Bernoulli's Theorem Experiment

HYDRAULIC & HYDROLOGY LABORATORY
SUBJECT CODE BAA 2941
SUBJECT ENGINEERING LAB III
EXPERIMENT TITLE
BERNOULLI’S THEOREM
LOSSES IN PIPING SYSTEM
DATE OF EXPERIMENT 1/7/2021
GROUP NUMBER 03
SECTION 03F
GROUP MEMBERS & ID

NUMBER
1. NURUL AFIFAH BINTI SABERI - FAA18004
2. MUHAMAD ZUHAIRI BIN SULAIMAN - FAA18007
3. MOHAMAD SHUBKI BIN MOHD SALLEH -
FAA18009
4. TENGKU NURNABILAH SYAHIRAH BINTI
TENGKU ASRI - FAA18014
5. MOHD SHAZWAN BIN MOHD SHAHRIN -
FAA18018
LECTURER DR NADIATUL ADILAH BT AHMAD ABDUL GHANI

REMARKS
Faculty of Civil Engineering & Earth Resources
Hydraulic & Hydrology Laboratory
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TABLE OF CONTENT
NO CONTENT PAGE
1.0 INTRODUCTION OF OPEN-END LAB 1
2.0 BERNOULLI’S THEOREM 2-21
3.0 LOSSES IN PIPING SYSTEM 22-45
4.0 DISCUSSION OPEN END LAB 46
5.0 CONCLUSSION OPEN END LAB 47
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1.0 INTRODUCTION OPEN END LAB
Water pressure is described as the force or strength that is used to push water through pipes or other
pathways and is created by altitude or height. For example, almost every single city has a water tower, which
is typically located high on a hill. This water tower is a large tank that holds the city’s water supply. The
height of the tank will determine the amount of pressure that the supply of water will have.
Water pressure is also often affected by gravitational pull. Water is much denser than air, so the water is
affected even more by small height differences.
Refer to the question given which is “Architect for new residential project at Mahkota Aman, Kuantan
design a unique shape of water tank. Briefly explain about the effect of their design to water supply for that
residential.’ We know that the Mahkota Aman residential is a large population. There are many factors that
need to be consider to design a water tank that may cause the water pressure which is the change in flow and
pressure. It is cause bythe sudden shutdown of pumps at the pump station this also known as the water
hammer.
Based on the question also, we as an engineer need to find the solution to overcome this problem. Before that
we need to do the experiment to identify which experiment is the best for us to solve this problem which
water pressure problem. Here, we have losses in piping system experiment.
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2.0 BERNOULLI’ S THEOREM
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1.0 INTRODUCTION
Bernoulli’s theorem, in fluid dynamics, relation among the pressure, velocity, and elevation in a moving
fluid (liquid or gas), the compressibility and viscosity (internal friction) of which are negligible and the flow of
which is steady, or laminar. First derived (1738) by the Swiss mathematician Daniel Bernoulli, the theorem
states, in effect, that the total mechanical energy of the flowing fluid, comprising the energy associated with
fluid pressure, the gravitational potential energy of elevation, and the kinetic energy of fluid motion, remains
constant.
Bernoulli's Principle is one of the most versatile principle ever. This is an important principle involving the
movement of a fluid through a pressure difference. Suppose a fluid is moving in a horizontal direction and
encounters a pressure difference. This pressure difference will result in a net force, which by Newton's 2nd
law will cause an acceleration of the fluid. The fundamental relation,
work done = change in kinetic energy
in this situation can be written as
( change in pressure) x area x distance = change in kinetic energy
which furthermore can be expressed as
Change in pressure + change in (kinetic energy/ volume) = 0
In other words,
Pressure = (kinetic energy/volume) = constant
which is known as Bernoulli's principle. This is very similar to the statement we encountered before for a
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freely falling object, where the gravitational potential energy plus the kinetic energy was constant (i.e., was
conserved).
Bernoulli's principle thus says that a rise (fall) in pressure in a flowing fluid must always be accompanied
by a decrease (increase) in the speed, and conversely, if an increase (decrease) in, the speed of the fluid
results in a decrease (increase) in the pressure. This is at the heart of a number of everyday phenomena. As
a very trivial example, Bernoulli's principle is responsible for the fact that a shower curtain gets “sucked
inwards” when the water is first turned on. What happens is that the increased water/air velocity inside the
curtain (relative to the still air on the other side) causes a pressure drop. The pressure difference between
the outside and inside causes a net force on the shower curtain which sucks it inward.
Bernoulli's principle states, "For a perfect incompressible liquid, flowing in a continuous stream, the
total energy of a particle remains the same, while the particle moves from one point to another." This
statement is based on the assumption that there are no losses due to friction in the pipe. Mathematically,
where,
z = Potential Energy
= Kinetic Energy
= Pressure Energy
If a fluid is flowing through a horizontal pipe of varying cross-sectional area, the fluid speeds up in
constricted areas so that the pressure the fluid exerts is least where the cross section is smallest. This
phenomenon is also called the Venturi effect. The Venturi effect has several applications including that
associated with generating lift atop an aerofoil, making all forms of flight on aeroplanes, gyroplanes, and
helicopters possible.
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2.0 PRINCIPLES
Consider a flow of incompressible fluid through the convergent-divergent pipe shown in Figure 1. The
cross- sectional area at the upstream (section 1) is A1, at the throat (section 2) is A2 and at any other arbitrary
(section n) is An. Piezometer tubes at these sections registered as h1, h2, and hn as shown
Figure 1: Ideal conditions in a venturi meter
Assuming that there is no loss of energy along the horizontal pipe, and that the velocity and piezometer
heads are constant across each of the sections considered, then Bernoulli’s theorem states that
𝑣1 2 𝑣22 𝑣𝑛2
+ℎ = +ℎ = + ℎ (1)
2𝑔 1 2𝑔 2 2𝑔 𝑛
Where v1, v2, and vn are the velocities of the flow through section 1,2 and n
The equation of continuity is:
v1A1 = v2A2 = vnAn = Q (2)
where Q denoted the volume-flow or discharge rate.
Substituting in equation (1) for v1 from equation (2):
𝑣2 2 𝐴 1 2 𝑣2 2
( ) + ℎ1 = + ℎ2 (3)
2𝑔 𝐴 2 2𝑔
and solving this equation for v2 leads to,

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2𝑔(ℎ1−ℎ2)
𝑣2 = √ 𝐴 2 (4)
1− ( 1)
𝐴2
In practice, there is some loss of energy between sections 1 and 2, and the velocity is not absolutely constant
across either of these conditions. As a result, measured values of Q usually fall a little as calculated from
equations (3) and this discrepancy is usually written as
2𝑔(ℎ1−ℎ2)
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴2√ 𝐴1 2
(5)
1− ( )
𝐴2
In which Cd is known as the flow coefficient of the Venturi meter, which can be established by experiment.
Its values vary slightly from one meter to another, and even for a given meter it may vary slightly with
discharge, usually lies within the range 0.92 – 0.99.
The ideal pressure distribution along the convergent-divergent pipe can be derived from Bernoulli’s
equation:
ℎ − ℎ = 𝑣12 − 𝑣𝑛2 (6)

𝑛 1 2𝑔 2𝑔
For the purpose of calculation and comparison of the experiment results, it is convenient to express (ℎ𝑛 −
ℎ1) as a fraction of the velocity head at the throat of the meter, i.e.
2 2
ℎ𝑛−ℎ1
𝑣 22
= (𝑣1 ) − (𝑣𝑛 ) (7)
𝑣2 𝑣2
2𝑔
Substituting on the right hand side area ratios in place of velocity ratios from the equation of continuity (2),
the ideal pressure becomes:
𝐴 2 𝐴 2
ℎ𝑛−ℎ1 = ( 2) − ( 2 ) (8)
𝑣 22 𝐴 𝐴
1 𝑛
2𝑔
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3.0 OBJECTIVES
1. To determine the variation of flow coefficient, Cd with Q through the Venturi meter.
2. To make comparison between measured and ideal pressure distribution along the Venturi meter.
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4.0 APPARATUS
APPARATUS NAME
Venturi meter apparatus
Hydraulic bench
Stopwatch
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5.0 PROCEDURES
1.The control and the supply valve were

opened to allow the water flow for a few
seconds to clear air pockets from the supply
system.
2. The valve was closed gradually to make

sure the water passed through the
piezometer (manometer).
3. The bench valve was closed when the

water level had risen to a convenient height.
4. The water level in piezometer tubes along

the venture meter was recorded when the
control valve was opened successively to
allow the water flow.
5. The flow rate by collecting the volume of

water in the weighing tank and time was
measured.
Step (4) and (5) was repeated for a few

different flowrates by adjusting the control
valve.
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6.0 RESULT
Volume = 5 L = 0.005 m3
Table 1 Values of Cd from experiment
Time to Piezometer head Actual

Piezometer head
fill the at tube A, h1 discharge, (h1-h2) (m) (h1-h2)0.5 (m) Cd
at tube D, h2 (mm)
tank, t (s) (mm) Q=m3 /s x
10-4
8.50 390 14 5.88 0.376 0.613 0.997
9.07 360 18 5.51 0.342 0.585 0.979
9.64 330 42 5.19 0.288 0.537 1.005
10.38 300 54 4.82 0.246 0.496 1.010
Table 2 Ideal pressure distribution as a fraction of velocity head at throat

Piezometer Distance from datum, Diameter of
Area, A (A2 / A1)2 - (A2 /
tube (mm) cross section, dn d2 / dn (A2 / An)2
(m2) x An)2
number (mm)
10-4
A (1) -54.0 26 0.615 5.309 0.143 0
B -34.0 23.2 0.690 4.227 0.226 -0.083
C -22.0 18.4 0.870 2.659 0.572 -0.429
D (2) -8.0 16 1.000 2.011 1.000 -0.857
E 7.0 16.79 0.953 2.214 0.825 -0.682
F 22.0 18.47 0.866 2.679 0.563 -0.420
G 37.0 20.16 0.794 3.192 0.397 -0.253
H 52.0 21.84 0.733 3.746 0.288 -0.145
J 67.0 23.53 0.680 4.348 0.214 -0.070
K 82.0 25.21 0.635 4.992 0.162 -0.019
L 102.0 26.0 0.615 5.309 0.143 0
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Table 3 Measurement of pressure distribution along Venturi meter as a fraction of
velocity head atthroat
Q = 5.51 x 10-4 m3 /s
Piezometer Q = 5.88 x 10-4 m3 /s
tube number
hn hn – h1 (hn – h1) hn hn – h1 (hn – h1)

(mm) (m) (v2 2 /2g) (mm) (m) (v2 2 /2g)
A (1) 390 0.000 360 0.000
0 0
B 374 -0.016 350
-0.03645 -0.010 -0.02506
C 238 -0.152 226
-0.34624 -0.134 -0.33584
D (2) 14 -0.376 28
-0.85649 -0.332 -0.83208
E 40 -0.350 52
-0.79727 -0.308 -0.77193
F 140 -0.250 138
-0.56948 -0.222 -0.55639
G 198 -0.192 194
-0.43736 -0.166 -0.41604
H 234 -0.156 224
-0.35535 -0.136 -0.34085
J 258 -0.132 245
-0.30068 -0.115 -0.28822
K 274 -0.116 258
-0.26424 -0.102 -0.25564
L 284 -0.106 268
-0.24146 -0.092 -0.23058
Q = 4.82 x 10-4 m3 /s
Piezometer Q = 5.19 x 10-4 m3 /s
tube
number
hn hn – h1 (hn – h1) hn hn – h1 (hn – h1)
(mm) (m) (v2 2 /2g) (mm) (m) (v2 2 /2g)
A (1) 330 300
0.000 0 0.000 0
B 320 292
-0.010 -0.02976 -0.008 -0.02787
C 214 202
-0.116 -0.34524 -0.098 -0.34146
D (2) 42 54
-0.288 -0.85714 -0.246 -0.85714
E 62 72
-0.268 -0.79762 -0.228 -0.79443
F 136 134
-0.194 -0.57738 -0.166 -0.5784
G 186 178
-0.144 -0.42857 -0.122 -0.42509
H 210 200
-0.120 -0.35714 -0.100 -0.34843
J 230 214
-0.100 -0.29762 -0.086 -0.29965
K 242 225
-0.088 -0.2619 -0.075 -0.26132
L 248 231
-0.082 -0.24405 -0.069 -0.24042
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Calculation:
For Q1:
volume (V)
𝑄=
time (t)
0.005
=
8.50
= 5.88 x 10-4 m3 /s
2g (ℎ1 − ℎ2)
𝑣=
√ 1 − (𝐴2)2
𝐴1
2(9.81) (0.376)
=√
1 − 0.143
= 2.934 m/s
Given, 𝑄 = 𝐶 𝐴 2g (ℎ1 − ℎ2)

2
𝑑 2√ 1−(𝐴2)
𝐴1
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑𝐴2𝑣
5.88 × 10−4 = 𝐶𝑑(2.011 × 10−4)(2.934)

𝐶𝑑 = 0.997
For Q2 :
volume (V)
𝑄=
time (t)
0.005
=
9.07
= 5.51 x 10-4 m3 /s
2g (ℎ1 − ℎ2)
𝑣=
√ 1 − (𝐴2)2
𝐴1
2(9.81) (0.342)
=√
1 − 0.143
= 2.798 m/s
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2
𝑑 2√ 1−(𝐴2)
𝐴1
5.51 × 10−4 = 𝐶𝑑(2.011 × 10−4)(2.798)
𝐶𝑑 = 0.979
For Q3 :
volume (V)
𝑄=
time (t)
0.005
=
9.64
= 5.19 x 10-4 m3 /s
2g (ℎ1 − ℎ2)
𝑣=
√ 1 − (𝐴2)2
𝐴1
2(9.81) (0.288)
=√
1 − 0.143
= 2.568 m/s

2
𝑑 2√ 1−(𝐴2)
𝐴1
5.19 × 10−4 = 𝐶𝑑(2.011 × 10−4)(2.568)
𝐶𝑑 = 1.005
For Q4 :
volume (V)
𝑄=
time (t)
0.005
=
10.38
= 4.82 x 10-4 m3 /s
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2g (ℎ1 − ℎ2)
𝑣=
√ 1 − (𝐴2)2
𝐴1
2(9.81) (0.246)
=√
1 − 0.143
= 2.373 m/s

2
𝑑 2√ 1−(𝐴2)
𝐴1
4.82 × 10−4 = 𝐶𝑑(2.011 × 10−4)(2.373)
𝐶𝑑 = 1.010
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7.0 DISCUSSION / ANALYSIS
QUESTION:
1. Graph of variation of Cd versus Q through Venturi meter.
Graph of the variation of Cd vs Q through Venturi Meter

1.05
1.04
1.03
1.02
1.01
Cd
1
0.99
0.98
0.97
0.96
0.95
5.88 5.51 5.19 4.82
Q x 10-4 (m3 /s)
Series 1
3. Graph of the measured pressure distribution along Venturi meter.
Graph of the measured pressure distribution along Venturi

meter
0
-0.1 -54 -34 -22 -8 7 22 37 52 67 82 102
Pressure distribution
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
-0.5
-0.6
-0.7
-0.8
-0.9
Distance from datum, (mm)
Q = 5.88 x 10-4 m3 /s Q = 5.51 x 10-4 m3 /s

Q = 5.19 x 10-4 m3 /s Q = 4.82 x 10-4 m3 /s
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Calculation of Qtheory,
2𝑔∆ℎ
Qtheory = √ 1 1
( 2− 2)
𝐴 𝐴
2 1
Q1 x 10-4 Q2 x 10-4 Q3 x 10-4 Q4 x 10-4

Qtheory 5.90 5.629 5.165 4.77
Qactual 5.88 5.51 5.19 4.82
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4. From your graph, discuss the variation of Cd versus Q through Venturi meter.
The experiment is conducted using the Venturi meter apparatus which is an instrument for
measuring the drop in pressure that takes place as the velocity of a fluid increases. This
apparatus shows measured pressure at three places which is the entrance, the point of
constriction (throat), and the exit.
For our experimental result, in the first graph, it shows flow coefficient (C d) versus Qactual. Cd
is stated as the ratio between the actual flow discharge and theoretical flow discharge.
However, there might be some error happen during the experiment and we could not get
the specified value for Qactual which resulting the Cd value obtained is out of range.
Based on the Bernoulli’s principle, conservation of energy using liquids, observing how
water flows through pipes of varying diameter. In a segment of pipe with a relatively large
diameter, water flowed slowly, but as it entered a segment of smaller diameter, its speed
increased. This is because as fluid moves from a wider pipe to a narrower one, the volume
of that fluid that moves a given distance in each time does not change. But since the width
of the narrower pipe is smaller, the fluid must move faster to achieve that result. Clearly the
volume of water flowing through the narrower pipe at any given moment was less than that
flowing through the wider one. This suggested, according to Boyle's law, that the pressure in
the wider pipe must be greater.
This principle can be seen from the second graph, if we compare the pressure at upstream
(tube A), at the throat (tube D) and at any other arbitrary, the pressure is the highest at
upstream (tube A) and started to decrease when diameter of the tube decreasing until the
lowest at the throat (tube D), and the pressure started to increase back when the diameter
of the tube increasing at the downstream.
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5. Give your suggestion on how to minimize the difference between the measured
and ideal pressure.
Based on the result that we obtained from the experiment, the values of
measured pressure are difference from ideal pressure as shown in the graph of
the measured and ideal pressure distribution along Venturi meter. There are due
to some causes and errors which lead to the difference between the measured
and ideal pressure. Precautions can be taken during the experiment to minimize
the different between the measured and ideal pressure.
Here is a few causes and errors in the experiment that causing that causing the
experimental value vary with the theoretical.
1. Parallax error because of your eye being positioned at an angle while taking the
reading of the water level in piezometer.
2. Human errors while taking the time taken by using stopwatch for 5 Litres of water to
fill in the container.
3. Errors while taking the water level of piezometer due to the inconsistency of its
water level.
4. Improper maintenance of the apparatus.
5. Environment factors such as the air movement which cause movement of the
equipment as well as the meniscus.
The safety measures and precautions should be taken are:

i. The apparatus has to be sent for maintenance from time to time to ensure that it can
function well. For example; piezometer
ii. We need to make sure that the position of eyes is perpendicular to the indicator
while taking the readings to avoid parallax error.
iii. We only need to take the reading when the equipment in a stable condition.
iv. Repeat the experiment for few times and get the average reading to improve the
accuracy of the results.
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8.0 CONCLUSION
From the experiment, we have calculated the flow rate Q and flow coefficient 𝐶𝑑 .
For case 1, the flow rate, 𝑄1 that obtained from the experiment is 5.88 × 10−4 𝑚3/𝑠 and
𝐶𝑑 is 0.997. For case 2, the 𝑄2 is 5.51 × 10−4 𝑚3/𝑠 and 𝐶𝑑 is 0.979. For case 3, the 𝑄3
is 5.19 × 10−4 𝑚3/𝑠 and 𝐶𝑑 is 1.005. For case 4, the 𝑄4 is 4.82 × 10−4 𝑚3/𝑠 and 𝐶𝑑 is
1.010. From the calculation, we can see the flow are consistent from case 1 to case 4. So,
the first objective of the experiment has been achieved as we able to determine the
variation 𝐶𝑑 coefficient Cd with Q through Venturi meter.
From the graph we have plotted above, the measured pressures deviate from the ideal
pressures. It because the reading is affected by some errors such as parallax error and
improper maintenance of the equipment. The second objective of this experiment had been
achieved as well as we are able to do a comparison between measured and ideal pressure
distribution along the Venturi meter.
To minimize the error and improve the experiment, proper precautions must be taken
before the experiment starts. First, the eyes of observer may not be parallel to
measurement reading and it will cause the parallax error. To prevent this from happen
during the experiment, the eyes must be perpendicular to the measurement reading so it
will reduce parallax error. Besides that, make sure the read the measurement of water level
after the water was calm. Then, the reading of the venturi meter level should be taken more
than 3 times to get an accurate value.
Bernoulli principle is related to our daily life and have several of applications. One of the
Bernoulli application are Pitot tube which is used to measure the velocity of flow in an open
channel. Besides, Bernoulli principle also used in application of Venturi meter which is usually
used to measure the velocity in a closed conduit. The last application of the Bernoulli principle
in our daily life is pipe orifices. A pipe orifice is a plate with an opening which is fitted in a
pipeline. It produces a constriction within the flow and the cross-sectional area of the flow at
the orifice is much smaller compare to the cross-sectional area of the pipeline.
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Orifices Using Bernoulli’s equation between points 1 and 2
(1)
[P1=0, P2≈0, V1=0]
V2 = √2gh (2)
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9.0 REFERENCES / APPENDICES
1. https://global.britannica.com/science/Bernoullis-theorem
2. http://www.codecogs.com/library/engineering/fluid_mechanics/fundamentals/bernoull
is-theorem.php
3. https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-bernoullis-theorem
4. Civil Engineering Laboratory Manual (Third Edition)
5. http://faculty.mu.edu.sa/public/uploads/1411294866.4652Varification%20of%20Bernau
lli's%20Equation%20-Experiment.pdf
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3.0 LOSSES IN
PIPING SYSTEM
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1.0 INTRODUCTION
Head loss is a measure of the reduction in the total head (sum of elevation head, velocity head
and pressure head) of the fluid as it moves through a fluid system. Head loss is unavoidable in
real fluids. Total head is the combination of elevation head (z), pressure head (h=P/ɣ), and
velocity head (/2g). The two types of energy loss predominate in fluid flow through a pipe
network; major losses, and minor losses. Major losses are associated with frictional energy loss
that is caused by the viscous ffects of the medium and roughness of the pipe wall. Minor losses,
on the other hand, are due to pipe fittings, changes in the flow direction, and changes in the
flow area.
Water flow in pipelines requires energy and the energy is in a form of elevation, velocity
and pressure. Between points of flow, there also occur lost energy or what is called head loss.
The head loss effects pressure and/or velocity within the pipelines. This in turn impacts the
flow capacity of water within a piping system. The science in hydraulics is primarily concerned
with determination of the magnitude of energy loss or head loss (HL) under various
circumstances. Due to the complexity of the piping system and the number of fittings that are
used, the head loss coefficient (K) is empirically derived as a quick means of calculating the
minor head losses.
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2.0 PRINCIPLE
Total energy at a given location in a piping system is given by:
Total Head (Total Energy) = Pressure head, + Elevation head + Velocity head,
Based on the law of conservation of energy, the total energy at each point in the piping system
is :
(1)
Where;
V = average velocity (m2/s)
P =static pressure (N/m2)
Z =height above datum (m)
g =acceleration due to gravity (9.81m/s2)
1, 2 = location in the piping system
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However in the actual situation, there is energy loss due to friction in pipe during the flow of
water. Thus, the equation above includes the head loss or energy loss.
(2)
Where:
𝐻𝐿1−2 = Head losses between point 1 and 2
In the experimental test, the piezometric head can be measured which is the reading on the
manometer tube. The above formula can be simplified by substituting piezometric head
(equation 1) into the formula:
(3)
Where:
h1 = peizometric head (reading at point 1)
h2 = peizometric head (reading at point 2)
Formula of head loss in piping systems components:
Head Loss for expansion
(4)
Head Losses For contraction
(5)
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Where loss coefficient K depends upon area ratio between point 1 and 2
Table1: Loss coefficient for sudden contraction
A2/A1 K
0 0.50
0.1 0.46
0.2 0.41
0.3 0.36
0.4 0.30
0.6 0.18
0.8 0.06
1.0 0
Head loss for straight long pipe
HL calculation for long pipe is:
(6)
Where:
f = friction factors (depends on Moody diagram)
L = pipe length
D = pipe diameter
Reynolds number (R) calculation is;
(7)
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Where:
v = average velocity (m/s)
D = pipe diameter (m)
V = kinematic viscosity (m2/s)
The relationship between head loss, HL and flow rate, Q in piping system can be expresses
as,
(8)
Where:
HL= head loss

k = coefficient
Q = flow rate
n = index
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3.0 OBJECTIVES
1. To determine the relationship between head loss and flow in the piping system.
2. To verify conservation of energy law in the piping system.
3. To compare experimental head loss to theoretical head loss.
4.0 APPARATUS
APPARATUS NAME
Piping system
Hydraulic bench
28
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Stop watch
29
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5.0 PROCEDURES
• The air from the piezometer (manometer) tubes was removed by

opening both of the valves located on the dark and light blue pipeline
1 for several minutes.
• The valve located on the light blue pipeline as well as the hole in the
tank were closed. At the same time, the timer was started and the
2 reading atr tube 3 and 4 was taken.
• The timer was stopped when the collected water in the hydraulic bench
3 reached 5 litres.
• Step (2) to (3) were repeated with at least 5 different flow rates, Q by
4 adjusting the valves opening.
• Step (2) was repeated, however at this time the valve located on yhe
dark blue pipeline was opened. the reading at tube at tube (7),(8),(9)
5 and (10) was taken.
• The timer was stopped when the collected water in the hydraulic bench
6 reached 5 litres.
• Step (5) was repeated with at least 5 different flow rates by adjusting
7 the valve opening.
30
_____________
6.0 RESULT
1. LONG PIPE
Flow Volume = 5 litre = 0.005 m3

Length, L = 914.4 mm = 0.9144 m
Diameter, d = 13.6mm = 0.0136 m
Area, A = πd2/4 = 0.0001453 m2
Roughness Coefficient, ε/d = 0.0001
Kinematic Viscosity, v = 1 x 10-6 m2/s
Flow Rate, Piezometer Tube Calculated

Time Velocity, Experimental
Test Q Reynolds Friction Reading (m) Heat Loss, Error
Flow v2 Head Loss,
No. Number, R Factor, f (%)
(s) ( /s) (m/s) ( - )
(3) (4) =
1 17.22 0.290 x 10-3 1.996 27145.6 0.031 0.715 0.415 0.300 0.423 29.08
2 18.94 0.264 x 10-3 1.820 24752 0.03 0.685 0.410 0.275 0.341 19.35
3 21.91 0.228 x 10-3 1.569 21338.4 0.029 0.655 0.405 0.250 0.245 2.04
4 24.15 0.207 x 10-3 1.425 19380 0.028 0.625 0.405 0.220 0.195 12.82
5 28.13 0.178 x 10-3 1.225 16660 0.027 0.595 0.395 0.200 0.139 43.88
Table 1: Long Pipe Data Sheet
31
_____________
2. EXPANSION SECTION

Length, L = 914.4 mm = 0.9144 m
Diameter, d7 = 13.6mm = 0.0136 m
Diameter, d8 = 26.2mm = 0.0262 m
Area, A1 = πd12/4 = 0.0001453 m2
Area, A2 = πd22/4 = 0.0005391 m2
Calculated Head
Peizometer Tube Experimental
Test Time, t Flow rate, Q Velocity, v1 Velocity, v2 Loss Errors
Reading (m) Head Loss
No. (s) (m3/s) (m/s) (m/s) (%)
(h7 - h8)
(7) (8)
1 18.91 0.264 x 10-3 1.820 0.490 0.555 0.610 -0.055 0.090 161.11
2 19.88 0.252 x 10-3 1.734 0.468 0.530 0.580 -0.05 0.082 160.98
3 21.12 0.240 x 10-3 1.652 0.445 0.505 0.550 -0.045 0.074 160.81
4 22.93 0.218 x 10-3 1.500 0.404 0.485 0.520 -0.035 0.061 157.40
5 25.22 0.198 x 10-3 1.363 0.367 0.460 0.490 -0.03 0.051 158.82
Table 2: Expansion Section Data Sheet
32
_____________
3. CONTRACTION SECTION

Length, L = 914.4mm = 0.9144 m
Diameter, d9 = 26.2mm = 0.0262 m
Diameter, d10 = 13.6mm = 0.0136 m
Area, A1 = πd22/4 = 0.0005391 m2
Area, A2 = πd12/4 = 0.0001453 m2
Coefficient,K = = 0.36
Calculated Head
Peizometer Tube Experimental
Test Time, t Flow rate, Q Velocity, v2 Loss Errors
Reading (m) Head Loss
No. (s) (m3/s) (m/s) (%)
(h9 – h10)
(9) (10)
1 18.91 0.264 × 10-3 1.820 0.595 0.580 0.015 0.061 75.41
2 19.88 0.252 × 10-3 1.734 0.565 0.590 -0.025 0.055 145.45
3 21.12 0.240 × 10-3 1.652 0.540 0.500 0.040 0.050 20.00
4 22.93 0.218 × 10-3 1.500 0.510 0.505 0.005 0.041 87.81
5 25.22 0.198 × 10-3 1.363 0.480 0.510 -0.03 0.034 188.24
Table 3: Contraction Section Data Sheet
33
_____________
CALCULATION:
For Long Pipe:
 Roughness of smooth copper pipe, ε = 1.5 × 10-6 m

 Diameter of the pipe, d = 0.0136 m
 Relative roughness = = 0.0001
 Length of the pipe, L = 0.9144 m

 Kinematic viscosity, ʋ = 1 × 10-4 m²/s
 g = 9.81 m²/s
 Area, A = = = 1.453 × 10-4 m2
0.005
 Flow Rate, = 0.290 x 10-3 m3/s
17.22
0.290 ×10−3
 Velocity, = 1.453 × 10−4 = 1.996 m/s
 Reynolds number, R = = 27145.6
 From the moody Diagram, hence friction factor, = 0.031
 Experimental Head Loss, ( - ) = 0.715 – 0.415 = 0.300 m
 Calculated Heat Loss, HL = = 0.423 m
 Error = x 100% 
0.423−0.300
 Error = | | x 100% = 29.08%
0.423
34
_____________
For Expansion Section:
 g = 9.81 m²/s
0.005
 Flow Rate, Q = = = 18.91 = 0.264 x 10-3 m3/s
 Diameter of the pipe, = 0.0136 m
𝜋 (0.0136)2
 Area, = = = 1.453 x 10-4 m2 
4
0.264 ×10−3
 = = = 1.820 m/s
1.453 × 10−4
𝜋 (0.0262)2
 Area, = = = 5.391 x 10-4 m2
4
0.264 ×10−3
 = = = 0.490m/s
5.391 × 10−4
 Experimental Head Loss, ( - ) = 0.555 – 0.610 = 0.055 m
(ⱱ1 − ⱱ2 )2 (1.820−0.490)2
 Calculated Heat Loss, HL = = = = 0.090m
2𝑔 2×9.81
 Error = x 100%
0.090−(−0.055)
 Error =| | x 100% = 161.11%
0.090
35
_____________
For Contraction Section:

 g = 9.81 m²/s
0.005
 Flow Rate, Q = = = 0.264 x 10-3 m3/s
18.91
 Area, = = = 5.391 x
 Area, = = = 1.453
0.264 ×10−3
 = = 1.453 × 10−4
= 1.820 m/s
Loss coefficient for sudden contraction, K = 0.36

 Experimental Head Loss, ( - ) = 0.595 – 0.580 = 0.015m
(0.36)(1.820)2
 Calculated Heat Loss, HL = = = 0.061m
2×9.81
 Error = x 100%
0.061−0.015)
 Error = | | x 100% = 75.41%
0.061
36
_____________
7.0 DISCUSSION / ANALYSIS
1. Plot graph
(i) Log HL against log Q for long pipe.
EXPERIMENTAL THEORETICAL
Log HL Log Q Log HL Log Q
-0.523 -3.538 -0.374 -3.538
-0.561 -3.578 -0.467 -3.578
-0.602 -3.642 -0.611 -3.642
-0.658 -3.684 -0.710 -3.684
-0.700 -3.750 -0.857 -3.750
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
Log HL
-0.5
-0.6
-0.7
-0.8
-0.9
-3.8 -3.75 -3.7 -3.65 -3.6 -3.55 -3.5
Log Q
EXPERIMENTAL Log Q THEORETICAL Log Q
37
_____________
(ii) Log HL against log Q for expansion section.
-1.260 -3.578 -1.046 -3.578
-1.300 -3.600 -1.086 -3.600
-1.350 -3.620 -1.131 -3.620
-1.460 -3.662 -1.215 -3.662
-1.523 -3.703 -1.292 -3.703
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
Log HL
-0.8
-1
-1.2
-1.4
-1.6
-3.72 -3.7 -3.68 -3.66 -3.64 -3.62 -3.6 -3.58 -3.56
Log Q
38
_____________
(iii) Log HL against log Q for contraction section.
-1.824 -3.578 -1.215 -3.578
-1.602 -3.600 -1.260 -3.600
-1.400 -3.620 -1.301 -3.620
-2.301 -3.662 -1.387 -3.662
-1.523 -3.703 -1.469 -3.703
-0.5
-1
Log HL
-1.5
-2
-2.5
-3.72 -3.7 -3.68 -3.66 -3.64 -3.62 -3.6 -3.58 -3.56
Log Q
39
_____________
2. Develop relationship between head loss, HL and flow rate, Q for all graphs.
From all the graph of log HL against log Q for each case, all graphs have a positive
slope value, the log HL is proportional to log Q. When log Q is increasing, the log H L also
increases. At the same time, it also means that when the flow rate, Q is increasing, the head
loss, HL also increasing for each condition which is long pipe, sudden expansion and sudden
contraction.
40
_____________
3. Briefly discuss the relationship between head loss, HL and flow rate, Q obtained for all
cases.
Based on the experiment that we have done, we achieved the objective of the
experiment. There are 3 cases of experiments had been carried out which are head losses
for straight long pipe, expansion, and contraction. The results for the experiment are
calculated by applying the formula provided in the laboratory manual. The graph of log HL
against log Q for each case is plotted. From the plotted graph of log HL versus log Q, the
log HL is directly proportional to the log Q and show in straight line graph with the positive
slope for all three cases. When the flow rate, Q is decreasing, the value of H L will also
decrease. The experimental values show the same characteristics with the theoretical
results. Therefore, from the result of the experiment, we can conclude that the head loss is
increases as the flow rate increases.
Fluid properties and the flow rate in the system have been proven through the
experiment. By observation, the head loss is roughly proportional to the square of the flow
rate in most engineering flows (fully developed, turbulent pipe flow). This observation
leads to the Darcy-Weisbach equation for head loss due to friction:
𝑓𝐿 2
∆ℎ𝑓 = 2𝑔𝐷
𝑣
The experimental and theoretical head loss for these losses in piping system experiment is
slightly different, the percentage of error between the experimental and calculated head loss
in long pipe system is in the range of 2.04 % - 43.88 %. Whereas for the expansion section
system, the percentage of error lies between 157.40 % - 161.11 %, it is considered less
accurate for our experimental results when compare to the theoretical results. There is a
great difference between theoretical and experimental result in contraction section system,
where the percentage of error is in the range of 20.00 % - 188.24 %. The inaccuracy is due
to there is cause and error occurred when the experiment is carried out.
41
_____________
Causes and errors during the experiment are:
i. Human error. The control of the amount of water flow also carried out by human
hand, students unable to control the water flow accurately due to limitation in
human.
ii. The water level in the piezometer is fluctuate and not stable when the reading takes
lead to the inaccurate of the results.
iii. Parallax error due to the eyesight of observer didn't parallel to the piezometer while
taking the reading of water level in piezometer.
Precaution should be taken during the experiment are:
i. Place your eye perpendicular to the reading while taking the reading of water level
to prevent parallax error occurs.
ii. Ensure there are no bubbles in the pipeline system to eliminate disturbance to the
fluid flow and affecting the results.
iii. Start the stopwatch immediately when the water level reached 0 label and stop
immediately when the water level reached 5 Litres to minimize the systematic error.
iv. Repeated experiment for several time so that to get an average of data to increase
accuracy of results.
4. What will happen to the head loss, HL if we use different type of pipe material
for instance steel?
HL will be affected either in increasing or decreasing by using different type of pipe

material. The type of material can decide the head loss, HL. This is due to different pipe of
material will have different roughness and relative roughness. Thus, with a different relative
roughness, the friction factor, f will be different by referring Moody diagram.
According to the formula of head loss the head loss is directly proportional to friction factor,
f, length of pipe, L and velocity of liquid flow, v, while inversely proportional to
gravitational acceleration, g and diameter of pipe, d. Therefore, when either the friction
factor, length of pipe or velocity of liquid increase, the head loss will increase. On the other
hand, when the diameter of the pipe increases, the head loss will decrease. This is because
when the diameter is larger, the flow area increases and the velocity of liquid at a given
42
_____________
flow rate is reduced. At the same time, when the velocity is reduced there is lower head
loss due to friction in the pipe. On the other hand, if the inside diameter of the pipe is
reduced, the flow area decreases, the velocity of the liquid increases and the head loss due
to friction increases.
There are many types of pipe materials for instance cast iron, commercial steel and
wrought iron, concrete, galvanized iron, drawing tubing, plastic (PVC) or glass, riveted
steel etc. All these materials have their specific roughness, some of them are having smooth
surface while some are rough. For a smooth pipe, the friction factor is near to zero but not
zero. That is, there is a head loss in any type of pipe materials made, no matter how smooth
the surface is made. This is a result of the no-slip boundary condition that requires any ﬂuid
to stick to any solid surface it ﬂows over. There is always some microscopic surface
roughness that produces the no-slip behavior (and thus f = 0). The head loss along the pipe is
affected by the different type of piping material. Water flow smoothly without loss many
energies for a smooth pipe wall while loss more energy for a rough pipe wall. Therefore,
head loss will be affected depends on the roughness of the pipe wall.
43
_____________
8.0 CONCLUSION
At the end, all the objectives of the experiment are achieved by doing this experiment. The
estimation of pressure loss is done by pressure loss measurements to be made on several small
bore pipe circuit components such as sudden changes in area of flow. The relationship between
head loss as a function of volume flow rate and friction factor as a function of Reynolds
Number is determined. The measured head loss across a sudden expansion and sudden
contraction with the calculated value is compared with the plotting of graphs as well.
From the experiment, it is found that there is a relationship between the head loss and
flow rate. When the flow rate is higher, the head loss is higher. This is because as the water
flows with higher velocity in an area of pipe, the flow rate is higher, and the hydraulic pressure
of the water is higher too. This increases the resistance in piping system and thus maximizes
the head loss due to higher friction and velocity per unit area in long pipe. At sudden expansion
and sudden contraction, it shows that the head loss of the liquid increases when the flow rate
also increases at the same rate. From the 3 pipe of long pipe, expansion and contraction we can
see that head losses decrease in experiment and theoretical.
The head loss is related to the square of the velocity so the increase in loss is very quick.
There is just a slight difference between experimental and theoretical values. This may cause
by errors such as systematic errors and random errors. But the trend is still same for the values
which mean they either drops or rises. There are some precautions steps in this experiment.
Before switching off the pump, close both the globe valve and the gate valve. This prevents air
gaining access to the system and so saves time in subsequent setting up. Besides, make sure
your eyes are perpendicular to the meniscus of reading when you are taking the water head in
piezometers. Put additional alertness when checking the time in stopwatch. If you are wearing
any items of gold or silver, remove them. The valve must be control carefully to maintain the
constant values of the pressure difference as it is quite difficult to control.
The application of Losses in Piping System principles in industry is to designing pipes

for piping purpose. Usually, it is used in hydroelectric power generation to reduce the head loss
in piping system of a dam and also to maintain the potential energy for generate enough power
for a dam.
44
_____________
9.0 REFERENCES
i. https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/total-pressure-loss-ducts-pipes-d_625.html
ii. University Malaysia Pahang :Civil Engineering Laboratory Manual (Third Edition)
iii. http://www.learneasy.info/MDME/MEMmods/MEM23006A/fluid_mech/lab-pipe-
45
_____________
4.0 DISCUSSION OPEN END LAB

Based on 2 experiment that we have done, the pressure at residential area is quite low.
Water pressure problems in residential can arise because of the impact of friction loss in
piping system. If the problems are ignored and no action are taken to fix it, it will decrease
operational efficiency of the piping system and eventually resulting in downtime and costly
repairs as frictional energy loss considered as major problems.
During system design, the friction loss must be considered to reduce the effect on velocity
and fluid pressure. From the losses in piping system experiment that we conduct, we found
out that there are few reasons why the friction loss happens in piping system which is,
fittings, bends, valves, expansion joints and any change in direction.
When fluid flow is constricts, it will increase the pressure drop within the piping system. This
can be seen when we conduct Bernoulli’s Theorem, at the throat area, the velocity of water
flow increasing compare to at the bigger pipe diameter, thus pressure at the smaller diameter
pipe (throat) is lower. There is no sufficient to design a unique shape of water tank due to
water supply problem.
46
_____________
5.0 CONCLUSSION OPEN END LAB

It is necessary to maintain the water pressure of the distribution systems to ensure that water
of acceptable quality is supply in acceptable quantities. Water pressure loss due to pipe
breaks, severe leakage, excessive head loss at the pipe walls, failure of the pump or valve
may affect the delivery of water and increase the risk of water supply pollution by intrusion.
The water pressure of the delivery systems must be maintained to ensure that water of
acceptable quality is supplied in acceptable quantities. Loss of water pressure due to pipe
breaks, extreme leakage, excessive head loss at the walls of the pipe, failure of the pump or
valve can affect the delivery of water and increase the risk of contamination by intrusion of
water supply.
To solve problem water pressure at residential that always having the problem, after we
conduct the experiment Bernoulli’s theorem and losses in piping system test we identify
that when at residential area using a unique shape of water tank the water pressure is low
due to their shape and capacity, we must make or change the size of water tank and the
diameter pipe bigger than the original pipe so that the velocity is lower than before and thus
the pressure will higher than before and the problem water pressure is can be solved and the
residential area no more facing this problem.
From these two experiments that we already done, we identify that the Bernoulli’s
theorem is the most suitable test to identify the problem of water pressure.
47
_____________
DETAILED EVALUATION FORM FOR ENGINEERING LAB III REPORT (BAA2941)
SUBJECT/CODE: Engineering Laboratory III (BAA2941) -
GROUP NO./SECTION: GROUP 3 FLEXI
TITLE OF EXPERIMENT: BERNOULLI’S THEOREM, LOSSES IN PIPING SYSTEM
No DESCRIPTI MAX MARKS REMARKS/COMMENTS

ON
1 Cover Page
i. Follow the Standard Cover page 1
ii. Correct Lecturer name, subject Code, etc 0.5
Table of Contents
i. Follow Standard Table of Content 1.5
ii. Doesn't have either no., content or page no. 0
2 Introduction 3
Principles 2
Objectives
i. Refer to lab manual and lab sheet 3
Apparatus/Equipment
i. All equipments listed 2
3 Procedures
i. Refer to lab manual and lab sheet 3
4 Results
i. Tables 4
ii. Graphs 4
iii. Calculations - Example 2
5 Discussion / Analysis
i. Discuss on experimental result 5
ii. Comparison between theoretical and experimental 2
iii. Cause and error during experimental 2
6 Conclusion
i. State the final result obtained from experiment 3
ii. Are the objectives achieved/accomplished 3
iii. Method to reduce error and improvement method 2
iv. Purpose of testing on industry application 2
7 References/Appendix
i. Photos during experiment 1
ii. Books/Journals 1
iii. Result attached 2
iv. Marking scheme attached 1
TOTAL MARKS 50
MAX: Maximum
48
_____________
SUMMARY MARKS FOR ENGINEERING LABORATORY
NAME %
NO ID NO. REPORT TOTAL
1 NURUL AFIFAH BINTI SABERI FAA18004
2 MUHAMMAD ZUHAIRI BIN SULAIMAN FAA18007
3 MOHAMAD SHUBKI BIN MOHD SALLEH FAA18009
4 TENGKU NURNABILAH SYAHIRAH FAA18014

BINTI TENGKU ASRI
5 MOHD SHAZWAN BIN MOHD SHAHRIN FAA18018
49

Bernoulli's Theorem Experiment

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Bernoulli's Theorem Experiment

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HYDRAULIC & HYDROLOGY LABORATORY

SUBJECT CODE BAA 2941

SUBJECT ENGINEERING LAB III

DATE OF EXPERIMENT 1/7/2021

GROUP MEMBERS & ID

LECTURER DR NADIATUL ADILAH BT AHMAD ABDUL GHANI

1.0 INTRODUCTION OF OPEN-END LAB 1

2.0 BERNOULLI’S THEOREM 2-21

3.0 LOSSES IN PIPING SYSTEM 22-45

4.0 DISCUSSION OPEN END LAB 46

5.0 CONCLUSSION OPEN END LAB 47

2.0 BERNOULLI’ S THEOREM

work done = change in kinetic energy

in this situation can be written as

( change in pressure) x area x distance = change in kinetic energy

which furthermore can be expressed as

Change in pressure + change in (kinetic energy/ volume) = 0

Pressure = (kinetic energy/volume) = constant

Figure 1: Ideal conditions in a venturi meter

The equation of continuity is:

v1A1 = v2A2 = vnAn = Q (2)

where Q denoted the volume-flow or discharge rate.

Substituting in equation (1) for v1 from equation (2):

and solving this equation for v2 leads to,

ℎ − ℎ = 𝑣12 − 𝑣𝑛2 (6)

Venturi meter apparatus

1.The control and the supply valve were

2. The valve was closed gradually to make

3. The bench valve was closed when the

4. The water level in piezometer tubes along

5. The flow rate by collecting the volume of

Step (4) and (5) was repeated for a few

Table 1 Values of Cd from experiment

Time to Piezometer head Actual

9.07 360 18 5.51 0.342 0.585 0.979

9.64 330 42 5.19 0.288 0.537 1.005

10.38 300 54 4.82 0.246 0.496 1.010

Table 2 Ideal pressure distribution as a fraction of velocity head at throat

B -34.0 23.2 0.690 4.227 0.226 -0.083

C -22.0 18.4 0.870 2.659 0.572 -0.429

D (2) -8.0 16 1.000 2.011 1.000 -0.857

E 7.0 16.79 0.953 2.214 0.825 -0.682

F 22.0 18.47 0.866 2.679 0.563 -0.420

G 37.0 20.16 0.794 3.192 0.397 -0.253

H 52.0 21.84 0.733 3.746 0.288 -0.145

J 67.0 23.53 0.680 4.348 0.214 -0.070

K 82.0 25.21 0.635 4.992 0.162 -0.019

L 102.0 26.0 0.615 5.309 0.143 0

hn hn – h1 (hn – h1) hn hn – h1 (hn – h1)

Given, 𝑄 = 𝐶 𝐴 2g (ℎ1 − ℎ2)

5.88 × 10−4 = 𝐶𝑑(2.011 × 10−4)(2.934)

5.51 × 10−4 = 𝐶𝑑(2.011 × 10−4)(2.798)

Given, 𝑄 = 𝐶 𝐴 2g (ℎ1 − ℎ2)

Given, 𝑄 = 𝐶 𝐴 2g (ℎ1 − ℎ2)

4.82 × 10−4 = 𝐶𝑑(2.011 × 10−4)(2.373)

Graph of the variation of Cd vs Q through Venturi Meter

3. Graph of the measured pressure distribution along Venturi meter.

Graph of the measured pressure distribution along Venturi

Q = 5.88 x 10-4 m3 /s Q = 5.51 x 10-4 m3 /s

Q1 x 10-4 Q2 x 10-4 Q3 x 10-4 Q4 x 10-4

The safety measures and precautions should be taken are:

Orifices Using Bernoulli’s equation between points 1 and 2

[P1=0, P2≈0, V1=0]