CEB 2032 / CDB 2052

Chemical Engineering Lab I

September 2021
Experiment 5 - Cavitation

Group G2/G2

Group members Mohammad Zhafran Hafiz bin Azizan 19001327

Farah Anissa binti Sukri 19001284

Muhammad Haziq Mirza bin Saidi 19001323

Azrul Hakim bin Ahmad Tarmizi 20001693

Lab Instructor Dr Dzulkarnain

Date of experiment 20 September 2021

1
 Abstract
Cavitation is an occurrence when the pressure within a flowing fluid reaches the vapor
pressure of the fluid, resulting in the formation of vapor bubbles. Phenomenon of cavitation is
due to a drastic decreasing trend in the pressure at throat, as well as the increases in the velocity
flowing in the upstream. This would then lead to development of cavitation and subsequently
causing the formation of bubbles or void within the fluid, as the pressure drops dramatically
below vapour pressure or atmospheric pressure. Damage could be caused by the bubbles within
the fluid to hydraulic machinery such as pumps and turbines, hence affecting their performance.
This is due to shockwaves produced by the bubbles when it collapsed. The consequences of
cavitation occurring during the transportation of water through a pump are investigated using
a cavitation unit in this experiment. The other objective of this experiment is to determine the
resistant coefficient, 𝐾𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑖 , and the vapour pressure of water during cavitation. Furthermore,
application of standard Bernoulli equation of water flow in a duct is also studied in which the
resistant coefficient plays a role in determining the velocity and flowrate. The rotameter
measures five distinct initial water flow rates, which are then controlled by the control valve.
Upstream velocity and pressure as well as throat pressure is recorded for each of the five flow
1
rates. Morever, graph of 𝑃1 vs 2 𝜌𝑉12 is plotted from the data collected and the linear equation

for this graph can be determined as:

1
𝑃1 = 𝐾 ∗ 𝑉2 + 𝑃𝑣
2 1

The slope of the graph will be determined to calculate the 𝐾𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑖 as 𝐾 ∗ = 4.83 + 𝐾𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑖 .
This method is useful for determining the effect of water vapour pressure and the venture
resistance coefficient, 𝐾𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑖 , during cavitation. Finally, this experiment contributed to a
better understanding of how the flowrate and water vapour affect the behaviour of water during
the cavitation process.

2
1.0 Introduction
The technique of cavitation has been extensively researched, and it has been
successfully applied to a range of physical, chemical, and biological processes. Cavitation
occurs when the absolute pressure inside an impeller falls below the liquid's vapour pressure,
resulting in the formation of steam bubbles or, more typically, air pockets (Soto, 2018). The
steam bubbles or air pockets will grow in size as a result of this state, and when they approach
a zone of reduced pressure, they will shrink as a result of condensation of the vapour that is
contained (Fitch, 2020).

Cavitation harms the pump in a number of ways, namely causing erosion on the
impeller and inducing vibration. Furthermore, they have the potential to cause harm to the
shaft, bearings, and mechanical seals (Franc, 2006). It also produces a distinctive noise. The
tremendous pressures created by the abrupt expansion and collapse of these vapour cavities
and bubble formation pit the metal surfaces exposed to the cavitating liquid (Brittanica, 2018).

The cavitation unit in this experiment is a rectangular cross-section venturi tube made
of clear Perspex that allows visualisation of the studied cavitation phenomenon. Since there is
a pressure differential, the Bernoulli principle is used to create a new force on the fluid. The
aforementioned Bernoulli principle is expressed in Bernoulli equation as followed:

𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ 𝑔𝑧1 + = + 𝑔𝑧2 + + 𝐹 (1)
𝜌 2 𝜌 2

Whereas, the elevation terms 𝑧1 and 𝑧2 are neglected. In addition, friction loss or F in the
venturi can be expressed as:

𝑉12
𝐹 = 𝐾𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑖 (2)
2

Therefore, the Bernoulli equation can be rearranged to:

𝐾∗
𝑃1 = 𝜌𝑉12 + 𝑃2 (3)
2

where, 𝐾 ∗ is defined as 𝐾 ∗ = 4.83 + 𝐾𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑖 .

3
2.0 Material and Apparatus

1. Venturi apparatus
2. Control valve
3. Power button
4. Rotameter
5. Pump
6. Water tank
7. Thermometer
8. Pressure gage
9. Vacuum pressure gage
10. Tap water

3.0 Experimental procedures

Figure 3.1: Schematic diagram of cavitation unit

4
1. The apparatuses were set up like Figure 1.1.
2. The tap water was filled into the water tank up to the return pipe.

Figure 3.2: Tap water was poured into water tank

3. The electric cable was connected to a protected plug supply.
4. The temperature of the water at the thermometer was recorded in the report.

Figure 3.3: Thermometer was immersed into water in the water tank
5. The control valve was ensured to be closed before pump is switched on.
6. The pump was switched on by pressing the power button.

Figure 3.4: Power button was used to connect the power supply and the pump
7. The control valve was gently opened to 1000 L/h where the current flowrate value can
be read on the flowmeter. Phenomenon of cavitation can be observed from clear
Perspex of cavitation unit.
8. The velocity flowing in the upstream, V1 was calculated by using equation:

5
 𝑄
𝑉1 =
𝐴1
Where Q is flowrate and 𝐴1 is the area of venturi at the inlet. The value of 𝐴1 was
recorded in Table 1.1.

Figure 3.5: Control valve was used to regulate the current flowrate

Figure 3.6: Rotameter was used to read the flowrate value

9. The upstream pressure, 𝑃1 and pressure at throat, 𝑃2 respectively located at pressure

gage and vacuum pressure gage were recorded in Table 1.1.
10. The experiment from step 7 until step 9 was repeated with the flow rate value, Q of
1500 L/h, 1500 L/h, 2000 L/h, 2500 L/h, 3000 L/h, 3500 L/h, and 4000 L/h.
11. The flow was stopped by switching off the power supply.
12. The tank was emptied using the tap (liquid outlet to drain) located at the bottom of the
tank.
1
13. A graph 𝑃1 vs 2 𝜌𝑉12 was plotted by using the values in the Table 1.1. From the graph,

the value of 𝐾 ∗ , 𝐾𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃2 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑣 can be calculated accordingly.

6
4.0 Result

Table 4.1: Recorded data to determine resistant coefficient of venturi, K venturi

Flow Upstream Upstream Upstream Pressure at Pressure at

rate, , Velocity, , Pressure, , bar Pressure, , throat, or , bar throat, or ,
L/h m/s kPa kPa
1000 1.321 0.03 3 -0.22 -22
1500 1.934 0.075 7.5 -0.38 -38
2000 2.646 0.175 17.5 -0.63 -63
2500 3.307 0.3 30 -0.9 -90
3000 3.968 0.85 85 -0.88 -88
3500 4.63 1.5 150 -0.84 -84
4000 5.29 2.2 220 -0.78 -78

Graph 4.1: Graph 1.1: P1 vs (½)ρV12

Table 4.2: values obtain from linear graph

Parameter Value
Experimental K venturi 9.537
P2 or Pv -50440 Pa

7
5.0 Discussion

Cavitation is a process of bubble formation when the liquid in a pump turns to a vapor
at low pressure. Experiment conducted using Venturi apparatus to allow pressure drop occurs.
Upstream pressure is higher compared to the pressure at throat. Lower pressure at throat caused
by higher velocity where application of Bernoulli’s principle occurs.

From table 1.1, the flow rate of water increases by increment of 500 L/h. Increases of
flow rate causes increase in velocity by following equation 𝑄 = 𝑉1 𝐴1. To find the area of
venturi inlet, equation 𝐴1 = 𝐻1 𝐷1 used with the information given where height of venturi at
inlet, 𝐻1 , is 0.035 m and depth of venturi at inlet, 𝐷1 , is 0.006 m. To calculate the value of
𝐻
velocity at throat, continuity equation is used, 𝑉2 = 𝐻1 𝐴2 where derivation from equation
2

𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2.

From the experiment, as the flow rate of water increases, the velocity also increases. It
is because flow rate is directly proportional to the velocity. When the velocity increases, the
pressure decreases by application of Bernoulli’s Principle. From the pressure measured, the
pressure at upstream increases until 220 kPa while pressure at throat decreases until -78 kPa.

To measure the pressure at throat, Bernoulli’s equation can be applied. The graph in 1.1
1
represents equation of 𝑃1 = 𝐾 ∗ 2 𝜌𝑉12 + 𝑃2 where the slope is 𝐾 ∗ and the pressure at throat, 𝑃𝑉

would be the y-intercept. From the trendline of the graph, it shows that 𝑃1 is directly
1
proportional to the 2 𝜌𝑉12. Velocity increases along with the flow rate of water. Therefore, the

pressure also will proportionally increase by the increases of velocity. From the table 1.1. the
value of pressure at throat keeps decreasing. To know where the cavitation starts to occur, 𝑃2
needs to achieve 𝑃𝑉 . From the graph, 𝑃𝑉 stated is -50.44 Pa. This indicates that cavitation starts
to occur at -50.44 Pa. By doing linear interpolation, value of flow rate and pressure of
occurrence of cavitation can be calculated.

Flow rate of water when cavitation occurs, 𝑄𝑐 ;

−38 − (−50.44) 1500 − 𝑄𝑐

=
−38 − (−63) 1500 − 2000

𝑄𝑐 = 1748.8 𝐿/ℎ

8
Pressure of water at inlet when cavitation occurs, 𝑃1𝑐 ;

−38 − (−50.44) 1500 − 𝑃1,𝑐

=
−38 − (−63) 1500 − 2000

𝑃1,𝑐 = 0.12476 𝑘𝑃𝑎

Cavitation occurs due to the sudden pressure drop in the venturi. When cavitation takes
place, air bubbles are created at low pressure. As the liquid passes from the cavity wall, the
bubbles implode. This creates a shockwave that hits the wall and creates pump vibration and
mechanical damage

The pressure obtained from the graph, P2 is a cavitation pressure where the value of P2
is -50440 Pa. When cavitation occurs, P2 is equal to vapor pressure. From the graph, we can
observe that all the pressure at throat from 2000 L/h and more are lower than the cavitation
pressure. In table 7.1, The pressure at throat for 1000 L/h and 1500 L/h flowrate is bigger than
the cavitation pressure because there is no bubbles or water does not turn to vapor yet. Table
7.1 shows that the throat pressure continues to increase until reach the maximum recorded
value at 2500 L/h and decrease again. This phenomenon of throat pressure occurs because
friction loss across venturi meter is usually around 10% to 20% of Δh. This percentage
decreases for larger venturi and as the flow rate increases (Miller, 1996).

From the calculations in the appendix, theoretical value of Kventuri is smaller compared
to the experimental value where Kventuri=-16.2155. This difference in value (Percentage
error=42.3) is caused by the external factor for friction loss. The only parameter considered in
the theoretical value is sudden contraction at the venturi meter whereas the experimental also
depend on another factor as well. In this experiment, the friction loss is not primarily caused
by the sudden contraction of the venturi meter. Friction loss also happens because of the surface
roughness and even from the vapor bubbles from cavitation.

9
5.0 Conclusion
In conclusion, cavitation is often the source of typical problems in control valves and
pumps. When the pressure in a fluid, in this case water, surpasses a level at the actual
temperature under the vapour pressure of the water, an issue occurs. Furthermore, when the
water flow rate increases, the pressure in the throat falls significantly. As a result, cavitation
occurs when water is transported via a pump because the pressure at the throat drops
substantially below the vapour pressure, which is atmospheric pressure. This leads to the
formation of bubbles or voids inside the fluid.

The material damage that cavitation bubbles can cause when they collapse in the
proximity of a solid surface is the most typical engineering concern produced by cavitation (Li
et al., 2015). As a result, cavitation damage to metals resembles fatigue failure in terms of
crystalline appearance. Cavitation happens when water accelerates at a high velocity inside a
pump or control valve, according to Bernoulli's equation. Bernoulli's equation is used to
compute the velocity and flow rate of water in this experiment while the velocity and
coefficient of the venturi are determined by a series of trials. Applying the objective of this
experiment which is to determine the coefficient of venturi, theoretical and experimental values
of 𝐾𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑖 is computed for the trials conducted. It is found that for experimental 𝐾𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑖 , the
value is 9.357. On the other hand, the value for theoretical 𝐾𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑖 is -16.2155.

In this experiment, the influence of cavitation during water transportation is examined

using a pump. During the experiment, the water velocity rose as the water flow rate increased.
The presence of bubbles within the fluid, as well as the resulting vibrations and knocking, is
the result of cavitation within the pump. Subsequently, the vibration will certainly cause the
pump to fail. Finally, calculating the maximum size that a cavitation bubble will expand
throughout its trajectory through a zone where the pressure is lower than the vapour pressure
would be helpful in determining the vapour pressure of water during cavitation in this
experiment. The theoretical values of vapor pressure of water were obtained during the reading
at the throat of venture while the experimental values of the vapor pressure were calculated
from the formula:
1
𝑃1 = 𝐾 ∗ 𝜌𝑉12 + 𝑃𝑣
2

1 2 
Thus, from the values obtained, the graph of 𝑃1 against  ρV1  was plotted where the slope
2 
of the graph is measured to be 14.187 or 𝐾 ∗ . Cavitation is commonly regulated by raising the

10
pressure differential between the actual water pressure and the vapour pressure of water at
actual temperature as a result of this experiment.

11
6.0 References

Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2018, February 8). Cavitation. Encyclopaedia

Britannica.
Engineering ToolBox, (2003). Cavitation - an Introduction. [online] Available at:
https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/cavitation-d_407.html

Fitch, E. C. (2019, April 22). Cavitation Explained and Illustrated. Machinery Lubrication.
Herbert, E., Balibar, S., & Caupin, F. (2006). Cavitation pressure in water. Physical Review E,
74(4). doi:10.1103/physreve.74.041603
Peters, S. (2020, March 21). Troubleshooting Centrifugal Pumps - Pump Cavitation, How To
Avoid.
R. W. Miller, Flow Measurement Engineering Handbook, 3rd ed., New York: McGraw-Hill,
1996.

12
7.0 Appendix
Table 7.1: Recorded data to determine resistant coefficient of venturi, K venturi

Flow Upstream Upstream Upstream Pressure at Pressure at

rate, 𝑄1 , Velocity, Pressure, 𝑃1, Pressure, 𝑃1, throat, 𝑃2 or throat, 𝑃2 or
L/h 𝑉1, m/s bar kPa 𝑃𝑉 , bar 𝑃𝑉 , kPa
1000 1.321 0.03 3 -0.22 -22
1500 1.934 0.075 7.5 -0.38 -38
2000 2.646 0.175 17.5 -0.63 -63
2500 3.307 0.3 30 -0.9 -90
3000 3.968 0.85 85 -0.88 -88
3500 4.63 1.5 150 -0.84 -84
4000 5.29 2.2 220 -0.78 -78

Table 7.2: Recorded data from graph

Flowrate, Q1 (m3/s) Upstream Velocity, 1/2 ρ V12, (Pa) F, friction loss, (N)
V1 (m/s)

4.167 x 10-4 1.984 1962.223 31.194

5.556 x 10-4 2.646 3490.156 56.745

6.944 x 10-4 3.307 5451.720 88.668

8.333 x 10-4 3.968 7848.894 127.657

9.722 x 10-4 4.630 10686.295 173.805

1.111x 10-3 5.290 13950.074 226.888

1 2 
Graph 4.1: P1 vs  ρV1 
2 

13
5
Calculation

1.0

Converting Flow Rate, Q1, (m3/s)

Q 1,1 = (1500L/h) (1h/3600s) (1m3 /1000L) = 4.167 x 10-4 m3 /s

Q 1,2 = (2000L/h) (1h/3600s) (1m3 /1000L) = 5.556 x 10-4 m3 /s

Q 1,3 = (2500L/h) (1h/3600s) (1m3 /1000L) = 6.944 x 10-4 m3 /s

Q 1,4 = (3000L/h) (1h/3600s) (1m3 /1000L) = 8.333 x 10-4 m3 /s

Q 1,5 = (3500L/h) (1h/3600s) (1m3 /1000L) = 9.722 x 10-4 m3 /s

Q 1,6 = (4000L/h) (1h/3600s) (1m3 /1000L) = 1.111x 10-3 m3 /s

2.0

Area of venturi at inlet, A1. Given height of venturi at inlet, H1=0.006 m

and diameter of venturi at inlet, D1=0.0035 m

A1 = H1 D1 = 0.006 m (0.0.035m) = 2.1 x 10-4 m2

14
3.0
Calculating velocity of water at inlet, V1
𝑄1,1 4.167 × 10−4
𝑉1,1 = = = 1.984 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴1 2.1 × 10−4
𝑄1,2 5.556 × 10−4
𝑉1,2 = = = 2.646 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴1 2.1 × 10−4
𝑄1,3 6.944 × 10−4
𝑉1,3 = = = 3.307 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴1 2.1 × 10−4
𝑄1,4 8.333 × 10−4
𝑉1,4 = = = 3.968 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴1 2.1 × 10−4
𝑄1,5 9.722 × 10−4
𝑉1,5 = = = 4.630 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴1 2.1 × 10−4
𝑄1,6 1.111 × 10−3
𝑉1,6 = = = 5.290 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴1 2.1 × 10−4

4.0
1
Calculating theoretical value of 2ρ V12
1
ρ V1,1 2 = 0.5 (997 kg/m3) (1.984 m/s)2 = 1962.223 Pa
2

1
ρ V1,2 2 = 0.5 (997 kg/m3) (2.646 m/s)2 = 3490.156 Pa
2

1
ρ V1,3 2 = 0.5 (997 kg/m3) (3.307 m/s)2 = 5451.720 Pa
2

1
ρ V1,4 2 = 0.5 (997 kg/m3) (3.968 m/s)2 = 7848.894 Pa
2

1
ρ V1,5 2 = 0.5 (997 kg/m3) (4.630 m/s)2 = 10686.295 Pa
2

1
2
ρ V1,6 2 = 0.5 (997 kg/m3) (5.290 m/s)2 = 13950.074Pa

5.0
𝑉1 2
Calculating friction loss in venturi where F = K venturi , K venturi = 16.2155
2
(1.984 m/s)2
F 1,1 = (16.2155) ( ) = 31.914
2
(2.646 m/s)2
F 1,2 = (16.2155) ( ) = 56.745
2

15
 (3.307 m/s)2
F 1,3 = (16.2155) ( ) = 88.668
2
(3.968 m/s)2
F 1,4 = (16.2155) ( ) = 127.657
2
(4.630 m/s)2
F 1,5 = (16.2155) ( ) = 173.805
2
(5.290 m/s)2
F 1,6 = (16.2155) ( ) = 226.888
2

Based on the graph P1 vs (1/2)ρV12, the linear graph can be expressed as:
1
𝑃1 = 𝐾 ∗ 𝜌𝑣12 + 𝑃𝑣
2
The Kventuri can be found by substitute the slope of the graph with the 𝐾 ∗ :
𝐾 ∗ = 14.187
Where Kventuri can be calculated:

𝐾𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑖 = 14.187 − 4.83 = 9.357

Kventuri theoretical value can be calculated by using Bernoulli equation. Based on the plotted
graph, we can take the Kventuri at the flowrate of 3500 L/h as it overlaps on the linear graph.

Bernoulli equation:
1
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝜌(𝑉22 − 𝑉12 ) + 𝜌𝐹
2

Where:
𝑉2 = 5.83𝑉1
𝑉2 = 5.83(5.29) = 30.841
Table 7.3: Parameters for flowrate of 3500 L/h

Parameter Value
P1 150000
P2 -84000
𝜌 997
V1 5.29
V2 30.841

16
Then, we can find F:
1
150000 − (−84000) = (997)(30.8412 − 5.292 ) + 997𝐹
2
𝐹 = −226.8875

The negative value of F indicates the energy loss due to friction and K venturi can be calculated
as:

2𝐹
𝐾𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑖 =
𝑣12

2(−226.8875)
𝐾𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑖 = = −16.2155
5.292

The percentage error of the Kventuri can be calculated as:

𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐾𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑖 − 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐾𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑖
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐾𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑖

16.2155 − 9.357
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = | | × 100 = 42.2960%
16.2155

17