My Tubes, My Gauge, My Pitot, My Head:

Verifying Bernoulli’s Theorem Using Venturi Meter

Baralla, Adrian Laurence A.
Infante, Aaron Paul D.
Jalandoni, Kaylen Yvon K.
Martus, Rievelyn B.

I. Introduction
Bernoulli’s theorem, as a concept in fluid mechanics, relates the different
parameters, such as pressure, velocity, and elevation of a moving fluid (Alexander, 2017).
It stems from the principle of energy conservation—the concept that the energy of an
interacting body in a closed system remains constant (Cleveland, 2004). With this, the
mentioned proposition states that the total mechanical energy of the system remains
constant as the fluid motion, gravitational energy from elevation, and kinetic energy
remain in equilibrium (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2023).
As the scientific community continues to explore and expound on all aspects of
science, certain developments and concrete utilization of Bernoulli’s principle have
existed until now. It is commonly implemented in different fields and institutions that
deal with different fluids such as aeronautical engineering, chemical engineering,
meteorology, etc (Faber, 2022). One example of a real-life application of the mentioned
principle is the implementation of an aircraft wing, which allows low-pressure and
high-velocity air to pass through the top and high-pressure and low-velocity air to pass
through the bottom of the vehicle (Boyce and Vance, 2021). Because of this, airplanes
and other jet fighters can easily maneuver through the atmosphere. Additionally, in the
field of academia and engineering, one device that is frequently present in laboratories is
the Venturi meter. This device, in general, is a flow instrument that uses converging and
diverging sections (or vice-versa) to influence the flow velocity of a fluid (Nasr and
Connor, 2014).
A Venturi meter is a type of flowmeter, which measures the flow rates of the
fluids in a pipe (Nasr and Connor, 2014). It is an instrument commonly used by the water
supply industry (Reader-Harris, 2011). In order to generate a pressure difference that can
be detected with a manometer to ascertain the fluid flow rate, the pipe's cross-sectional
area is decreased. The venturi meter is a differential head type flowmeter, which means it
transforms pressure energy into kinetic energy. A Venturi meter commonly consists of
four major parts: (1) a cylindrical inlet section, (2) a conical converging section, (3) a
cylindrical throat section, and (4) a conical divergent outlet section.
 Source: www.mechanicalwalkins.com, 2023

Figure 1. Diagram of Venturi meter

Manometers are typically used to measure the pressure difference between the
neck and an upstream portion of the instrument as mentioned earlier. A fluid accelerates
in the convergent section of a venturi meter before decelerating in the divergent region
(Kundu and Lee, 2018). By establishing the relationships between the different factors
involved—velocity, height, and pressure, different equations of Bernoulli’s theorem can
be obtained. In the case that external mechanical energy and frictional losses are
neglected, the formula for Bernoulli’s equation (Gentle et al., 2001) becomes
𝑃1 1 2 𝑃2 1 2
ρ
+ 2
𝑣1 + 𝑔ℎ1 = ρ
+ 2
𝑣2 + 𝑔ℎ2 Eq. 1

If elevation change becomes absent in the system, the equation would take the
form (Gentle et al., 2001):
𝑃1 1 2 𝑃2 1 2
ρ
+ 2
𝑣1 = ρ
+ 2
𝑣2 Eq. 2

In pipings where the tube would take a horizontal orientation, a new formula can
be utilized to solve for the total energy of the fluid. This energy is also referred to as the
total head. The total head directly measures the total pressure of a certain section in a
venturi meter. It follows the formula (Stuart, 2015):

𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 + 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 Eq. 3

The pressure head, also known as the static head, readily uses the dimensional
length of a pipe as a reference point to a surface of the water at rest. The kinetic head, on
the other hand, measures the dynamic pressure of a moving fluid by utilizing a
dimensional focal length point. With this, the formula for the theoretical head becomes
(Coker, 1995)
 ℎ𝑖
( )
2
1 𝑣
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 = ρ𝑔
+ 2 𝑔
Eq. 4

The formula for the theoretical head can be further expanded by using the flow
rate of the fluid (Q) and the cross-sectional area (A) of the pipe (Nakayama, 2018).
𝑄 2

𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 =
ℎ𝑖
+
( ) 𝐴
Eq. 5
ρ𝑔 2𝑔

II. Objectives
The main objective of the experiment was to verify the validity of Bernoulli's
equation for Venturi meters based on the difference of the total heads. To accomplish that,
the experiment sought to determine the static, kinetic, and actual and theoretical heads at
different sections of the Venturi meter. It also aimed to establish the relationships among
different parameters, including velocity, pressure, cross-sectional area, flow rate, kinetic
and static heads, total heads, and head loss.
III. Materials and Methodology
The validity of Bernoulli’s equation was investigated in this experiment using
Bernoulli’s Theorem Demonstration Unit (FME03) as the primary setup and a hydraulic
bench to supply water.
The tube connecting the FME03 unit to the hydraulic bench was initially secured
with the use of a quick-release fitting so that water can flow from the bench to the Venturi
tube. Likewise, the outlet hose of the main setup was attached to allow the water to leave
the system. Then, the hydraulic bench was plugged in, and its pump began supplying
water. The flow rate was randomly set by turning the VCC-1 (flow control valve of the
hydraulic bench) and the VR-1 valve (flow control valve of the Venturi meter) to an
extent. Later, the VR-1 valve was turned again to adjust the flow rate for the next trials,
whereas the VCC-1 valve was not changed.
To measure the volumetric flow rate of water, a 1000 mL beaker was placed at the
end of the outlet hose, and the amount of water transferred after five seconds was
recorded. The volumetric flow rate was then calculated by dividing the volume of water
by the time.
Afterward, the pressure measurements were read. In doing this, the knob of the
Pitot tube probe was loosened to move the needle directly beside each pressure tapping
corresponding to a section in the convergent-divergent Venturi tube. For each section, the
pressure head in their respective manometer tube was recorded, and the total head in the
manometer tube at the rightmost side of the panel was also noted. The first trial ended
when pressure and total heads at all seven sections of the Venturi tube had been
measured.
 The same procedures were conducted for the second trial. As for the third trial,
data gathered by Group 4 (Nalica et al.) were adopted due to time constraints and the lack
of equipment during the experimentation.
At the end of the experiment, the VR-1 valve was closed before the VCC-1 valve
to stop the flow of water in the setup. Then, the Pitot tube probe was returned to its
starting position and secured by tightening its knob. Finally, the hydraulic bench was
turned off and unplugged.
For the post-laboratory calculations, the area of each section was determined
using the available data for their respective diameter. Then, the average velocity at each
section was identified by dividing the flow rate by the area. These values were used to
calculate the kinetic head in all seven sections. Meanwhile, the pressure and actual total
heads measured from the experiment were converted from millimeters of water column
(mm w.c.) to meters. Given these values, the pressure and kinetic heads at each section
were summed to get the corresponding theoretical total head, and the percent difference
between the total heads was solved.
These computations were done for all three trials, and the resulting data were used
to verify the validity of Bernoulli’s equation.
IV. Results and Discussion
This section summarizes the calculated results of the experiment and its
implication to the known concepts and theories of momentum transfer.

Table 1: Summary Table for First Flowrate (𝑄1) Experimental Data

Diameter Cross Velocity Pressure Kinetic head Total Total %

(m) Sectional (m/s) head (m) −2
(10 m) Theoretical Measured Difference
Area Head (m) Head (m)
−4
(10 m2)

S0 0.0250 4.9087 0.0998 0.2359 0.0508 0.2364 0.2399 1.48

S1 0.0149 1.7437 0.2810 0.2304 0.4025 0.2344 0.2349 0.20

S2 0.0125 1.2272 0.3993 0.2249 0.8126 0.2330 0.2339 0.37

S3 0.0112 0.9852 0.4974 0.2214 1.2608 0.2340 0.2329 0.48

S4 0.0106 0.8825 0.5553 0.2174 1.5714 0.2331 0.2319 0.52

S5 0.0100 0.7854 0.6239 0.2119 1.9839 0.2318 0.2289 1.23

S6 0.0250 4.9087 0.0998 0.2139 0.0508 0.2144 0.2169 1.16

Table 2. Summary Table for Second Flowrate (𝑄2) Experimental Data

Diameter Cross Velocity Pressure head Kinetic head Total Total %

(m) Sectional (m/s) (m) −2
(10 m) Theoretical Measured Difference
Area Head (m) Head (m)
−4
(10 m2)

S0 0.0250 4.9087 0.2070 0.3239 0.2184 0.3261 0.3329 2.09

S1 0.0149 1.7437 0.5827 0.3094 1.7305 0.3267 0.3239 0.86

S2 0.0125 1.2272 0.8279 0.2969 3.4936 0.3318 0.3219 3.00

S3 0.0112 0.9852 1.0313 0.2804 5.4205 0.3346 0.3209 4.10

S4 0.0106 0.8825 1.1513 0.2629 6.7559 0.3305 0.3189 3.50

S5 0.0100 0.7854 1.2936 0.2544 8.5292 0.3397 0.3179 6.42

S6 0.0250 4.9087 0.2070 0.2529 2.1835 0.2551 0.2569 0.71

Table 3. Summary Table for Third Flowrate (𝑄3) Experimental Data

Diameter Cross Velocity Pressure Kinetic Total Total %

(m) Sectional (m/s) head (m) head Theoretical Measured Difference
Area −2
(10 m) Head (m) Head (m)
−4
(10 m2)

S0 0.0250 4.9087 0.2730 0.3249 0.3798 0.3287 0.3269 0.55

S1 0.0149 1.7437 0.7685 0.2989 3.0101 0.3290 0.3259 0.95

S2 0.0125 1.2272 1.0919 0.2699 6.0770 0.3307 0.3239 2.05

S3 0.0112 0.9852 1.3601 0.2389 9.4289 0.3332 0.3229 3.10

S4 0.0106 0.8825 1.5185 0.2169 11.4836 0.3344 0.3219 3.75

S5 0.0100 0.7854 1.7061 0.1979 14.8364 0.3463 0.3229 6.76

S6 0.0250 4.9087 0.2730 0.1999 0.3798 0.2037 0.2409 18.25

The experiment was conducted based on Bernoulli's principle, which describes the
relationship between the velocity and pressure of an inviscid fluid when the elevation is constant.
Using the venturi meter and hydraulic bench as the main equipment, the hTP and hi were
determined and utilized to calculate the pressure head, kinetic head, and total head. The summary
of the calculated values is reflected in Tables 1 to 3.
 Figure 2. Cross-sectional Area vs. Velocity of Fluid Graph for three (3) Different Flowrates

As shown in Figure 2, there is an inverse relationship between the cross-sectional area

(A) of the pipe and the velocity of the fluid (𝑣) in a Venturi meter wherein as the cross-sectional
area of the tube decreases, the velocity increases. This is due to the fact that when the space for
the fluid narrows from the inlet pipe to the throat of the Venturi meter, the velocity of the fluid
must necessarily increase to maintain a constant volume flow rate. This can also be supported by
the continuity equation in fluid dynamics, which states that the flow at which a fluid enters a
pipeline should be equal to the flow at which a fluid leaves the pipeline in a steady-state process
(Towell, 2020).

The results on all three tables also showed the inverse relationship between velocity and
pressure. It can be observed that using the convergent-divergent Venturi meter, the increase in the
velocity of the fluid through a constriction causes a marked reduction in pressure (Gilbert-Kawai
& Wittenberg, 2014). This occurrence of pressure drop, where the pressure on the wider channel
is larger compared to the smaller channel, results in a net force on a fluid. Consequently, this net
force from the pressure on the wider channel pushes the fluid to the narrower channel. Work is
done due to this force, which increases the fluid’s kinetic energy, thereby increasing the fluid's
velocity as the fluid approaches the narrower channel with decreasing pressure (OpenStax, 2016;
Khan Academy, n.d.). This inverse relationship between velocity and pressure is substantiated by
Bernoulli’s principle, which states that for an inviscid fluid with no external work, an increase in
velocity occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure or a change in the fluid’s gravitational
potential energy (Ni, 2016).
 Figure 3. Cross-sectional Area vs. Pressure Head Graph for three (3) Different Flowrates

Furthermore, as the diameter of the tube narrows, the pressure head (PH) decreases. This
is demonstrated in Figure 3, wherein a decreasing trend of the pressure head is established. The
direct relationship was also observed during the experiment—as the fluid flows along the
converging portion of the Venturi tube, the height of the fluid in the manometer (hi) decreases.
As shown in Tables 1, 2, and 3, section S5 with the smallest diameter, had the lowest pressure,
whereas sections S0 and S6 with the biggest diameter had the highest pressure. This can be
explained by the direct proportionality relationship between the diameter and the cross-sectional
area, the inverse relationship between the cross-sectional area and velocity, and the inverse
relationship between the velocity of the fluid and its pressure.

Additionally, data from the results tell that at a given section, the velocity increases with
the flow rate. This direct relationship can be explained by the volumetric flow rate equation,
Q=Av, where the volume of the fluid flowing past a point in time t is equal to the velocity v at
which the fluid is traveling multiplied by the cross-sectional area A it is traveling through
(Libretexts, 2022).

Meanwhile, the total head in each section is almost equal to one another, with values of
approximately 0.23 m, 0.32 m, and 0.32 m for trials 1, 2, and 3, respectively. This is consistent
with Bernoulli's theorem, which posits that the total pressure of the flow, otherwise called total
head, must remain the same when no elevation is present between the two points on a streamline
(US Department of Energy, 1992).
 Figures 4 and 5. Graph of Velocity Squared vs Percent Difference (right) and Diameter vs
Percent Difference (left)

The percent difference between the total measured head and the total theoretical head is
due to the head loss that occurred in the pipeline as the fluid travels from one point to another.
Head loss is defined as the measure of the decrease in the total head of the fluid moving through
a streamline wherein the potential energy is transformed into kinetic energy. It is directly
2
proportional to the friction factor (𝑓), pipe length (𝐿), and the square of the fluid velocity (𝑣 )
and indirectly proportional to the pipe diameter (𝐷) as mathematically defined in Eq. 6 below
(US Department of Energy, 1992).
2
𝐿𝑣
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 ∝ 𝑓 𝐷
Eq. 6

In the experiment, the presence of head loss is due to the friction created by the fluid, the
roughness of the tubes’ walls, and other frictional resistances of the piping system (Stewart,
2019). This is the reason behind the increase in percent difference as the diameter of the pipe
decreases and as the fluid velocity increases. Moreover, there is also a direct relationship
between the percent difference and the flow rate, wherein increasing the flow rate will result in
an increased difference between the total measured head and the total theoretical head.
 Figures 6 and 7. Cross-sectional Area vs Kinetic Head vs Pressure Head for three (3) Different
Flowrates (left) and Comparison of Pressure Head and Kinetic Head at Each Section with
Varying Flowrate (right)

Considering the relationships mentioned above, the flow rate influences the pressure and
kinetic heads at each section. In Figure 6, it can be seen that the kinetic head is inversely related
to the cross-sectional area, which means it has a direct relationship with velocity and, therefore,
with flow rate. In other words, an increase in velocity and flow rate results in an increase in the
kinetic head, which is demonstrated by the increasing slopes of the kinetic head curves for trials
1 to 3. This increase in the kinetic head must be compensated for by a decrease in the pressure
head to conserve the energy in the fluid flow (Nuclear Power, 2021). Hence, the pressure head
difference from one section to another generally increases with the flow rate as indicated by the
steepness of the pressure head curves in Figure 6. Moreover, Figure 7 shows the inverse
relationship between pressure and kinetic heads, which maintain the constant total head for every
flow rate.

The outliers and inconsistencies in the results may have been caused by parallax error due
to the height difference between the person reading and the manometer tubes. Moreover, the
equipment malfunctioned due to the air bubbles trapped inside the tube prior to use, which might
also have resulted in inconsistent and erroneous readings, particularly in the manometer tube for
the total head on the rightmost side of the panel.
 V. Conclusion and Recommendations

After interpreting the sets of data gathered during the experiment, it was found that the
total theoretical head, which is the sum of static and kinetic heads, remains constant in a closed
system. As the water flew through the Venturi meter, it was discovered that the change in the
cross-sectional area of the pipe caused an inversely proportional relationship with the velocity of
the flowing fluid. Velocity also influences the kinetic head, sharing a directly proportional
relationship with each other. However, these two parameters are both inversely related to the
pressure head. On the other hand, the difference between the total heads can be attributed to head
loss, which signifies the decrease in pressure due to the presence of frictional resistances in the
length, size, and roughness of the pipe as well as the velocity of the fluid traveling through it.

By utilizing the findings presently available, additional adjustments to the experiment's

design could be done to prevent possible errors. Firstly, the instrument should be checked if it is
working properly before use. Likewise, the manometers must be inspected so that residual air
inside the tube would be purged to avoid any potential discrepancies during data gathering.
Secondly, the flow of water must be regulated carefully by using the valves since leakage due to
high-velocity fluid might lead to errors and erroneous pressure measurements. Moreover, the
Pitot tube probe should also be moved to the exact location to increase the accuracy of the
readings. The reading of the pressure and total heads must also be done by one experimenter
only at eye level to minimize bias and inconsistencies.
VI. References
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Cambridge University Press EBooks, 26–27.
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Khan Academy. (n.d.). What is Bernoulli's equation? (article). Khan Academy.
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rnoullis-equation
Kundu, B., & Lee, K. (2018). Existence of Subsonic Flow in Divergent Section Adjacent
to Throat of a Convergent-Divergent Nozzle for Actual Flow. Journal of Applied
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Applications/12.01%3A_Flow_Rate_and_Its_Relation_to_Velocity#:~:text=Flow
%20rate%20Q%20is%20defined,of%20volume%20is%20m3.&text=Flow%20rat
e%20and%20velocity%20are,v%20is%20its%20average%20velocity.
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9780081024379
Nasr, G. G.; Connor, N. E. (2014). "5.3 Gas Flow Measurement". Natural Gas
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ple-with-diagram/
VII. Appendices
Appendix A
Table 4. Raw Data Gathered During the Experiment

𝑄1 = 49 𝑚𝐿/𝑠 𝑄2 = 101. 6 𝑚𝐿/𝑠 𝑄3 = 134 𝑚𝐿/𝑠

Diameter
(m) ℎ𝑇𝑃−𝑖 ℎ𝑖 ℎ𝑇𝑃−𝑖 ℎ𝑖 ℎ𝑇𝑃−𝑖 ℎ𝑖
(𝑚𝑚 𝑤. 𝑐.) (𝑚𝑚 𝑤. 𝑐.) (𝑚𝑚 𝑤. 𝑐.) (𝑚𝑚 𝑤. 𝑐.) (𝑚𝑚 𝑤. 𝑐.) (𝑚𝑚 𝑤. 𝑐.)

S0 0.0250 240 236 333 324 327 325

S1 0.0149 235 230.5 324 309.5 326 299

S2 0.0125 234 225 322 297 324 270

S3 0.0112 233 221.5 321 280.5 323 239

S4 0.0106 232 217.5 319 263 322 217

S5 0.0100 229 212 318 254.5 323 198

S6 0.0250 217 214 257 253 241 200

Appendix B.
Sample Calculations of Data Collected
1. Converting all the raw data gathered during the experiment to follow consistent
dimensions all throughout the calculations.
𝑘𝑔
ℎ𝑇𝑃−𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑖 (𝑚𝑚 𝑤. 𝑐.) converted to ℎ𝑇𝑃−𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑖 ( 2 )
𝑚−𝑠

3
𝑄𝑖( 𝑚𝐿/𝑠) converted to 𝑄𝑖(𝑚 /𝑠)

Using the data from 𝑄1 = 49 𝑚𝐿/𝑠 readings at each section,

𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑆0
3
1𝐿 1𝑚 −5 3
𝑄1 = 49 𝑚𝐿/𝑠 × 1000 𝑚𝐿
× 1000 𝐿
= 4. 9 × 10 𝑚 /𝑠
𝑘𝑔
1
9.80665 𝑃𝑎 𝑚−𝑠
2
𝑘𝑔
ℎ𝑇𝑃−0 = 240 𝑚𝑚 𝑤. 𝑐. × 1 𝑚𝑚 𝑤.𝑐.
× 1 𝑃𝑎
= 2353. 596 2
𝑚−𝑠

𝑘𝑔
1
9.80665 𝑃𝑎 𝑚−𝑠
2
𝑘𝑔
ℎ0 = 236 𝑚𝑚 𝑤. 𝑐. × 1 𝑚𝑚 𝑤.𝑐.
× 1 𝑃𝑎
= 2314. 3694 2
𝑚−𝑠

*Similar computation was utilized for sections S1 to S6 and different flow rates (𝑄2 and
𝑄3).

2. Calculation of the area (𝐴) at each section given the diameter of the pipe at each section.
2
π𝐷
𝐴= 4

Using the diameter data given,

𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑆0
2
π(0.025 𝑚) 2
𝐴= 4
= 0. 00049 𝑚

*Similar computation was utilized for sections S1 to S6.

3. Calculation of the velocity (𝑣) at each section.

𝑄
𝑣= 𝐴
 −5 3
Using the data from 𝑄1 = 4. 9 × 10 𝑚 /𝑠 readings at each section,

𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑆0
5 3
4.9×10 𝑚 /𝑠
𝑣= 2 = 0. 0998 𝑚/𝑠
0.00049 𝑚

*Similar computation was utilized for sections S1 to S6 and different flow rates (𝑄2 and
𝑄3).

4. Calculation of Pressure head (𝑃𝐻) at every section.

ℎ𝑖
𝑃𝐻 = ρ𝑔

−5 3
Using the data from 𝑄1 = 4. 9 × 10 𝑚 /𝑠 readings at each section,

𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑆0
𝑘𝑔
2314.3694 2
𝑚−𝑠
𝑃𝐻 = 3 2 = 0. 2359 𝑚
(1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚 )(9.81 𝑚/𝑠 )

*Similar computation was utilized for sections S1 to S6 and different flow rates (𝑄2 and
𝑄3).

5. Calculation of Kinetic head (𝐾𝐻) at every section.

2 𝑄 2
𝑣 (𝐴)
𝐾𝐻 = 2𝑔
= 2𝑔

−5 3
Using the data from 𝑄1 = 4. 9 × 10 𝑚 /𝑠 readings at each section,

𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑆0
2
(0.0998 𝑚/𝑠) −4
𝐾𝐻 = 2𝑔
= 5. 0787 × 10 𝑚

*Similar computation was utilized for sections S1 to S6 and different flow rates (𝑄2 and
𝑄3).

6. Calculation of Total Theoretical Head (𝑇𝑇𝐻) at every section.

𝑇𝑇𝐻 = 𝑃𝐻 + 𝐾𝐻
−5 3
Using the data from 𝑄1 = 4. 9 × 10 𝑚 /𝑠 readings at each section,
 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑆0
−4
𝑇𝑇𝐻 = 0. 2359 𝑚 + 5. 0787 × 10 𝑚 = 0. 2364 𝑚

*Similar computation was utilized for sections S1 to S6 and different flow rates (𝑄2 and
𝑄3).

7. Calculation of Total Measure Head (𝐻) at every section.

ℎ𝑇𝑃−𝑖
𝐻= ρ𝑔

−5 3
Using the data from 𝑄1 = 4. 9 × 10 𝑚 /𝑠 readings at each section,

𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑆0
𝑘𝑔
2353.596 2
𝑚−𝑠
𝐻= 3 2 = 0. 2399 𝑚
(1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚 )(9.81 𝑚/𝑠 )

*Similar computation was utilized for sections S1 to S6 and different flow rates (𝑄2 and
𝑄3).

8. Calculation of %𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 at every section.

|𝐻𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 −𝐻𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 |
%𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝐻𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
× 100%

−5 3
Using the data from 𝑄1 = 4. 9 × 10 𝑚 /𝑠 readings at each section,

𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑆0
|0.2364 𝑚−0.2399 𝑚|
%𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 0.2364 𝑚
× 100% = 1. 48%

*Similar computation was utilized for sections S1 to S6 and different flow rates (𝑄2 and
𝑄3).
Appendix C.
Documentation During the Experiment Proper

Preparation: Preparation of the necessary materials and equipment, including Bernoulli’s

Theorem Demonstration Unit (FME03) on top of a hydraulic bench, a stopwatch, and the 100
mL and 1000 mL beakers used to measure the flow rate.

Setting of Flow rate: The flow rate was randomly set, and the amount of water transferred into
the beakers was recorded after 5 seconds.
Moving the Pitot Tube. The Pitot tube probe was placed directly beside the pressure tappings at
sections S0 to S6.

Reading. The manometer readings for each section were obtained, which include the height of
the manometer for that section (ℎ𝑖 ) and the height of the manometer at the rightmost side
(ℎ𝑇𝑃−𝑖 ).