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MOI UNIVERSITY
School of Education
Department of Technology Education

Course Name: CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Course Code: BCT 412E
Units: 3
Year: 4
Semester: 1
Pre-requisite:
Lecturer: Clement Kiprotich Kiptum

Course Map

Course Goal Learning Assignment Indicative contents

Objective(s) s
/Activities
To bring the learner By the end of this Lecture Properties of fresh and
to understand and course, students hardened concrete,
appreciate the will be able to materials for production of
properties of distinguish concrete: cement; raw
concrete used for various materials in the
construction components of manufacture of cement,
concrete (cement) manufacturing process,
types of properties and uses
of cement; tests, storage,
hydration.
By the end of this aggregates classification,
course, students types and properties
will be able to
distinguish
various
components of
concrete
(Aggregates)
By the end of this aggregates classification,
course, students types and properties, tests;
will be able to water; quality and tests;
perform tests proportioning of concrete
done on concrete producing materials;
influence of constituent
materials on properties of
fresh and hardened
concrete; workability,
mixing and transportation
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placing and compacting,

curing types of hardened
concrete, tests, concreting in
climatic extremes,
concreting under water;
compressive, shear, and
flexural strength of concrete,
porosity, strain, creep and
elasticity; mix design and
quality control reinforced
and pre-stressed concrete,
types and quality
By the end of this Lecture ; reinforcements, fixing, bar-
course, students bending schedule and
will be able to equipment, drawings and
reinforce concrete specifications; pre-stressed
concrete, pre-formwork,
concrete finishes.
.

Course Assessment
Continuous Assessment Tests - 30%
End of semester Examination - 70%

Course Reference

Expected Learning Outcomes

 Describe the materials used for production of concrete.
 Explain the properties of fresh and hardened concrete.
 Explain the influence of constituent materials on properties of fresh and
hardened concrete.

Learning and Teaching methods

Lectures, discussions, demonstration, practical exercises

Instructional Material / Equipment

Cement , sand , lime, ballast, concrete mixer, vibrator, batching boxes

Chapter 1

Definitions
Concrete is a mixture of sand, gravel, crushed rock, or other aggregates held together in
a rocklike mass with a paste of cement and water. Sometimes one or more admixtures
are added to change certain characteristics of the concrete such as its workability,
durability, and time of hardening. As with most rocklike substances, concrete has a high
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compressive strength and a very low tensile strength. Reinforced concrete is a

combination of concrete and steel wherein the steel reinforcement provides the tensile
strength lacking in the concrete. Steel reinforcing is also capable of resisting
compression forces and is used in columns as well as in other situations,
which are described later.
Concrete and steel reinforcing work together beautifully in reinforced concrete
structures. The advantages of each material seem to compensate for the disadvantages
of the other. For instance, the great shortcoming of concrete is its lack of tensile strength,
but tensile strength is one of the great advantages of steel. Reinforcing bars have tensile
strengths equal to approximately 100 times that of the usual concretes used. The two
materials bond together very well so there is little chance of slippage between the two;
thus, they will act together as a unit in resisting forces. The excellent bond obtained is
the result of the chemical adhesion between the two materials, the natural roughness of
the bars, and the closely spaced rib-shaped deformations rolled onto the bars’ surfaces.
Admixtures: Materials added to concrete during or before mixing are referred to as
admixtures. They are used to improve the performance of concrete in certain situations
as well as to lower its cost. There is a rather well-known saying regarding admixtures,
to the effect that they are to concrete as beauty aids are to the populace.
Hydration: Finely ground powders and all have the important property that when
mixed with water a chemical reaction (hydration) takes place. Hydration produces a
very hard and strong binding medium for the aggregate particles.
Setting : Setting of concrete is distinguished as the initial and final setting of cement
paste. The initial setting is defined as the loss of plasticity or the onset of rigidity
(stiffening or consolidating) in fresh concrete. The final setting is defined as the onset
point of strength. It is different from hardening, which describes the development of
useful and measurable strength. Setting precedes hardening, although both are
controlled by the continuing hydration of the cement. The measurement of the setting
time for concrete is very different from that of cement paste. For cement paste, it uses
the samples made of the water amount needed for consistency. For concrete, it uses the
sieved mortar from a concrete with different water/cement or water/binder ratios.
Moreover, for cement paste, it measures the penetration depth of the Vicat needle, 1mm
in diameter, under a constant weight. For concrete, it measures the resistance of the
mortar to a rod under an action of the load.

History
Most people believe that concrete has been in common use for many centuries, but this
is not the case. The Romans did make use of a cement called pozzolana before the birth
of Christ. They found large deposits of a sandy volcanic ash near Mt. Vesuvius and in
other places in Italy. When they mixed this material with quicklime and water as well
as sand and gravel, it hardened into a rocklike substance and was used as a building
material. One might expect that a relatively poor grade of concrete would result, as
compared with today’s standards, but some Roman concrete structures are still in
existence today. One example is the Pantheon (a building dedicated to all gods), which
is located in Rome and was completed in a.d. 126.

The real breakthrough for concrete occurred in 1824, when an English bricklayer named
Joseph Aspdin, after long and laborious experiments, obtained a patent for a cement
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that he called portland cement because its color was quite similar to that of the stone
quarried on the Isle of Portland off the English coast. He made his cement by taking
certain quantities of clay and limestone, pulverizing them, burning them in his kitchen
stove, and grinding the resulting clinker into a fine powder. During the early years after
its development, his cement was used primarily in stuccos.1 This wonderful product
was adopted very slowly by the building industry and was not even introduced in the
United States until 1868; the first portland cement was not manufactured in the United
States until the 1870s.

Advantages of Reinforced Concrete

Reinforced concrete may be the most important material available for construction. It is
used in one form or another for almost all structures, great or small—buildings, bridges,
pavements, dams, retaining walls, tunnels, drainage and irrigation facilities, tanks, and
so on. The tremendous success of this universal construction material can be
understood quite easily if its numerous advantages are considered. These include the
following:
1. It has considerable compressive strength per unit cost compared with most other
materials.
2. Reinforced concrete has great resistance to the actions of fire and water and, in fact, is
the best structural material available for situations where water is present. During fires
of average intensity, members with a satisfactory cover of concrete over the reinforcing
bars suffer only surface damage without failure.
3. Reinforced concrete structures are very rigid.
4. It is a low-maintenance material.
5. As compared with other materials, it has a very long service life. Under proper
conditions, reinforced concrete structures can be used indefinitely without reduction of
their load carrying abilities. This can be explained by the fact that the strength of
concrete does not decrease with time but actually increases over a very long period,
measured in years, because of the lengthy process of the solidification of the cement
paste.
6. It is usually the only economical material available for footings, floor slabs, basement
walls, piers, and similar applications.
7. A special feature of concrete is its ability to be cast into an extraordinary variety of
shapes from simple slabs, beams, and columns to great arches and shells. In most areas,
concrete takes advantage of inexpensive local materials (sand, gravel, and water) and
requires relatively small amounts of cement and reinforcing steel, which may
have to be shipped from other parts of the country.
9. A lower grade of skilled labor is required for erection as compared with other
materials such as structural steel.

Disadvantages of Reinforced Concrete

To use concrete successfully, the designer must be completely familiar with its weak
points as well as its strong ones. Among its disadvantages are the following:
1. Concrete has a very low tensile strength, requiring the use of tensile reinforcing.
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2. Forms are required to hold the concrete in place until it hardens sufficiently. In
addition, falsework or shoring may be necessary to keep the forms in place for roofs,
walls, floors, and similar structures until the concrete members gain sufficient strength
to support themselves. Formwork is very expensive. In the United States, its costs run
from one-third to two-thirds of the total cost of a reinforced concrete structure, with
average values of about 50%. It should be obvious that when efforts are made to
improve the economy of reinforced concrete structures, the major emphasis is on
reducing formwork costs.
3. The low strength per unit of weight of concrete leads to heavy members. This
becomes an increasingly important matter for long-span structures, where concrete’s
large dead weight has a great effect on bending moments. Lightweight aggregates can
be used to reduce concrete weight, but the cost of the concrete is increased.
4. Similarly, the low strength per unit of volume of concrete means members will be
relatively large, an important consideration for tall buildings and long-span structures.
5. The properties of concrete vary widely because of variations in its proportioning and
mixing. Furthermore, the placing and curing of concrete is not as carefully controlled as
is the production of other materials, such as structural steel and laminated wood.

Types of Portland Cement

Concretes made with normal portland cement require about 2 weeks to achieve a
sufficient strength to permit the removal of forms and the application of moderate
loads. Such concretes reach their design strengths after about 28 days and continue to
gain strength at a slower rate thereafter.

On many occasions it is desirable to speed up construction by using high-early-strength

cements, which, although more expensive, enable us to obtain desired strengths in 3 to
7 days rather than the normal 28 days. These cements are particularly useful for the
fabrication of precast members, in which the concrete is placed in forms where it
quickly gains desired strengths and is then removed from the forms and the forms are
used to produce more members. Obviously, the quicker the desired strength is
obtained, the more efficient the operation. A similar case can be made for the forming of
concrete buildings floor by floor. High-early strength cements can also be used
advantageously for emergency repairs of concrete and for shotcreting (where a mortar
or concrete is blown through a hose at a high velocity onto a prepared surface).
There are other special types of portland cements available. The chemical process that
occurs during the setting or hardening of concrete produces heat. For very massive
concrete structures such as dams, mat foundations, and piers, the heat will dissipate
very slowly and can cause serious problems. It will cause the concrete to expand during
hydration. When cooling, the concrete will shrink and severe cracking will often occur.
Concrete may be used where it is exposed to various chlorides and/or sulfates. Such
situations occur in seawater construction and for structures exposed to various types of
soil.
Type I—The common, all-purpose cement used for general construction work.
Type II—A modified cement that has a lower heat of hydration than does Type I cement
and that can withstand some exposure to sulfate attack.
Type III—A high-early-strength cement that will produce in the first 24 hours a concrete
with a strength about twice that of Type I cement. This cement does have a much
higher heat of hydration.
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Type IV—A low-heat cement that produces a concrete which generates heat very
slowly. It is used for very large concrete structures.
Type V—A cement used for concretes that are to be exposed to high concentrations of
sulfate.

Raw Materials of Portland Cement

•Raw Materials:
1- Calcareous rocks (CaCO3 > 75% such as limestone, marl, chalk),
2- Argillaceous rocks (CaCO3 < 40% such as clay and shale),
3- Argillocalcareous rocks (40-75% CaCO3 such as clayey limestone, clayey marl).
•Materials from any two of these groups may be used for Portland cement production
providing that they must contain, in proper form and proportions of lime, silica and
alumina.

Chemical Composition of Portland Cements

The raw materials used in the manufacture of Portland cement consist mainly of lime,
silica, alumina and iron oxide. The oxides account for over 90% of the cement. The oxide
composition of (ordinary) Portland cement may be expressed as follows:
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Manufacturing of Cement
The details of the cement making process vary widely. However, the fundamental
stages in cement production are all the same and as follow. A schematic diagram of the
cement manufacturing is shown in Fig. 1.
1. The raw materials are reduced to fine particle size.
2. Raw materials are blended and mixed to produce uniform chemical composition
containing calcium carbonate, silica, alumina, iron oxide etc.
3. The blended raw mix is heated to the point where all the moisture is driven off as
steam or water vapor.
4. The dried mix is heated to 800oC. At this temperature, the calcium carbonate
dissociated into calcium oxide (free lime), and carbon dioxide which driven off as gas.
5. As the temperature rises, principal active compounds of Portland cement form. This
process is completed at a temperature of around 1400 oC. Resulting product is Portland
cement clinker (1.8 tons of raw material produces 1 ton of clinker).
The intermediate product produced through pyro-processing is called clinker, hourly
samples are drawn for clinker analysis. Clinker is the major component of cement.
Depending on clinker addition level two types of cement are produced i.e. Ordinary
Portland Cement (OPC) and Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC). Kenyan standard allow
clinker usage to a minimum of 65% for the production of PPC. Clinker quality
determines the quality of the cement.
Clinker is cooled to a temperature of about 60-150oC and stockpiled.
7. Clinker is ground to the specified fineness with the addition of a small proportion of
gypsum to control the setting time of the finished cement.
8. The finished cement is stored in silos for a relatively short time before being sent to
the customer in bags or in bulks.

Production steps for cement

Crushing, screwing, and stockpiling the raw materials
•Calculating the proportions of raw materials
•Preparing the raw mix by blending
•Feeding the raw mix into rotary kiln
•100oC: Free water is evaporated.
•150-300oC: Loosly bound water is evaporated.
•500oC: More firmly bound water is evaporated.
•600oC: MgCO3 = MgO + CO2
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•900oC: CaCO3= CaO + CO2

•Reaction between lime and clay starts.
•1300oC: Major compound formation starts.
•1400-1600oC: Output temperature.
•(Around 1600oC clinker forms C3A, C2S, C3S, C4AF)
•Clinker cooled and stored.
•Clinker is ground with gypsum.
•Storing and marketing.

Cement Production Process

Physical Properties of Cement

Fineness:
•The reaction between the water and cement starts on the surface of the cement
particles. So the greater the surface area of a given volume of cement the greater the
hydration. A fine cement will develop strength and generate heat more quickly than a
coarse cement.
The measurement of fineness:
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Defined as specific surface and is expressed as surface area of the grains in a sample per
mass of that sample. Usually it is in the range 350-380 m2/kg.
Hydration: •The chemical combination of cement and water known as hydration
produces a very hard and strong binding medium for the aggregate particles in the
concrete. •At the end of hydration normally a heat is liberated which is expressed as
cal/gr.

HYDRATION
•In normal construction where the sizes of the structural members are not so large, the
dissipation of this heat creates no problems.
•On cold weather concreting, this heat is advantageous.
•But in hot weather and in mass concrete construction, this generated heat may cause
thermal cracks, and should be avoided.
The process of hydration in the cement can be determined by the measurement of;
•the amount of Ca(OH)2 in the paste,
•the heat evolved by hydration,
•the specific gravity of the unhydrated cement paste,
•the amount of chemically combined water,
•the amount of unhydrated cement paste.

Setting of cement
The beginning of noticeable stiffening in the cement paste is known as the initial set.
•The final hardening process which is responsible for its strength known as the final
set.
•The time from the addition of the water to the initial and final set are known as the
setting times.
•Setting time is affected by: cement composition, cement fineness, rate of hydration,
and the ambient temperature.
Measuring of setting of cement is done using Vicat apparatus and Gilmore Apparatus.

Strength:
•The strength of hardened cement is its most important property.
•The rate of hardening of cement depends on the chemical and physical properties of
the cement, the curing conditions and the water/cement ratio.
Soundness:
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•Soundness is a physical property of cement paste, which determines the ability of the
cement paste to retain its volume after setting is completed.
•The unsoundness is due to the presence of free CaO (lime) and free MgO (magnesia)
in cement.
•These constituents hydrate very slowly after setting of cement. Since Ca(OH) 2 and
Mg(OH)2 occupy larger volume, expansion takes place.

Water for concrete

Almost any natural water that is drinkable is satisfactory as mixing water for making
or curing concrete. However, water suitable for making concrete may not necessarily be
fit for drinking.
The acceptance of acidic or alkaline waters is based on the pH scale which ranges
from 0 to 14. The pH of neutral water is 7.0. A pH below 7.0 indicates acidity, and a pH
above 7.0 indicates alkalinity. The pH of mixing water should be between 4.5 and 8.5.
Unless approved by tests, water from the following sources should not be used:
1. Water containing inorganic salts such as manganese, tin, zinc, copper, or lead;
2. Industrial waste waters from tanneries, paint and paper factories, coke plants,
chemical and galvanizing plants, etc.;
3. Waters carrying sanitary sewage or organic silt; and
4. Waters containing small amounts of sugar, oil, or algae.
Wash water can be reused in the concrete mixture provided it is metered and is
25 percent or less of the total water. A uniform amount of wash water must be used in
consecutive batches, with subsequent admixture rates adjusted accordingly to produce
a workable concrete that conforms to the specifications.

For this kind of concrete, the compositions can be listed as follows:

Portland cement
+ water (& admixtures) → cement paste
+ fine aggregate → mortar
+ coarse aggregate →concrete

Fresh Concrete
Fresh concrete is defined as a fully mixed concrete in a rheological state that has not lost
its plasticity. The plastic state of fresh concrete provides a time period for
transportation, placing, compaction, and surface finishing. The properties of fresh
concrete have a large influence on construction speed and decision making.
The properties of fresh concrete are short-term requirements in nature, and should
satisfy the following requirements:
1. It must be easily mixed and transported.
2. It must be uniform throughout a given batch, and between batches.
3. It must keep its fluidity during the transportation period.
4. It should have flow properties such that it is capable of completely filling the forms.
5. It must have the ability to be fully compacted without segregation.
6. It must set in a reasonable period of time.
7. It must be capable of being finished properly, either against the forms or by means of
troweling or other surface treatment.
Compaction plays an important role in ensuring the long-term properties of the
hardened concrete, as proper compaction is vital in removing air from concrete and in
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achieving a dense concrete structure. Subsequently, the compressive strength of

concrete can increase with an increase in the density. Traditionally, compaction is
carried out using a vibrator. Nowadays, the newly developed self-compacting concrete
can reach a dense structure by its self-weight without any vibration.

Workability of concrete is defined in ASTM C125 as the property determining the effort
required to manipulate a freshly mixed quantity of concrete with minimum loss of
homogeneity (uniform). The term manipulate includes the early-age operations of
placing, compacting, and finishing. Mindess et al. (2003) defined the workability of
fresh concrete as “the amount of mechanical work, or energy, required to produce full
compaction of the concrete without segregation.” The effort required to place a concrete
mixture is determined largely by the overall work needed to initiate and maintain flow,
which depends on the rheological properties of the cement paste and the internal
friction between the aggregate particles, on the one hand, and the external friction
between the concrete and the surface of framework, on the other hand. Workability of
fresh concrete consists of two aspects: consistency and cohesiveness. Consistency describes
how easily fresh concrete flows, while cohesiveness describes the ability of fresh
concrete to hold all the ingredients together uniformly. Traditionally, consistency can be
measured by a slump-cone test, the compaction factor, or a ball penetration compaction
factor test as a simple index for fluidity of fresh concrete. Cohesiveness can be
characterized by a Vebe test as an index of both the water-holding capacity (the
opposite of bleeding) and the coarse-aggregate-holding capacity (the opposite of
segregation) of a plastic concrete mixture. The flowability of fresh concrete influences
the effort required to compact concrete. The easier the flow, the less work is needed
for compaction. A liquid-like self-compacting concrete can completely eliminate the
need for compaction. However, such a concrete has to be cohesive enough to hold all
the constituents, especially the coarse aggregates in a uniform distribution during the
process of placing.

Slump test for workability

The equipment for the slump test is indeed very simple. It consists of a tamping rod and
a truncated cone, 300mm in height, 100mm in diameter at the top, and 200mm in
diameter at the bottom. To conduct a slump test, first moisten the slump test mold and
place it on a flat, nonabsorbent, moist, and rigid surface. Then hold it firmly to the
ground by foot supports. Next, fill 1/3 of the mold with the fresh concrete and rod it 25
times uniformly over the cross section. Likewise fill 2/3 of the mold and rod the layer
25 times, then fill the mold completely and rod it 25 times. If the concrete settles below
the top of the mold, add more. Strike off any excessive concrete. Remove the mold
immediately in one move. Measure and record the slump as the vertical distance from
the top of the mold to average concrete level.

If slumping occurs evenly all around, it is regarded as a true slump. If one-half of the
cone slides down along an inclined plane, it is regarded as shear slump. Shear slump is
caused by insufficient cohesiveness and the concrete proportions should be adjusted.
Mixes of very stiff consistency have zero slump, so that in the rather dry range no
slump can be detected between mixes of different workability. There is no problem with
rich mixes, their slumps are sensitive to variations in workability; however, in a lean
mix with a tendency to harshness, a true slump can be easily changed to the shear type,
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or even collapse with a nonuniform distribution of aggregates, especially coarse

aggregates, and widely different values of slump can be obtained in different samples
from the same mix. Thus, the slump test is unreliable for lean mixes.
The slump test is the simplest workability test for concrete, is cost- effective and
provides immediate results. In general, the value of concrete weakness is used to
determine the workability, which indicates the water- cement ratio, however, there are
several factors, including material properties, mixing methods, dosages, admixtures,
which also influence the value of the concrete. [ CITATION Par83 \l 1033 ]
Forms of Concrete Slump Test Results
When the slump test is performed, there will be many shapes of the concrete slump
observed as shown below:

Figure 1 forms of concrete slump test results

 True Slump – True slump is the only slump that can be measured in the test. The
measurement is taken between the top of the cone and the top of the concrete
after the cone has been removed as shown above.

 Zero Slump – Zero slump is an indication of a very low water- cement ratio,
which leads to dry mixing. This type of concrete is generally used for road
construction.

 Collapsed Slump – This is an indication that the water- cement ratio is too high,
i.e. the concrete mixture is too wet or it is a mixture with high workability for
which a slump test is not suitable.

 Shear Slump – The shear slump indicates that the result is incomplete and the
concrete needs to be retested.

Segregation
In discussing the workability of concrete, it has been pointed out that cohesiveness is an
important characteristic of the workability. A proper cohesiveness can ensure concrete
to hold all the ingredients in a homogeneous way without any concentration of a single
component, and even after the full compaction is achieved. Thus, segregation can be
defined as concentration of individual constituents of a heterogeneous (nonuniform)
mixture so that their distribution is no longer uniform. In the case of concrete, it is the
differences in the size and weight of particles (and sometimes in the specific gravity of
the mix constituents) that are the primary causes of segregation, but the extent can be
controlled by the concrete proportion, choice of suitable grading, and care in handling.
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Bleeding
Bleeding is a form of local concentration of water in some special positions in concrete,
usually the bottom of the coarse aggregates, the bottom of the reinforcement, and the
top surface of the concrete member. This is caused by the inability of the solid
constituents of the mix to hold all the mixing water when they settle downward due to
the lighter density of water. Bleeding can be expressed quantitatively as the total
settlement (reduction in height) per unit height of concrete, and bleeding capacity as the
amount (in volume or weight) of water that rises to the surface of freshly placed
concrete.

Formwork for concrete

If formwork is used to form structural items such as walls, columns, beams, it should be
left in-place for at least 2 days. Formwork reduces the rate of water evaporating from
the concrete mix and provides a more thorough curing process. Forms should be
designed structurally to contain. Nails have a low pullout strength and should be
used as shear resisting elements, or toe-nailed at opposing angles when they are to be
used in tension.

Placing
Concrete should be carefully placed, not dropped, to prevent the segregation of the
cement and sand from the larger gravel aggregate. Typically, concrete should not free-
fall more than a few feet, and workers should be prevented from throwing concrete
with shovels or buckets. Immediately after placing, it should be rodded with spare
rebar. This reduces strength-reducing air voids. This is especially important around
reinforcement. Before mixing large amounts of concrete, it is important to coordinate
efforts on how the concrete will be placed. If a large deep footing is to be places, such as
for bridge spread footings, it should be placed in 6” lifts, to eliminate vertical cold
joints. In addition, in large slabs, concrete should be placed from one end to the other,
not started in the middle, or placed converging from different directions. And once
concrete has begun to set, it should not be moved, as this will weaken the final
structure. The location of cold joints should be incorporated into the structural design in
larger structures. The amount of concrete that can be placed in a day obviously depends
on the size of the team pouring. A team of 10 laborers can usually mix and place 150
cubic feet in 3-4 hours. [that sure seems like a lot to me. I have done 3m^3 in a day
before with about eight people, but your dead after that.]
Curing
When working the concrete to the final finish, water will typically appear on the surface
called “bleed water”. This water should not be removed as it will help keep the
moisture needed for hydration from evaporating too quickly. In addition, concrete
should be kept moist for the first month after pouring. This is especially important for
mortars joints and cold joints. Depending on the climate (humid areas require almost no
help), this can be accomplished by wetting the surface and covering with a waterproof
cover (most important for the first night). Water should then be poured on the curing
concrete twice a day for the next three weeks. Poorly cured concrete will show
shrinkage cracks, will not provide good strength, and will deteriorate more quickly.
Curing is defined as the measures for taking care of fresh concrete right after casting.
The main principle of curing is to keep favorable moist conditions under a suitable
temperature range during the fast hydration process for concrete. It is a very important
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stage for the development of concrete strength and in controlling early volume changes.
Fresh concrete requires considerable care, just like a baby. Careful curing will ensure
that the concrete is hydrated properly, with good microstructure, proper strength, and
good volume stability. On the other hand, careless curing always leads to improper
hydration with defects in the microstructure, insufficient strength, and unstable
dimensions. One of the common phenomena of careless curing is plastic shrinkage,
which usually leads to an early age crack that provides a path for harmful ions and
agents to get into the concrete body easily and causes durability problems. Curing is a
simple measure to achieve a good quality of concrete. However, it is often ignored on
construction sites.
Some methods could be helpful in curing:
(a) Moisten the subgrade and forms
(b) Moisten the aggregate
(c) Erect windbreaks and sunshades
(d) Cool the aggregate and mixing water
(e) Fog spray
(f) Cover
(g) High temperature (70–80◦C) steam curing
(h) Use shrinkage compensating concrete

Transporting concrete
After the formwork, the steel work, and embedded items are ready, a final inspection
should be conducted to make sure that the plant and equipment are ready to go. The
correct amount of concrete should be ordered and the ready-mix supplier prepared to
furnish concrete at the required rate. Transporting equipment, such as pumps, cranes,
batch trucks, buckets, conveyors, and helicopters, should be capable of handling the
concrete at the required rate. Curing materials should be available.
The methods of placing fresh concrete include direct discharge from a mixer into the
forms, crane and buckets, pumps, conveyors, buggies, wheelbarrows, pneumatic
placers, small railcars, or a combination of two or more of these methods. Helicopters
have been employed for transporting equipment and concrete buckets into especially
isolated or difficult sites.
The method used depends on the size of the job, adequacy of space, and availability of
equipment. The displacing concrete should be as close as possible to the actual site.
Direct discharge is a method of pouring concrete from a transport truck directly into the
forms or on the subgrade. Extra lengths of chute on the truck can provide a placing
radius of about 5m from the truck. For a concrete placing to a lower level, such as a
foundation, some sort of chuting arrangement for moving concrete is needed. Chutes
should be of rounded cross section, made of metal or lined with metal, smooth to
prevent the concrete from friction and sticking, and of the proper slope for the concrete
to slide fast enough to keep the chute clean. As long as there is no segregation or
separation, any reasonable slope can be tolerated. A slope of about 1:3 is good for
application without segregation. Buckets are excellent means of conveying concrete.
The capacity range is from less than 1 m 3 for structural use to 10m3 for mass concrete.
Buckets can be handled by cranes, derricks, trucks, rail cars, helicopters, or cableways.

Creep in concrete
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Creep is defined as a time-dependent deformation under a constant load. The creep

develops in a concrete rapidly at the beginning and gradually decreases with time.
Approximately 75% of the ultimate creep in concrete occurs during the first year. The
total deformation of a reinforced concrete specimen consists of the instantaneous
deformation, shrinkage deformation, and creep. On the other hand, when a fixed strain
is applied (e.g., by stretching a member and then fixing its ends), the stress in the
member will decrease with time ). This phenomenon is called relaxation. When a
material exhibits time-dependent behavior, it will affect the structural behavior in a
number of ways. In a reinforced concrete (RC) column supporting a constant load,
creep can cause the initial stress in the steel to double or triple with time because steel is
noncreeping and thus takes over the force in the concrete due to creep. Creep can
influence reinforced concrete in the following aspects:
(a) Due to creep effects, the long-term deformation of reinforced concrete structures can
be significantly larger than the short-term deflection. For instance, because of the
delayed effects of creep, the long-term deflection of a reinforced concrete beam can be
2–3 times larger than the initial deflection. Therefore, sufficient stiffness has to be
provided during the design process to make sure that the beam deflection meets the
long-term requirement. For large structures, the long-term differential creep in different
parts of the structure needs to be checked to ensure no mismatching problems will be
caused. For a tall building or structure, the shortage of reinforced concrete columns may
cause the final height of the building and structure to be significantly shorter, and has to
be taken into consideration in design and construction.
(b) The hysteresis loop indicates that energy can be absorbed during cyclic loading. The
energy absorption results in the damping of a structure as it is set in vibration (e.g.,
during an earthquake or typhoon). Note that the damping is frequency dependent,
although this is often not considered in civil engineering designs, as damping is difficult
to quantify in practice.
(c) In prestressed concrete design, the creep of concrete and the relaxation of steel will
lead to a loss of prestress. The percentage of the prestress loss due to shrinkage and
creep can be as high as 60%.
(d) For a reinforced concrete column, creep may lead to significant stress redistribution
in concrete and in the reinforcing steel. This can be explained by a parallel model of a
reinforced concrete column. As the creep occurs only in concrete, the reinforcing
steel will restrain the concrete creep through the bond between the concrete and steel.
As a result, the reinforced concrete column will shorten less than a same-sized pure
concrete column. This implies that the steel is compressed while the concrete is
stretched. During this process, tensile stress will be generated in the concrete and
compressive stress in steel. Hence, the original compressive stress level in concrete will
be reduced, while in steel it will be increased. Such stress redistribution may cause the
final compressive stress in steel to be 2 or 3 times higher than the original stress value. If
it is not considered during the design process, overstressing in steel may cause yielding
and put the structure in danger.

Chapter 2
Aggregates
The aggregates used in concrete occupy about three-fourths of the concrete volume.
Since they are less expensive than the cement, it is desirable to use as much of them as
possible. Both fine aggregates (usually sand) and coarse aggregates (usually gravel or
 17

crushed stone) are used. Any aggregate that passes a No. 4 sieve (which has wires
spaced 1/4 inches (6.25 mm) on centers in each direction) is said to be fine aggregate.
Material of a larger size is coarse aggregate.
The maximum-size aggregates that can be used in reinforced concrete are specified in
Section 3.3.2 of the ACI Code. These limiting values are as follows: one-fifth of the
narrowest dimensions between the sides of the forms, one-third of the depth of slabs, or
three-quarters of the minimum clear spacing between reinforcing. Larger sizes may be
used if, in the judgment of the engineer, the workability of the concrete and its method
of consolidation are such that the aggregate used will not cause the development of
honeycomb or voids.

Aggregates must be strong, durable, and clean. Should dust or other particles be
present, they may interfere with the bond between the cement paste and the aggregate.
The strength of the aggregate has an important effect on the strength of the concrete,
and the aggregate properties greatly affect the concrete’s durability.
The aggregates used for these concretes are made from expanded shales of volcanic
origin, fired clays, or slag. When lightweight aggregates are used for both fine and
coarse aggregate, the result is called all-lightweight concrete. If sand is used for fine
aggregate and if the coarse aggregate is replaced with lightweight aggregate, the result
is referred to as sand-lightweight concrete. Concretes made with lightweight aggregates
may not be as durable or tough as those made with normal-weight aggregates.

Aggregate grading: Aggregate grading refers to the size distribution of the aggregate.
The grading mainly influences the space filling or particle packing. The classical idea of
particle packing is based on the Apollonian concept, in which the smaller particles fit
into the interstices left by the large particles. Well-defined grading with an ideal size
distribution of aggregate will decrease the voids in the concrete and hence the cement
content. As the price of the aggregate is usually only one-tenth that of cement, well-
defined grading not only will lead to a better compressive strength and low
permeability, but also is more economical at lower cost.

Aggregate shape and texture: The aggregate shape and texture can influence the
workability, bonding, and compressive strength of concrete. At the same w/c ratio and
with the same cement content, aggregates with angular shape and rough surface texture
result in lower workability, but lead to a better bond and better mechanical properties.
On the other hand, aggregates with spherical shape and smooth surface texture result in
higher workability, but lead to a lower bond and lower mechanical properties.

Sand/coarse aggregate ratio: The fine/coarse aggregate ratio will influence the packing
of concrete. It also influences the workability of concrete in the fresh stage. Increase of
the sand to coarse aggregate ratio can lead to an increase of cohesiveness, but reduces
the consistency. Of all the measures for improving the cohesiveness of concrete,
increasing the sand/coarse aggregate ratio has been proven to be the most effective one.

Aggregate/cement ratio: The aggregate/cement ratio has an effect on the concrete cost,
workability, mechanical properties, and volume stability. Due to the price difference
between the aggregate and cement, increasing the aggregate/cement ratio will decrease
the cost of concrete. From a workability point of view, an increase of the aggregate to
 18

cement ratio results in a lower consistency because of less cement paste for lubrication.
As for mechanical properties, increase of the aggregate/cement ratio can lead to a high
stiffness and compressive strength if proper compaction can be guaranteed. Increasing
the aggregate/cement ratio will definitely improve concrete’s dimension stability due
to reduction of shrinkage and creep.

Aggregate classification
a. According to size
Coarse aggregate: Aggregates predominately retained on a No. 4 (4.75-mm) sieve are
classified as coarse aggregate. Generally, the size of coarse aggregate ranges from 5 to
150 mm. For normal concrete used for structural members such as beams and columns,
the maximum size of coarse aggregate is about 25 mm. For mass concrete used for
dams or deep foundations, the maximum size can be as large as 150 mm.
Fine aggregate (sand): Aggregates passing through a No. 4 (4.75 mm) sieve and
predominately retained on a No. 200 (75 μm) sieve are classified as fine aggregate. River
sand is the most commonly used fine aggregate. In addition, crushed rock fines can be
used as fine aggregate. However, the finish of concrete with crushed rock fines is not as
good as that with river sand.

b. According to source
Natural aggregates: This kind of aggregate such as sand and gravel is taken from
natural deposits without changing the nature during production. Manufactured
(synthetic) aggregates. These kinds of aggregate are manmade materials, resulting from
products or by-products of industry. Some examples are blast furnace slag and
lightweight aggregate.
c. According to weight
Ultra-lightweight aggregate: The unit weight of such aggregates is less than 500 kg/m3,
including expanded perlite and foam plastic. The concrete made of ultra-lightweight
aggregates has a bulk density from 800 to 1100 kg/m 3, depending on the volume
fraction of aggregate. Such a concrete can be used only as nonstructural members, like
partition walls.
Lightweight aggregate: The unit weight of such aggregates is between 500 and 1120
kg/m3. Examples of lightweight aggregates include cinder, blast-furnace slag, volcanic
pumice, and expanded clay. The concrete made of lightweight aggregate has a bulk
density between 1200 and 1800 kg/m 3. Such concrete can be either a structural member
or nonstructural member, depending what type of aggregate is used.
Normal-weight aggregate: An aggregate with a unit weight of 1520–1680 kg/m 3 is
classified as normal-weight aggregate. Sand, gravel, and crushed rock belong to this
category and are most widely used. Concrete made with this type of aggregate has a
bulk density of 2300–2400 kg/m3. It is the main concrete used to produce important
structural members.
Heavy-weight aggregate: If the unit weight of aggregate is greater than 2100 kg/m 3, it is
classified as heavy-weight aggregate. Materials used as heavy-weight aggregate are
iron ore, crashed steel pieces, and magnesite limonite. The bulk density of the
corresponding concrete is greater than 3200 kg/m3 and can reach 4000 kg/m3. This kind
of concrete has special usage, like radiation shields in nuclear power plants, hospitals,
and laboratories. It can also be used as sound-shielding material.
 19

Properties of aggregates
The moisture condition defines the presence and amount of water in the pores and on
the surface of the aggregate.
(a) Oven dry (OD): This condition is obtained by keeping the aggregate in an oven at a
temperature of 110◦C long enough to drive all water out from internal pores and hence
reach a constant weight.
(b) Air dry (AD): This condition is obtained by keeping the aggregate at ambient
temperature and ambient humidity. Under such condition, pores inside of aggregate
are partly filled with water. When aggregate is under either the OD or AD condition, it
will absorb water during the concrete mixing process until the internal pores are fully
filled with water.

For the oven dry condition the moisture content is calculated:

MC(OD) = (Wstock – WOD) × 100%/WOD

Shape of aggregates
The aggregate shape affects the workability of concrete due to the differences in surface
area caused by different shapes. Sufficient paste is required to coat the aggregate to
provide lubrication. The typical shapes of aggregates are spherical, cubical, and
irregular shapes are good for application in concrete because they can benefit the
strength. Flat, needle-shaped, and prismatic aggregates are weak in load-carrying
ability and easily broken. Besides, the surface-to-volume ratio of a spherical aggregate is
the smallest.
Texture of aggregates
The surface texture of aggregates can be classified in 6 groups: glassy, smooth, granular,
rough, crystalline, and honeycombed. The surface texture of aggregates has significant
influence on the fluidity of fresh concrete and the bond between aggregate and cement
paste of hardened concrete.

This process is also known as grading of aggregates or sieve analysis. A single particle
in this area is called a grain of sand. Grains of sand lie between gravel and silt when
their particles sizes are compared. Sand feels granular when rubbed between the fingers
(mud feels like flour).
The sieves used for making a sieve analysis should conform to BS 410 or BS EN 933-2.
The sieves used for the sieve analysis should comply with BS 410 or BS EN 933- 2. Tests
should be carried out according to the procedure specified in BS 812 or BS EN 933- 1
[ CITATION BS8 \l 2057 ] .

Grading of sand
It is also called particle size distribution and we carried out the sampling using dry
samples of sand in our materials laboratory. This basically involved carrying out sieve
analysis on the sand collected from the different sources. We were able to determine
particle size distribution of the sand from the different sources. The sieves used for
making a sieve analysis conformed to BS 410. The tests were carried out in accordance
with the procedure given in BS 812[CITATION BS8 \l 1033 ].
Objective
 20

To draw particles size distribution curves for the sand aggregates passed through the
seives.
Apparatus
1) Sieves.
2) Balance or scale.
Procedure
1) Arrange the sieves from top to bottom in order of decreasing aperture sizes with pan
and lid to form a sieving column.
2) Pour the aggregate sample into the sieving column and shake thoroughly.
3) Remove the sieves one by one starting with the largest aperture sizes (top most), the
sieve shaken gently ensuring no material is lost.
4) Weigh the retained sample for the sieve with the largest aperture size and record its
weight.
5) Repeat the same operation for all the sieves in the column and record their weights.
6) Weigh the screened materials that remain on the pan and record its weight.
Calculations
1) Record the various masses on a test data sheet.
2) Calculate the mass retained on each sieve as a percentage of the original dry mass.
3) Calculate the cumulative percentage of the original dry mass passing each sieve
down to the smallest aperture sieve.

An aggregate that contains a high proportion of small particles as " fine" therefore
classifies the sand as a fine aggregate in mechanical engineering work. To determine the
distribution of the fine grain sieve, the analysis is carried out with sieves with different
pore diameters or meshes. The sieves are as shown in the table below:
Table 1 Grading limits for sand (from BS 882: 1992)
Sieve size Percentage by mass passing BS sieve
Overall limits Additional limits for grading
Course Medium fine
10mm 100 - - -
5mm 89-100 - - -
2.36mm 60-100 60-100 65-100 80-100
1.18mm 30-100 30-90 45-100 70-100
600μm 15-100 15-54 25-80 55-100
300μm 5-70 5-40 5-48 5-70
150μm 0-15 - - -

The grading determines the paste requirement for making concrete, since the amount of
voids is filled with the same amount of cement paste in a concrete mix. To obtain a
grading for the fine aggregate, a sieve analysis must be performed. There are five
different types of size distributions:
 21

i. Dense graded and well graded fine aggregates- are desirable for the production
of concrete as the space between larger particles is effectively filled with smaller
particles to create a well packed structure.
ii. Gap-graded fine aggregates - is a type of classification that lacks one or more
intermediate sizes and can be easily concreted with relatively little workability.
iii. Uniformly graded- only a few sizes dominate the bulk material.
iv. Open graded- contains too much small particles and easy to be disturbed by a
hole.
v. Continuously graded aggregates for concrete contain particles ranging from the
largest to the smallest size.

In order to determine the different sizes of the particles that make up the sand, the
aggregates must be sieved through different sizes of standard sieves. Sieve analysis
results or outcome are given as a percentage of the mass that passes through the various
sieves. This will therefore be plotted in a graph as shown below

Figure 2 Graph of particle size distribution against percentage passing

Chapter 3
Concrete mix design
Concrete Mix Design of M25 Concrete for Sand from Kanyarkwat

Procedure

Step 1: Determination of Target Strength

Himsworth constant for 5% risk factor k=1.64

 22

Proportion defective allowed from Figure 1 above was 5%.

 23

From Figure 3 above the standard deviation was determined as:

Standard deviation = 8 N/mm2 

While the margin at

f m=25+1 .64 x8 . 0=13. 12 N /mm 2

The target mean strength was also determined

Target mean strength=characteristic strength +Margin

25+13.12=38.12N/mm²

Cement strength class=32.5

Aggregates type: Course aggregates (Ballast) =Crushed

Fine aggregates (Sand) =Uncrushed

From Table 2 and figure 4 below the free water/cement ratio was determined=0.53
 24

Step 2:

An assumed slump of between 10-30 mm was used and the Maximum aggregate size of
the crushed aggregates used was 20mm, thus
 25

From table 3, above the Free water content=190kg/m³

Step 3:

Cement content=free water content ÷water cement ratio

=190÷0.53=358.49kg/m³

Modified free water/cement ratio=358.49kg/m³

Step 4:

An assumed Relative Density of aggregate (SSD) was used of 2.6

The concrete density was determined from Figure 5 below.

 26

Concrete density=2400 kg/m³

Total aggregate content was then determined as shown

Total aggregate content=concrete density-free water content-cement content

=2400-190-358.49=1851.5kg/m³

Step 5:
 27

From sieve analysis of sand(fine aggregates)we were able to determine the percentage
passing 600µm sieve as 51.1%.

We adopted Figure 6 below since we used course aggregate of maximum size of 20mm
or that only passed the 20mm sieve. With the free water/cement ratio of 0.53 earlier
established from Table 2 and Figure 4,we were able to establish the proportion of fine
aggregates.

Proportion of fine aggregates=33%

Using the data calculated above we were able to establish the fine and course
aggregates contents.

Fine aggregate content=Total aggregate content x Proportion of fine aggregate

=1851.5x0.33=611kg/m³

Course aggregate content=Total aggregate content-Fine aggregate content

=1851.5-611=1240.5kg/m³

The different quantities of concrete constituents were calculated and given in the table
below:

Quantities Cement(kg) Water(kg) Fine Course

 28

aggregates(kg) aggregates(kg)

Per m³(to 360 190 610 1240

nearest kg)

Per trial mix 4.01 2.12 6.79 13.81

The results of the mix design for sand from Kanyarkwat were tabulated in the mix
design form as shown below for easy reference of all the information about the sand.
29