ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 1

[TRANS] : HISTOLOGY
HISTOLOGY
• Tissues :
o Epithelial : covers body surfaces and line hollow
organs, body cavities, duct, and forms glands
§ skin is made up of epithelial tissues
o Connective : protects, supports, and binds organs
§ stores energy as fat, provides immunity
§ protect : providing immunity to protect us against
invaders
o Muscular : generates the physical force needed to
make body structures move and generate body heat
§ for contraction – muscle contracts to make our
body move
o Nervous : detect changes in body and responds by
generating nerve impulses
§ nerve cells form organs and is responsible to
collect information from the environment
EPITHELIAL TISSUES
• line the cavities and surfaces of blood vessels and organs
throughout the body
o lining epithelium – simple columnar found in stomach
in the anal canal
• may be a lining, protective or frangular
• Covering or lining tissues
o cells can be stratified, ciliated or keratinized
o found in hollow organs
• Supported by connective tissues
o reticular and basal laminae
• Regenerative
o rapidly replaces lost cells by cell division
o once damaged, they are easily replaced
CLASSIFICATION
• Squamous
o Shape : flat and scale-like
o Simple squamous epithelium
§ single layer of flat cell
o Stratified squamous epithelium
§ a lot of layers of flat cell
o Stratified squamous epithelium keratinized
§ has a layer of keratin
• Cuboidal
o cubed shape, large spherical nucleus
§ stratified cuboidal epithelium
• Columnar
o taller than they are wide, oval nucleus
o Simple columnar epithelium
§ single layer of cells that are tall
o Simple columnar epithelium ciliated
§ single layer of cells with cilia
o Stratified columnar epithelium
• Simple
o one layer
• Stratified
o two or more layers
• Pseudostratified
o false stratification
o cells are of different height
• Keratin : fibrous protein that makes skin dry or tough
• Cilia : short hair-like extension for cellular movement

SIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM

• Glandular or secretory tissue
o tissues are specialized to secrete materials such as
digestive tissues, hormones, milk, sweat and wax
o are columnar or cuboidal-shaped
• single layer of flattened cells with disc-shaped central nuclei
and sparse cytoplasm
• simplest of the epithelia
• Function :
o allows passage of materials by diffusion and filtration in
sites where protection is not important
o secretes lubricating substances in serosae
• Location :
o kidney glomeruli : supports filtration
§ also made up of simple squamous epithelium
o air sacs of lungs : for diffusion
o lining of heart, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels
o serosae : lining of ventral body cavity

PROPERTIES
• Cellularity
o composed almost entirely of cells
• Special contacts
o form continuous sheets held together by tight junctions
and desmosomes
o Tight junctions : makes it waterproof
o Desmosomes : just like cement

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SIMPLE CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM PSEUDOSTRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM

• single layer of cubelike cells with large, spherical central • single layer of cells of differing heights, some not reaching
nuclei free surface
• Function: • nuclei seen at different levels
o secretion and absorption • may contain goblet cells and bear cilia
• Location: • Function:
o kidney tubules : reabsorption of important molecules – o secretion – particularly of mucus
glucose o propulsion of mucus by ciliary action
§ for absorption • Location:
o ducts and secretory proportions of small glands o non-ciliated type in male’s sperm-carrying ducts
§ for secretin § epididymis, vas deferens
o ovary surface : secretion § has goblet cells
o ducts of large glands
o ciliated variety lines the trachea
§ upper respiratory tract – mucus will accumulate
§ movement of cilia affected by temperature
o most of the upper respiratory tract

Simple cuboidal epithelium, kidney

SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM

• single layer of tall cells with round to oval nuclei
• some cells bear cilia
• layer may contain mucus-secreting unicellular cells
o Goblet cells : mucus-secreting unicellular cells Ciliated Type of Pseudostratified
§ color white
§ mucus serves different purposes STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM
• Function: • thick membrane composed of several layers
o absorption • basal cells – cuboidal or columnar and metabolically active
o secretion of mucus, enzymes, and other substances o active in mitosis and produces the cells of the more
o ciliated type propels mucus by ciliary action superficial layers
§ lower respiratory trach found in mucus • surface cells are flattened
o Cilia : will be seen in the surface, but depends on the • Keratinized type – surface cells are full of keratin and dead
location • Function:
• Location: o protects underlying tissues in areas subjected to
o non-ciliated type lines most of the digestive tract abrasion
§ stomach to anal canal § mechanical stress
§ purpose of mucus : neutralize the acidic effect of • Location:
gastric enzymes o nonkeratinized type forms the moist linings of the
o gallbladder and excretory ducts of some glands esophagus, mouth, and vagina
o ciliated variety lines small bronchi, uterine tubes and § moist
some regions of the uterus § mechanical digestion
§ lower respiratory tract o keratinized variety forms the epidermis of the skin – a
§ propels reproductive cell dry membrane
§ dry

Simple columnar epithelium, small intestine Vagina

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Stratified squamous epithelium, keratinized, Thin Skin Sweat gland

TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM MUSCLE TISSUES

• resembles both stratified squamous and stratified cuboidal
• can change the shape of the cell – depend on degree of SKELETAL
organ stretch • Striated/ Skeletal Muscle Tissue
• basal cells : cuboidal or columnar • cells are long, cylindrical, striated and multinucleate
• surface cells : dome shaped or squamous-like o has more than one nucleus per cell
• depending on degree of organ stretch • has striatd, tubular, multinucleated fibers
• Function: • most abundant type of muscle
o stretches readily and permits distension of urinary • Striations : the acting and myosin filament
organ by contained urine o bonded appearance
• Location: • Voluntary control
o lines the ureter, bladder, and part of the urethra • Function:
§ increase surface area through stretching o moves or stabilizes the position of the skeleton
o guards entrance and exits to the digestive, respiratory,
and urinary tracts
o generates heat
§ necessary for normal body temperature of the
body
o protects internal organs
• Location:
o usually attached to skeleton
o combined with connective tissues and neural tissue in
skeletal muscle
§ to stabilize connections of the skeleton

Transitional epithelium, urinary bladder

SECRETORY EPITHELIAL TISSUE

• Endocrine Gland Cells : form ductless glands that secrete
substance directly into the bloodstream
o thyroid and adrenal gland

Skeletal Tissue

Thyroid Gland
• Exocrine Gland Cells : secrete substances into ducts
o mammary glands, sweat glands and salivary glands
SMOOTH MUSCLE
• cells are short, spindle-shaped and nonstriated, with a
single, central nucleus
• has spindle-shaped, nonstriated, uninucleated fibers
• much easier to identify due to one nucleus
• Involuntary – contraction
• Function:
o moves food, urine, and reproductive tract secretions
o controls diameter of respiratory passageways
o regulates diameter of blood vessels
• Location:

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o walls of internal organs o important for immuno-response
o found in the walls of blood vessels and in digestive
§ regulate the diameter CELLS
o respiratory, urinary, and reproductive organs • Mobile : wondering cells, migrate or transfer from one place
§ allows food to move through peristalsis, to another
respiration o blood cells
§ Red Blood Cells : O2 and CO2 transport
§ White Blood Cells : fight invaders – can eat
invaders – phagocytic cells
o Macrophages :
• Fixed : cannot go or transfer to another cells
o Macrophages : some cells in the brain do not move
o Adipocytes : store energy in fats
o Fibroblasts : produce fibers

MATRIX
• Ground substance
o Mineralized : hard matrix that is present
§ bone
o Gelatinous and Syrupy : soft and sticky
§ loose connective tissue : areola,
§ dense connective tissue : tendon
Smooth Muscle § cartilage tissue : cartilages
§ adipose tissue : fats
CARDIAC MUSCLE o Watery
• cells are short, branched, and striated, usually with a single § blood plasma
nucleus • Protein fibers : elastic/resilient
• striated, branched, and uninucleated fibers o provides resiliency to connective tissues
o branching and cylindrical o Fibronectin
• cells are connected by intercalated discs § connects cells to matrix
• Intercalated discs : cell to cell communication o Fibrillin
• Involuntary § forms filaments and sheets
• Function: o Elastin
o circulation of blood § stretch and recoil
o maintain blood pressure o Collagen
• Location: § stiff but flexible
o heart
CELLS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE
• Fibroblast
o can synthesize and create fibers
• Plasma Cell
o responsible for producing anti-bodies
• Adipose Cell
o adipocyte
o connective tissue cell with ring appearance
o nucleus located at its side
o to store fats
• Large lymphocyte
o for immune response
• Macrophage
• Fibrocyte : inactive fibroblast
o cross-section of jelly in the umbilical cord
• Eosinophil
Cardiac Muscle o blood smear, for immune response
• Neutrophil
CONNECTIVE TISSUES o
• Support • Cell with pigment granules
o bone made out of tissue • Small lymphocyte
• Protection • Mast cell
o bone protects body and organs o for releasing histamine
o by forming body cavities
• Transport CONNECTIVE TISSUES
• Insulation • Connective proper
o provides us heat, insulates us o Mucous
• Hematopoietic o Dense
o blood cell formation § Irregular, Elastic, Regular
• Immunologic
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o Loose
o Reticular • Dense regular
• Specialized o fibers oriented in one direction and parallel to each
o Blood other
o Bone o Location :
§ compact, trabecular § tendons, ligaments, aponeurosis

o Cartilage
§ Elastic, Hyalin, Fibrocartilage
o Adipose
§ White, Brown

CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER

MUCOUS CONNECTIVE TISSUE

• distinctive cell of mucous connective tissue is a primitive
fibroblast, spindle-shaped or stellate
• has gelatinous and jelly ground substance
• Location : AREOLAR OR LOOSE FIBRO-ELASTIC
o Wharton’s jelly of the umbilical cord
• widely distributed
• areolar : airy, has a lot of space
• superficial and deep fascia
• few collagen fibers

RETICULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE

• made of collagen
• extremely fine and highly branched
Mucous connective tissue: umbilical cord • interwoven in netlike supporting framework or reticulum

DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE

• close packing of collagen fibers
• Dense irregular
o collagen fibers in bundle randomly oriented
o Location :
§ dermis, GIT submucosa, capsule of organs,
periosteum, perichondrium

Reticular connective tissue, lymph node, cross section

SPECIALIZED CONNECTIVE TISSUES

VASCULAR TISSUE / BLOOD

• for transport of materials – oxygen, nutrients
• composed of formed elements and a liquid matrix (plasma)

Dense irregular
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Spongy bone, cross section

o Plasma : liquid portion
• Type of Bone Cells :
o Formed Elements
o Osteoblasts : bone building cells
§ Erythrocytes (RBC)
§ blast cells form the matrix
§ Leucocytes (WBC)
o Osteocytes : mature bone cells
§ Thrombocytes (platelets)
§ cyte cells maintain it
o Osteoclasts : bone destroying cells
LEUCOCYTES (WBC) § clast cells break it down
• Granulocytes/Polymorphonuclear leucocytes o depends on level of calcium in our body
o Neutrophil : multi-lobed nucleus (polymorphic) o high calcium levels in the body – calcitonin will give
§ bacterial signal to osteoblast to build bone cells
o Eosinophil : 2-lobbed nucleus
§ parasitic
o Basophil : with 3-lobed assuming an S-shaped nucleus
§ allergic
• Agranulocytes/Mononuclear leucocytes
o Lymphocyte : elicits antibody response
§ responsible for anti-bodies
o Monocyte : bean-shaped nucleus
§ acts as phagocytes

OSTEON OR HAVERSIAN SYSTEM

• Haversian Canal – center of bone
• Osteons tissue – bone collagen known o smth
• Concentric Lamellae
o concentric rings of matrix Developing bone, fetal humerus; cross section
• Lacunae
o small spaces between lamellae that contain the mature CARTILAGE
bone cells • dense, firm, but pliable
o houses the bone cells
• With :
• Canaliculi
o Chondrocytes – cells
o network of minute canals that extend from the H canal o Fibers – collagenous and elastic
to the lacuna and from one lacuna to another o Ground substance – chondromucoprotein
o houses the processes of osteocytes
• some enveloped by a fibrous tissue sheath called
o canal that extends from Haversian Canal to the
perichondrium
Lacunae
o dense, irregular connective tissues
• no nerve nor body supply of its own and lacks lymphatics
o very prone to infections

TYPES OF CARTILAGE
• Hyaline Cartilage
o has a perichondrium and 1 to 4 chondrocytes per
lacuna – are distant from each other
o Function:
§ provides smooth surface for movement of joints,
flexibility, and support
o Location:
§ trachea, anterior ends of ribs, larynx, growing ends
of long bone
Compact Bone, ground, cross section

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• large, oval shape, “signet ring” appearance

• Function :
o fat storage
§ used to create energy
o insulation
o mechanical support
§ encloses our delicate organs (e.g. kidneys)

TYPES OF ADIPOCYTES
• Yellow / White
o closer to each other
o all over the body
Hyaline cartilage, cross section • Brown / Multilocular
o smaller
• Elastic o tiny vascularized
o 1 chondrocyte per lacuna o between shoulder blades, surrounding the kidney
o Function :
§ has a greater opacity, flexibility, elasticity
§ permeated in all directions by branching elastic
fibers
§ perichondrium is present
§
o Location :
§ external ears, auditory tubes, epiglottis

Adipocytes

NERVOUS TISSUE
• to receive and conduct electrochemical impulses to and
from body parts
o Irritability
o Conductivity
• composed of neurons and nerve support cells
o support cells called neuroglia – insulate, protect and
Elastic cartilage, epiglottis
support neurons
• Fibrocartilage
o Function :
PARTS OF A NERVE CELL
§ transitional form between dense CT and cartilage • Dendrites – receive signals
§ with dense network of anastomosing bundles of • Axons – sends electrical impulses away from the body
collagenous fibers
§ no perichondrium
o Location:
§ pubic symphysis, intervertebral discs, mandibular
joints

NEURON CLASSIFICATION
• Structural :
o Multipolar : three or more processes
o Bipolar : two processes (axon and dendrite)
o Unipolar : single, short process
• Anaxonic neuron
o have more than two processes and they may all be
Fibrocartilage, pubic symphysis dendrites; axons are not obvious
• Bipolar neuron
ADIPOCYTES o have two processes separated by the cell body
• also called as fat cells • Unipolar neuron

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o have single elongated process, with the cell body § can interfere or inhibit the normal architecture f the
located off to the side underlying organ or tissue
• Multipolar neuron § inflammation or damage of lungs, heart, brain, liver
o have more than two processes § depends on type of tissue damage : epithelial,
o there is a single axon and multiple dendrites fibrous, bone, blood vessels
§ Clean cuts or incisions can heal more successfully
than ragged
o Cardiac and nervous tissues cannot regenerate

STAGES OF TISSUE REPAIR

• Inflammation
• Functional :
o Sensory (afferent) : transmit impulses toward the CNS
o Motor (efferent) : carry impulses away from the CNS
o Interneurons (association neurons) : shuttle signals
through CNS pathways
o general body response that attempts to prevent further
injury
o damage tissue cells release inflammatory chemicals
that make capillaries very permeable
o increase in permeability - enables some cells to start
the healing process
§ maintain homeostasis in the body
o WBC’s and clotting protein seep into injured area
o Clot – prevent blood loss

• Granulation tissue forms

o new blood vessels are formed around the wound site
o granulation tissue – delicate pink tissue composed
largely of pink capillaries
• Multipolar Neuron o contains connective tissue cells – fibroblasts which
synthesizes the extracellular matrix and the collagen
o Connective tissue produce collagen fibers
o Epithelial Tissue multiply

TISSUE REPAIR
• Wound healing • Surface epithelium regenerates
o process by which the skin repairs itself after an injury o surface epithelium thickens
o to prevent or limit further damage o Fibrous tissue matures – forms scar
o restore tissue function
o Regeneration : replace destroyed tissue by the same
kind of cells
§ new growth of tissue completely restore parts of
the damage tissue
o Fibrosis : form scar tissue (dense fibrous connective
tissue)

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Table No. Regenerative Capacity of Different Tissues

Regenerative Capacity Examples
Extremely Well Skin epidermis
Mucous membranes
Fibrous
Connective
Blood
Bones
Moderate Smooth muscle
Tendons
Ligaments
Weak Skeletal muscle
Cartilage
Virtually None (mostly Cardiac muscle
scar tissue) Nervous Tissue

HEALING BY FIRST INTENTION

• mechanism of wound healing is dependent on the severity
of the injury – epithelial layer
• principle mechanism of repair is through Epithelial
Regeneration or Primary Union or Healing by first intention
• Healing of clean surgical incision approximated by surgical
sutures
• Inflammation, Granulation and Maturation of connective
tissue scar

HEALING BY SECOND INTENTION

• large wounds, abscess
• combination of regeneration and scarring
• Secondary Union
o inflammatory rection is more intense
o development of abundant granulation tissue
o accumulation of extracellular matrix
o formation of large scar
o wound contraction by action of myofibroblasts

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