FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND EARTH

RESOURCES

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
(BAA3513)

GROUP PROJECT
(WORK BASED PROJECT)

GROUP F1
UMP Gambang Campus

SUBMISSION
31 MAY 2021
DATE
1. SYED FIRMAN AHMAD HAKIM BIN SYED
FAA18002
AFFENDY

2. NURHADI BIN AZHAR FAA18003

NAME OF
STUDENT & ID 3. NURUL AFIFAH BINTI SABERI FAA18004
NO
4. MUHAMAD ZUHAIRI BIN SULAIMAN FAA18007

5. MUHAMMAD ALIFF SUFFIAN BIN MOHD

FAA18008
RASID
NAME OF
IR. DR. AZHANI BINTI ZUKRI
LECTURE
 GROUP PROJECT – SET B

QUESTION 1
Briefly discuss the main cause of environmental imbalance ?
Environmental issues are becoming increasingly challenging and efforts to address them
require a high level of cooperation and commitment from all parties. Environmental problems
such as air pollution, water pollution, dumping of solid and toxic waste, uncontrolled or
illegal deforestation, depletion of natural resources and so on, have resulted in an imbalance
to the environment. The tragedies of landslides, flash floods, air, water and land pollution,
global warming and climate change and so on are the effects of ecosystem instability
stemming from human activities that are often associated with ‘development’. These
environmental issues are among the challenges that need to be faced and addressed by all of
us. To solve this problem we need to know the main causes of environmental imbalances.
Many causes of this which among others are due to uncontrolled development and high
population growth especially in large cities which causes more and more resources needed to
increase production to support the living and consumption of the population.
There is no denying that development is very important for the progress of a country. But
development that does not take into account the balance of the environment will inevitably
cause the concept of sustainable development can not be realized. As a result it is not only
this generation that will experience problems but future generations will face the same
problems created in the present. Therefore, various issues and problems arise regarding the
quality of the environment which is deteriorating and exacerbated by various weaknesses and
constraints in addressing these issues and problems.
The cause of environmental pollution :
a) Pollution caused by natural factors
 Pollution caused by natural factors is pollution that occurs spontaneously after
the occurrence of natural disasters such as volcanic eruptions, hurricanes,
earthquakes and so on.
b) Pollution caused by human factors
 Pollution caused by human factors is pollution committed by humans whether
intentionally or unintentionally.

1) Air pollution
 Air pollution is a condition that involves the introduction of any chemical,
particulate matter or biological material that can cause deterioration of air
quality, discomfort to humans or other living organisms and damage the
environment when it is released into the atmosphere.
 Examples of air pollution are such as carbon dioxide gas, chlorofloro carbon,
odors, toxic metals such as copper lead and radioactive waste.
 Air pollution stems from the emission of dirty smoke by industry directly into
the air through factory chimneys and motor vehicles on the road. Among the
effects of air pollution are ozone depletion, haze, acid rain and global
warming. Air pollution may affect the health, safety and comfort of people or
property.
 Causes of air pollution :
 Development and Industrial Activities
- The development of the world economy depends on industries that
produce goods for export or for domestic business activities. However, this
has worsened the world's air pollution situation. Emissions of nitrogen,
sulfur dioxide, hydrocarbons and carbon dioxide have brought side effects
to environmental life. Moreover, not only are pollutant gases released by
the industry, but dusts capable of causing suffocation are also released.
 Vehicle
- Motor vehicles are a major contributor to pollution in the world. Modern
society is highly dependent on motorized transportation such as cars,
motorbikes, lorries, airplanes and so on. Every motor vehicle requires a lot
of energy to move and this has to go through the process of burning fossil
fuels to produce it. As a result, carbon monoxide gas, nitrous oxide,
hydrocarbons and dusts are produced.
 Open burning
- Open burning often occurs in landfills, solid waste in industrial areas and
construction sites, plantation waste, garden waste and burning in forest
reserves. As a result soot particles that can be flown over long distances by
the wind have been produced. Eventually, a haze situation ensued around
the place. The situation will become more serious in the long summer
because it also contributes to the problem of haze which can affect public
health.
 Human Daily Activities
- Households contribute to air pollution through the use of energy for
machines and electrical appliances such as refrigerators and air
conditioners. When refrigerant is used, "lorofluorocarbon CFC" gas will
be released into the air and it is able to deplete the ozone layer. In addition,
the use of home appliances such as aerosol sprayers that contain CFCs also
causes air pollution.
 Effects of Air Pollution :
 Effects on Human Health
- The main effect of air pollution on humans is the respiratory system. Gases
such as carbon monoxide will poison the oxygen transport system in the
blood and slow down the human response. The next effect will be to make
the person drowsy, have asthma and reduce lung function.
 Effects on Plants
- Suffers from necrosis damage - leaf abortion, chlorosis - color change, and
stunted growth. This effect will also cause some of the earth's population
to lack food and economic resources which will eventually disrupt daily
life. In addition, the effect will upset the balance of the ecosystem.
 Effects on animals
- Animals will be endangered or die as a result of air pollution. This is due
to the air entering the lungs of the animal. In addition, food from plant
sources will be contaminated by air pollution.
 Effects on materials
- Means damage occurs as a result of air pollution such as dirt on clothes,
pollution on the wall surface of the building and so on. This occurs as a
result of the deposition of smoke or fine particles. Metal corrosion is also a
result of air pollution due to the presence of sulfur dioxide in the air.
 Effects on ozone layer
- Air pollution will cause global warming as a result of the depletion of the
ozone layer which protects the earth from direct sunlight. Direct exposure
to sunlight can cause skin cancer. In addition, the scorching rays of the sun
will also cause melting in the polar regions of the earth. Today, the world’s
ecosystems are experiencing imbalances.
 Acid rain
- It occurs due to the combination of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide
gases with rainwater and subsequently into sulphuric acid and nitric acid.
This acid will accumulate in the clouds and move to other places. The acid
will fall along with the rain and affect the life in the world. As a result, it
kills plants as well as aquatic life. Furthermore, it can also corrode
clothing, paper and building materials. In addition, the acid also penetrates
into the soil and causes reduced soil quality and infertility.
 Greenhouse effects and global warming
- The most significant and hotly debated effect nationwide nowadays is
about the effects of global warming caused by the greenhouse effect.
Rising global temperatures and the depletion of the ozone layer are also
the cause of global warming that can be felt around the world. The
increase in the earth's temperature is due to the release of carbon dioxide
gases that accumulate in the air. Too much carbon dioxide gas has caused
heat in the earth to be trapped and eventually the earth's temperature rises
and the environment becomes hot. Depletion of the ozone layer also causes
this global warming event. The effect is that the earth's surface will
become hot, ecosystems will be disturbed, floods will occur frequently and
even abnormal natural events will occur.
 Atmosphere
- The effect on the atmosphere brought about by air pollution is to reduce
visibility due to haze.
 How to reduce/overcome the effects of air pollution :
 Greening the Area
- Planting trees such as fruit trees in the vicinity of housing estates can
reduce the problem of temperature rise. In addition, the content of carbon
dioxide in the air can be reduced and increase the content of oxygen gas
through the process of photosynthesis.
 Use of Unleaded Petrol
- Can reduce the lead content in vehicle smoke emissions. This measure can
reduce the haze problem that often occurs in the morning and can also
prevent health problems such as coughs and colds from dissolving.
 Recycling program
- Polluted air due to open burning by residents around housing estates can
be overcome by encouraging them to sell recyclable items to second-hand
goods dealers. Among the items that can be recycled are newspapers, old
magazines, used paper and paper boxes. These items can be reprocessed to
produce new paper.
 Legal action
- One of the measures that can be used to address environmental pollution is
that the authorities punish individuals or organizations that have been
 found guilty of causing environmental pollution. Authorities such as the
Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment should enforce existing
laws to punish the parties concerned. The punishment imposed should be
commensurate with the offense of the party involved in polluting the
environment.
 Introducing Environmental Education
- Selain itu pihak sekolah hendaklah memperkenalkan pendidikan alam
sekitar kepada murid-murid sekolah. Pendidikan alamsekitar melibatkan
pelbagai aspek yang menjurus ke arah pengekalan alam yang sejahtera.
Satu kurikulum yang khusus perludigubal agar pendedahan yang
sistematik dapatd ilaksanakan. Kurikulum ini boleh diselitkan dalam mata-
mata pelajaran laindan boleh juga dijadikan mata pelajaran khusus. Hal ini
bertujuan untuk menyemaikan kesedaran secara lebih berkesan.

2) Water pollution
 The process of globalization that led to the country's progress has caused the
problem of environmental pollution to become more widespread. The problem
has also resulted in damage to the river system that supplies raw water to the
people. Although water resources are not extinct, but water that can be used by
humans safely is declining. Every issue or problem that arises has made us
aware of how serious the problem of water pollution is in our country.
 Causes of Water Pollution :
 Poisoning or toxicity
- Heavy metals such as lead, mercury, copper, arsenic and chromium used in
tin coatings, plating and chromium coating solutions can act as metabolic
or respiratory barriers in many organisms, and inhibit or destroy enzymes
necessary for life processes. These heavy metals affect decomposing
organisms along with high-level life, so their excessive addition into
aquatic systems can be devastating. These toxic pollutants are absorbed by
the mud below and released when the sediments below are disturbed.
 Changing hydrology
- Irrigation is a major consumer of water in many countries. When river
water is used for irrigation by constructing canals, the rate of water flow in
the river is reduced and the quality of water down-stream may decline.
Building large dams for irrigation and power generation changes the
ecosystem of the area impounded for the reservoir. In the impoundment
area, a large number of trees may be felled, fertile land may be submerged
under water and a large human population may be displaced. In addition,
irrigation increases the water vapour contents of the surrounding air, alters
the surface run-off characteristics of the land and sometimes, increases the
concentration of pesticides in the underlying ground water.
 Acidity or acidity
 - The springs coming out of the cracks of the coal hills contain particles of
bitumen and sulfur. This acidic water increased with increasing coal
production, and persisted for a long time even when the mines were
abandoned. Pyrite iron (the result of coal mining) will enter the tributaries.
Some bacteria can gain energy by converting ferrous to ferric for
respiration and reproduction. The byproduct of this change of iron
oxidation state, i.e. the precipitate of reddish-yellow ferric hydroxide
pollutes the river banks and the release of sulfuric acid changes the acidity
of the river water and drops the pH of the tributaries dramatically. The pH
can be between 4.5 to 2.5 in certain seasons. The contribution of iron and
sulfate in large quantities also reduces the availability of oxygen in the
tributaries. All vertebrates, most invertebrates and many microorganisms
are eliminated. Most high -grade plants are absent and only a few types of
algae and bacteria remain.
 Turbidity
- Inert and fine materials are easily suspended in water. This reduces light
emission and inhibits the photosynthesis process of aquatic and
microscopic plants. The porcelain (white clay) industry is a source of this
pollution. The steel industry produces fine particles also causing the rivers
that enter the effluent to turn red or black.
 Deoxygenation
- Common pollution is organic. Although organic matter does not poison
river life, or affect H, but when organic matter is attacked by bacteria and
broken down into simple compounds, oxygen is needed. Biological
oxygen demand (BOD) becomes high. BOD is a useful water pollution
index, especially related to the organic load of water. BOD is used to
determine the types of life that can be accommodated by polluted rivers.
Fish have the highest oxygen requirements and usually cold water fish
need more oxygen than hot water fish.
 Effects of water pollution :
 Effects on Human Health
- The effects of this water pollution pose many problems to life in the world
today, including humans themselves. The materials dumped in the river
will reduce the oxygen content in the water so that life will die when
consuming toxic substances from this polluted water source. Humans can
also get serious illnesses or health problems if they drink or use
contaminated water. In addition, garbage and feces dumped into the water
also encourage bacteria to continue to multiply and become a problem to
life in the water as well as to humans themselves.
 Effects on water quality
- The use of seawater also mainly as a cooling agent for machines in the
electric power sector is detrimental to water quality. The hot water after
being used to cool the machines in this sector will be channeled back to the
sea. This causes the entire sea drainage area to become hot and makes life
 in the area difficult to adapt due to the high water temperature conditions
and rises sharply thus disrupting the ecosystem of life in the sea slowly.
 Reducing Dissolved Oxygen Demand
- Processes produced by industry especially the food processing industry are
usually rich in inorganic nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium in addition to dissolved organic compounds. Thus, these
nutrients cause the risk of pollution to be disposed of indirectly in rivers or
lakes and result in eutrophication conditions. Dissolved organic
compounds reduce the total dissolved oxygen demand (BOD).
 Contaminated Groundwater System
- Some factories will allocate areas for the disposal of factory waste. But,
when there is heavy rain or the plant breaks, this waste comes out and
causes two problems, the first is that if this waste flows on the surface,
then it will flow in the drainage system, especially ditches and rivers. The
second problem is that if this waste flows into the underground system
which will cause the groundwater system to be polluted. Both of these
problems will damage and pollute life and the state of the water itself.
 Effect to environment nature
- In turn, water pollution is also causing the beauty of the world nowadays
to be affected. The beaches littered with rubbish are annoying and not
beautiful to look at. Garbage dumped in the sea is the cause of the halter.
The condition of the sea or river water that stinks as a result of bacteria
from pollutants that are dumped into the sea or river water creates an
uncomfortable situation for humans and other living things in this world.
 Floods
- Apart from that, water pollution is also the cause of floods that occur in the
world today. Frequent floods are caused by the blockage of ditches that are
supposed to carry water to the sea or river. When garbage clogs the water
flow, floods easily occur and cause a dirty environment when the floods
occur. The direct effect is the destruction of food chain breeding sites, and
also affect food manufacturing, food productivity, and rising costs.
 Destruction of Aquatic Life
- In Malaysia, industrial activities, urbanization, and plantations cause heavy
metal pollution, pesticides, organic pollution and an increase in silt in the
water. It is a major pollutant that destroys aquatic life. The main route of
pollution from land to the sea is through rivers.
 Steps to Overcome/reduce the Effects of Water Pollution :
 The establishment of a foundation or aquatic society needs to be started
- Taking into account many experts and consultants in the environment are
interested in contributing voluntarily. Not much effort is made by the
authorities to mobilize the energy and resources available for that purpose.
Provide in -depth knowledge to the community about river conservation
and restoration.
  Enact laws that prohibit anyone from engaging in activities that could pollute
the river
- Too much pollution is happening in urban areas, residential areas and
industrial areas. Manufacturing activities must increase monitoring to
prevent river pollution. Laws related to river conservation should be
tightened to reduce foreign matter polluting our rivers.
 Mandating integrated wastewater sewerage systems and waste disposal plants
- Through the system, the water will be treated according to the standards
set by the environmental department before being channeled into the river.
Impose imprisonment and bear the cost of cleaning and conservation of the
river. Conduct integrated measures to combat activities that pollute the
river.
 Through education, training and environmental pollution information
programs
- Aims to provide awareness to the community whether manufacturers or
consumers so that they are always aware of their responsibilities in society.
· Every activity performed by individuals will have a comprehensive
impact on themselves and society. · Apply knowledge learned during the
program to be implemented in daily life.

3) Soil pollution
 Soil pollution can be defined as an act that occurs to an area so that there is
discoloration, fertility, and erosion. It is caused by waste in liquid or solid
form consisting of organic, chemical or physical pollutants. The severity of
soil contamination depends on soil fertility. The less fertile the soil, the more
serious the pollution that occurs.
 Causes of Soil Pollution :
 Uncontrolled dumping of garbage
- Arbitrary and unqualified dumping of garbage, (illegal dumping) is one of
the causes that cause soil pollution problems. When people dump garbage
on the soil, the soil will become a habitat for various microorganisms
consisting of bacteria and viruses that cause various types of diseases.
Groundwater quality will be reduced due to contaminants from garbage.
Decreased groundwater quality can be observed through physical changes
such as odor, color, taste and the appearance of oil layers. PVC (polyvinyl
chloride) which is better known as plastic and hard metal are two examples
of waste that can affect the ability of soil to absorb water. In addition,
plastic is the result of human creation that does not go through the process
of biodegradation. It will not decompose naturally even after millions of
years.
 Mining Activities
- Small -scale mining activities can also cause severe sedimentation
problems downstream and lead to acid mine drainage. Mining activities
 such as gold, sand mining and land reclamation as well as other
developments along the coast increase the threat to the ecology of aquatic
life. Water is still in the contaminated category if the pH of the water is not
at a neutral level, i.e. at pH-7. The balance of the ecosystem will be
threatened if the habitat of aquatic life is already contaminated by residues
and oil layers. This will lead to a lack of protein sources such as fish.
 Changes in Earth's Surface
- The atmosphere and the ecosystem can be affected both by human
activities and natural changes in the physical and biological properties of
the earth's surface. Modifications (including deforestations and swamp
drainage) that reduce evaporation from an area and alter the amount of
energy available for evaporation, thereby changing the energy balance at
the earth's surface.
 Soil Degradation
- The protection of soil against the hazards of degradation is essential if the
productivity of soil has to be sustained. Soil degradation has many causes,
but the immediate concerns are improper land use, soil erosion,
acidification, salinisation, water-logging and chemical degradation. Soil
erosion is the washing or blowing away of the surface soil. Erosion may
take place under natural conditions, but it is greatly increased when human
activities cause disappearance of the protective cover of natural vegetation.
Acidification and salinization directly reduce soil fertility. They may be
caused by acid rain and accumulation of water soluble salts in the soil.
Chemical degradation of soil may occur if the nutrients in the soil are
leached out or harmful chemicals like DDT and radioactive substances.
Soil erosion is a global problem.
 Effects of Soil Pollution :
 The spread of germs and diseases
- One of the effects that will occur as a result of soil pollution is the spread
of germs and diseases. Pests such as rats, cockroaches and flies will swarm
in the contaminated soil and spread germs and diseases to other places. If
food that is infested by flies or eaten by cockroaches is then eaten by
humans unintentionally, then humans will be easily attacked by food
poisoning. This can result in the individual developing a serious illness.
 Poor quality is declining
- Among the other effects that will arise when soil pollution occurs is a
decline in soil quality or soil damage. Industrial wastes and spills from
factories or motor vehicles will damage the soil and deteriorate its quality.
Low quality soil causes the plants or vegetables grown to not be able to
live well and become less fertile.
 Soil erosion occurs
- Soil erosion is a common occurrence throughout the country. Among the
human activities that can cause soil erosion are hill clearing and logging
that cause no plant roots to be able to grip the soil from collapsing. The
 effects of soil erosion such as landslides are not only financially and
economically detrimental but they also threaten the safety and lives of the
community.
 Steps to overcome/reduce the effect of soil pollution :
 Environmental education
- Environmental education is one of the methods that can be implemented to
overcome the problem of soil pollution. It can form a positive attitude in
oneself and make a person better understand about environmental
pollution. soil pollution, an individual will be more appreciative of the
environment.
 Awareness campaign
- Awareness campaigns are one of the initiatives that can be taken to reduce
the problem of environmental pollution. Among the environmental
campaigns that can be implemented are the Love Our River, Recycle, and
Friends of Nature campaign. In this campaign participants will be taught
about the importance of caring for the environment and so on.

Reference :

https://www.permohonan.my/pencemaran-alam-sekitar/#jenis-punca-kesan-dan-cara-
mengatasi-pencemaran-alam-sekitar
https://www.permohonan.my/pencemaran-alam-sekitar/

QUESTION 2
1.0 Introduction
A sanitary landfill is defined by the American Society of Civil Engineers as "A method of
disposing of refuse on land without creating nuisances or hazards to public health or safety,
by utilizing the principles of engineering to confine the refuse to the smallest practical area,
to reduce it to the smallest practical volume, and to cover it with a layer of earth at the
conclusion of each day's operation, or at such more frequent intervals as may be necessary."
A sanitary landfill has to be designed as a system, with high attention given to substances to
be deposited, site selection, creation and operational techniques, and usage of the finished fill,
all of which weigh closely at the degree of safety afforded to the groundwater of the area. The
term "waste" means undesirable or discarded substances as a result of commercial, industrial,
and agricultural operations and ordinary community activities. Wastes consist of solids,
liquids, and gases. Wastes that might be stable or semisolid containing inadequate liquid to be
free-flowing are classed as solid waste.

2.0 Important Elements in Sanitary Landfill Design

1) Liner Systems

Modern landfills are noticeably engineered containment systems, designed to limit the
effect of solid waste on the surroundings and human health. In contemporary-day landfills,
the waste is contained with the aid of using a liner system. The number one purpose of the
lining machine is to isolate the landfill contents from the surroundings and, therefore, to
guard the soil and groundwater against pollutants originating with inside the landfill. The
finest risk to groundwater posed through current landfills is leachate. Leachate includes
water- and water-soluble compounds in the refuse that accumulates as water moves via the
landfill. This water can be from rainfall or from the waste itself. Leachate can also
additionally migrate from the landfill and contaminate soil and groundwater, for this reason
providing a danger to human and environmental health. Landfill liners are designed and built
to create a barrier between the waste and the surroundings and to empty the leachate to series
and remedy facilities. This is carried out to save you the out-of-control launch of leachate into
the surroundings. The society produces many special strong wastes that pose different threats
to the surroundings and to network health. Different disposal sites are to be had for those
different varieties of waste. The potential risk posed through the waste determines the kind of
liner system required for every type of landfill. Liners can be defined as single, composite, or
double liners.
2) Leachate Collection, Treatment and Removal Systems

Integrated into all liner structures is a leachate collection system. This collection system
consists of sand and gravel or a geonet. A geonet is a plastic net-like drainage blanket. In this
layer is a sequence of leachate collection pipes to drain the leachate from the landfill to
retaining tanks for storage and eventual treatment. In double-liner systems, the top drainage
layer is the leachate collection system, and the lower drainage layer is the leak detection
system. The leak detection layer contains a second set of drainage pipes. The presence of
leachate in those pipes serves to alert landfill control if the number one-liner has a leak. Since
leachate carries huge quantities of organic matter and ammoniacal nitrogen, standard disposal
techniques have included physical and chemical pretreatment followed through aerobic and
anaerobic biochemical processes, concluding within addition physical and chemical methods
for the very last in-depth treatment. The major capabilities of pretreatment are to get rid of
suspended solids, degrade some of the organic matter and ammoniacal nitrogen, lessen
toxicity, and enhance the overall biodegradability of the leachate.

This is performed thru coagulating and stripping the ammoniacal nitrogen from the
leachate. The function of the subsequent biochemical level is to get rid of the biodegradable
natural matter and ammoniacal nitrogen. The core technology in those biochemical
techniques is, for example, the up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB), membrane
bioreactors (MBR), the anoxic-oxic (A/O) process, and sequencing batch reactors (SBR). The
later deep treatment of leachate further removes organic matter and TN and may consist of
Fenton oxidation, electrochemical processes, activated carbon adsorption, and membrane
remedy processes. This in large part biochemical disposal method outcomes in maximum
biodegradable natural compounds and ammoniacal nitrogen being removed, in conjunction
with a part of TN. However, the leachate water nonetheless consists of a huge quantity of
refractory organic compounds and a few TN. In order to attain present-day discharge
standards, double membranes the use of nanofiltration and reverse osmosis are employed as
safeguards.

Up Flow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB)

5) Gas Management System

Landfill gas can be collected by either a passive or an active collection system. A standard
collection system, both passive or active may consist of greater gas collection wells in case
one well fails. Passive Gas Collection Systems. Passive gas collection systems use existing
variations in landfill pressure and gas concentrations to vent landfill gas into the surroundings
or a manipulate system. Passive collection systems may be set up during the active operation
of a landfill or after closure. Passive systems use collection wells, additionally referred to as
extraction wells, to gather landfill gas.

The performance of a passive collection system partially relies upon how properly the gas
is contained with inside the landfill. Gas containment may be managed and adjusted with the
aid of using the landfill collection system design. Gas may be contained through the use of
liners at the top, sides, and bottom of the landfill. An impermeable liner will entice landfill
gas and may be used to create desired gas migration pathways. For example, putting an
impermeable barrier on the top of a landfill will restrict out of control venting to the
environment by inflicting the gas to vent thru collection wells as opposed to the cover. The
performance of a passive collection system additionally depends on environmental
conditions, which can also add or might not be controlled by the machine design. When the
pressure with inside the landfill is insufficient to push the gas to the venting device or manage
the device, passive systems fail to cast off landfill gas effectively. High barometric pressure
sometimes results in outside air getting into the landfill thru passive vents that are not routing
gas to control devices. For those reasons, passive collection systems are not taken into
consideration reliable enough for use in areas with an excessive risk of gas migration, in
particular wherein methane can accumulate to explosive ranges in buildings and confined
spaces.

Passive Collection System

Well-designed active collection systems are taken into consideration the most effective way
of landfill gas collection. Active gas collection systems include vertical and horizontal gas
collection wells just like passive collection systems. Unlike the gas collection wells in a
passive system, however, wells with inside the active system must have valves to adjust gas
flow and to function as a sampling port. Sampling allows the system operator to measure gas
generation, composition, and pressure. Active gas collection systems include vacuums or
pumps to transport gas out of the landfill and piping that connects the collection wells to the
vacuum.

Vacuums or pumps pull gas from the landfill by creating low pressure in the gas collection
wells. The low pressure in the wells creates a desired migration pathway for the landfill gas.
The size, type, and vacuums required in an active system to drag the gas from the landfill
depend upon the quantity of gas being produced. With statistics approximately landfill gas
generation, composition, and pressure, a landfill operator can check gas production and
distribution changes and modify the pumping system and collect well valves to maximum
efficiently run an active gas collection system. The system design needs to account for future
gas management needs, such as those associated with landfill expansion.

Active Gas Collection

2) Final Cover

The final cover standards for sanitary landfills require putting in a final cover system to
minimize infiltration of liquids and soil erosion. The permeability of the final cover must be
less than the underlying liner system, however no much less than 15cm thick of earthen
material protected by an erosion layer is capable of sustaining native plant growth. The
purpose of this requirement is to prevent the “bathtub effect” in which liquids infiltrate thru
the overlying cover system but are contained by a more permeable underlying liner system.
This causes the landfill to fill up with water like a bathtub, increasing the hydraulic head on
the liner system which can result in the contaminated liquid leachate escaping and
contaminating groundwater supplies. An alternative cover design can be used as long as it
gives equal safety in opposition to infiltration and erosion. A type of soil and synthetic
substances are to be had for the final landfill covers. These materials have to retard
downward water motion, while concurrently making an allowance for plant development and
dealing with any lateral motion of infiltrating water.

It is common for each state to have its own cover standards, however, they need to, at a
minimum, meet the federal standards. Certain preferred exemptions are available, depending
on local hydrologic conditions. Design versions are most significantly applied in arid regions.
The fundamental operating principle for a final landfill cover is to reduce downward
infiltration whilst allowing water to evaporate into the surroundings thru evapotranspiration,
which happens in plants. The cover additionally has to allow water to transport laterally thru
the topsoil formation. This lateral motion minimizes the capacity for slope failure. If a big
quantity of water accumulates in the cover above the impermeable layer, there may be a more
chance of a landslide of the topsoil material.

Example of Final Cover

Development of a Landfill
 Landfill During Operations

Completed Landfill

References
1. Shah, K. L. 2000. Basics of Solid and Hazardous Waste Management Technology. Prentice
Hall, Upper Saddle River, N.J.
2. Tchobanoglous, G., Theisen, H., and Vigil, S. 1993. Integrated Solid Waste Management:
Engineering Principles and Management Issues. McGraw-Hill, Boston, Mass.
3. Vesilind, P. A., Worrell, W., and Reinhart, D. R. 2002. Solid Waste Engineering.
Brooks/Cole, Pacific Grove, Calif.

QUESTION 3
Geosynthetics material can be divided into several types and each of it has different function
and application Briefly explain the type of geosynthetics material used in market.
Geosynthetics are planar polymeric products, which are used in connection with soil, rock or
other soil-like materials to fulfil various functions in geo-environmental engineering.
Geosynthetics are of ever-growing importance in the construction industry. It’s typically
made from petrochemical-based polymers (“plastics”) that are biologically inactive and will
not decompose from bacterial or fungal action. While most are essentially chemical inert,
some may be damaged by petrochemicals and most have some degree of susceptibility to
ultraviolet light (sunlight). Geosynthetic materials are used on or in soil to accomplish one of
four purposes (some may perform more than one at once) such as:

1. Separation/ Confinement/ Distribute Loads

o Improve level-grade soil situations like roadways, alleys, and laneways
o Enhance sloped-grade areas such as banks, hillsides, and stream access points
2. Reinforced Soil
o Soil walls, bridge abutments, box culverts/bridges, and soil arches
o Used in mechanically stabilised and retained earth walls and steep soil slopes;
it can also be used to produce vertical retaining walls when paired with
masonry facings.
3. Prevent Soil Movement/ Filtration
o that allows appropriate liquid flow across the geosynthetic without soil loss
throughout the material.
o Such as in drainage systems and back fill around water intakes.
4. Controlling Water Pressure
o Allowing flow (drainage) in the plane of the material
o For example; on foundation walls to allow water to move down to perimeter
drains

There are many different geosynthetic materials, and without a basic understanding of
the basic categories, it can be perplexing. Numerous of the names are similar, and there are
many similar sounding commercial names. For the most common types:

a) Geotextiles.
 Geotextiles are permeable synthetic textile materials that are used to improve
soil properties. When utilised in the soil, they can separate, filter, fortify, protect, and
drain. Geotextiles are ideal for a variety of infrastructure projects, including
highways, landfills, drainage, and other civil works. Geotextiles are utilised for soil
fills in civil construction projects to improve soil properties. Geotextiles make
difficult soil more workable, allowing development in areas where it would otherwise
be impossible. Many infrastructure projects, such as highways, harbours, landfills,
drainage structures, and other civil projects, benefit from geotextiles.[1]. The different
types of geotextile materials include:

 Open-mesh or woven fabric geotextiles

Weaved geotextiles are manufactured by interconnecting fabric

strips to provide strength and stability to projects that require
geotextiles. Polypropylene strips that can endure a lot of tension are
used to make woven geotextiles. Because they're practically
impermeable, they're great for separation and reinforcement. Different
materials can be used to make woven geotextiles, but the most
common is a weave or yarn blend. The fabrics have the appearance of
plastic sheets, with the weave discernible only under close
inspection[2].

 Closed fabric or non-woven geotextiles

Continuous filament yarn or short-staple fibres are used to

make non-woven geotextiles. Thermal, chemical, or mechanical
procedures, or a combination of two or all of them, are typically used
to attach the fibres. They are mostly employed in the sectors of
roadways, railroads, landfills, and civil and environmental projects for
separation, protection, and filtration. To assure the usage of high-
quality materials, the manufacturing method employs an endless
filament technique. All chemicals and biological media found in soil
and construction materials are resistant to non-woven geotextiles. The
substance is not soluble in water, thus it is safe to use in groundwater.
They also have a U-stabilizer to provide additional protection from
 direct sunlight. Mechanical or thermal geo-fibres typically have a
thickness of 0.5 to 1mm, whereas chemically bonded non-woven
geotextiles can have a thickness of up to 3mm.

 Knitted geotextiles.

Knitted geotextiles are constructed by interconnecting a

succession of yarn loops. All knitted geosynthetics are created by
combining a knitted process with another geosynthetics manufacturing
method, such as weaving. Knitted geotextiles is more flexible, making
it is better and more economical than any other material. With the
emergence of knitted and composite fabrics the efforts to improvise
construction have significantly enhanced[3].

The geotextile are made with either polyester or polypropylene. Each of these
geotextiles is used for specific purposes like separation, filtration drainage,
reinforcement, sealing, and protection.

b) Geogrids

These are plastics that have been formed into a very broad, grid-like structure, with
large holes between each rib in both the machine and cross-machine directions, for
example.

This sort of geosynthetic material can be created in a variety of ways, including:

  For improved physical qualities, it's been elongated in one or both
directions.
 Made with the help of weaving or knitting machinery and the most up-
to-date processes.
 It is made up of rods and straps that have been joined together.

Geogrids are usually categorize in three type:

 Uniaxial
The uniaxial geogrids are made with the intention of sustaining stress in a
single direction. They are made by expanding the ribs in the longitude
direction while also stretching their tensile strength in the machine direction.
This makes them ideal for retaining walls, landfill liner systems,
embankments over soft soils, and particularly steep earthwork slopes, among
other applications.
 Biaxial
In both machine and cross directions, biaxial geogrids are designed to have an
equal balance of tensile strength. This boosts the geogrid's capability in base
stabilising applications by allowing it to distribute loads across a larger region
than typical. Foundations for roadbeds, railroad truck beds, permanent
unpaved roads, airport runways, construction haul roads, working platforms
on unstable subgrades, and parking lots are all frequent uses for biaxial
geogrids.
 Triaxial
Triaxial geogrids are manufactured from punched polypropylene sheets
orientated in multiple, equilateral directions to generate triangle apertures,
which give increased in-plane stiffness. As a result, the product is more
efficient, delivering superior in-service stress transmission from the aggregate
to the geogrid.
Each of the geogrid type were design to suit the tensile strength needed. Geogrids
make the apertures operate with a range of fill, contractors can utilise less expensive
soils, they can lower the overall cost of a project[4]. Geogrids can speed up the
construction process, lowering the overall cost. On unfavourable subgrades, they
 lower the depth of excavation necessary. By stabilising slopes and boosting soil
strength, geogrids also improve safety and seismic durability.
c) Geonets

A geonet is a geosynthetic material made up of integrally connected parallel

sets of ribs that are layered atop identical sets at varied angles to allow liquids or
gases to drain in-plane. Geonets have a three-dimensional bi-planar core extruded
from virgin high-density polyethylene (HDPE) for high-load flow. For circumstances
where the geonet must provide a filtered drainage path, a nonwoven polypropylene
geotextile may be heat bonded to this core. The geotextile can be attached to one or
both sides of the geonet core, depending on the application. The ribs open up to form
a huge opening with a net-like pattern. They're mostly designed for drainage
purposes, where they're used to transfer liquids.

d) Geomembranes.
This thin geosynthetic material is made up of impermeable layers of polymeric
polymers that are mostly utilised for lining and covering liquid or storage structures
such as landfills, canals, and other containment facilities. Geomembranes are utilised
in the garbage sector, as well as in environmental, hydraulic, transportation, and oil
and gas applications. Continuous polymeric sheets are the most prevalent form. For
further strength and longevity, bigger geomembranes are thermally or chemically
welded together at the seams. The geomembrane's size is totally adjustable, so it can
be as tiny as a home fish pond or as huge as a football field if needed. Geomembranes
are employed everywhere there can't be any loss of material, whether it's clean water,
wastewater, mist, soil, hazardous compounds, or any other thing that doesn't need to
leave its allocated location. Because flowing, pooled, frozen, and standing liquids
(and even gases) can be so damaging if not managed effectively, geomembranes have
enabled industry to construct and sustain far more projects than previously possible.

e) Pre-fabricated vertical drains

 PVDs, also known as "Wick Drains," are made up of a plastic core enclosed in
a geotextile and used to speed up the consolidation of slow-draining soils. They're
frequently used in conjunction with surcharging to speed up pre-construction soil
compaction. Surcharging is a technique for pre-loading soft soils by imparting a
temporary load to the ground that is equal to or greater than the anticipated design
stresses. The surcharge will initially raise pore water pressures, but the water will
drain away and the soil voids will compress with time.

Figure 2: Example of vertical drain installation

PVDs with surcharge as pre-loading method has been successfully applied in

various projects. PVDs are typically used as ground improvement system in :

• Construction of road, railway, embankment, airport and ports

• Industrial projects

• Land reclamation projects

f) Geosynthetic clay liner.

GCLs, or Geosynthetic Clay Liners, are nothing more than a comparison of

polymer and natural oil materials. Folds of a factory-made thin layer of bentonite clay
wrapped between two geotextiles or fused to a geomembrane make up these
materials. GLCs can be used for environmental and containment reasons; examples
include transportation, geotechnical, and hydraulic applicationn[5]. GCL offer
immediate water proofing lining against liquid. Application that usually suitable for
geosynthetic clay liner are:
  Base liners for landfills
 Landfill final caps
 Mining industry
 Ponds and lagoons
 Secondary containments
 Canals

g) Geocells

In today's world, geocell-reinforcement is employed extensively in ground

renovation. It is a geosynthetic-based three-dimensional honeycombed confinement
system that considerably enhances the bearing capacity of soft soils, particularly in
foundations and pavements. It has been widely employed in slope stabilisation,
embankment building, and railway track applications, in addition to boosting soil
strength. For the implementation of geocell systems, several parameters must be
examined and designed, including geocell geometrical parameters, location, and infill
soil qualities. Geocell research and development began in 1975 to design a means to
reinforce strong tactical highways, and by the early 1980s, they had been employed
for slope erosion prevention, earth retention, and other purposes in the United States
and Canada.

Geocell is useful for steep-slope and channel protection. The 3D honeycombs

are used with various approaches to assure slope stability. Nutrients, water, and soil
organisms can freely pass through the gaps in the cells. So, in addition to keeping the
soil intact, they also aid plant growth, resulting in a more robust soil structure. Earth
 Retention using Geocells as they are a cost-effective and long-lasting earth retention
method. They are stacked horizontally to form a composite wall, then filled with
appropriate granular materials. The outside is hidden under a thicket of vegetation,
making them very resistant to seismic action. Roads, whether paved or unpaved, have
benefitted from geocells. They create a hard mattress layer that can withstand super-
heavy cars, providing a viable and practical answer to the issues of load support on
highways. It greatly aids in the avoidance of rutting on roadways. Furthermore, the
usage of Geocells can significantly reduce building expenses. Because of the extended
life of the road, it can significantly cut maintenance costs.

h) Geocomposites

Geotextiles, geonets, geogrids, and geomembranes are all used in

geocomposites. Also, any of the above-mentioned synthetic materials, such as
distorted plastic sheets or steel cables, can be combined with them. This material
serves a variety of purposes, including strengthening, separation, drainage, and so on.
Example of the geocomposite we always heard of is bituminous geosynthetic barriers.
To limit soil migration into the drainage system, geocomposites are typically made up
of a drainage (and sometimes barrier) material and a geotextile filter. Perforated
plastic pipes (or "geopipes"), geonets (ribbed materials meant to transfer in-plane
flow), and corrugated geomembranes are examples of geosynthetics used for drainage
(which can provide substantial in-plane flow capacity as well as a hydraulic barrier).

In the case of embankments, geocomposites consisting of a geonet connected

with geotextile layer(s) on one or both sides (Fig.01) are utilised for drainage from the
 basal layer as well as drainage behind retaining walls and/or bridge abutments. They
have a very high in-plane drainage capacity when compared to cross-plane drainage,
making them ideal drainage elements. It is a good practise to include a sand layer at
the foot of embankments when they are built on soft soils or in places with a high-
water table (at the junction of subsoil and subgrade). This sand separator-cum-
drainage layer prevents fine-grained subsoil from fouling the subgrade, decreases
excess pore water pressure in the bank, boosting its stability, and guarantees
consistent load distribution over the subsurface. In regions where sand of the required
quality is scarce, the necessity for sand can be decreased by installing a geocomposite
layer as the embankmen

Reference

1. RODRIGUEZ, J., Types and Uses of Geotextiles. 2018: The Balance Small Business.
2. Bhd, G.S.S. 3 Types of Geotextiles and Their Usage. 2008; Available from:
https://gssb.com.my/geotextiles-usage#:~:text=Geotextiles%20are%20synthetic
%20permeable%20textile,drainage%2C%20and%20other%20civil%20projects.
3. Giroud, J.-P. and L.J.J.o.t.G.E.D. Noiray, Geotextile-reinforced unpaved road design. 1981.
107(9): p. 1233-1254.
4. Koerner, R.M., Applications of Geogrids: Geogrid reinforced walls. Volume #1. Department of
Transportation, Office of Research and Special Studies. 1991
5. Rowe, R.K.J.G. and Geomembranes, Geosynthetic clay liners: perceptions and
misconceptions. 2020. 48(2): p. 137-156.