Analysis of Class A amplifiers

There are two types:

a) Directly coupled
b) Transformer coupled
For directly coupled, the load is directly connected to the collector of the transistor, while in
transformer-coupled type, the load is coupled to the collector using an output transformer.

a) Series Fed Directly coupled Class A amplifier

Figure 13: Large Signal Class A amplifier

● The input signal Vin is large in the order of a few volts.

● The transistor used is a power transistor.
● The value of RB is chosen in such a way that the Q point lies at the center of the dc load
line.
● The load resistor RL is directly connected to the collector.
● Most of the times the load is a loudspeaker, the impedance of which varies from 3 to 4W.

● The b of the transistor used is less 100.

● The overall circuit handles large power, in the range of tens of watts without providing
much voltage gain.
 Figure 14: Graphical representation of class A amplifier

If we apply KVL on the output of the amplifier circuit:

DC Operation
● The collector supply voltage Vcc and the resistance RB decide the dc bias current IBQ
● The expression obtained by applying KVL to the Base Emitter Loop and with VBE=0.7V
● Therefore:

● The corresponding collector current is then:

● The corresponding collector to emitter voltage is:

● Hence the Q point can be defined as Q(VCEQ,ICQ)

D.C power input
DC power input is provided by the supply. Without a.c input signal, the dc current drawn is the
collector bias current ICQ. Hence dc power input is:

This is the dc power input of a class A series fed amplifier.

AC operation
When an ac input signal is applied, the base current varies sinusoidally.

Assuming no non-linear distortion, collector current and VCE also vary sinusoidally.

The varying output voltage and output current deliver an ac power to the load.

AC Power output
For ac VCE and IC swings we can write:

Vmin=Minimum instantaneous value of the output voltage

Vmax=Maximum instantaneous value of the output voltage

Vpp=Peak to peak value of ac output

Therefore:

Vm=Amplitude of ac output voltage, Therefore:

Similarly, for output current:

Hence the rms values of alternating output current and output voltage and current

Therefore:

Vm
Vrm s =
2 or Vm = Im R L

The ac power delivered by the amplifier to the load can be expressed by using rms values,
maximum/peak values, and peak to peak values

i) Using rms values

Pac = V rm s Irm s
or
2
Pac = Irm sR L

or
2
V rm s
Pac =
RL

ii) Using Peak values

Vm Im
Pac = Vrm s Irm s = ´
2 2
or
Im2 R L
Pac =
2
or
V m2
Pac =
2R L
iii) Using peak to peak values
 æV pp ö÷æIPP ö÷
çç ÷çç ÷
V m Im çè 2 ø÷
÷çè 2 ø÷
Pac = =
2 2

VPP IPP
Pac =
8
or
IPP 2R L
Pac =
8
or
VPP 2
Pac =
8R L

Efficiency
The efficiency of an amplifier represents the amount of ac power delivered or transferred to the
load, from the dc source i.e. accepting the dc power input. The generalized expression for an
amplifier is:

Pac
%h = ´ 100%
Pdc

For class A,

VPP IPP (V - V )(I - I )

%h = ´ 100% = max min max min ´ 100%
8VCC ICQ 8VCC ICQ

The efficiency is also called the conversion efficiency of an amplifier.

Maximum Efficiency
Consider the fig for maximum swing:

The minimum voltage possible is zero and maximum voltage possible is Vcc for a maximum
swing. Similarly the minimum current possible is 2ICQ, for a maximum swing.

For maximum swing:

V max = VCC a nd V min = 0

Ima x = 2ICQ a nd Imin = 0
For ma ximum Efficiency,
( Vcc - 0 ) ( 2ICQ - 0 )
%h ma x = ´ 10 0% = 25%
8VCC ICQ

Therefore, the maximum possible efficiency of a directly coupled series fed class A amplifier is
25%.

For practical cases, this efficiency is much less (10% to 15%).

NB: Very low efficiency is the biggest disadvantage of class A amplifiers.

Power Dissipation
Power dissipation in large signal amplifiers is large. The amount of power that must be
dissipated by the transistor is the difference between dc power input and ac power output

delivered to the load Pac .

Pd = Power dissipation
\ Pd = Pdc - Pac

The maximum power dissipation occurs when there is zero ac input signal. When ac input is
zero, the ac power output is also zero. But the transistor operates at quiescent condition, drawing

VCC ICQ
dc input power from supply equal to .

This entire power gets dissipated in form of heat.

\ ( Pd ) max = VCC ICQ

NB: The value of maximum power dissipation decides the maximum power rating of the
transistor selected for the amplifier.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages:

1. Circuit is simple to design and to implement

2. The load is connected directly in the collector circuit hence the output transformer is not
necessary; this makes the circuit cheaper.
3. Less number of components needed as load is directly coupled.
Disadvantages

1. The load resistance is directly connected in collector and carries the quiescent collector
current. This causes considerable wastage of power.
2. Power dissipation is more. Hence power dissipation arrangements like heat sinks are
essential.
 3. The output impedance is high hence circuit cannot be used for low impedance loads such
as loudspeakers.
4. Efficiency is very poor, due to large power dissipation.
Example:

A series fed class A amplifier shown operates from dc source and applied sinusoidal input signal
generates peak base current of 9mA. Calculate:

ICQ
i) Quiescent Current
VCEQ
ii) Quiescent Voltage

iii) DC input power Pdc

iv) AC output power Pac

v) Efficiency

Assume b = 50 and VBE = 0.7V

VCC - VBE 20 - 0.7

IBQ = = = 12.87m A
RB 1.5´ 10 3

ICQ = bIBQ = 50 ´ 12.87m A = 643.50 m A

VCC = ICQ R L + VCEQ

VCEQ = VCC - ICQ R L = 20 - 643.5´ 10 - 3 = 12.87W
 Pac when Peak current Ib = 9m A
IC = bIb = 50 ´ 9 = 450 m A ( peak )
IC ( peak ) 450
IC rm s = = = 318.19m A
2 2
2
Pac = Irm2 sR L = ( 318.19 ´ 10 - 3 ) ´ 16 = 1.319W

Efficiency

Pac 1.619
h= ´ 10 0 = ´ 100 = 12.58%
Pdc 12.87

b) Transformer Coupled Class A amplifier

For loads like loudspeakers having low impedance values, impedance matching is difficult using
directly coupled amplifier circuits. This problem can be eliminated by using a transformer to
deliver power to the load.

Transformer action:

Figure 15: Transformer with load

Assume an ideal transformer (no losses, winding resistance=0). Let,

N 1 = Number of turns on prima ry

N 2 = Number of turns on secondary
V 1 = Voltage applied to prima ry
V 2 = Voltage on seconda ry
I1 = Primary current
I 2 = Secondary current

N2 N2 N
Turns ra tio n= : 1 or 1 : 1
i) N 1 , sometimes specified as N 1 N2
 ii) Voltage transformation
V2 N 2
= =n
V1 N 1
In amplifier analysis, the total load impedance must be small. Since the transformer is to be used
for impedance matching, a step down transformer must be used.

I1 N 2
=
I2 N 1
Resista nce looking into prima ry:
V
R L' = 1
I1
Resista nce looking into seconda ry:
V2
RL =
I2
æV ö÷
çç 1 ÷
'
RL çè I ø÷
÷ V 1 I2 1 1 1
= 1
æV ö÷ V I= ´ = ´ =
RL çç 2 ÷ 2 1 n n n2
çè I ø÷
÷
2

R L' 1
= 2
RL n
RL
\ R L' = This is the reflected load imped a nce on prima ry
n2

Example:

The load of 4W is connected to the secondary of a transformer having primary winding turns of
200 and the secondary turns of 20. Calculate the reflected load impedance.

R L = 4W, N 1 = 200 , N 2 = 20
N2 20
n= = = 0.1
N 1 200
RL 4
R L' = 2
= = 400 W
n 0.12
 '
As N 1 > N 2 the transformer is a step down and hence R L > R L as the primary winding is high
voltage winding.

Example:

For a TX, the load connected to the secondary has an impedance of 8W. Its impedance on

primary is observed to be 648W. Calculate the turns ratio.

R L = 8W, R L' = 648W

RL R 8
R L' = 2
; n 2 = L' = = 0.01234
n R L 648
\ n = 0.1111
N
But n = 2 = 0.1111
N1
N1
\ = 9
N2
N1
Generally the turns ra tio is specified a s : 1 which for this tra nsformer is 9:1
N2

NB// For all calculations, use the turns ratio n = N 2 / N 1 .

For specifying the turns ratio, we write as

( N 1 / N 2 ) : 1.

e.g. If the turns ratio is given as 10:1 then for the calculation purpose we will consider the turns
ratio as:

N2 1
n= = = 0.1
N 1 10
Circuit Diagram of Transformer Coupled Class A amplifier

N2
n=
The transformer used has a turns ratio of N1

DC Operation
● We assume that the windings have zero resistance hence for dc purposes, the resistance is
zero ohms.
● There is no dc voltage drop across the primary winding of the transformer
● The slope of the dc load line is reciprocal of the dc resistance in the collector circuit ,
which is zero in this case.
● Hence the slope of the load line is ideally infinite
● Hence the load line is a vertical straight line
Applying KVL

VCC - VCE = 0
\ VCC = VCE
This is the dc bias of the transistor.

VCEQ = VCC

The intersection of dc load line and the base current set by the circuit is the Q point of the circuit.

ICQ
The corresponding collector current is .
 Figure 16: Load Line for transformer coupled amplifier

DC power input
The dc power input is provided by the supply voltage with no signal input, the dc current drawn

ICQ
is the collector bias current

Therefore the dc power input is given by:

Pdc = VCC ICQ

AC Operation
● For a.c analysis we can draw an ac load line on the output characteristics.

● For ac purposes, the load on the secondary is the load impedance R LW.
RL
R L' =
● The reflected load on the primary n2
- 1 '
The load line drawn with a slope of R L and passing through the Q-point is called the ac load

line.

ICQ
The output current i.e. collector current varies around its quiescent value when ac input signal
is applied to the amplifier.
 VCEQ
The corresponding output voltage also varies sinusoidally around its quiescent value which

is
VCC in this case.

AC Power Output
V pp = V max - V min
V ma x - V min V pp
Vm = =
2 2
I I - I
IPP = PP = ma x min
2 2

Hence the rms values for alternating output voltage and current:

Vm
Vrms =
2
Im
Irms =
2
The primary voltage

V 1rms = I1rms R L'

or
V 1m = I1m R L'

The slope of the ac load line can be expressed in terms of primary current and primary voltage:

I
= 1 ' = 1m
R L V 1m

The generalized expression for ac power output for transformer coupled class A amplifier:

( V max - V min ) ( Imax - Imin )

Pac =
8
NB: The ac power calculated is the power developed across the primary winding of the output
transformer.

Assuming ideal transformer, the power delivered to load on secondary, is the same as that
delivered across the primary. If the transformer efficiency is known the power delivered to the
load must be calculated from the power developed on the secondary considering the efficiency of
the transformer.

Efficiency

Pac ( V - V min ) ( Imax - Imin )

%h = ´ 100 = ma x ´ 100%
Pdc 8VCC ICQ

Maximum Efficiency

Figure 17: Maximum Voltage and current swings

For maximum efficiency:

( 2VCC - 0 ) ( 2ICQ - 0 )
h ma x = ´ 10 0 %
8VCC ICQ
4VCC ICQ
= ´ 10 0 % = 50 %
8VCC ICQ
Power Dissipation by Transistor
This is the difference between ac power output and dc power input

Power dissipated by transformer is very small due to negligible dc winding resistance and can be
neglected.

Pd = PDC - Pac
When there is no ac power input, the transistor dissipates maximum power.

\ Pd max = VCC ICQ

This maximum power dissipation decides the maximum power rating of the power transistor
selected.

Advantages

1. Efficiency is higher than directly coupled Class A

2. d.c bias current does not flow through the load
3. Impedance matching required for maximum power transfer is possible.
Disadvantages:

1. Circuit is bulkier, costlier due to transformer

2. more complicated design
3. Frequency response of circuit is poor
Example

A loudspeaker of 8Wis connected to the secondary of the output transformer of a class A

amplifier circuit. The quiescent current is 140mA. The turns ratio of the transformer is 3:1. The
collector supply voltage is 10V. If the ac power delivered to the loudspeaker is 0.48W, assuming
ideal transformer, Calculate:

1. ac power developed across primary

2. rms value of load voltage
3. rms value of primary voltage
4. rms value of load current
 5. rms value of primary current
6. dc power input
7. efficiency
8. Power dissipated by transistor

Solution

1. ac power developed across primary is the same as power delivered to the load

\ Pac = 0.48W
2. rms value of load voltage
Pac = Irm sV rm s
V rm s
but Irm s =
RL
V rm2 s
\ Pac =
RL
hence V2 rm s = Pac R L = 0 .48´ 8 = 1.96V
3. rms value of primary voltage
V 2 rm s 1
= n a nd n =
V 1rm s 3
V 2 rm s 1.96
V 1rm s = = = 5.88V
n 1
3
4. rms value of load current

Pac = I22rmsR L
0.48
\ I2 rm s = = 0.2449 A
8
5. rms value of primary current
 I 1rm s N2
= = n = 0 .333
I 2 rm s N1
I1rm s = I 2 rm s ´ n = 0 .2449 ´ 0 .333 = 81.64m A
6. dc power input

Pdc = VCC ICQ = 10 ´ 140 m A = 1.4W

7. Efficiency
Pac 0.48
%h = ´ 100 = ´ 100 = 34.28%
Pdc 1.4
8. Power dissipated by transistor

Pd = PDC - Pac
= 1.4 - 0 .48 = 0 .92W
Distortion in Amplifiers
The input signal to an amplifier is alternating in nature with an amplitude, phase and frequency.

The amplifier output should be reproduced faithfully i.e. no change/distortion in amplitude,

frequency and phase of signal.

Possible distortion in amplifiers are:

1. Amplitude
2. Phase
3. Frequency
Due to non-linear nature of amplifiers, the output voltage differs from that of the input signal.
Such distortion is called non-linear distortion or amplitude distortion or harmonic distortion.

Harmonic Distortion

● Means the presence of frequencies in the output waveforms which were not present in the
input signal. The component with frequency same as the input signal is called the
Fundamental frequency component
 ● The additional frequency components present in the output signal have frequencies which
are integer multiples of fundamental frequency component. e.g. for f Hz fundamental
frequency (input), the output signal will have f Hz fundamental frequency and 2f, 3f, 4f
Hz and so on.
● 2f is called the second harmonic, 3f is called 3rd Harmonic and so on.
● Out of all the harmonic components, the second harmonic has the largest amplitude. As
the order of harmonic increases, the amplitude decreases
● The second harmonic is important when analyzing audio frequency amplifiers
● The distorted waveform is the summation of the fundamental frequency and all the
harmonics

Figure 1: Distortion due to harmonic components

● if the fundamental frequency component has an amplitude of B1 and the nth component
has an amplitude of Bn then the percentage harmonic distortion due to nth harmonic
component is:

th |Bn|
% n harmonic distortion=% D n= × 100
|B1|
|B2| |B3|
example: % D 2= ×100, % D 3 = ×100
|B1| |B 1|
● Total harmonic distortion, THD:
%THD=√❑
● Most important component is the 2nd Harmonic.

Second Harmonic Distortion (3-Point Method)

● Consider the dynamic transfer characteristics of a transistor shown in Figure 2:
Figure 2: Nonlinear dynamic transfer characteristics (the curve is parabolic)

● Assume that the dynamic transfer characteristics of the transistor is parabolic (non-linear)
in nature rather than a straight line. (Linear).
● This non-linearity introduces harmonic distortion in which second harmonic distortion is
most dominant. Let an a.c input signal cause the base current swing which is cosine in
nature:
i b=I Bm cosωt

● Due to this, collector current swings around the Q value but the relation between i b and i c
is non-linear as shown in the diagram.
● Mathematically this can be expressed as:

i c =G1 i b +G2 i2b ( Assuming a parabolic curve)

● therefore:
i c =G 1 I Bm cosωt +G 2 ( I Bm cosωt )2

But
1+cos 2ωt
cos 2 ωt =
2
therefore:
1+cos 2 ωt
i c =G1 I Bm cosωt +G2 I Bm2 [ 2 ]
 1 2 G2 2
i c =G 1 I Bm cosωt + G 2 I Bm + I Bm cos 2 ωt
2 2
i c =B0 +B 1 cosωt + B2 cos 2 ωt

● The last term represents the 2nd harmonic component present.

● The total collector current waveform swings about its Q value I CQ

Figure 3: Collector current waveform

● Hence the total collector current can be expressed in terms of its dc bias value, dc signal
component, fundamental frequency and 2nd harmonic as:
i c =I CQ + B0 + B1 cosωt+ B 2 cos 2 ωt

where, I CQ + B0=the dc component independent of time

B1∧B2 are amplitudes of fudamental frequency∧second

harmonic component respectively

● Consider Figure 3. Let us find the values of the total collector current at various instants
1, 2, 3:
At point 1, ωt=0
∴ ic =I CQ +B 0+ B1 + B2

π
At point 2, ωt=
2
∴ ic =I CQ +B 0−B2
At point 3, ωt=π
∴ ic =I CQ +B 0−B1+ B 2

But at ωt=0, i c =I max

π
at ωt= , i c =I CQ
2
at ωt=π, i c =I min
Hence the equations above get modified as:

I max=I CQ +B 0+ B1 + B2

I CQ =I CQ +B 0−B2

I min =I CQ +B 0−B1 +B 2

From the above,

B0=B2

I max−I min =2 B 1

I max −I min
B 1=
2
I max + I min =2 I CQ + 2 B0 +2 B 2

¿ 2 I CQ +2 B2 +2 B 2

¿ 2 I CQ +4 B2

I max + I min−2 I CQ
B 2=
4
As the amplitudes of the fundamental and the 2 nd harmonic are known, the 2nd Harmonic
distortion can be calculated as:

|B2|
% D 2= ×100
|B1|
This method is called the 3 point method of determining the 2nd harmonic distortion (introduced
when parabolic relationship between i b and i c is assumed.)

Example:
An output waveform displayed on an oscilloscope provides the following measurements.

a) V CEmin=1 V ,V CEmax =22 V ,V CEQ=12 V ,

b) V CEmin=4 V ,V CEmax =20 V , V CEQ =12V ,
Calculate the second harmonic distortion for each waveform.

Power output Due to Distortion

When the distortion is negligible, the power delivered to the load is given by:

I 2m R L
Pac =
2
but I mis the peak value of output current

I pp I max −I min
I m= =
2 2
but
I max −I min
=B1
2
∴ I m =B 1=fundamental frequency component

1
∴ P ac= B12 R L
2
With distortion, the power delivered to the load increases proportionally to the amplitude of the
harmonic component.

∴ ( Pac ) D =ac power output with harmonic distortion

1 1 1
¿ B 12 R L + B 22 R L + B 32 R L +⋯
2 2 2

1 2 B22 B 32
(
( Pac ) D= 2 B1 R L 1+ 2 + 2 +⋯
B1 B 1 )
1 2 2 2
( Pac ) D= 2 B1 R L ( 1+ D2 + D3 + ⋯ )

∴ ( Pac ) D =Pac ( 1+ D 2 )

where:
 D 2=D22 + D 32 +⋯

This is the power delivered to the load due to harmonic distortion.

Example

A transistor supplies 0.85 W to a 0.45 k Ω load. The zero signal dc collector current is 31mA and
the dc collector current with signal is 34mA. Determine the 2nd harmonic distortion.

Solution:

R L=4 k Ω

( Pac ) D=0.85 W
The current without signal is I CQ =31 mA

The current with signal is I CQ + B 0=34 mA

The increase is due to harmonic content in signal.

∴ B0 =34−31=3 mA

B2 ¿ B0=3 mA

( Pac ) D=Pac ( 1+ D 2) , assuming only 2nd Harmonic,

2
1 B
( )
( Pac ) D= 2 B12 R L 1+ 22
B1

1 2 1 2
( Pac ) D= 2 B1 R L + 2 B2 R L

1 1
0.85= B12 ×4 ×103 + ( 3 ×10−3 ) × 4 × 103
2 2
B1=20.396 mA

B2 3
∴ D 2= × 100= × 100=14.708 %
B1 20.396