through which
diffusion and osmosis can take
place quickly
• Concentration of solutes in the
cytoplasm of root hair cells
maintains a water potential
and the cell
concentration of dissolved
minerals so it has a very high
water potential
• Cytoplasm and vacuolar sap of the
Why does water move into the root hair cell (and the other
root hair cells by osmosis? root cells) contain many different
solvents including sugars, mineral
ions, and amino acids so the water
potential in the cell is lower
• As a result water moves into the
root hair cells by osmosis
Symplast pathway - Movement of
water through the symplast
What are the 2 pathways (continuous cytoplasm of living plant
cells that is connected through
that water can move across
plasmodesmata)
the root to the xylem
through? Apoplast pathway - Movement of
water through the apoplast (the cell
walls and the intercellular spaces)
 1. Water moves through the Water moves across the root in the
symplast by osmosis
apoplast and symplast until it
2. Root hair cell has a higher water reaches the endodermis (layer of
potential than the next cell along
How far does water move cells surrounding the vascular tissue
3. This is the result of the water across the root? of the roots)
diffusing in from the soil which
makes the cytoplasm more dilute

4. So water moves from the root

hair cell into the next door cell by A band of waxy material called
Describe the symplast osmosis
Suberin that runs around each of the
pathway 5. This process continues from cell endodermal cells, forming a
to cell across the root until the What is the Casparian strip? waterproof layer
xylem is reached

6. As water leaves the root hair cell

by osmosis, the water potential
(Ψ) of the cytoplasm falls again,
maintaining a steep Ψ gradient • The water can go no further and is
to ensure that as much water as forced into the cytoplasm of the
possible continues to move into cell, joining the water in the
the cell from the soil symplast pathway

What happens when water • To get to the cytoplasm, water

1. Water fills the spaces between must pass through the selectively
the loose, open network of fibres in the apoplast pathway permeable cell surface
in the cellulose cell wall
meets the casparian strip? membranes, stopping any
2. As water molecules move into potentially-toxic solutes in the soil
the xylem, more water molecules water from reaching living tissues,
are pulled through the apoplast as the membranes would have no
behind them due to the cohesive carrier proteins to admit them
forces between the water
Describe the apoplast molecules
Active transport, as the solute
pathway 3. The pull from water moving into concentration in the cytoplasm of
the xylem and up the plant along How do the the endodermal the endodermal cells is relatively
with the cohesive forces cells move mineral ions into dilute compared to cells in the xylem
between the water molecules
creates a tension that means
the xylem?
there is a continuous flow of
water through the open structure
of the cellulose wall, which offers
little or no resistance
 • Endodermal cells move mineral • Some poisons, e.g. cyanide, affect
ions into the xylem by active the mitochondria and prevent the
transport
production of ATP. If cyanide is
• As a result, the water potential of applied to root cells so there is no
What increases the rate of the xylem cells is much lower than energy supply, the root pressure
water moving into the xylem that of the endodermal cells disappears

by osmosis? • This increases the rate of water • Root pressure increases with a rise
moving into the xylem by osmosis in temperature and falls with a fall
down a water potential gradient Give 4 pieces of evidence in temperature, suggesting
from the endodermis through the for the role of active chemical reactions are involved

symplast pathway transport in root pressure • If levels of oxygen or respiratory

substrates fall, root pressure falls

It returns to the apoplast pathway to • Xylem sap may exude from the cut
enter the xylem itself and move up end of stems. In the natural world,
the plant xylem sap is forced out of special
What happens once water is
pores at the ends of leaves in
inside the vascular bundle? some conditions e.g. overnight,
when transpiration is low. This is
known as guttation

The active pumping of minerals into Synthesis of complex organic

the xylem by root cells that molecules using light.

produces a movement of water into • CO2 diffuses into the leaf cells
the xylem by osmosis
down a concentration gradient
from the air spaces within the leaf

• Independent of any effects of What is photosynthesis? • Due to gas exchange, O2 also

What is root pressure? transpiration
moves out of the leaf cells into the
• Gives water a push up the xylem, air spaces by diffusion down a
but under most circumstances it is concentration gradient

not the major factor in the • Water evaporates from surfaces of

movement of water up from the the leaf cells into the air spaces
roots to the leaves
The loss of water vapour from the
stems and leaves of a plant as a
result of evaporation from cell
What is transpiration? surfaces inside the leaf and diffusion
down a concentration gradient out
through the stomata

Describe leaves
How are gases exchanged
with the air through leaves?
What happens when the
stomata are open?
Why are at least some
stomata open all the time?
• Have a very large surface area for
capturing sunlight and carrying out
photosynthesis
evaporation from the leaves
• Surfaces are covered with a waxy
cuticle that makes them
waterproof - this is an important
adaptation that prevent leaf cells
losing water rapidly and constantly
by evaporation from their surfaces
CO2 moves from the external air into
the leaf, and O2 moves out of the
leaf by diffusion down a
concentration gradient through
stomata.The stomata can be
opened and closed by guard cells
• CO2 and O2 are exchanged
between the air inside the leaf and
the external air
the surrounding air by diffusion
• Water vapour also moves out by
diffusion and is lost
2. The loss of water by evaporation
• This loss of water vapour from the
leaves and stems of plants is
called transpiration
Stomata open and close to control
the amount of water lost by a plant,
but during the day, a plant needs to
take in CO2 for photosynthesis, and
at night when no O2 is being
produced by photosynthesis, it
needs to take in O2 for cellular
respiration
The movement of water through a
plant from the roots until it is lost by
What is the transpiration
stream?
The best current model explaining
the movement of water through a
plant during transpiration
What is cohesion-tension
theory?
1. Water molecules evaporate from
the surface of mesophyll cells
into the air spaces in the leaf,
and move out of stomata into
down a concentration gradient
from a mesophyll cell lowers the
Ψ of the cell, so water moves
into the cell from an adjacent cell
by osmosis, along both apoplast
Describe the stages in
and symplast pathways
cohesion-tension theory 3. This is repeated across the leaf
to the xylem. Water moves out of
the xylem by osmosis into the
cells of the leaf
4. Capillary action allows water to
rise up a narrow tube against
gravity. Water is drawn up by the
transpiration pull
5. Transpiration pull results in a
tension in xylem, helping move
water across roots from the soil
 Capillary action = Adhesion +
Cohesion
ions dissolved in that water, to the
• Adhesion - water molecules form
hydrogen bonds with the
What is capillary action? carbohydrates in the walls of
narrow xylem vessels
• Cohesion - water molecules form
hydrogen bonds with each other so
tend to stick together.
Water is drawn up the xylem in a
continuous stream to replace the
water lost by evaporation
What is the transpiration
pull?
Changes in the diameter of trees
• Favourable environmental
• During day, transpiration and
tension in the xylem vessels is at
its highest, and diameter of tree
decreases
turgor
• At night, transpiration and tension
in the xylem vessels is at lowest,
and diameter of the tree increases
extend lengthways
• Measuring circumference of a tree
Give evidence for the at different times of the day
the opening and closing of flexible than outer walls so cells
cohesion-tension theory
When a xylem vessel is broken, e.g.
when you cut flower stems to put
them in water
Closing
• Air is drawn in to the xylem rather
than water leaking out
• Hormonal signals from roots
• Plant can no longer move water up
the stem as continuous stream of
water molecules held by cohesive
forces has been broken by air
• Delivers water, and the mineral
cells where they are needed
How is transpiration a • Evaporation of water from the leaf
benefit for plants? cell surfaces helps to cool the leaf
down and prevent heat damage
• The amount of water available is
often limited
• High intensity sunlight = rapid
photosynthesis = high rate of gas
How is transpiration a
exchange, the stomata will all be
problem for plants? open, and the plant may lose so
much water though transpiration
that the supply cannot meet the
demand
Opening
conditions
• Guard cells pump in solutes by
active transport, increasing their
• Cellulose hoops prevent the cells
from swelling in width, so they
How do guard cells control • Inner wall of guard cell is less
stomata? become bean-shaped and open
the pore
• Water becomes scarce
trigger turgor loss from guard cells
• Asymmetric configuration of the
guard cells close the stomatal
pore, and so conserve water
 • Light
• Increases in temperature increase
• Relative humidity
the KE of the water molecules and
What are the factors • Temperature
therefore increases the rate of
affecting the rate of • Air movement
evaporation from the spongy
• Soil-water availability mesophyll cells into the air spaces
transpiration? of the leaf

How does temperature • Increases in temperature increases

affect the rate of the concentration that the external
• Increasing light intensity increases transpiration? air can hold before it becomes
rate of transpiration
saturated (decreases its relative
• Light is required for humidity and its water potential)

photosynthesis; in the light the • Both: Increases the diffusion

stomata open for gas exchange gradient between air inside and
needed, and in the dark, most of outside the leaf, increases rate of
How does light affect the
the stomata close
transpiration
rate of transpiration? • Increasing light intensity, increases
number of open stomata, • Each leaf has a layer of still air
increasing rate of water vapour trapped around it due to the shape
diffusing out, increasing the of the leaf, and features such as
evaporation from the surfaces of hair on the surface of the leaf
the leaf decrease air movement close to
the leaf

Relative humidity is a measure of the How does air movement • Water vapour that diffuses out of
amount of water vapour in the air affect the rate of the leaf accumulates here

(humidity) compared to the total transpiration? • Water vapour potential around the
concentration of water the air can stomata increases, in turn
hold
reducing the diffusion gradient

How does relative humidity • High relative humidity lowers rate • Air movement or wind will
affect the rate of of transpiration because of increases the rate of transpiration

transpiration? reduced water vapour potential • A long period of still air will reduce
gradient between the inside of the transpiration
leaf and the outside air

If it is very dry, the plant will be

• Very dry air has the opposing
effect and increases the rate of under water stress, and the rate of
transpiration How does soil-water transpiration will be reduced
availability affect the rate of
transpiration?

What is glucose used for in
plants?
rather than glucose?
What is translocation?
What are the main sources
of assimilates in a plant?
What are the main sinks in a
plant?
Converted to sucrose for transport, Sucrose is not used in metabolism
then when it reaches the cells where as readily as glucose and therefore
it’s needed, it is converted to ….
is less likely to be metabolised
• Glucose for respiration
Why is sucrose transported during the transport process
• Starch for storage
• Used to produce the amino acids
and other compounds needed
within the cell
1. ATP is used to actively transport
The movement of organic solutes H+ ions out of the companion
around a plant in the phloem
cells
• Active process that requires 2. This increases their
energy to take place
concentration outside the cells
• Substances can be transported up and decreases their
or down the plant
concentration inside the
• The main products of companion cells, creating a
photosynthesis that are concentration gradient
transported are known as How does phloem loading 3. H+ ions diffuse back into the
assimilates
happen via the apoplast companion cells through co-
• From sources to sinks transporter proteins that only
route?
• Green leaves and green stems
allow the movement of H+ ions
• Stage organs such as tubers and into the cell if they are
tap roots that are unloading their accompanied by sucrose
stores at the beginning of a growth molecules
period
4. As the concentration of sucrose
in the companion cell increases,
• Food stores in seeds when they
germinate
it diffuses through
plasmodesmata into the sieve
tube
• Roots that are growing and/or
actively absorbing mineral ions
It results from the active transport of
• Meristems that are actively diving
the H+ ions out of the cell, and
• Any part of the plant that are Why is co-transport known moves sucrose against its
laying down food stores, e.g. as secondary active concentration gradient
developing seeds, fruits or storage transport?
organs
 • Many infoldings in their cell • A rise in the water potential of the
membranes to give an increased phloem

surface area for the active What does the loss of • Water moves out into the
What are the adaptations of transport of sucrose into the cell solutes from the phloem surrounding cells by osmosis

companion cells? cytoplasm

• Some of the water that carried the
lead to?
• Many mitochondria to supply the solute to the sink is drawn into the
ATP needed for the transport transpiration stream in the xylem
pumps
• Microscopy allows us to see the
What happens as a result of • Water also moves in by osmosis
adaptations of the companion
the build up of sucrose in • Leads to a build-up of turgor cells for active transport

pressure due to the rigid cell walls

the companion cell and • If the mitochondria of the

• The water carrying the assimilates companion cells are poisoned,
sieve element? moves into the tubes of the sieve translocation stops

elements, reducing the pressure in

• Flow of sugars in the phloem is
the companion cells, and moves 10 000 times faster than it would
up or down the plant by mass flow be by diffusion alone, suggesting
to areas of lower pressure (the an active process is driving the
sinks)
What is the evidence for the mass flow

main principles of • Aphids can be used to

Phloem unloading
demonstrate the translocation of
translocation?
• Diffusion of the sucrose from the organic solutes in the phloem -
phloem into the surrounding cells
aphid studies show there is a
• Sucrose rapidly moves on into positive pressure in the phloem
other cells by diffusion or is that forces the sap out through the
converted into another substance, stylet. The pressure and therefore
so that a concentration gradient of the flow rate in the phloem is lower
sucrose is maintained between closer to the sink than it is near the
contents of the phloem and the source. The concentration of
surrounding cells sucrose in the phloem sap is also
higher near to the source than
near the sink
 • Not all solutes in the phloem move • Thick waxy cuticle

at the same rate (but sucrose • Sunken stomata

always moves at the same rate • Reduced numbers of stomata

What is there no evidence regardless of the concentration in • Reduced leaves

for? the sink)

What are the adaptations of • Hairy leaves

• The role of sieve plates in the xerophytes? • Curled leaves

process is unclear • Succulents

• Leaf loss

• Waxy cuticle to reduce • Root adaptations

transpiration from leaf surfaces

• Avoiding the problem
What are the general • Stomata found mainly on the
underside of the leaf that can be Plants with adaptations that enable
adaptations of most plants closed to prevent the loss of water them to survive in very wet habitats
to conserve water? vapour
or submerged or at the surface of
water

• Roots that down down to the

water in the soil What are hydrophytes?
• Water lilies

Plants with adaptations that enable • Water cress

them to survive in dry habitats or • Duckweeds

habitats where water is in short • Marginals e.g.bulrushes

supply in the environment

• Very thin or no waxy cuticle

• Conifers
• Many always-open stomata on the
upper surfaces

What are xerophytes? • Marram grass

• Plants that survive in very cold and • Reduced structure to the plant

icy conditions
What are the adaptations of • Wide, flat leaves

• Cacti
hydrophytes? • Small roots

• Large surface areas of stems and

roots under water

• Air sacs

• Aerenchyma