ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS AND FARMING BEHAVIOR

OF FARMERS IN INLE LAKE

NYAUNG SHWE TOWNSHP, MYANMAR

by

Bo Bo Lwin

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the

degree of Master of Science

Examination Committee: Dr. Edward L. Webb (Chairperson)

Dr. D. Schmidt-Vogt
Dr. Ganesh P. Shivakoti

Nationality: Myanmar
Previous Degree: Bachelor of Agricultural Science
Yezin Agricultural University
Yezin, Pyinmana
Myanmar

Scholarship Donor: AIT-Prospect Burma Joint Scholarship

Research Grant Donor: Spirit in Education Movement (SEM), Thailand

Asian Institute of Technology

School of Environment, Resources and Development
Thailand
December 2006

i
 Abstract

This research attempts to find out the socio-demographic and institutional contexts
influencing the farmers’ environmental awareness and the relationship between
environmental awareness and farming behavior. PCA was applied to extract the main
components or factors from the independent variables (contexts) having high multi
correlations. The environmental awareness of the farmers was calculated by using the
Aggregated Weighted Awareness Index (AWAI) based on the scores got from
questionnaires interviews and farming behavior was also expressed as Aggregated
Weighted Behavioral Index (AWBI). The results of the multiple regressions prove that
there are relationship between some socio-demographic contexts and the environmental
awareness of the farmers. The statistical results from analysis point out that the four
components, Wealth Status, Family structure, Exposure to information and External
support, are the main factors associated with the level of environmental awareness. And
the environmental awareness of the farmers in turn influence on their behaviors at
significant level with R square value of 0.35. Once the awareness index was considered as
independent variables together with other contextual variables in regression, it was
significantly correlated with behavioral index in positive way at R square value of 0.447
and its associate components are habitual (strata, ethnic and type of farming), external
support (Loans receiving where sex is negatively correlated with loans) and exposure to
information (training experiences, extension contact, information accessibility and
exposure to urban). The multiple regression results prove that selected contextual
variables are related to environmental awareness of the farmers and some components of
those variables are significantly influencing on awareness index. It can also be concluded
that farmers’ environmental awareness significantly influence their farming behavior in
positive way.

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 Acknowledgement

Firstly I would like to express my great sincere thanks to AIT and Prospect Burma for
their kindness to provide me joint full-scholarship to persuade my master degree. I also
thank a lot SEM (Spirit in Education Movement) for their generosity on supporting
research grant for my survey. I am also indebted to Swissaid Foundation (Myanmar) for
their contributing on my traveling expenses and documents before my study.

I want to express special thanks to Dr. Edwar L. Webb, my advisor and chair-person of
my thesis examination committee for his sharp and smart ideas on data analysis. In
addition, I have to say heartfelt thanks for his understanding and sympathetic help on my
troubles what I have unexpectedly encountered during my study.

Thanks are also due to Dr. D. Schmidt-Vogt and Dr. Ganesh P. Shivakoti, the committee
members of my thesis examination, for their valuable as well as constructive comments
and beautiful advices to improve my thesis.

I would like to thank U Tin Aung, an officer from Department of National Planning,
Nyaung Shwe and his family for their great generosity of offering almost everything what
we needed during my three month survey in Inle. I want to express my sincere thanks to
U Than Htay, an officer of Wild life conservation Inle Lake, Forest Department, Nyaung
Shwe, for his guiding and explanation about the study area as well as necessary
documents and information. My thanks also go to the officers from Department of
Irrigation and Myanma Agriculture Service, Nyang Shwe. I am very proud of expressing
my heartfelt thanks the Headmen of village-tracts; Tha le Oo, Kay Lar, Inn Dein, Taung
Bo Gyi, Kyey Zar Gone, Tone Le, Linn Kin, Minn Chaung, Nge Phe Chaung, Shwe Yan
Pyay and all the villagers. I cannot forget their sweet welcome and friendly as well as
hospitable treatments during my stay in Inle.

I am also indebted to express special thanks to UNDP (Mya 01/ Nyaung Shwe) for the
necessary information, documents and any support I needed for my reconnaissance
survey. Thanks are also due to all the Key-informants for their sharing of time and their
valuable opinions and experiences.

It is also my pleasure to express my thanks to Khun Jitra and staffs for their support and
arrangement for official processes for the sake of convenience in my study.

I would like to acknowledge to Dr. Tun Lin Moe, my beloved senior, for his logical
advices and spiritual encouragement whenever I am in troubles or disappointed situation.
I want to say thank you so much to all my senior and junior friends who used to support
and help me very kindly and sympathetically in various kinds of ways whenever I am in
need and depression.

I also want to express words of thanks to Librarian, Taunggyi University, Shan State
Daw Khin Lay Swe, Associate Professor, Department of Agricultural Botany, Yezin
Agricultural University, Pyinmana for their concern with my documents and information.

Finally, I have to mention my thanks to my beloved parents, brothers and sisters for their
eternal love and I could do my postgraduate study very well with their powerful spiritual
support.

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 Table of Contents

Chapter Title Page

Title Page i
Abstract ii
Acknowledgement iii
Table of Contents iv
List of Figures vii
List of Tables viii

1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 General Overview 1
1.2 Problem Statement 2
1.3 Significance of the Study 4
1.4 Objectives 5
1.5 General Hypotheses 5

2 LITERATURE REVIEW 9
2.1 Freshwater Ecosystem 9
2.1.1 Fresh Water 9
2.1.2 Lake Ecosystem 10
2.2 Modern Agriculture and Environmental Impacts 11
2.2.1 Impacts of Agro-chemical Use 12
2.2.1.1 Fertilizers and Lake Eutrophication 12
2.2.1.2 Pesticides and Freshwater Pollution 13
2.2.2 Potential Impacts of Agro-chemical Use on the Lake
Environment 14
2.2.3 HYVs and Genetic Diversity 16
2.3 Sustainable Agriculture 17
2.4 Environmental Awareness 18
2.4.1 Awareness, Attitudes and Behaviors 18
2.4.2 Environmental Education 18
2.4.3 Environmental Awareness of the Farmers 19

3 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 21

3.1 Research Approach 21
3.1.1 Reconnaissance Survey 21
3.2 Sampling Plan 21
3.2.1 Zones 21
3.2.2 Stratification 23
3.2.3 Sample Size 24
3.3 Data Collection 24
3.3.1 Primary Data Collection 24
3.4 Scope and Limits of the Study 25
3.5 Analysis Methods 26
3.5.1 Descriptive 26
3.5.2 Correlation 26
3.5.3 PCA (Principal Component Analysis) 26

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 3.5.4 Brief description why Selected Contextual Variables were
Considered 28

4 STUDY AREA AND RESPONDENTS’ PROFILE 30

4.1 Study Area Profile 30
4.1.1 A Lake with Diversified Beauties 30
4.1.2 Location and Area 30
4.1.3 Drainage and Geology 30
4.2 Demographic Features 32
4.2.1 Livelihood 34
4.2.2 Land Access 34
4.2.3 Education Level 35
4.3 Farming Systems (Strata) in Inle Lake Area 35
4.3.1 Water Gardens or Floating Agriculture (Strata 1) 36
4.3.2 On-Land Cultivation or Lake Shore Agriculture (Strata 2) 37
4.3.3 Up-land or taung-yar Cultivation (Strata 3) 37
4.4 Respondents’ Profile 38
4.4.1 Numbers and Proportions of Respondents 38
4.4.1.1 Number of Respondents per Each Zone 38
4.4.1.2 Respondents Classified by Different Strata 38
4.4.2 Socioeconomic Status of the Respondents 39
4.4.2.1 Respondents Classified Based on Type of their
Farming 39
4.4.2.2 Respondents in Gender 39
4.4.2.3 Distribution of Respondents in their Ethnicity 40
4.4.2.4 Education Level of Respondents 40
4.4.2.5 Respondents in Age Group 41
4.4.2.6 Family Size 41
4.4.2.7 Income Status; Total family income, Farm income
and Off-farm Income 42
4.4.2.8 Sources of Loans 42
4.4.2.9 Land Holding Status (Cultivated Land) 42
4.4.3 Exposure to Information and Knowledge Status 43
4.4.3.1 Extension Contact 43
4.4.3.2 Training Experience 43
4.4.3.3 Exposure to City / Urban 44
4.4.3.4 Accessibility to Information / Media 44

5 FARMING PRACTICES IN INLE LAKE AREA 46

5.1 Use of High Yield Varieties (HYV) 46
5.2 Use of Chemical Fertilizers 46
5.3 Pesticide Use 49
5.3.1 Who Recommend Using Pesticides? 51
5.3.2 Intensity of Reliance on Pesticide Use 51
5.3.3 Potentiality of Pesticide Use 51
5.3.4 Use of Pesticide with Care 52

6 ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS AND FARMING BEHAVIOR 54

6.1 Developing Environmental Awareness Index 54
6.2 Developing Behavioral Index (Environmentally Friendliness) 55

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 6.3 Why Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was used? 59
6.4 Linear Regression 60
6.4.1 Relationship between AWAI and AWBI 61
6.5 Alternative Method 62
6.6 Summarized Inference 66

7 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 68

7.1 How to Raise the Environmental Awareness 68
7.2 Environmental Issues in Inle Lake 69
7.3 Recommendations 71
7.4 Further Researches and Studies 71

REFERENCES 73

APPENDICES 77

APPENDIX 1 78

APPENDIX 2 87

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 List of Figures

Figure Title Page

1.1 Environmental impacts as a consequence of Lack of Environmental

awareness 4
1.2 Conceptual frameworks showing the linkages between socio-
demographic factors, environmental awareness and farming
behavior. 8
2.1 Pesticide consumption in Myanmar 15
2.2 Total fertilization utilization of Myanmar from 1988-95 15
3.1 Map showing the standpoint of Nyaung Shwe Township in
Myanmar and the study areas in zones 22
4.1 Population growths in Inle Region within Area 560.02 sq.mile 34
4.2 Age distribution of respondents 41
6.1 Regression line showing the relationship between AWAI (iv) and
AWBI (dv) 62
6.2 Scatter plot showing the regression line of socio-demographic
contexts + awareness index and behavioral index (second method) 65

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 Lists of Tables

Table Title Page

3.1 List of Departments/Institutions of Key-informants and

purposes/items discussed 25
3.2 Summarized descriptions on selected contextual variables 27
4.1 Water catchments sources of the Inle Lake 32
4.2 Livelihood of households in the study area 34
4.3 Land ownership 35
4.4 Education level 35
4.5 Number of respondents interviewed in each zone 38
4.6 Number of respondents interviewed in each stratum 39
4.7 Distribution of type of farming in different strata 39
4.8 Gender distribution 40
4.9 Ethnic group distribution in different strata 40
4.10 Education status 41
4.11 Sources of loan and loan receiving status 42
4.12 Training experience 44
4.13 Weighted points for different sources of media and information 44
4.14 Classes of accessibility to information 45
4.15 Level of information accessibility by strata 45
5.1 Use of varieties 46
5.2 Future intention to use HYV 46
5.3 Use of fertilizer by strata 47
5.4 Type of fertilizer use 47
5.5 Opinion on requirement 48
5.6 Respondents’ Opinions on expense of fertilizer input by strata 48
5.7 Usage of soil fertility improvement practices 49
5.8 Technical information about fertilizer use 49
5.9 Insecticide usage by strata 50
5.10 Sources of recommendation to use pesticides 51
5.11 Disposal of containers into water and nearby 53
6.1 Scoring system by the orientation of the statement; 54
6.2 Scoring scheme for the Behavioral Index on fertilizer use 56
6.3 Scoring scheme for the Behavioral Index on pesticide use 57
6.4 Scoring scheme for the Behavioral Index on HYV use 58
6.5 Components extracted by PCA showing the total variance
explained 59
6.6 Components extracted by PCA and their independent variables
(First method) 60
6.7 Regression of main components and AWAI 60
6.8 Multiple regression results for first method (* iv = contextual
variables and dv = AWAI) 61
6.9 Correlation between AWAI and AWBI 61
6.10 Model Summary on regression of AWAI on AWBI (dependent)
(first method) 61
6.11 Components extracted by PCA showing the total variance
explained (second method-113 respondents) 63
6.12 Rotated Component Matrix for second method 63

viii
6.13 The components extracted by PCA and their independent variables
(Second method) 64
6.14 Model Summary on regression models of (contextual variables +
AWAI) and (AWBI) 64
6.15 Regression of (main components + AWAI) and (AWBI) 65

ix
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 General Overview

The world Conference on Human Environment held at Stockholm in 1972 sensitized the
world that if the human race was to survive and live with dignity, special attention must
be paid to the conservation of the precious environment. But due to the huge rise in
human population and consequently the increasing enormous demand on renewable and
nonrenewable resources, the planet’s life supporting systems are being subjected to severe
strains with serious consequences to humanity at large. 1987 was a landmark year. It was
the year that the world’s population reached five billions - a major milestone in the
recording of Earth’s history (Lorne H. 1989). Current estimates place the number of
undernourished people in the world at somewhere between 500 million and one billion
(World Resources 1992-93). As a result, it gives a challenge to all the nations to meet the
demands to improve and increase agricultural production to sustain the basic food
requirement of their increasing population.

Agriculture has changed dramatically especially since the end of World War II. The
scientific development in agricultural technology has led to the drastic changes in socio-
economic and environment in a few decades. The changes include both physical and
biological environment. The adoption of modern agricultural technology i.e., substituting
the indigenous varieties with modern hybrid varieties (High Yield Varieties), application
of synthetic agro-chemicals, mechanization and irrigation, is still being viewed by
different people from different background. The comparison of pros and cons of the
modern farming technology has been debated for several years, yet the best reliable
solution for that problem has not been discovered.

There have been published a lot of research papers finding the weakness of modern
agriculture, its inconsistency with the ecosystem and negative impacts on environment
and natural resources. On the other hand, the conventional agriculturists can point out the
importance of the technology and its necessity with the adequate proves of increased
population and the world food security. FAO estimates that up to 35% of the losses in
annual crop production worldwide are due to pests – insects, weeds, plant diseases,
rodents, and birds. Combining these losses with the post harvest losses, world food losses
would amount to 45%. This is almost one-half of the world’s potential food supply. So
many countries try to increase their agricultural production by means of various intensive
ways of policies like expending the farm area, and relying on higher inputs.

However the adoption of intensive agriculture through increased use of fertilizers,

pesticides and other inputs, directly or indirectly, has been brought some adverse impacts.
Three of the most serious impacts are the degradation of the soil, the use and management
of water and the long-term impact of the use of agricultural chemicals. Worldwide trends
in the loss of top soil, soil degradation, and decline in the quality of water and a steady
decline in the genetic base support the view expressed by many scientists that the present
modern agriculture system, with its emphasis on higher yields through high external
inputs is ultimately non-sustainable (Leong, 2000).

Water pollution due to agricultural discharge is one of the serious environmental issues in
the world as it can easily lead to not only human health risks but also the disturbance in

1
food-web, species loss and finally the deterioration of freshwater ecosystem. In some
countries, some farmers have experienced such adverse environmental impacts and now
they become aware of it and find the alternative ways. But some farmers, especially in the
developing countries, are not well educated and have poor exposure to the information
access concerned with theses impacts. They are still using the synthetic agro-chemicals
unconsciously with insecure techniques and inappropriate dosage. It is threatening the
sustainable use of natural resources in our environment. Therefore the awareness of the
farmers plays a very important role in the systematic use of natural resources and the
environmental quality can be maintained by the adoption of sustainable agricultural
practices by the farmers. No matter how the scientists try to work on a lot of researches
for environment and natural resource management, the attitudes/ awareness and behaviors
of the farmers are the most important as they are direct resource user and their actions
directly affects the environment. So it is very important to upgrade the environmental
awareness of the farmers and the Governments should take a serious consideration for
this issue as a political context.

Lake Ecosystem is a relatively new area of scientific studies and it is also a very deep and
complicated to understand very well. Most of the people know the importance of
freshwater as one of the most important necessity for the beings, but overlook their deep
ecosystems and its importance in terms of biodiversity richness, succession and natural
remedies for pollution and toxicity. In some developed countries, there are independent
associations or organizations setup by the local people for the volunteering in the lake
conservation and management programs in their own areas. It shows the significance of
the high level of local people’s awareness on their environment. Environmental
Awareness of the people is also one of the fields of studies which are still weak in
research. Only a few numbers of researches have been conducted to measure or evaluate
the awareness of the farmers and their attitudes on environment.

1.2 Problem Statement

The Inle lake is a very typical due to its beautiful limnological features, high biodiversity
and the local ethnic people’s livelihood. The Inle Carp, Cyprinus carpiointha, or Nga-
phane, plays an important role in local food supply, as well as the cultural symbol of the
ethnic Intha people. The carp breed year-round in clean and clean water. However,
because of poor water quality, the carp population has become increasingly scarce. Native
aquatic plants include pondweeds (Potamogeton), coontail (Ceratophyllum), bladderwort
Utricularia), stonewort (Nitella), muskgrass (Chara), and elephant grass (Saccharum
spotaneum). People use elephant grass to make mats while pondweeds are used for food
by both people and fish. Water hyacinth (Eichomia crassipes) was introduced to the lake
about 60 years ago as an ornamental plant and has become so abundant that it obstructs
many waterways along the lake. The plant is often used for gas production, paper and bag
making (Steve Butkus and Myint Su, 2001).

The native people, Inn-tha, have been living in and surrounding the lake for several years
symbiotically with their natural aquatic resources. But the modern agricultural technology
and increased population exert heavy pressures on the capacity of the lake. The lake is
sustaining a lot of aquatic and terrestrial organisms by its very wide watershed. The
sustainability of the lake is mainly depending on the local people’s behavior. The local
people’s behavior is regulated by their awareness and it can vary based on many factors.
The government and non-government organizations are the major stakeholders

2
responsible for the lake management and conservation by means of various
environmental programs and activities.

The main business of the Inle Lake region is floating garden agriculture. Tomatoes, the
primary cash crop, comprise two-thirds of the region' s agriculture. The remaining one-
third consists of flowers, vegetables, and sugarcane plantations. The farmers routinely use
pesticides and fertilizers for their crops. In the western area of the Inle Lake watershed,
deforestation is a big issue. Slash and bum agricultural practices on adjacent hills
contribute to soil erosion. Expansion of the villages throughout the watershed has also
increased siltation. In addition, waste and garbage from households, lack of proper
sanitation, and livestock breeding contribute to poor water quality.

The government became aware of the problems caused by pollution when it began to
promote tourism in 1996. In 1997, the government initiated the Inle Lake Preservation
Project. The projects executive committee includes members from Shan State Peace and
Development Council, Nyaungshwe Township local authorities, and government staff
from the Irrigation, Agriculture, and Forestry Departments. The project continues as lake
management is performed by multiple interests. Public awareness is essential in playing a
vital role in the preservation of Inle Lake and protection of the health of the watershed
residents.

The government of Myanmar is trying to promote the tourism industry and the Inle lkae is
one of the most attractive tourism sites. U Sai Than Maung, head of a branch of the
NCEA (National Commission of Environmental Affairs) said the data they collected
shows that the lake’s natural environment is still in good shape, partly because of the
success of several conservation projects undertaken there in recent years. He said that the
most recent statistics show that the population concentration is 230 people per square
mile around the lake and 1000 people per square mile on the water (The Myanmar Times,
2005). But there are some research works, actually very few amount compared to other
lakes in Asian countries, on sedimentation, biodiversity and pesticide application in the
lake and they show some threat to the lake ecosystem and the livelihoods of residents.

There have not conducted the research on environmental impact assessment and
measuring the trophic status of the lake. Nevertheless, there are some ways of knowing
changes in the Lake Ecosystem and environment by visible indicators. Local people are
the ones who know these changes and certain significant phenomenon very well.
Therefore surveying the local people’s perception is one of the suitable and appropriate
techniques for a reconnaissance to know the possible impacts. And the local people are
the ones who closely and directly affecting the lake ecosystem. Therefore the
environmental awareness of the farmers much influence on the environmental quality and
it should be considered as an important issue.

3
Figure 1.1 Environmental impacts as a consequence of Lack of Environmental
awareness

1.3 Significance of the Study

The increasing population and developing agricultural technologies have lead to

increasing the areas of floating islands and the intensive use of agrochemicals which can
consequently affect the quality of water and its aquatic ecosystem. Moreover the local
people are using imported hybrid varieties more and more which are high chemical

4
demanding. The lack of scientific knowledge on agrochemical use is also threatening the
health of users and the water pollution.

According to WWF classification system, Inle Lake is under the “Ecoregion 190 (Small
Lakes) and it is attractive to scientists with its high biodiversity value. It is identified as a
critical habitat for nine endemic fish species in three endemic genera; supports 20 species
of gastropods, of which one third may be endemic. ADB-Mekong Wetlands assigned an
environmental issue for this lake due to the pollution of the lake because of pesticides,
fertilizer, and sewage runoff and sedimentation from cattle grazing. The shallow areas of
the lake are converted to cropland, which limits the habitat of freshwater organisms.

The nitrate and phosphate being released into the lake in terms of household discharge as
well as seepage from agricultural fields in and surrounding the lake are the potential
factors for eutrophication of the lake which can reduce the species richness of the aquatic
ecosystem. The rate of pesticides application in the lake area is also a serious risk for the
water pollution and successive deleterious effects on Lake Ecosystem. Justification for
selection of Inn Lay Lake can be listed:

the Inn Lay lake is providing a very important watershed system for local people’s
livelihood and.
the lake is regarded as an important ecosystem due to its biodiversity and national
heritage due to its unique and rich natural resources
the lake is one of the places for tourism attraction

Therefore, the environmental management and conservation of the lake has been critical
for not only the livelihood of the people but also promoting and generating the income of
tourism. The sustainability of the lake is solely depending on the awareness and behaviors
of the local people. So this study tries to act as a reconnaissance to investigate the existing
agricultural practices and their potential impacts on the lake environment. Then the
environmental awareness of the farmers and non-farm people are studied and explore the
suitable guidelines for the environmental awareness programs and lake conservation for
the Government as well as NGOs.

1.4 Objectives

The overall objectives of this study are;

(1) to study existing farming activities in the Inle Lake area

(2) to find out the factors influencing the farmers’ environmental awareness
(3) to study the relationship between environmental awareness and farming behavior
(4) to provide guidelines and recommendations to the stakeholders who are concerned
with the sustainability of the Inn lay Lake ecosystem

1.5 General Hypotheses

(1) The selected socio-demographic and institutional contexts influence on the

environmental awareness of the farmers.
(2) The farmer’s environmental awareness influence on their agricultural practices
(environmentally friendly behavior).

5
Specification on hypothesis

Hypothesis (1)

Null Hypothesis (H0): The selected socio-demographic and institutional contexts have no
relationship with environmental awareness index.

Alternative Hypothesis (H1): The selected socio-demographic and institutional contexts

have relationship with environmental awareness index.

In mathematical forms, Y = β 0 + β1 X 1 + β 2 X 2 + β3 X 3 + β 4 X 4 + + β 20 X 20

Where,

Y = environmental awareness index

β 0 = constant
β1 = coefficient for independent variable X 1
β 2 = coefficient for independent variable X 2 etc.
X 1 = age of the farmers
X 2 = farm experience (no. of years)
X 3 = gender
X 4 = training experience

X 20 = level of accessibility to information

By the multiple regression results, if

β1 = 0, β 2 = 0, β3 = 0, β 4 = 0, β 5 = 0, β 6 = 0, , β 20 = 0 ,

It means that there is no relationship between the contexts and environmental awareness
index and thus the null hypothesis will be accepted and alternative hypothesis will be
rejected.

If β1 ≠ 0, β 2 ≠ 0, β3 ≠ 0, β 4 ≠ 0, β5 ≠ 0, β 6 ≠ 0, , β 20 ≠ 0 ,

It means that there is relationship between the contexts and environmental awareness
index and thus the null hypothesis will be accepted and alternative hypothesis will be
rejected. Therefore it can be concluded that the selected socio-demographic contexts and
institutional contexts are associated with the environmental awareness level of the
farmers. However there are multiples of independent variables in the socio-demographic
and institutional contexts and it cannot be easy to set up a model. Therefore only the main
components or factors influencing the farmers’ environmental awareness at significant
level will be found out.

6
Hypothesis (2)

Null Hypothesis (H0): The farmer’s environmental awareness does not influence on their
agricultural practices (farming behavior).

Alternative Hypothesis (H1): The farmer’s environmental awareness influence on their

agricultural practices (farming behavior).

If there is no significant correlation between AWAI and AWBI, null hypothesis will be
accepted and alternative hypothesis will be rejected. If there is significant correlation
between the AWAI and AWBI, null hypothesis will be rejected and alternative hypothesis
will be accepted. If alternative hypothesis is accepted, the regression between the
Aggregated Weighted Awareness Index (AWAI) and Aggregated Weighted Behavioral
Index (AWBI) will be studied and then the positive or negative relationship of
independent and dependent variable will be identified according to the R square value.

7
8

Figure 1.2 Conceptual frameworks showing the linkages between socio-demographic factors, environmental awareness and farming
behavior
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Freshwater Ecosystem

2.1.1 Fresh Water

Water is a scarce and valuable natural resource. It is a variable mixture which results from
the combination of hydrogen and oxygen. It is liquid between 0 degree and 100 degree
Celsius with its greatest density at 4 degree Celsius.. The amount of fresh water on earth
is very small compared with the amount of sea water. Inland water covers less than 2 %
of the earth’s surface. Fresh water is a finite resource and can only be increased at
enormous energy cost by desalination.

Water is one of the most important factors in the environment of man. It is essential to the
existence of life, man being 65 to 75 % water (Doxiadis, 1967). He cannot escape it, for
about 65% of his own body weight is water, and he is continually losing it through skins,
lungs, gut and kidneys. The strange properties of water create physical and chemical
conditions to which wildlife must be adapted to exploit fresh water. These physico-
chemical constraints are abiotic (non-living) aspects of ecology and affect all aquatic
habitats to some extent. Sustaining life is not the only attribute of water; it is important,
for example, in personal and household cleanliness, recreation, industry, agriculture, and
transport and power generation (Australian Water Resource Council, 1975).

The study of water is usually under two disciplines, namely, limnology, the study of
inland waters which are usually, but not always, fresh; and oceanography. The large
variations observed in the rates of primary production in water are mainly due to
differences in the content of the nutrient salts, of which the most important are simple
compounds of nitrogen and phosphorus, with sulphates, and silicates for the diatoms and
trace of some essential metallic ions, such as potassium, magenesium iron and calcium.
These nutrients are present in the fresh waters in quantities associated with the geology of
the watershed in which they stand or flow. Alkaline or calcareous waters are the most
productive (Hicking C. F., 1975).

In terms of pressures which have resulted in man’s interference in the hydrological cycle,
Nace (1969) said “With 97% of the world’s water in the sea, and 2% in the deep freeze,
the world evidently, is a fine place for whales and penguins, but has its short-comings for
man” (NACE, R.L., 1969). Because the remaining 1%, which is fresh water, is also vital,
man has attempted to control and utilize its availability and movement by modifying
almost every stage of the natural hydrologic cycle (Nace, 1972).

There are many environmental crises due to the population and technological growth. The
combined effect of increased production and consumption per capita, and the growth of
population and urbanization is termed demophoric growth have imposed upon our fresh
water resources is enormous (Vallentyne, 1972). The lack of records prevents a thorough
understanding of the nature of the changes among the variables of the ecosystems which
have accompanied the changes in land and water use (NTIS, 1973).

9
2.1.2 Lake Ecosystem

A lake could be defined as a body of water in which the resident time is long. This has
biological significance, for when water remains in one place for a long time, it takes on
properties different from those of flowing waters; we have lotic, as distinct from a lentic,
environment. Because of this, their large area, lakes are important sources of fish. The
geological history and the nature of its watersheds affect the character of a lake, and of
the flora and fauna which it will support. The variety of wetlands that form depends on
the soil, climate and hydrology just as the original lakes did, and are as diverse (Jeffries
and Derek Mills, 1990).

Because there are long term fluctuations of rainfall and climate, lakes may change their
levels and volumes over the millennia, and most have done so, as revealed by raised (and
submerged) terraces which mark former lake shores. But generally lakes are ephemeral
bodies in the geological sense. Materials gradually accumulate in the lake, making it
shallower; windblown soil, dead plankton, detritus derived from plant beds, soil and
detritus carried in by affluent streams and river; these are among the causes of the
progressive infilling of a lake. The great accumulation of organic matter uses up the
dissolved oxygen; the wind has no chance to stir in fresh oxygen; an acid environment is
created; and there may be an accumulated “oxygen debt” in the form of fermentation
products, and the water will not support life until the debt is paid. Stratification of the
water is not likely to occur in wide and shallow lakes, where the water will be completely
mixed from top to bottom by the wind (Hicking C. F., 1975).

Most human communities that surround lakes depend heavily on Lake Biodiversity and
natural lake processes for their water, food and way of life. Lakes provide critical habitat
for an amazing array of plants and animals including bacteria, fungi, algae, plankton,
mussels, snails, crustaceans, insects, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals which
depend on freshwater biodiversity for their protein needs. That is why Species diversity
indices have been proposed as sensitive indicators of ecological change (Wilhm, J. L. and
T.C. Dorris, 1966).

Many lakes are directly used as a source of drinking water, in many cases after more or
less intensive treatment. Fresh water fisheries are being threatened by two problems:
pollution and over-fishing. A well-documented impact of man upon aquatic ecosystems,
in particular upon our lakes, is eutrophication – a problem associated with increased
productivity and decreased diversity of biotic components. One of the burning problems
in the limnology today is how to manage the eutrophication process. Another problem of
great importance for fresh water ecosystems is the discharge of toxic substances into
rivers, lakes and reservoirs. (S.E. Jorgensen, 1980). In some countries like Australia
(OECD countries), a great deal of research effort has been directed towards an
understanding of this phenomenon of eutrophication. In more than thirty countries
limnological studies have been, or are being made, to ascertain the trophic state of waters.

Increasing input of nitrogen and phosphorous will increase the productivity of the lake.
When the nutrients are more abundant, the lake is becoming eutrophic. Eventually
emergent seres dominated by dense stands of reeds and sedges smother the remaining
open water. The wetland increasingly dries out, evapotranspiration from the plants
themselves adding to the rate, and woody shrubs invade.

10
Aquatic macrophytes are often associated with eutrophication. Excessive amounts of
these plants are sometimes produced as a result of the additions of plants nutrients to
bodies of water. Large accumulation of macrophytes are unsightly, may cause taste and
odor problems when they die, and interfere with recreational activities. Macrophytes also
account for a portion of the primary production (energy fixation) (NTIS, 1973).
Macrophyte-insect interaction is an intense area of research in terrestrial systems but
largely unexplored in freshwater. Living macrophytes are often regarded as under-utilized
food source. (Jeffries and Derek Mills, 1990).

Over fishing is a great problem in many lakes. It will reduce the fish stocks, which again,
in the long term, must lead to decreased catches and may even lead to the species
extinction. The optimum catch is a matter of balance. Smaller net mesh gives a higher
yield, but at the same time the growth capacity of the fish population is reduced (S.E.
Jorgensen , 1980).

Aquatic ecosystem of lakes, rivers, estuaries, and costal areas, like their terrestrial
counterparts, are complex systems which are made up of communities containing a
diverse range of organisms that co-exit and interact in extensive food-web. Many fish
species are particularly sensitive to lowering of dissolved oxygen concentrations.
However, since fish are considerably more mobile than other members of the ecosystem
they may avoid heavily polluted areas. Nevertheless some fish require well oxygenated
waters may fail to survive passage through grossly polluted sections. The quality of water
is being endangered by pollution. Deterioration in quality of this natural resource should
be prevented. Corrective management techniques, based on a sound understanding of all
factors involved, can achieve this.

2.2 Modern Agriculture and Environmental Impacts

Adverse effects of agriculture on environment include atmospheric emissions, soil

degradation, biodiversity loss and chemical residues and waste. Positive effects from
agriculture include the preservation of the landscape, environment and water resources,
flood prevention and resource cycling (Ito, 2000). There are strong arguments for the use
of agricultural chemicals. The estimated yield losses due to elimination for pesticides
would be as follow: wheat, yield loss 20.5%; corn, 24.9%; soybeans 27.4%; and rice
68.4% (Zilberman and et al, 1991).

It seems that man in his ignorance of, and sometimes in blatant disregard for, his
environment, acts as a catalyst in the dynamic process of the aquatic environment by
increasing this rate with extra nutrients (Australian Water Resource Council, 1975).

The same study showed that it is the poor who would pay the biggest price from the
withdrawal of chemical technology. Without pesticides and fertilizers, over a five year
period, food prices are estimated to rise by 11 to 70%. Overall estimates project a 45%
increases in the consumer price index for food (Hepworth, 1989).

Creation of reservoirs and the regulations of the discharge influence on the nature on vast
territories. The changes in the environment manifests themselves practically in all parts of
the geosphere – lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, biosphere and influence their
elements – geodynamics (seismology, relief, hydrology), hydrological, climatic
conditions, soils, flora and fauna. In the long ran it results not only in the transformation

11
of aquatic and land nature components of the ecosystems, but also in the change of
conditions of life of the population (Sirenko L. A., 1989).

National economic and agricultural policies are major forces that directly and indirectly
shape a variety of agricultural health and environmental problems. Major component of
agricultural policy for the past several decades have enhanced increasing size, intensity,
and specialization of farming with decreasing human resources. The results include a
series of agrarian conditions that have negative effects on the health of the farmers, farm
family members, and farm workers. For examples, increasing use of farm chemicals
results in a potentially increased hazard for acute occupational and environmental
exposures to pesticides and greater probability for the contamination of surface and
ground waters. As economies of scale associated with profit driven production grow, each
farm is pressured into enhancing production in order to maintain annual incomes level in
the face of shrinking profit margins (Hawk, Jane Gay, Kelly J. Donham, and Roger
Champman, 1989).

2.2.1 Impacts of Agro-chemical Use

2.2.1.1 Fertilizers and Lake Eutrophication

The expansion of agricultural activities, e.g. the clearance of more land for farming, the
herding together of greater numbers of livestocks, more intensive cultivation of larger
areas of land with irrigation and manuring, resulted in further deterioration of water
quality (Australian Water Resource Council, 1975). The combination of water and
nutrients makes some freshwater plants immensely productive, their bounty greater than
most other ecosystems including even intensive farming. This productivity then supplies
the wider system as plant materials are eaten and food webs ramify. Too much of a good
thing, especially key nutrients, can be as bad as too little, causing imbalance and
degradation. Freshwaters rely largely on detritus or algae as a good source. (Jeffries and
Derek Mills, 1990). Either macrophyte or phytoplankton dominated systems can occur
across a wide range of nutrient loading. The switch from one community to the other can
be brought about by various mechanisms. In particular the survival of effective
zooplankton grazer populations, preventing algal blooms, may be important. Pesticides
damage to zooplankton communities may have caused degradation (Stansfield and et el.,
1989).

An addition of nutrients is called eutrophication, and it is on the increase, as both derived

sewage and agricultural fertilizers accumulate in natural waters. The term eutrophication
refers to the natural enrichment of a lake over time, or river a long its course, but the word
has increasingly assumed a definition that primarily refers to a form of destructive
pollution. Eutrophic waters are nowadays commonly thought of as those showing signs of
excess nutrient loading with associated changes in flora and fauna. (Jeffries and Derek
Mills, 1990).

As defined by the O.E.C.D. eutrophication is “the nutrient enrichment of waters which

results in stimulation of an array of symptomatic changes among which increased
production of algae and macrophytes, deterioration of fisheries, deterioration of water
quality and other symptomatic changes are found to be undesirable and interfere with
water uses” (OECD, 1970). It might be said that just as a weed is a plant in the wrong
place, organic pollution is a fertilizer in the wrong place. Modern soft detergents are a
new, additional source of the key nutrient phosphorus in sewage. Generally,

12
eutrophication sets problems, for it change the flora and fauna of the lakes, for example,
and by stimulating the massive growth of aquatic vegetation may lead once more to
oxygen depletion at unfavorable times.

The scarcity of information concerning the situation in developing countries is no

indications, as these countries are still at grips with problems that are more vital to their
national development. It is to be expected, indeed, that growing industrialization and
urbanization will soon bring similar problems in these countries. Therefore the assertion
that the problem of eutrophication of waters is a world-wide one does not amount to an
over-estimation (Vollenweider, 1971).

Over-spraying into water and run-off following rain simply dump the nutrients into
freshwater rather than onto crops. Nowadays a more insidious problem has developed.
Fertilizers nutrients have started to reach the soil water table and deep aquifers. This has
taken years but equally, as nutrients slowly leach down the input to aquifers will continue
for many years even if we stopped spraying at the surface, which we have not. This
source is very difficult to tackle (Jeffries and Derek Mills, 1990).

Addition of phosphorous causes a rapid uptake by phytoplankton as well as by littoral

vegetation. Apparently the phosphorous is released more slowly from the macrophytes
than from the phytoplankton, but with the annual decay of macrophytes significant
amounts of phosphorous are released. As macrophytes are capable of assimilating
phosphorous from the sediment, it is clear that littoral vegetation could play a major role
in the dynamics of eutrophication by supplying nutrients to the free water in periods
where the water level is low.

2.2.1.2 Pesticides and Freshwater Pollution

Water Pollution

Water is particularly liable to pollution, often naturally, but, in the present industrialized
urban society, by deliberate and usually preventable fouling. Pollution can be
conventionally grouped under seven heads, namely: silt; organic matter; chemical;
herbicides and insecticides; oils; radio-nuclides; heat and general rubbish. The definition
of water pollution which is generally accepted in many organizations, including the FAO
and WHO is “A water course is to be considered polluted when the water in it is altered in
comparison or condition, directly or indirectly, as a result of the activities of man, so that
it is less suitable for any or all of the purposes for which it would be suitable in its natural
state” (Russell, 1074).

Man made pollution attracts attention nowadays and is one of the chief environmental
problems. The growing human population is greatly accelerating the accumulation of its
waste products, so much so that the doomwatchers foresee mankind dying out in its own
noxious wastes like any culture of yeast or bacteria. But the modern degree of water
pollution is only relatively worse than in earlier years.

In the pollution by chemicals, the damage is direct, since poisons are involved. Many
modern agro-chemicals are very poisonous; the case of a chemical discharged into of the
tributaries.

13
Pesticides

Modern farming uses a lot of chemicals and among which pesticides are the major cause
of pollution which are toxic to the ecosystem. Pesticide is a general term including all
chemicals such as insecticides and herbicides designed and used to kill animals and
plants.

Some aquatic organisms can accumulate heavy metals in their bodies and some fish can
accumulate enough metals, such as mercury, to make them unacceptable as food.
Seabirds have a tendency to accumulate these metals, because they are at the head of
marine food chains. DDT and other chlorinated hydrocarbons such as endrin, aldrin and
dieldrin are extremely toxic to fish, so that heavy fish kills can follow crop spraying, if
some of the spray is blown into the water. Fishes that survive can concentrate insecticides
in their bodies and build up a ten-fold resistance, as compared with unexposed fishes. The
organic phosphorous insecticides may be more immediately toxic to fish than the
chlorinated hydrocarbons, but are much persistent and seem to be less dangerous in the
food chains.

Although some pesticides have no direct effects on fish it can reduce some of the aquatic
invertebrate populations, the arthropods particular. This reduces the food supply for
young salmon fish whose growth was consequently reduces. It is common knowledge that
spraying over watercourses should be avoided if at all possible, and that the correct spray
dosages should be used to minimize the damage to fish and wildlife. When agricultural
chemicals are used at recommended rates and with due care the risk to aquatic animals is
relatively small but not entirely eliminated (Jeffries and Derek Mills, 1990).

It seems that we shall have to live with this problem, at least until less toxic insecticides,
or alternative methods of control, are invented. The modern high crop yields on which the
feeding of a growing human biomass depends are in large part due to the control of plant
diseases and pests, and especially of storage pests, by these powerful chemicals.
Herbicides such as diquat and pasaquat are not present regarded as pollutants when used
at the recommended dosages (Hicking C. F., 1975).

2.2.2 Potential Impacts of Agro-chemical Use on the Lake Environment

In the era of technology, the role of agriculture in a society is not only for the purpose of
food supply but also the production of raw materials for the industries and so many
cosmetic products. The Green Revolution must be said to be successful for the world
hunger problem during that period of crisis but it brought the negative consequences on
society and environment. Production and use of pesticides have been dramatically rising
up in the world and it is also interesting to study “Who gain and who lose?” in agro-
chemicals production- consumption system. The surest thing is that the third world
countries are relying on the imports of modern hybrid seeds and agro-chemicals from
industrialized countries. Moreover the lack/weakness of environmental awareness of the
users (farmers) forces the heavy or over dosage of inputs which consequently results in
both economic inefficiency and environmental degradation. Even in LDCs like Myanmar,
the rate of agrochemicals consumption is going up in a rapid speed. To meet the objective
of increasing the foreign income, the state issues national policy to implement the
intensive production by increasing the cropping area, increasing the cropping frequencies,
promoting the use of agricultural inputs and adopting the modern technology. Myanmar is

14
also trying to follow the higher production by the use of higher inputs. The consumption
of agro-chemicals in Myanmar is shown in Figure (2.1) and (2.2).

Total pesticide consumption (metric-ton)

Total Pesticides Consumption In Myanmar (from 1992 to 2000)

3000
2500
2000
1500 Total
1000 Pesticides
500 (Metric ton)
0

1992-93 1994-95 1996-97 1998-99

(Source; Use of Chemical Fertilizers, Myanma Agriculture Service, Review of the

Financial, Economic and Social Conditions for 1992-93 to 1996-97)

(Pesticides = insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, fumigants and others)

Figure 2.1 Pesticide consumption in Myanmar

Fertilization Utilization(mt)

350000
300000
250000
200000 Fertilization
150000 Utilization(mt)
100000
50000
0
19 9

19 0

19 1

19 2

19 3

19 4

5
-8

-9

-9

-9

-9

-9

-9
88

89

90

91

92

93

94
19

(Source; Use of Chemical Fertilizers, Myanma Agriculture Service, Review of the Financial,
Economic and Social Conditions for 1992-93 to 1996-97)

Figure 2.2 Total fertilization utilization of Myanmar from 1988-95

Nowadays the impacts of agriculture on the environment become a hot issue in the world.
Its impact on freshwater is more serious but it must be said the research on this field, is

15
still weak. There are not so many research papers on environmental impacts and natural
resource degradation in Myanmar due to the Political, financial and facility constraints.

Steve Butkus and Myint Su (2001) found the terrible over-rate of pesticide application in
Inle Lake floating gardens. They use “Loading Capacity Analysis” to study the loading
capacities of eight additional pesticides commonly used in tomato cultivation were also
derived for comparison; the insecticides endosulfan, esfenvalerate and carbaryl; the
fungicides mancozeb and chlororthalonil; and the herbicides trifluralin and metribuzin.

They concluded that the current pesticide usage for tomato cultivation must be changed to
protect the health of the residents of Inle lake Watershed. First, the amount of application
needs to be reduced to acceptable rates. Cypermethrin is currently applied at 1500% of
the recommended rate. Metalaxyl is currently applied at 5900% of the recommended rate.
The over application of these pesticides is not only costly to the farmer, but also causes
unnecessary pollution that could be impairing the health of watershed residents. Second,
the amount of area certain pesticides can be applied should be controlled. They also found
that the use of Monocrotophos which has already banned. The pesticide is highly toxic to
birds and has been banned by all OECD countries.

2.2.3 HYVs and Genetic Diversity

The measurement of yields and productivity in the Green Revolution paradigm is

divorced from seeing how the processes of increasing output affect the processes that
sustain the condition for agricultural production. While these reductionist categories of
yields and productivity allow a higher measurement of yields, they exclude the
measurement of the ecological destruction that affects future yields (Vandana Shiva,
1997).

Use of modern hybrid varieties and GMOs are also challenging the biodiversity
conservation. However, many farmers prefer to use HYVs due to their higher productive
yields. As a consequence, the local varieties are disappearing unnoticeably and people
overlook the importance of indigenous genetic resources. Further, the HYVs have led to
large scale micronutrient deficiencies in soils, particularly iron in paddy cultivated ares
and manganese in wheat cultivated areas. These problems were built into the ecology of
the HYV’s even though they were anticipated. The high water demands of these seeds
necessitated high water inputs, and hence the hazards of desertification – through water
logging in some regions and dessication and aridisation in others (Vandana Shiva, 1997).

Seed of many flower and vegetable hybrids is directly transferred from developed
countries and continue to be imported. For example, cabbage production in the highlands
of northern Thailand took off 25 years ago because farmers found success with a hybrid
cabbage from Japan named Hayadori 1. Farmers tend to apply much more pesticides than
necessary to vegetables and fruits, because of the importance of product appearance to
price. Rapid development of pesticide resistance in the insects has the most undesirable
consequence; farmers increase the dose (4th International Crop Science Congress, 2004).

Inle was once a famous agricultural site with its pride on huge amount of local tomato
production. They were commonly named as “Inn-thee” (Inn = the lake, thee = fruit). But
nowadays, most of the tomato gardens in Inle Lake are “Hybrid varieties” imported from
the foreign countries. And due to the big size of fruits and attractive color, the new
strains of tomato are becoming popular and occupying the space of local varieties. It is

16
also a threatening feature leading to the loss of genetic resources. Due to the intensive
monoculture, the loss of agro-biodiversity is a serious threat to the sustainable crop
production ecosystem.

2.3 Sustainable Agriculture

Agriculture is an important repository of agricultural biodiversity. It is understood as the

management of biological organisms and /or their environment to supply human
consumption system. The term includes all management systems of annual and perennial
cropping systems and livestock (Senanayake R. and Palihawadana, 2000). Modern
agricultural practices, like intensive cropping and use of chemical fertilizers and
pesticides, coupled with deforestation for arable farming, are having adverse impacts on
the physical, biological and human components of the environment (Tajima T., 2000).
Farm-level agricultural activities constitute a vital component of agriculture in the
countries in Asia. The modernization of agricultural methods, such as the use of new
strains of seeds, requires the application of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. The
reduction of natural resources has also affected human health and well being. In the
circumstances, there is an urgent need to address issues relating to environmental
protection and natural resources conservation, in regard to farm-level agricultural
activities (APO, 2000). Therefore, the agricultural system nowadays, is in the transition
phase from modern (conventional farming) to nature farming (organic farming) with the
aim of sustainable natural resources utilization.

Article 2 of the CBD defines “sustainable use” as the use of the components of biological
diversity in a way and at a rate that does not lead to the long term decline of biological
diversity. Ecological sustainability of agriculture requires the sustainable management
and use of renewable resources, protection of ecological processes and the maintenance
of ecological balance and finally the conservation of biological diversity. Ecological
sustainability is a necessary but not sufficient condition to ensure agricultural
sustainability (Leong, 2000).

“Sustainable agriculture” has emerged in the last 10 years as the most agreed-upon term
to describe the varied field of agricultural practices that differ from conventional concepts
of modern agricultural production (Bidwell, 1986; World Bank, 1981). The most
prevalent definition of sustainable agriculture is one that is “ecologically sound,
economically viable, socially just and humane” (Gips, 1987). The management focus in
agriculture is on long-term optimization of the system as a whole rather than on short-
term exploitation (Hauptli and et al., 1990)

Sustainable agriculture in Japan is conceived as “agriculture that utilizes its material

circulation function in harmony with productivity requirements and reduces the burden on
environment by the use of agricultural chemicals through soil improvement”.
Establishment of the Office for Sustainable Agriculture, promulgation of guide lines,
regulations, etc, are some of the steps taken to achieve this end. The reduction of use of
agricultural chemicals, have been limited to 5% in the case of rice and fruit cultivation
and 1% in the case of vegetable farming (Ito, 2000).

We have been talking about organic farming and sustainable agriculture for more than a
decade. Many scientific meetings have been organized to discuss these themes. It appears,
however, that up until now the results have been more rhetorical than practical. Hundreds
of papers have been published on the potential damage which chemical fertilizers can do,

17
while the mass media have been warning the public that the continued heavy use of
chemical fertilizers and pesticides will lead to catastrophe. However, there is no sign that
the use of chemical fertilizers has declined. This may reflect the fact that as far as these
issues are concerned, there seems to be a big gap between the ideal situation people talk
about, and what can be done in practice (Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, 1994).

2.4 Environmental Awareness

2.4.1 Awareness, Attitudes and Behaviors

In the website of “wordreference.com” Dictionary, “Awareness” is defined as a

psychological feature of knowingness or undifferentiated consciousness. It may be a
knowledge based on one’s experience or perception. Fazio and Zanna as quoted by
Sjoberg (1989) stated that attitudes are weakly related to behavior, especially following
an attempt to influence attitudes and/or behavior by means of communication. Attitudes
may reflect stable personal values and they may also reflect personal, concrete experience
that tends to be given priority. While it is difficult to relate attitude to behavior, there can
be little doubt that appropriate attitude information is quite useful in the study of behavior
(Sjoberg, 1989).

Environmental awareness also refers to environmental attitudes, concerns, values and

beliefs with lax terminological distinction (Eden, 1993). Most environmental studies
claim that there is a direct relationship between environmental awareness and some socio-
economic factors. Common among them are studies that relate environmental awareness
and behavior with the level of income, level of education and occupation. Some
researches pointed out that the level of education also affects the level of environmental
awareness and behavior. But in some papers, level of education is not significantly
related to the awareness level as the majority of farmers have not much difference in
educational status.

Anyhow, the awareness of the farmers plays a vital role in their environmental
management. In this study, the researcher hypothesize that the farmers directly contribute
to the environment and their attitudes might affect their behavior to some extent. And the
study also aims to test the hypothesis that the awareness of the farmers is influenced by
socio-economic factors.

Ethically, antecedent or reward strategies are the most effective and desirable techniques,
but these would need to be implemented consistently. This is the most effective way to
address the problem society wide, in that it would receive the necessary publicity and
attention. In USA, voluntary adoption of safety practices and hazard reduction is of
central importance to agricultural injury prevention and control programs. The Rural
Youth Disability Prevention Project (RYDP) was an educational intervention program in
which farm families and community organizations worked together to develop and
implement injury prevention and control activities (Hawk and et al, 1989).

2.4.2 Environmental Education

In Myanmar, only a few number of universities and institutes offer degree and diploma
courses specialized in environmental sciences and technology. Now the government tries
to raise the environmental awareness of the public. They established the National
Commission for Environmental Affairs. World Environment Day celebrations, annual

18
tree planting programs organized by the Ministry of Forest, environmental workshops and
seminars public environmental education through the media are promoted. The mass
media like radio and television is also used for dissemination of information on
environment and development. In addition, some ministries present environmental
training program. However the extent what they have attempted is not enough to meet the
goals and there are still occurring the environmental degradation and impacts due to the
lack of environmental awareness of the people. There are not so much efforts to survey
the awareness level of the farmers in terms of agricultural impact on environment.
Moreover Curriculum of environmental education for school education is not yet
prepared.

An education and awareness program is needed to inform decision-making bodies and

local communities about the importance of healthy wetlands in maintaining water quality
and preserving fish stocks. There is evidence that pollution is a problem at some wetlands
in Myanmar, for example at Inle Lake where discharge of effluents is affecting fish and
water-bird populations and causing eutrophication.

2.4.3 Environmental Awareness of the Farmers

Industry, governments, and international agencies are perforce more aware of the
problems at hand and those likely to emerge in the future. In many countries, the growing
concern for the environment has been accompanied by legislation control, which requires
manufacturers to submit toxicity data when applying for registration of new chemicals.
Prediction of pollution hazard is essentially a scientific judgment base on available data
(S. Smith, 1986). In Myanmar, the trainings for the farmers on pesticides awareness and
soil and nutrient management awareness have been conducted, yet the numbers of
participants are just a tiny portion of the farmers in the whole country. The rapid
development of agro-chemicals trades and private companies is accelerating the potential
to use more chemicals by the farmers due to their advertisement and persuasion.

Environmental awareness of the farmers has been studied by some researchers in various
ways and the most commonly used method is surveying the stake-holder’s perception.
Using the stake holder’s perception is a low cost but powerful method to evaluate their
performance and environmental situation of a specific area. Resource accessing
stakeholders may have an enormous depth of knowledge about the resource abundance,
ecology and management (Walters, 1997).Resource views their environment in different
ways and their actions are based on their perceptions, experiences and knowledge
(Blaikie, 1995).

Sanzidur (2003) has studied the farmers’ perceptions and their determinants concerning
with the environmental impacts of modern agricultural technology in Bangladesh. He
used “the tobit analysis” to measure the change in the elasticity of intensity of awareness
(change in awareness) for farmers who already are aware and change in the elasticity of
awareness (change in the probability of becoming aware). He also applied the empirical
model show the relationship between the explanatory variables with the dependent
variable (environmental awareness index). To get the awareness index of the farmers, he
took the 12 indicators of environmental impact which were obtained from the pretest-
focus group discussion. From his study, the level and duration of involvement with
modern technology are the two most important determinants, which directly influence
farmers’ awareness of its ill effects thereby, supporting the maintained hypothesis. Both
education and extension contact significantly increase awareness, as expected.

19
Elizabeth Mccann and et al. (1997) compared the environmental awareness of the
orgainic farmers and conventional farmers in Michigan, USA. They used the formula to
calculate the farming operation’s overall sustainability based on the procedure adopted by
Dick (1992). Their findings supported the hypothesis that organic farmers would, in
general, use conservation practices with greater frequency than conventional farmers.

In fact, it is very difficult to measure the environmental awareness level of the farmers
and sustainability of their agricultural practices. It is also a weak sector in the agricultural
and environmental research fields. This study attempts to find out the awareness level of
the farmers and the risk of environmental impact due to their unsustainable farming
practices in the Inle Lake, which is a very important watershed area in terms of
ecologically and socio-economically.

20
 CHAPTER 3

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Approach

This study is aimed to discover the relationships between the selected socio-demographic
and institutional contexts and levels of local farmer’s environmental awareness, and again
the awareness and their farming activities. So the combination of qualitative and
quantitative data analysis was applied. Primary information and data were collected
through structured questionnaires interviews and observatory survey and secondary data
were collected by key-informant interviews, informal group discussions and from other
published and unpublished papers.

3.1.1 Reconnaissance Survey

Preliminary physical survey was made before the field survey. It includes gathering
information on the study area profiles from UNDP and informal discussion and
interviews with Government Officials from Inle Wetland Wildlife Sanctuary (Forest
Department) and Department of National Planning. In discussion with these officials, the
data on distribution different ethnic groups, farming types, general socio-demographic
structures of different zones or areas and watershed situation. A lot of information on
wetland ecosystem of Inle Lake, adverse situations threatening to biodiversity and related
natural resources and Wildlife conservation activities in Inle Lake were obtained from the
Inle Wetland Wildlife Sanctuary Section. Overall situations on socioeconomic and
agricultural status in the whole region of Inle were noted from interviews and discussion
with official from Department of National Planning.

3.2 Sampling Plan

Based on the information and data from several informal meetings and discussions with
local officers from different departments and data source of Village Profiles of UNDP,
the study area was plotted in its degree of priority to find out the important farming sites
or locations to be surveyed. As it was aimed to target the farmers’ awareness and their
behavior, the farming areas nearby the inlet streams and lake shores were considered to
have high potential in environmental impacts. It was selected as Inle Lake region
encompassing the lake and its periphery.

3.2.1 Zones

The study area was divided into six zones based on the importance of geographical
features for example intensive farming areas near by the major streams or inlets as well as
for the purpose of convenience in surveying; Some zones confine only one village tract
but some confine two neighboring village tracts where the farmers might have quite
similar farming system, behavior and even attitudes. Zone (1) represents the eastern
shore, Zone (2) represents the middle lake, Zone (3) the southwest shore/delta area, Zone
(4) the northwest of lake in water and lowland, Zone (5) the north west of lake in only
mountainous area and Zone (6) the north part of lake (up-stream) nearby the urban area as
shown in Figure (3.1) and (3.2).

21
From each zone agricultural villages were purposively selected again based on the
household populations and the nature of farming systems and respondents were randomly
selected.

Figure 3.1 Map showing the standpoint of Nyaung Shwe Township in Myanmar
and the study areas in zones

22
Figure 3.2 Map showing the study areas in zones with village tract names

3.2.2 Stratification

The study area was also stratified based on the respondents residential in terms of
elevation layers or their habitats, namely strata. They are water, lowland and upland.
Those in the water strata do water gardens or floating gardens and mostly grow
vegetables and tomato as major cash crop. The low land stratum is the flat plane shores
around the lake and situated between the water and mountain ranges. It is a narrow and
long delta-like area ranging north to south along the sides of the lake in the east and west.

23
The upland stratum is identified as slash and burn shifting cultivation (taung-ya) and
orchards on the high land of elevation of more than 3500 feet above sea level.

3.2.3 Sample Size

Sampling was based on the population census and density of farmers’ population obtained
from the UNDP’s village profiles. The total sample size was 150 but only 148 were used
for the analysis for the 2 were in too much missing data. Detailed explanation on sample
size from different zones is described in Chapter 4.

3.3 Data Collection

3.3.1 Primary Data Collection

Structured questionnaire interviews were conducted to survey the awareness of farmers.

The respondents were farmers who reside in the lake and the periphery area of the lake.
To get the unbiased information on the environmental impacts of the agricultural
activities, informal group discussions were conducted in each zone. The informal group
discussion included people from different walks of life; university students, high school
students, teachers, nurse, farmers, non-farm workers, NGO workers and village head-
men. From these discussions, it was learnt how they see the trend of changes in their
environment, their perceptions on the agricultural impacts on the Lake Ecosystem and
willingness to participate in the lake conservation.

To get the information on the current policies, management and lake conservation related
programs, key-informant interviews with the senior officials and responsible persons
from different departments and NGOs were conducted. The list of Key-informants is
shown in Table (3.1). Discussions with the officials and experts were very useful to see
the holistic view on the lake situation and especially their scholastic perceptions on the
environmental problems and farming activities for the sustainability of the lake
ecosystem.

24
Table 3.1 List of Departments/Institutions for Key-informants and purposes/items
discussed

No Department/Institution Location Purposes/main items discussed

General biophysical features of the
Inle Watershed,
Inle Wetland Wildlife
Natural resources depletion and
1 Sanctuary, Forest Nyaung Shwe
conservative activities and for some
Department
data and information on
environmental problems
Department of National General features on socio-economic
2 Nyaung Shwe
Planning situations for sampling
Information and data on Village
profiles, previous and current
UNDP
3 Nyaung Shwe development programs, perceptions
(Mya 01/ Nyaung Shwe)
and future plans on environmental
issues in Inle
Curriculum status for Bachelor
degree on Agricultural Science in
Yezin Agricultural Yezin, terms of sustainable agriculture and
4
University Pyinmana environmental conservative issues.
Situations of extension education
and scholastic views on it.
implementation and enforcement of
Plan Protection Section,
Pesticide laws and IPM (Integrated
5 Myanma Agriculture Yangon
Pest Management) knowledge
Service
dissemination activities
Situations of companies working on
Bayer Crop Science
6 Yangon Seeds, Pesticide and herbicide
(agrochemical company)
import to Myanmar
Brief history of farming systems and
Myanma Agriculture
7 Nyaung Shwe changes in Inle and Activities of
Service, Nyaung Shwe
MAS (Nyaung Shwe)

3.3.2 Secondary Data Collection

Secondary data/information on the agricultural policies, plans and lake conservation and
management were collected from the government departments and NGOs concerned. In
order to complete the primary information, secondary information were also collected
from different sources such as magazines, journals, articles and previous research
documents. Some research papers on Inle Lake were obtained from Library of Taunggyi
University and some articles were downloaded from internet. In Myanmar, it is not easy
to get the required information or data from only one source and the secondary data was
obtained from various kinds of sources and from many friends as well as university
teachers.

3.4 Scope and Limits of the Study

The term environmental awareness is very broad and difficult to measure its quality or
degree. In this research, only farmers’ environmental awareness is confined based on their

25
level of agricultural knowledge and experiences. It is to evaluate the farmers’ perceptions
or attitudes on environmental concern and conservative mood in respective of farming.
There can be lot of indicators for the sustainable agriculture but it is not so easy to
measure and mention that “to how extent the particular activities/practices are
sustainable”. In this study, only three main causes which are the major important
practices in agricultural production and directly affect the sustainability of the lake
ecosystem were chosen; they are use of chemical fertilizers, use of pesticides and use of
HYVs. The farming behavior of farmers also means that how much they have concern on
their activities or practices which might have impact on the environment.

Among the different varieties of socio-economic contexts that might affect the awareness
of the farmers, some factors like infrastructures and soil fertility level were not included
due to the financial and time constraints. The landholding or cultivated land is measured
in only single unit “Acre” and it cannot be representative for the wealth status exactly
because one acre of paddy field is very smaller asset than one acre of water garden in
comparison. There might be some bias in interview as the respondents’ answer is quite
dependent on the way of interviewer’s questioning.

3.5 Analysis Methods

3.5.1 Descriptive

Both quantitative and qualitative methods and techniques were used. The socio-
demographic data of the study area and respondent, and their farming activities were
expressed in terms of charts, graphs, percent and means, standard deviation and analysis
of variances.

3.5.2 Correlation

Pearson Correlation was used to study the relationship among various kinds of
independent variables of socio-demographic and institutional contexts. Then it was also
used to check the relationship between AWAI and AWBI.

3.5.3 PCA (Principal Component Analysis)

PCA (also known as Factor Analysis) was used to extract the main components which
have high multi-co linearity from varieties of independent variables by using rotation
method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization. The variables with highest loading were
selected and name the components accordingly to the commonness of variables. The
factor scores of the main components were used as independent variables in multiple
regression analysis to find the relationship with awareness index (dependent variable) and
the components significantly influencing on the AWAI were found out and interpreted
based on the R square value and orientation of influence (positive and negative).

Two methods of multiple regressions were applied. In the first method, only socio-
demographic and institutional contexts were used as independent variables while AWAI
was used as dependent one in multiple regression. Then correlation and regression
analysis on AWAI and AWBI were conducted to show their relationship. But in the
second method, the AWAI was itself was used in the independent variables together with
other contextual variables while AWBI was used as dependent variables.

26
Table 3.2 Summarized descriptions on selected contextual variables

Contextual
No Measurement Mean Std. D
Independent Variables (x)
Socio-demographic (Internal)
Categories
1 = water
1 Strata
2 = lowland (or) lake shore
3 = upland (or) high land
2 Farm Income (Ks/month) 84791.13 262864.39
3 Off_Income (non-farm) (Ks/month) 11350.69 43496.52
4 Family income (Ks/month) 96156.47 273532.67
Landholding (Cultivated
5 Acres 2.07 1.14
land)
Categories
1 = floating garden
6 Type of farming 2 = low-land (horti + field crop)
3 = both Floating and low-land
4 = Upland (taung yar + orchard)
7 Age Years 43.29 12.617
8 Sex 1 = male, 0 = female 2.07 1.147
9 Farming experience Years 24.60 12.661
Categories
1 = Innthar
10 Ethnic
2 = Pa Oh
3 = Taung Yo
Number of people in each
11 Family size 4.81 1.911
household
Number people who are not
12 Dependent numbers economically active (children 1.66 1.318
and very old people)
Scale (no of dependents/family
13 Dependency ratio .32 .22
size)
Ordinal scale
0 = No formal education
1 = Primary education
14 Education of farmer 2 = Secondary education
3 = High school education
4 = University/ college
education
Ordinal scale
1 = Seldom
15 Exposure to urban area
2 = Sometimes
3 = Frequently
Institutional (external)
16 Getting loans Yes = 1, No = 0 .59 .493
Categories
0 = not get loans
17 Source of Loans 1 = Government
2 = Non-government
3 = from both GO and NGO
18 Extension contact Yes = 1, No = 0 .24 .430
19 Training experience Yes = 1, No = 0 .30 .462
Ordinal scale
1 = Poor accessibility
20 Level of information access 2 = Moderately good 1.89 .766
accessibility
3 = Very good accessibility

27
3.5.4 Brief description why Selected Contextual Variables were considered

(a) Strata

The study area is based on the Inle Lake and its periphery so it can also be distinguished
into three layers or strata according to their different habitats which is again based on the
elevation level. They are water, lowland and upland. People who live in the water do
mostly water gardens (floating gardens) and they used to have much urban exposure as
they can have easy water way by boats. Moreover the UNDP projects are also mainly
focus on the lake area sue to its high density of human population. Strata can also be
thought as one of the independent variables to find the relationship with awareness.

(b) Farming Types

Type of farming is also similar in each strata or zone. It was to find which type of farming
is much more related to awareness and finally to find out who follow the environmentally
friendly practices much more.

(c) Age

It can also be an important factor in relating with environmental awareness. The

researcher would like to find out if younger farmers have different level of environmental
awareness from the old ones.

(d) Sex

Mostly the head of the households are men and they are the decision makers for the
agribusiness too. However the percent of women’s involvement in the agricultural
industry are quite a bit amount and some women are the decision makers in their families.
So the research also aims to explore the awareness and sex relationship.

(e) Incomes

It includes farm income, off-farm income (non-farm) and family income. Family income
is the sum of the former two incomes. It was very difficult to get the accurate data on it as
majority of the respondents are not used to keeping record of their accounting notes. And
it was not possible to get the monthly income, so the annual income was converted into
monthly one as average.

(f) Landholding

Landholding can be considered as one of the wealth factors. Those who owe the larger
acres of farm land can be put in the rich farmers and they might have different
opportunities and situations to improve their awareness and knowledge level.

(g) Education Level

Education was assumed as one of the most important factors which might be significantly
correlated with awareness level. But some old farmers can have higher awareness
according to their experiences in the past.

28
(h) Family Structures

Family size and the number of dependents are considered as social capital and it can also
have relation with their perception or attitudes. Most of the households in Inle Lake are
extended families and nuclear families were very rarely found. Due to the law of
prohibiting the expansion of new household settlements in the lake area, the married
subfamilies of daughters or sons still live together in the same household. Therefore the
family structures in Inle is quite different from others and they are very good social
affaires and thus good communication through social media is also one of the benefits for
them.

(i) Training Experience

It is also the most important factor that can improve the farmers’ environmental
awareness but it can also be very variable based on the types of trainings they
experienced. In this study, only environmental related trainings were considered such as
forestry, agricultural and health. But it was not very specifically surveyed like the type
and length of trainings and the frequencies were not asked for this variable.

(j) Extension Contact

Extension education is critical factor to improve the farmers’ agricultural knowledge and
the research supposed that if the farmers have extension contact, they can have good
exposure to news and information, consequently raise the awareness level. In this case,
only dummy variables were used that is only having extension contact or not. The
frequencies and level of exposure to extension agents were not accounted.

(j) Loan Receiving

Status of loans receiving is also considered to be associated factor. Those who get loans
from NGOs or UNDP can have much more communications with the educated staffs or
workers and it can influence the farmer’s knowledge, attitudes and perceptions. It is very
clear that the farmers having contact with NGO or UNDP have much more chance of
getting updated information from them than those have no contact.

(k) Accessibility to Media / Information

The level of accessibility to information and media plays a vital role in improving the
knowledge and awareness. In addition, those with high level of media exposure can have
up-to-date information and have more varieties of options to follow.

29
 CHAPTER 4

STUDY AREA AND RESPONDENTS’ PROFILE

4.1 Study Area Profile

4.1.1 A Lake with Diversified Beauties

Myanmar is an attractive country for a lot of tourists who especially like to enjoy the
beauties of natural environment as well as warm and friendly social livelihood. Among
the thousands of natural aesthetics, the lake Inle is one of the most significant and
productive ecological system supporting an immense variety of plants and animals and
yielding great wealth for Myanmar through its occurrence of floating islands, floating
water gardens, unique living style of the natives (Inn-tha) in the lake, rowing flatboats
with one leg, all of which can be found only in Myanmar. The lake became one of the
focal points for the scientists from different fields and backgrounds due to its richness in
biodiversity, the existence of some endemic species, unusual type of agriculture, its
attractive ecosystem, beautiful geologic features and so many factors impacting on the
lake. In addition, it is also an important major source of water supply for the Law-Pi-Ta
Hydroelectric power station which is currently supplying almost 50% of the electricity
used in the whole country.

4.1.2 Location and Area

It is the second largest lake in Myanmar and situated in Nyaung Shwe Township,
southern Shan State of Myanmar. It is one of the most important watershed systems in
Myanmar due to its typical aquatic ecosystem and local people people’s livelihood. The
lake is lying in the deep valley so called Nyanug Shwe Valley between the two ranges of
mountains; Loi Khaw and Letmaunggwe. In geographical parameters, it is situated at the
elevation of 29150 feet above sea level and located between the latitudes 20 degree 18
min N - 20 degree 53 min N and the longitudes 96 degree 50 min and 96 degree 57 min
E. The mountains surrounding the lake have an elevation of over 3500 feet which are very
steep with deprived of vegetation covers thus enhancing the soil erosion and
sedimentation in the lake.

The lake is nearly 14.5 km long North to South but only 5.5 km wide from east to west
(the size of the lake is variable seasonably). Presently its surface area is measured as
23.42 sq miles or may be 75.4 sq miles if the muddy periphery is counted. It is a shallow
lake having an average depth of 7 feet and not more than 18 feet. The southern part is
found to be shallow and it is less than 4-5 feet. In the dry season, it is only 12 feet deep,
and 20 feet in the rainy season.

4.1.3 Drainage and Geology

According to the geologists, it appeared through the melting of lime stones and so called
“Solution Lake” and thus the water is quite clear. The weather condition around the lake
is fine, the maximum temperature is not more than 90 degree and the minimum
temperature in the winter is not lower than 45 degree F. The annual rainfall is 60 inches.

Myint Maung Maung (1984), as cited in Zaw Lin Aung (2002), stated that the lake basin
resulted from the block faulting as there are two huge faults on the east and west of the

30
lake indicating the tectonic activities in the remote past million ago. Chibber (1934) and
Nyi Nyi (1967), as also cited by Zaw Lin Aung (2002), mentioned that in the east and
west the lake extends to the foot of the steep limestone hills which rise 1000-2000 ft in
height along its entire length and the base floor of the lake is constituted with limestone.

The lake seems to be more like a network of canals than an open lake as a lot of small
streams are entering the lake from different directions; east, west and north. There are 29
streams entering the lake – one from the north, 17 from the east and 11 from the west.
The Nankand Canal from Nyaung Shwe goes down to the lake from the south, which is
only 4m deep. Streams entering from the east come from the higher mountainous region
and they used to be dry in the summer. The most prominent are Shwe-lin-ban, Namli,
Chaungkauk and Hsonban Stream. The shore line is a little steeper in the east and the
sedimentation is not so serious thus the lake is deeper in the east. The streams entering
into the lake from the west are flowing slowly and more sedimentation/siltation occurs
there. The sediments brought down from the western mountains by the Thandaung and
Inndein streams, built broad deltas in the form of birds foot pattern. These are the places
where the lake becomes narrower and reflects the impacts of physical features on land use
changes (Nang Vo Kham, 2005) The southern part is the outlet of the lake namely “Balu
Chaung” and it is first a narrow stream but become wider and forms another small lake.

31
Table 4.1 Water catchments sources of the Inle Lake

Streams from the eastern shore Annual silting amount (Acre/ft)

Nan Si 20.8
Sure-Lin-Pan 12.8
Taung-pu 8.8
Lwe-tant 1.6
Chaung chauk 4.0
Tha-pye-pin 3.2
Chaung Sauk 14.4
Tha-le Oo 20.8
Nyaung Gyi 11.2
Kho-pan Kone 3.2
Ye-pu 25.6
Me-za-li 17.6
Ye-poke 44.8
Da-li 8.0
Kan-pa-ni 3.2
Han-me-zin 30.2
Total 229.6
Streams from the western shore Annual silting amount (Acre/ft)
Nan-lat 844.8
Tha-na-kha 4.5
Ye-pe 217.6
Nyaung-win 2.4
Thi-khone 7.2
Ye Oo 2.4
Tha-phan 8.0
Than taung (or) Kalaw Chaung 409.6
Inn-tein (or) Belu Chaung 499.2
Sein-kar-myaut 28.0
Ma-gyi-sake 12.8
Total 2036.8
Source: Irrigation Department, 1995, cited by Daw Khin Win Myint and U Kyaw Win Maung
(1996)

4.2 Demographic Features

Historically, Inle is the shortened name for four villages namely Ywagyi Wunpun
[Wonlon in Shan], Nan-pan, Naungtaw [ Naung Taung] and Heya Ywama [Heya]. Daw

32
Khin Khin Ma, in her selected writings, explained that these villages were called Inle Ywa
since the Inwa (Ava) period and the name Inle Ywa was adopted in colonial times by the
British administrator Sir Geoge Scott, also known by his penname Shwe Yoe. It was
shortened to Inle on 23rd May 1887.

There are more than 220 villages (35 village tracts) on or around it, supporting a
population of about 150,000. Most are In-tha people (In-tha means '
sons of the lake'
) who
are of Mon rather than Shan descent, originally from South East Burma. The main lake
town is Nyaung Shwe (Yaunghwe), 1 km from the lake-although the main part of town is
a bit further from the lake. As well as being accomplished fishermen and market
gardeners, the Inn-tha (local ethnic people) is talented metalworkers, carpenters and
weaver.

As a whole township, the total population was 135606 of which 11100 contributing into
urban and 124506 into rural by the Data credits: THD (1997), HDO-Nyaung Shwe as
cited by UNDP (1999). According to the UNDP village profile (1999), the total
population was counted as 120028 persons living in 22892 households with an average
household size of 5.2 persons for the 397 reported villages. The sex ratio of male to
female is 0.98 showing that male is more than female.

The area is also rich in ethnic diversity, with over thirty ethnic races. Inthas are the
majority group and Shan, Myanmar and Danu are of minority. Out of a total population of
120,028 in 397 reported villages, 84777 (70.6%) are Inn-tha, 19608 (16.3%) are Pa-oh,
6905 (5%) are Shan, 2303 (1.9%) are Taung-yo, 1781 (1.5%) are Bamar and 1499 (1.3%)
consists of other races (UNDP, UNOPS, MYA/96/010, 1999). Shan live in the eastern
hill area as well as in the north and south. Pa-Os mostly reside in the eastern hill area and
a few are found in the west. In the western hill area, Danu, Taung Yo and Shan people
live. In the south are Kayah and Padaung.

Increasing population within a limited space is also threatening the lake ecosystem.
According to data from GIS Section, Forest Department, Yangon, as cited by Nang Vo
Kham, there is a gradual increase in human population in Inle region with a constant rate
(Figure 4.1).

33
Source: GIS Section, Forest Department, Yangon, cited by Nang Vo Kham (2005)

Figure 4.1 Population growths in Inle Region within Area 560.02 sq.mile

4.2.1 Livelihood

The main sources of livelihood as found in all the households of reported 397 villages are
shown in Table (4.2). It shows that it is an agricultural area as more than half of the
households earn by farming and the Casual labor is also mainly constituted farming
related works.

Table 4.2 Livelihood of households in the study area

Type Number %
Agriculture 13423 58.6
Livestock 129 0.6
Fishery 800 3.5
Casual labor 5890 25.7
Small business 1205 5.3
Others 1445 6.3
Total 22892 100.0
Source: UNDP (1999).Village Profiles, Nyaung Shwe Township, UNOPS (MYA/96/010)

4.2.2 Land Access

In terms of land ownership, since the Myanmar Land Laws do not recognize the
ownership (proprietorship) of agricultural land, it is just commonly used as rights to have

34
access to land to raise crops. The status of access to farmland for Nyang Shwe Township
can be summarized as follow.

Table 4.3 Land ownership

Farm size Households %

All 22678 100.0
No Land 9250 40.8
Under 3 acres 9340 41.2
3 to <5 acres 2785 12.3
5 to <10 acres 1136 5.0
10 to <15 acres 106 0.5
15 to <20 acres 46 0.2
20 acres and over 15 0.1
Source: UNDP (1999).Village Profiles, Nyaung Shwe Township, UNOPS (MYA/96/010)

4.2.3 Education Level

Education level is also a strong proxy to indicate the social and living status of a
population and it is also considered as one of the factors which might influence the
environmental awareness of the farmers. As a broad overview, it is found that the
majority of the people completed just monastic education (non-formal) and primary
education. The overall situation of educational level as found in the whole township is as
below.

Table 4.4 Education level

Education Level Persons %

All 120028 100.0
Monastic school 14168 11.8
Primary school 42561 35.5
Middle school 11859 9.9
High school 4576 3.8
College graduate 773 0.6
Others 38005 31.7
None 8086 6.7
Source: UNDP (1999).Village Profiles, Nyaung Shwe Township, UNOPS (MYA/96/010)

4.3 Farming Systems (Strata) in Inle Lake Area

As a whole region, there can be found basically three types of farming systems in and
around the lake; (a) water gardens or floating agriculture, (b) on-land cultivation or Lake
shore agriculture and (c) up-land cultivation (taung yar). For farming systems (a) and (b),
farmers are Inthas and for (c), farmers are other ethnic minorities like Pa-Oh, Danu and

35
Taung Yo. This farming system is used as “Strata” in this study for it is distinguished by
different elevation levels.

4.3.1 Water Gardens or Floating Agriculture (Strata 1)

One of the Inn-lay lake’s unusual claims to fame is its floating gardens, which are built-
up from strips of water hyacinth and mud, dredged from the lake bed, which breaks down
into rich humus; it takes 50 years to produce a layer 1 m thick. These floating gardens
which covers one-third of the lake area are both natural and man-made. It is also
interesting how the floating islands appear. K(Inle) explained about it in the Agribusiness
Journal (12 August, 2005) that the water weeds (aquatic plants) from underneath water
and the grasses and other macrophytes above the water along the shore of the lake grow
together and form into complex network-like cushion due to their crisscross branching of
roots, rhizomes and stems. After several years, about 10-15 years according to the local
people, the decomposed parts of theses plants become a huge solid like a thick compact
mass which can float and move about in the water without touching with the bottom. It
looks like an island of grass or bushes due to the growing grasses and some plants on it.

The tall grasses growing on the island are cut and burnt first, and then the natural floating
islands are cut into rectangular shapes of normally four feet in thickness, six feet in
widthand the desirable length which are suitable to move where they want to use. The
floating allotments are anchored to the bottom with bamboo poles. After that they cut the
grasses on the surface of the islands and prepare the growing medium by putting aquatic
weeds and sediment (silt soil from the bottom of the lake) in alternate layers (in sandwich
form). The native people, Inthas, believe that it is not good if Colocacia antiquorum (Pein
Yar) grows on the floating island and it can cause them decay very first leading to
destruction of buoyancy and reduce the life span for cultivation. Although plants are
grown on these floating gardens and they seem to get moisture all times, they do not
suffer from the stress of water logging due to good drainage capacity of the islands. By
the native people’ experience, the floating islands can be used for cultivation for more
than 10 years.

These floating islands are very good medium to grow varieties of horticultural crops like
flowers and vegetables. K (Inle) mentioned in her article that it is said that U Phoe Lone
from Pwe Zar Gone Village began to test to cultivate some crops on the floating islands in
1907. She also stated that it is over 40 years that tomato cultivation on the floating island
by means of up-right stands (nyan) was started by U Tin Pe from Mway Pway Village.
Most of the produce grown on the lake gardens is vegetables - mainly tomatoes and beans
- and the cordia leaf, which is used to roll tobacco and make cheroots. Of these, tomato is
the major crop which occupies 90% of the total floating island area of 613 acres in the
lake. Land is also reclaimed in this way, and parts of the lake have been reduced to a
maze of canals around these plots.

So far studied, the present floating islands which occupy 27.96 sq.miles of the lake are
soiless islands, composed mainly of some Graminae and Cyperaceae. Among them are
two Graminae, Phragmites karka (Kyu-phyu or white grass) and Phragmites communies
(Kyu-ni or red grass), three Cyperaceae, Cyperus digitatus, two unidentified species
locally known as Sha-lone and Sha-pya and one Zigiberaceae, Hedychium coronarium
(Taw-ngwe-pan) (Khin Win Myint and Kyaw Win Maung, 1996).

36
In water gardens or floating agriculture, different kinds of vegetables but mainly tomato
are grown on floating islands. The normal width of floating island (Kyun-myaw) is 6 ft
and if the length is 600 ft, it is locally measured as Alan 100. Alan 1200 is approximately
equal to 1 acre. The total cultivated acres of water gardens in Inle have gradually
increased from 445 acres in 1955-60 to 1434 acres in 1960-1992. By the latest data, it is
over 2500 acres (K-Inle, 2005). Due to its increased rate of expending the water gardens,
the surface area of the lake becomes shrinking and it reduces its aesthetic beauty, so the
government has tried to make a rule not to expend more floating islands beyond the
boundary they banned for the sake of tourism promotion. Some believe that the increasing
water garden are also depositing a lot of sediment to the bottom of the lake and cause the
aging of the lake very fast. However some local people differently believe that these
water gardens serve as natural protective measure for water pollution.

In the past, only local varieties of tomato like Kyar-chay-yar (tiger’s foot print), a-phyu-
lone (white ball) and Gaung-sein (green-head) had been used but modern hybrid varieties
imported from foreign countries have been substituted since 1996. The most popular and
widely used varieties are HYVs produced from Chai Tai Co.Ltd., SAKATA and Seminis.
Along with the use of modern HYVs, fertilizer need became higher for high yield and
pesticides are also becoming more demanding as a consequence.

4.3.2 On-Land Cultivation or Lake Shore Agriculture (Strata 2)

On-land cultivation is practiced in the periphery area of the lake i.e., flat area between the
lake and mountains where rice, sugar cane, garlic, onions, groundnuts, maize and some
field crops are grown. Fig (to mention) It can also be subdivided into dry-land cultivation
(yar), wet-land cultivation (le) and horticultural crops production. By the 2005-06 data of
Myanmar Agriculture Service (MAS), Nyaung Shwe Township, there are 14540 acres of
dry-land, 12978 acres of wet-land cultivation and 1448 acres of horticultural crop
production. Maize, sugar cane and groundnut are the major crops grown for Ya (Dry-
land) and rice is the wet-land crop. Most of the farming areas are near by the streams
entering the lake. Fertilizer application is rarely found for the field crops whereas it is
heavily used in horticultural crops (vegetables) production. Pesticide is mostly used for
vegetables and almost seldom use in field crops.

4.3.3 Up-land or taung-yar Cultivation (Strata 3)

It is implied mostly for orchards for instance orange, mango and major commercial crop
is Cordia leaf (Thanatphet). It is a special kind of leaf used in the world-famous Myanmar
cheroots. However the ecological consequences of growing thanatphets are problematical.
The use of insecticides in thanaphet farming creates health risks, while the cutting of trees
for fuel-wood to dry thanaphet leaves is one of the leading factors contributing to soil
erosion and environmental degradation in the local area. There 316 acres of taung-ya
cultivation (up-land cultivation) in 2005-06 (MAS, 2005-06). Most of the ethnic groups in
high land areas (in Stratum 3) were Pa Oh and Taung Yo. Due to the slash and burn
shifting taung-ya cultivation, deforestation and soil erosion are also encountered in the
major environmental problems in the region.

37
4.4 Respondents’ Profile

4.4.1 Numbers and Proportions of Respondents

To be technically referred to as Inle-Mobye watershed, it is a wide area of 5612.26 sq.km

encompassing 11 townships. However this study attempts to explore the farming
activities and environmental awareness of the farmers in the lake and its periphery area
(the lake and its surrounding mountains). Therefore the research focused only in the Inle
Lake region encompassing about 27 village tracts. Among those only major agricultural
areas and geographically important cites were purposively selected for example villages
being closer to the streams and water sources having higher potential impact to the lake.

In this study, the researcher selected 26 agricultural practicing villages from 9 village
tracts and some non-agricultural villages were excluded. Choosing many villages is
intended to encompass the whole area and the randomly selected total number of
respondents is 150 farmers; 21 female and 129 male. Among them, 2 were excluded due
to too much missing data and thus only 148 were analyzed.

4.4.1.1 Number of Respondents per Each Zone

The number of respondents interviewed in each zone is shown in Table 4.5. Zone-1 (Tha
Le Oo Vt) includes 33 respondents, Zone-2 (Kay Lar and Nge Pe Chaung Vt) 27
respondents, Zone-3 (Tone Le and Inn Dein) 34, Zone-4 (Linn Kin and Minn Chaung) 30,
Zone-5 (Let Maung Gwe) 14 and Zone-6 (Tilaw) 14 respondents respectively. These
zones were divided by researcher based on the geography and watershed situation which
might force more impact to the lake and in order to achieve a holistic overview on the
whole study area.

Table 4.5 Number of respondents interviewed in each zone

Village Tracts Frequency Valid Percent

Tha Le Oo 33 22.3
Kay Lar + Nga Pe Chaung 27 18.2
Tone Le + Inn Dein 34 23.0
Linn Kin + Minn Chaung 30 20.3
Let Maung Gwe 10 6.8
Ti Law 14 9.5
Total 148 100.0
Source: Field survey (2006)

4.4.1.2 Respondents Classified by Different Strata

According to the differences in nature of the place they live and their farming types, the
respondents can be grouped into different strata. For example, those who live in water and
do their farming in water only might have different ideology and perceptions from those
living on the low land area or up land mountainous area. In order to do the comparative
study on the differences in EAI of the farmers based on the different strata, the
respondents are categorized as three types namely water, low land and up land. Some
farmers who live on the shore but do both water gardens as well as low land farming are

38
categorized based on the majority of his/her earning. The number of respondents based on
different strata is shown in Table 4.6.

Table 4.6 Number of respondents interviewed in each stratum

Strata Frequency Valid Percent

Water 82 55.4
Low land 36 24.3
Up land 30 20.3
Total 148 100.0
Source: Field survey (2006)

4.4.2 Socioeconomic Status of the Respondents

4.4.2.1 Respondents Classified Based on Type of their Farming

The respondents are also sub grouped by means of different farming types. It is more
specific than strata as it is considered for some people who are practicing both water
garden (floating garden) and on land farming. Almost half of the total respondents are
water garden (floating garden) farmers (41.9%) and on land farmers follow as second
largest group with 29.7% of the total respondents. Up land (taung yar) farmers
constitute 20.3% and those who practice both water garden and on land farming shows
8.1%.

Table 4.7 Distribution of type of farming in different strata

Strata
Farming Types Water Low land Upland Total
N % N % N % N %
Floating Garden 62 75.6 0 0.0 0 0.0 62 41.9
Onland (Horti:+Field crop) 8 9.8 36 100.0 0 0.0 44 29.7
Floating + Onland 12 14.6 0 0.0 0 0.0 12 8.1
Upland (Taungyar+Orchard) 0 0.0 0 0.0 30 100.0 30 20.3
Total 82 100.0 36 100.0 30 100.0 148 100.0
Source: Field survey (2006)

4.4.2.2 Respondents in Gender

This study attempts to measure the Environmental Awareness of the farmers and the
target respondents are the heads of the house-holds who are to do decision making for the
farming activities. Therefore female headed house-holds were rarely found in the study
area and just 14.2 % of female respondents contribute in total. The comparative study of
differences in EAI of male farmers and female farmers will be conducted. Although the
number of female casual labors is more than male in the farming activities, this research
is trying to find out the awareness of the farmers who have to make a decision. So the
researcher made interviews not only to the widows who are the head of house-holds but

39
also wives who have their husbands but they are leading the farming programs and are
used to making decision to choose the varieties or agro-chemicals.

Table 4.8 Gender distribution

Strata
Gender Water Low land Upland Total
N % N % N % N %
Male 66 80.5 32 88.9 29 96.7 127 85.8
Female 16 19.5 4 11.1 1 3.3 21 14.2
Total 82 100.0 36 100.0 30 100.0 148 100.0
Source: Field survey (2006)

4.4.2.3 Distribution of Respondents in their Ethnicity

Most of the respondents are Innthar which constitutes 79.7% of total number. Taung Yo
and Pa Oh are just minority groups and they reside along the mountain ranges
surrounding the lake and their livelihood is mainly dependent on taung yar (up land
cultivation). Even though their population is quite low (8.8% and 11.5%) in relative to
Innthars, it should not ignore their performance and awareness as they live on the high
land and do a wide acreage of farming inappropriate ways on the range of mountains
leading to several environmental impacts to the lake region. Thus the researcher tried to
study the mountainous area around the lake but it should actually make a wider scope of
study to encompass the whole watershed if time and financial limit are not the constraints.

Table 4.9 Ethnic group distribution in different strata

Strata
Ethnic Groups Water Low land Upland Total
F % F % F % F %
Innthar 82 100.0 35 97.2 1 3.3 118 79.7
Pa Oh 0 0.0 1 2.8 12 40.0 13 8.8
Taung Yo 0 0.0 0 0.0 17 56.7 17 11.5
Total 82 100.0 36 100.0 30 100.0 148 100.0
Source: Field survey (2006)

4.4.2.4 Education Level of Respondents

As a general overview, majority of the population in the study area (56.8%) has just
finished primary to secondary education and those who gained high school and
college/university education are found as 15% and 10% respectively. Although some
respondents who have no formal education but have learnt some basic literature in
Monastic Schools are assumed as the bottom level of educational status as they didn’t get
exposure to formal academic. But they might have good reasoning skills and awareness
based on their working experiences.

40
Table 4.10 Education status

Strata
Education Status Water Low land Upland Total
F % F % F % F %
no formal eudcation
9 11.0 4 11.1 7 23.3 20 13.5
(monestic)
primary education 32 39.0 14 38.9 18 60.0 64 43.2
secondary education 21 25.6 13 36.1 5 16.7 39 26.4
high school education 10 12.2 5 13.9 0 0.0 15 10.1
college or university 10 12.2 0 0.0 0 0.0 10 6.8
Total 82 100.0 36 100.0 30 100.0 148 100.0
Source: Field survey (2006)

4.4.2.5 Respondents in Age Group

The distribution of age groups is shown in Figure 4.2. It was found that the range of age
distribution from 19 to 74 and the average age was 43. It can also be studied the
relationship between age and awareness level as the age increases.

Figure 4.2 Age distribution of respondents

4.4.2.6 Family Size

The average family size is found to be around 4.81 and the average number of dependents
in households is 1.67. The dependency ratio was calculated to be used as one of the
independent variables which might be correlated to the EAI of the farmers.

41
4.4.2.7 Income Status; Total family income, Farm income and Off-farm Income

Income level is assumed to influence the awareness level of the farmers indirectly for
instance the individuals with higher income can buy some facilities such as newspaper,
TV, Radio or Telephone, etc, meaning that he/she might have more opportunities of being
exposed to different media of information sources. Besides they can spend more time and
money to travel to urban area more frequently than those with lower income. In this
study, the respondents are categorized into three levels of income; respondents with high
income constitute 10.1%, middle income 18.9% and low income 70%. However the
family income is the combination of farm income and off-farm income (here off-farm
income is used for the income earned from other areas rather than his own farm works
and it may be casual labor in farm works in others’ farms). Some households have very
high off-farm income but some do not even have any.

4.4.2.8 Sources of Loans

The factor of getting Loans from Government or Non-government organizations is also

used as a proxy in independent variables that influence on EAI of the farmers. The
farmers who get loans (59.5%) used to have a good relationship with the staffs or
technicians from the different organizations. They have much more opportunities to gain
knowledge and information from the staffs or technician. Some organizations used to give
trainings to the target farmers who used to get loans from them. UNDP, for example, used
to conduct some training in their project area so that target beneficiaries can also have
much more aware of other affairs.

Table 4.11 Sources of loan and loan receiving status

Strata
Receiving and Sources of
Water Low land Upland Total
Loan
F % F % F % F %
Non-received 39 47.6 7 19.4 14 46.7 60 40.5
GO 12 14.6 20 55.6 2 6.7 34 23.0
NGOs (UNDP) 27 32.9 3 8.3 11 36.7 23.0 41
from both GO and NGOs 4 4.9 6 16.7 3 10.0 13 8.8
Total 82 100.0 36 100.0 30 100.0 148 100.0
Source: Field survey (2006)

4.4.2.9 Land Holding Status (Cultivated Land)

In this context of land holding, it is especially mean the total cultivated land that belongs
to the respondent. Three groups are classified based on their level of land ownership.
Here in the study area, Inle Lake, the local unit “Alan” or “Kyun-Alan” is commonly used
to measure the size of the cultivatable floating islands in water gardens. The floating
island (Kyun Myaw) is normally 3-4 feet wide and the length can be various extents. The
island with the length of 1200 Alan is approximately equal to be equivalent to one Acre.
Most of the farmers in water strata own 500-800 Alan. Owing the islands of above 800
Alan means that the farmer is rich in the area. To be convenient in data analysis, the local

42
unit is converted into Acres but the real meaning of owing one acre of land and one acre
of floating island (Kyun Myaw) is quite different in terms of wealth status.

However the amount of chemicals used per acre and its potential impact in considering
the environmental issue is relevant to use the single measurement unit. The potential of
environmental impacts from one acre of farm may even be different based on the types of
crops and farming systems. In the study area, 45.9% of farmers holding medium acres of
cultivated lands.

4.4.3 Exposure to Information and Knowledge Status

4.4.3.1 Extension Contact

The extension contact is considered to be very important in influencing the EAI of the
farmers. Some previous researches also found that the EAI of the farmers is significantly
correlated to the extension education. The farmers with exposure to extension staffs can
have high level of agricultural knowledge and much more environmental information too.
But in Myanmar, extension education is found to be very weak process and the majority
of farmers have very low level of agricultural knowledge especially they are still being
unaware of undesirable side effects of modern ago-chemicals.

Although it is very simple and general to be considered that the respondent with extension
contact can have high level of awareness, it may be variable as we cannot know the
orientation of the extension staffs whether he or she is much more willing to encourage
the farmers to use chemical fertilizers or organic ones and biological pest control or
chemical control. It is also depending on the ways of information and technology delivery
by the extension workers. Anyway in this research survey, the researcher assumed just
general assumption of positive relationship between the extension contact and EAI of the
farmers.

4.4.3.2 Training Experience

The training experience appears as the most important factor which can upgrade the level
of awareness of the people. The respondents may have experienced different types of
trainings and only the agricultural and other environmental related trainings are selected
in this case. As a total population of respondents, 30.4% have training experience and it is
surprisingly found that higher proportion of farmers with training experience in low land
and upland strata than that of in water strata. Experience in Health trainings is also
assumed to be relevant to the environmental issue. Majority of the respondents who
choose “yes” have joined only agricultural and water sanitation trainings. There have not
been conducted yet the trainings on Environmental Affaire. Only a few have joined in
Forest related trainings.

43
Table 4.12 Training experience

Strata
Training
Water Low land Upland Total
Experience
F % F % F % F %
Yes 20 24.4 11 30.6 14 46.7 45 30.4
No 62 75.6 25 69.4 16 53.3 103 69.6
Total 82 100.0 36 100.0 30 100.0 148 100.0
Source: Field survey (2006)

4.4.3.3 Exposure to City / Urban

Exposure to urban (town) can influence the farmers’ knowledge and awareness. And
almost all the respondents have good exposure to urban and only highland people have
fewer frequencies than those in water and lowland.

4.4.3.4 Accessibility to Information / Media

Accessibility of the farmers to the information media is scored based on the types and
quality of the sources of information and media. Some farmers have very high degree of
accessibility to information i.e. the farmers can be exposed to different kinds of media
and information sources. Farmers can have high quality information from very good
sources like Demonstration and Seminar/Talks where they can get the information with
higher accuracy and quality than other sources and thus they were given 25 % of total
scores. Exhibitions or Radio/TV can also give good quality information but it cannot be
as motivated as in the demonstration and talks. They were given 20 each. Information
from their neighbors or advertisements can not be assumed as high quality as they can get
the wrong information or perceptions from them and they were assigned only 5%.
Therefore the level of accessibility to information is scored by the assumed weighted
points and the sum of scores is then graded again into the three classes of accessibility;
poor exposure to information (1), moderately good exposure to information (2) and very
good exposure to information (3).

Table 4.13 Weighted points for different sources of media and information

Type of information sources/media Weighted points

TV/Radio 20
Demonstration 25
Seminars/Talks 25
Exhibitions 20
Advertisement 5
Neighbors 5
Sum of Scores 100

44
Table 4.14 Classes of accessibility to information

Class Range of Sum of Scores Degree of accessibility to information

1 <40 Poor exposure to information
2 40 - 74 Moderately good exposure to information
3 75 Very good exposure to information

Table 4.15 Level of information accessibility by strata

Strata
Level of Accessibility Water Low land Upland Total
F % F % F % F %
Poor exposure 25 30.5 8 25.0 18 60.0 52 35.1
Moderately good exposure 36 43.9 12 33.3 12 40.0 60 40.5
Very good exposure 21 25.6 15 41.7 0 0.0 36 24.3
Total 82 100.0 36 100.0 30 100.0 148 100.0
Source: Field survey (2006)

45
 CHAPTER 5

FARMING PRACTICES IN INLE LAKE AREA

This chapter is the expression of farming practices in study area and it includes three
portion HYVs use, Fertilizers use and Pesticide use. These data also support to formulate
the behavioral index of farmers for Chapter 6 in terms of environmental friendly farming
activities.

5.1 Use of High Yield Varieties (HYV)

It was found that the heavy use of HYVs especially in water strata for their vegetables is
alarming to the threatening on local genetic diversity. as a whole study area, almost half
of the respondents use only HYVs and 34 % rely on both HYV and local varieties.

Table 5.1 Use of varieties

Type of Varities Frequency Percent

Only local varieties 23 15.5
Only HYV 74 50
Both HYV and local varieties 51 34.5
Total 148 100.0

The responses of intention to use HYV in the future are showing how much the
respondents are now being dependent on the HYVs. Most of those who have ever used
before have willingness to use more in the future and it is showing that HYVs sales in the
region will be very high for a certain long period.

Table 5.2 Future intention to use HYV

Future intention to use HYV Frequency Percent

No 8 5.4
Yes 117 79.1
Total 125 84.5
No answer (never used before) 23 15.5
Total 148 100.0

5.2 Use of Chemical Fertilizers

Fertilizers have been introduced to the farmers in Inle Lake area in (1967-69) in this study
area and it has been increasingly used by means of subsidies to the farmers by the
Myanmar Agriculture Service. At that time the government tried to subsidize the farmers
with fertilizers with very low price. Since that time the rate of fertilizers use has been a
common practice. However, nowadays the cost of fertilizers goes up very high and the
government does not subsidize anymore. Consequently the poor farmers cannot afford to
buy and use enough fertilizers and their land’s fertility has also been degraded so the
lower yielding makes them to be drawn into poverty.

46
The surveyed data shows that almost all of the respondents (99.9%) use chemical
fertilizers and only one (0.7%) was found in up-land area that who does not use.

Table 5.3 Use of fertilizer by strata

Strata
Water Low land Upland Total
F % F % F % F %
Yes 82 100.0 36 100.0 29 96.7 147 99.3
No 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 3.3 1 0.7
Total 82 100.0 36 100.0 29 100.0 147 100.0
Source: Field survey (2006)

The number of respondents who have been using fertilizer for more than 26 years is 54
and it means that 36.5% have been using fertilizers for quite a long period in the area.

The major types of fertilizers commonly used are found to be Urea (57.4%) and
Compound fertilizer (NPK) (39.9 %). It is found that only 1.4% use P-fertilizer (T-super)
and 0.7% use complete fertilizers which include micronutrients for instance foliar feeds.
It is also important to use the fertilizers in harmony and balance otherwise a single type of
nutrients application may lead to undesirable side effects in soil biophysical and chemical
properties. For example prolong use of urea fertilizer in the farm can cause the severe
decrease in soil pH and reduce the amount of sand contents in soil textual composition.
Use of compound and complete fertilizers can be used as good indicators in assessing the
performance of the farmers in nutrient management. Relying on single nutrient is
assumed as the lower level of fertility management.

Table 5.4 Type of fertilizer use

Valid
Type of Fertilizer Frequency
percent
Nitrogen fertilizer (Urea) 85 57.8
Phosphorous fertilizer (T-super) 2 1.4
Compound (NPK) 59 40.1
Complete fertilizers (include micronutrients) 1 0.7
Missing (Non-user) 1
Total 148
Source: Field survey (2006)

Their preference on fertilizer is also surveyed by the use of question on fertilizer

requirement. 75.0% of the respondents believe that fertilizer is essential for their farm and
20.9% say it is important. It shows that almost all (96.6%) of the respondents, who use
fertilizers, prefer to use fertilizer too much and they are quite solely depending on it. They
are very found of seeing the rapid growth and high yielding by the use of fertilizers.

47
Table 5.5 Opinion on Fertilizer requirement

Opinion Frequency Valid percent

Essential 111 75.5
Important 31 21.1
Neutral 3 2.0
Not so important 2 1.4
Missing (non user) 1
Total 148
Source: Field survey (2006)

Within the same strata of water and Low Land, the majority of respondents (54.9% in
water and 63.9% in Low Land) think that the fertilizers are expensive but that can still
afford for it. However the largest percent (65.5%) in the Up Land strata say it is very
expensive and they cannot afford for it.

Table 5.6 Respondents’ Opinions on expense of fertilizer input by strata

Strata
Opinion Water Low land Upland Total
F % F % F % F %
Very expense and
18 22.0 12 33.3 19 65.5 49 33.3
can't afford
Expensive but can
45 54.9 23 63.9 7 24.1 75 51.0
afford
Optimum 19 23.2 1 2.8 3 10.3 23 15.6
Total 82 100.0 36 100.0 29 100.0 147 100.0
Source: Field survey (2006)

A multiple response question was used to organize the proportions of soil fertility
improvement practices and it will also be used as indicators in soil fertility management
performance. Among seven different types of soil fertility management items, use of
FYM (Farm Yard Manure) stands the first position by 24% of all responses and Green
manure takes the second largest percentage (21.1%). In fact, the floating gardens use a lot
of aquatic weeds (Elodia, etc ) as green manure in the tomato cultivation. They also use a
lot of FYM especially Bat’s dung which contains a large amount of Phosphate. The third
largest groups are Crop rotation (16.0%) and Commercial organic fertilizer application
(14.4%). Systematic cropping pattern like “mixed cropping” and modern organic farming
techniques like “Composting” and “EM-Bokashii” or “Do-chat-kin” are very rarely found
and constitute just a small proportions.

48
Table 5.7 Usage of soil fertility improvement practices

% of
Category Label Count. % of cases
responses
Crop rotation 91 16.0 61.5
Green manure 120 21.1 81.1
Composting 54 9.5 36.5
EM-Bokashi/ dochakin 23 4.0 15.5
FYM 138 24.3 93.2
Commercial organic fertilizer 82 14.4 55.4
Mixed cropping 57 10.0 38.5
None 4 0.7 2.7
Toal 569 100.0 384.5
Source: Field survey (2006)

The sources of technical information and quality advices are also considered to be
important in influencing the awareness and behavior of the farmers. Half of the
respondents (54.7%) get the information on fertilizers from the retail shops and 33.8%
from the relative sand neighbors. However theses sources are not really good and reliable
as most of the shopkeepers in agro-chemicals in the study area are not technician and they
are just secondary informers. The information from technicians like Agricultural
extension workers from MAS or NGOs or companies are very good and quite reliable,
but the numbers of farmers who have experienced to get the information on fertilizers are
found only 2 in each case.

Table 5.8 Technical information about fertilizer use

Source of information’s on % of
Count. % of cases
fertilizers? responses
Relatives + neighbors 103 24.3 76.3
Company 109 25.7 80.7
Extension workers 32 7.5 23.7
Training experience 8 1.9 5.9
Self decision 129 30.4 95.6
Media 43 10.1 31.9
Total 424 100.0 314.1
Source: Field survey (2006)

5.3 Pesticide Use

Only 10 respondents who do not use pesticide are found among 148 farmers and they are
3 from water, 5 from low land and 2 from upland strata respectively. Totally 93.2% of the
respondents use the pesticides and those who do not use pesticides will not be considered
in calculating the behavioral index and its correlation with the awareness. Here the term
“pesticides” means insecticides, bactericides and fungicides as major components.

49
Rodenticides and nematicides are rarely used nowadays and antibiotics are not used. Due
to the persuasion with various kinds of attractions and incentives sale promotion
strategies by a lot of Agro-chemical companies, the pesticide demand is going up very
rapidly in Inle Lake region. It was also initiated by the introduction of MAS in early
period (1969) to apply pesticides and nowadays the farmers are used to it and even using
a lot without real requirement.

Now for them, it is a compulsory to use pesticides if they grow tomato because of the
prolonged monoculture system. Moreover the Inle lake area is it self a good breeding site
for the fungal and bacterial pathogens as it is a warm humid weather condition. The
varieties they are using are also imported HYVs and they are very susceptible to pest and
disease infestation. So it is a unavoidable for the farmers in Inle to use chemical
pesticides for crop protection. The farmers’ IPM knowledge is low and it is easily found
that the extension education process is in a seriously weak situation. Currently, it must be
said that the higher the sale promotion of pesticides, the higher the use. Only 10
respondents who do not use pesticide are found among 148 farmers and they are 3 from
water, 5 from low land and 2 from upland strata respectively. Totally 93.2% of the
respondents use the pesticides and those who do not use pesticides will not be considered
in calculating the behavioral index and its correlation with the awareness. Here the term
“pesticides” means insecticides, bactericides and fungicides as major components.
Rodenticides and nematicides are rarely used nowadays and antibiotics are not used. Due
to the persuasion with various kinds of attractions and incentives sale promotion
strategies by a lot of Agro-chemical companies, the pesticide demand is going up very
rapidly in Inle Lake region. It was also initiated by the introduction of MAS in early
period (1969) to apply pesticides and nowadays the farmers are used to it and even using
a lot without real requirement.

Now for them, it is a compulsory to use pesticides if they grow tomato because of the
prolonged monoculture system. Moreover the Inle lake area is it self a good breeding site
for the fungal and bacterial pathogens as it is a warm humid weather condition. The
varieties they are using are also imported HYVs and they are very susceptible to pest and
disease infestation. So it is a unavoidable for the farmers in Inle to use chemical
pesticides for crop protection. The farmers’ IPM knowledge is low and it is easily found
that the extension education process is in a seriously weak situation. Currently, it must be
said that the higher the sale promotion of pesticides, the higher the use.

Table 5.9 Insecticide usage by strata

Insecticide Usage
Strata Yes No Total
F % F % F %
Water 79 53.4 3 2.0 82 55.4
Low Land 31 20.9 5 3.4 36 24.3
Upland 28 18.9 2 1.4 30 20.3
Total 138 93.2 10 6.8 148 100.0
Source: Field survey (2006)

50
5.3.1 Who Recommend Using Pesticides?

Of total 30.4% use the pesticide by self decision, and the two second largest group’s
sources are the Company (25.7%) and relatives or neighbors (24.3%) respectively. Only
10.1% of the responses come from the Media and 7.5% gets Extension contact. Among
these sources of technical information on pesticide use, the information from Training
experience and Extension contact are assumed to be the best quality sources as the
farmers can directly be exposed with the technicians and achieve the best detail
information. In addition, Media and Companies may also distribute good information on
pesticide use in safe and effective use but it is not totally reliable as they can persuade the
farmers to use more chemicals and their products by attractive advertisements. For
example some companies advertise that their pesticides can control almost all the pests
and diseases and the villagers also believe or sometimes misunderstand it and have the
wrong perceptions. The information from neighbors and relatives may not be judged as
good sources as they are indirect informers.

Table 5.10 Sources of recommendation to use pesticides

Who recommend using pesticides? Count. % of responses

Relative + neighbours 103 24.3%
Company 109 25.7%
extension worker 32 7.5%
training experience 8 1.9%
self decision 129 30.4%
Media 43 10.1%
Total 424 100.0%

5.3.2 Intensity of Reliance on Pesticide Use

It can easily be known that it is almost a compulsory to use pesticides in farming. A

question asking about possible loss without using pesticide was used to check the
dependency of farmers on the pesticides and their fear on pest and diseases. The question
was that how much the crop loss they expect if they don’t use pesticides and most of the
respondents are very afraid of growing crops without pesticides. Among 138 pesticide
users, 39 from water (28.3%) and 15 from upland strata (10.9 %) said 60% and above
crop loss will happen to them if pesticide is not used. As a total, 26.1% think that 40-60
% will be lost and 47.8% said 60% and above of the crops loss can happen if pesticide is
not applied.

5.3.3 Potentiality of Pesticide Use

Asking about the future intention to pesticide use is one of the important indicators
showing that the dependency of farmers on the pesticides and they do not have a
willingness to try to find the alternative ways of pant protection for the safe environment.
The researcher used a question to know if they are willing to use more pesticides if they
have enough money. Those who are of quite aware answer very logically that they will
not use more even if they have enough money and they will use only necessary amount.
The respondents with no or low awareness answered that they will use more if they have

51
enough money. It is a dangerous situation as they are very found of using it showing high
dependency on it and they don’t think about the economic efficiency and side effects on
their environment.

5.3.4 Use of Pesticide with Care

It is critically important for the producers and distributors to mention the clear instruction
and necessary cautions in or on the pesticide containers. Myanmar Agriculture Service
(Plant Protection) has already issued a law for that. Nevertheless various kinds of
pesticides without any legalized trade mark and clear instructions are easily available in
the local markets. Some chemicals which have already banned by the Ministry of
Agriculture can even be found in the local market and they are illegally imported from
Thailand and China. By the survey result, half of the respondents answered that some are
with clear instructions and 27% said almost all and all of the containers include
instructions.

It is a good habit to reading the explanation, instructions and cautions for the specific
pesticides before use. But some farmers do not read and just follow the way what their
friends or relatives do. Some people read but cannot understand the instructions. By the
survey experience, majority of the farmers do not follow the instructions and mostly they
apply overdose in order to control pest and disease infections effectively. What they
understand is that using higher dosage than the instructed amount can be more effective
but they are not much aware of the negative consequence of over dosage and they cannot
understand the efficiency. About 25% of the farmers answer that they don’t know the
suitable types of pesticides for particular pest or disease and 66 % said that they know.
But it is not a reliable data as it is just a way of what they think and the researcher could
not apply the IPM knowledge test due to the time limit.

Another important problem is the lack of knowledge on distinguishing pest and diseases.
According to the result of Khin Hnin Yu (2005) and et al, the majority of the farmers in
the Inle Lake are using the insecticides and fungicides in opposite proportions. They are
using less amount of fungicide than necessary while more amount insecticides than
necessary.

Disposal of pesticide containers into or near by water is very dangerous potential to cause
water pollution. It is impossible to blame the local people because it is difficult for them
to dispose them in safety way in water. Even though the answered that they dispose the
used containers by burying in the wild floating islands which are very far from the human
settlement area, it can easily leach into the water eventually. Those who live in the low
land and up land area also dispose the containers in the forest far from villages but they
are finally washed by the rain and they flow into the lake by the streams. On the other
way, they can leach down into soil, reach into the ground water and entered the lake.
Some farmers even reuse the pesticide containers for other purposes like keeping some
food or medicine. Anyway it is also a useful indicator to measure the behavior with
awareness.

52
Table 5.11 Disposal of containers into water and nearby

Strata
Water Low land Upland Total
F % F % F % F %
Yes 28 43.1 1 5.6 6 22.2 35 31.8
No 37 56.9 17 94.4 21 77.8 75 68.2
Total 65 100.0 18 100.0 27 100.0 110 100.0
Source: Field survey (2006)

53
 CHAPTER 6

ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS AND FARMING BEHAVIOR

This is the main chapter of the study and it is to find the farmers’ environmental
awareness by measuring their attitudes and perceptions based on their agricultural
knowledge. It is not an easy way to measure the awareness level of the farmers as it
includes a number of qualitative data set and it can also be very stochastic based on the
types of questionnaires and survey methods. The researcher did the structured
questionnaire interviews individually and it made more opportunities to learn the actual
conditions in their farming activities and their attitudes by having friendly chit-chats.

The main idea of the study is to find out the factors or situations which might have a
relationship with their environmental awareness. The null hypothesis is that “the socio-
demographic (or) internal factors like age, education, type of farming, etc, and
Institutional (or) external factors like training experience, loans, extension education, etc
have no relationship with the EAI (Environmental Awareness Index) of the farmers. So
the former were used as independent variables and the latter dependent variable.

6.1 Developing Environmental Awareness Index

The environmental awareness of the farmers were calculated as weighted index score by
using a set of questionnaires which includes three portions; use of HYVs (6 questions),
use of fertilizers (9 questions) and use of pesticides (15 questions). The researcher aimed
to explore the farmers’ environmental awareness based on their agricultural knowledge so
different orientations of both positive and negative statements on environmentally related
farming practices were mixed in the questionnaire randomly (Part IIIA,B and C of
Appendixes 1) .

The level of agreement on each given statement is scored accordingly to the orientation of
the question. For instance the option, “Strongly Agree” is scored as “5 points” for the
positive question while “1 point” for the negative one. On the other hand, “Strongly
Disagree” is scored as “1 point” for the positive question and “5 point” for the negative
one. The option “Neutral” is scored as “3 point” and it is supposed to be the midway of
agreement (neither agree nor disagree) or the condition that the respondent does not have
any idea about the given statement.

Table 6.1 Scoring system by the orientation of the statement;

Scores for Positive Scores for Negative

Level of agreement
Statement Statement
Strongly Agree 5 1
Agree 4 2
Neutral 3 3
Disagree 2 4
Strongly Disagree 1 5

Then the scores for each section were summed and the awareness index was calculated by
using the following formula.

54
 SS − min . possible scores
AI =
difference between max. and min possible scores

SShyv − 6
AI hyv =
24

SS fert − 9
AI fert =
36

SS pes − 15
AI pes =
16

AI = Awareness Index
SS = Sum of Scores

Awareness index was transformed into weighted awareness index by multiplying by

weighted factor based on the number of questions in each section. For example, AI for
section A is transformed into WAI by multiplication by 6/30 (or) 0.2.

WAI hyv = AI hyv × 0.2

WAI fert = AI fert × 0.3

WAI hyv = AI pes × 0.5

WAI = Weighted Awareness Index

Weighted factor for fertilizer (6/30) = 0.2

Weighted factor fertilizer (9/30) = 0.3

Weighted factor for fertilizer (15/30) = 0.5

WAI is converted into Aggregated WAI by the summation of three different WAIs.

AWAI = WAI hyv + WAI fert + WAI pes

AWAI = Aggregated Weighted Awareness Index

6.2 Developing Behavioral Index (Environmentally Friendliness)

Scoring Scheme for the farmer’s Behavioral Index based on the farming practices and
their attitudes on farming activities which are measured according to the degree of
orientation to environmental friendly practices or conservative mood. Like the
environmental awareness index, the environmentally friendly practices were calculated by
means of Behavioral Index (BI) and it also includes three portions; fertilizers use,
pesticide use and HYVs use. Proxy questions were mostly used to check the farmers’
attitudes and degree of dependency on the use of these agricultural inputs, to evaluate the
level of their consciousness on its side effects or possible negative consequences and to

55
detect how much they have care on sustainable resource utilization and environmental
concern.

There are 8 questions in the fertilizer and pesticide sections and 5 in the HYVs section
applied in developing BI. The major purpose of this measurement is to identify the
respondents with the respective level in term of environmentally friendly practices and
attitudes. The first portion of each section was to measure the intensity of their use and
the degree of dependency on three main agricultural inputs which was followed by the
questions on safety use and potential use of these inputs. Each question was scored in
loading percent based on the importance of that question. The total maximum scores were
100 for each section but they were converted into Weighted Behavioral Index by
multiplication with weighted coefficients and finally summed up to get Aggregated
Weighted Behavioral Index (AWBI). The weighted coefficient for each section is the
proportion of the number of questions per total number of questions, for example there
were 8 questions in fertilizer section and thus its weighted coefficient was 8/21 or 0.38.

Table 6.2 Scoring scheme for the Behavioral Index on fertilizer use

Maximu
Fertilizer Descriptions Range or category scoring m scores
(%)
Dependency on 0 - 0.33 10
10
F1 Fertilizer (used 0.34 – 0.66 5
yrs/farm exp) 0.66 – 1 0
Complete or compound 10 10
Type of fertilizer
F2 fertilizers
used
Only single nutrient 0
Neutral or not very important 5
Fertilizer 5
F3 Important 2.5
requirement
essential 0
Alternative ways Yes 15
F4 15
rather than fertilizer No 0
Future intention to Yes 0
F5 15
use fertilizers No 15
Aware of Yes 15
F6 environmental 15
impact No 0
Soil fertility 2.5 points for each item (max 7 Max 15
F7 15
management items given) Min 0
Have been using and will be
0
using it
Trends of fertilizer Have used but thinking to
F8 7.5 15
use reduce
Have used but have already
15
reduced
Subtotal BI (F) 100

56
Table 6.3 Scoring scheme for the Behavioral Index on pesticide use

Maximu
Pesticide Descriptions Range or category scoring m scores
(%)
Dependency on 0 - 0.33 10
P1 pesticide (used 0.34 – 0.66 5 10
yrs/farm exp) 0.66 – 1 0
Intensity of >100000 0
pesticide use (last 100000-50000 5
P2 10
year cost/acre)
Ks/Acre <50000 10
Reading the Yes 15
P3 15
instructions No 0
Future intention to Yes 0
P4 15
use No 15
Disposal of Yes 0
P5 15
pesticide containers No 15
Timing of pesticide Relevant to IPM (3 or 4) 10
P6 10
application Irrelevant to IPM (1 or 2) 0
Safety gap b/t Safe period (3,4) 10
P7 Harvesting and 10
Unsafe period (1,2) 0
Spraying pesticides
Have been using and will be
0
using it
Have used but thinking to
P8 Trends of pesticides 7.5 15
reduce
Have used but have already
15
reduced
Subtotal BI (P) 100

57
Table 6.4 Scoring scheme for the Behavioral Index on HYV use

Maximu
HYVs Descriptions Range or category scoring m scores
(%)
0 - 0.33 15
Dependency on
H1 0.34 – 0.66 7.5 15
HYVs
0.66 – 1 0
Future intention to Yes 0
H2 15
use No 15
Know negative Yes 25
H3 consequence of 25
No 0
HYVs
Environmental Yes 25
H4 25
concern No 0
Have been using and will be
0
using it
Have used but thinking to
H5 Trends of HYVs use 10 20
reduce
Have used but have already
20
reduced
Subtotal BI (H) 100

AWBI = WBI ( F ) + WBI ( P ) + WBI ( H )

Gain score (F)

WBI ( F ) = × ( Weighted factor ) F
Max.score(Subtotal of F)

Gain score (P)

WBI ( P ) = × ( Weighted factor ) P
Max.score (Subtotal of P)

Gain score (H)

WBI ( H ) = × ( Weighted factor ) H
Max.score (Subtotal of H)

AWBI =Aggregated Weighted Behaviourial Index

WBI ( F ) =Weighted Behaviourial index for fertilizer use

WBI ( P ) =Weighted Behaviourial index for pesticide use

WBI ( H ) =Weighted Behaviourial index for HYV use

( Weighted factor ) F = 0.38

( Weighted factor ) P = 0.38

58
( Weighted factor ) H = 0.24

6.3 Why Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was used?

It was found that there were a lot of multi correlations among the independent variables
themselves and too much independent variables make more complicated in developing a
model. Therefore data reduction (under Factor Analysis) was applied to extract the main
factors or components which have higher value of variance i.e., having eigenvalue greater
than one.

Table 6.5 Components extracted by PCA showing the total variance explained

Component Initial Eigenvalues

Total % of Variance Cumulative %
1 3.695 18.473 18.473
2 2.767 13.833 32.306
3 2.522 12.608 44.914
4 2.141 10.705 55.619
5 1.955 9.774 65.393
6 1.367 6.837 72.230
7 .978 4.890 77.120

By the result of extraction method of PCA, six components were found to have
eigenvalues greater than one and they explain 72.230 % as cumulative. It was also found
that there was not a big different in the percent of variance in each component, for
example component (1) has 18.47 % component (2) has 13.83% and component (3)
12.60% etc.

The first component appeared to be a status of wealth as it is composed of family income,

farm income, off-farm income and land-holding. The second component explained about
13.83% of total variance. This dimension may be thought of habitual or regional aspects
as it includes strata, ethnic group and type of farming.

Component (2) explained about 12.608 % of total variance and it can be said experiential
factor. The farming experience is strongly correlated with age but education is negatively
represented in this component as most of the old farmers have no or just primary
education level and most of the young people have at least secondary or high school
education. Component (4) showed only 10 % variance and family structure is the main
aspect. Component (5) should be termed as external support as it consists of the situations
like getting loans but here sex showed the negative correlations with the former as most
of the households’ head are the men. The last component explained only small percent
(9.77 %) and it is representing the exposure to information like level of information
accessibility, exposure to urban area and contact with extension service.

In this extraction method, training experience was not much correlated to other variables
but only very small weight in second component. It was slightly noticeable that the
percent of the respondents in the water and low land strata who had training experience is

59
greater than that of in the upland. The components are named as accordingly to their
common meanings.

Table 6.6 Components extracted by PCA and their independent variables (First
method)

No. Name Independent Variables included

Cultivated land, Family Income, Farm Income and Off-farm
1 Wealth Status
Income
2 Habitual Strata, Ethnic, Type of farming
3 Experiential Farming Experience, Age and education
Dependent numbers in household, Dependency ration and
4 Family Structure
family size
5 External support Loans receiving, Sex
Exposure to Information accessibility, Exposure to city, extension
6
information contact

6.4 Linear Regression

The result of multiple linear regression of the (6) Regression factor scores with the
aggregated weighted environmental awareness (AWAI) shows the R square value of only
0.196 (table). Therefore it is not very strong in predictability in term of model but at least
it can be said that there is relationship between these independent variables in six main
components and the AWAI, dependent variable. The 0 value (constant) is 0.642 and the
model (4) in the backward analysis method shows the components (1), (4) and 6 have
strongly significant relation (Table 6.7) with the dependent variable, awareness index. In
the case of aggregated weighted behavioral index (AWBI), the total of 113 respondents
was used as other remaining ones do not use chemical fertilizers or pesticides or HYVs.

Table 6.7 Regression of main components and AWAI

Unstandardized Standardized
Model t Sig.
Coefficients Coefficients
B Std. Error Beta Beta
(Constant)
.642 .007 95.760 95.760 .000
REGR factor score - 1
.019 .007 2.871 2.871 .005
for analysis 1
REGR factor score - 4
.017 .007 2.577 2.577 .011
for analysis 1
REGR factor score - 6
.028 .007 4.132 4.132 .000
for analysis 1
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

60
Table 6.8 Multiple regression results for first method (* iv = contextual variables
and dv = AWAI)

Adjusted R Std. Error of the

Model R R Square
Square Estimate
1 .443(a) .196 .162 .08173
* iv = independent variables and dv = dependent variables

6.4.1 Relationship between AWAI and AWBI

By the research hypothesis, the correlation between the AWAI and AWBI was run and it
showed that the AWAI is correlated with AWBI at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). And the
linear regression between AWAI (independent) and AWBI (dependent) shows a
relationship between them with R square value of 3.50. It shows that there is a positive
relation between the awareness and behavior meaning the higher the environmental
awareness level of the farmers, the better the environmentally friendly farming practices
he will probably perform.

Table 6.9 Correlation between AWAI and AWBI

awareness index behavioral index

Pearson Correlation 1 .592(**)
awareness
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
index
N 113 113
Pearson Correlation .592(**) 1
behavioral
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
index
N 113 113

Table 6.10 Model Summary on regression of AWAI on AWBI (dependent) (first

method)

Adjusted R Std. Error of the

Mode R R Square
Square Estimate
1 .592(a) .350 .345 .09905
(a) Predictors: (Constant), aggregated weighted awareness index
(b) Dependent Variable: aggregated weighted behavioral index

61
 " # !
!

Figure 6.1 Regression line showing the relationship between AWAI (iv) and
AWBI (dv)

6.5 Alternative Method

It is the second method of PCA; it is to find the relationship between the main
components (extracted from the contextual variables) with an additional variable, AWAI,
and AWBI. One thing being different from the first one is that the aggregated weighted
awareness index (AWAI) was considered to be one of the factors that can influence the
farmers’ behavior along with all other independent contextual variables and only 113
respondents (from total 148) were used in this analysis to discard those who do not use
fertilizers, pesticides and HYVs.

Since the number of respondents was reduced from 148 to 113, the new table of variance
explained was obtained. There were also 6 main components found to have eigenvalue
greater than one. However the six components in this analysis explained better than that
of in the first method with cumulative variance of 76.032 % (Table 6.11). The rotated
component matrix gave very similar output but training experience became strongly
correlated with other variables in the component (6) of Informational exposure, was
found to be representative in the list of component (6). The table 6.12 shows the main
components and its respective contexts for the second method.

62
Table 6.11 Components extracted by PCA showing the total variance explained
(second method-113 respondents)

Component Initial Eigenvalues

Total % of Variance Cumulative %
1 3.993 19.965 19.965
2 3.084 15.421 35.386
3 2.659 13.295 48.681
4 2.058 10.290 58.971
5 1.914 9.571 68.542
6 1.498 7.490 76.032
7 .933 4.663 80.696
8 .785 3.926 84.621

Table 6.12 Rotated Component Matrix for second method

Component
1 2 3 4 5 6
Strata .101 .905 -.004 -.054 .125 .017
Farm
.961 -.039 .051 .045 -.066 .044
Income(Ks/month)
Off_Inc .954 -.031 -.045 .071 -.034 .064
Family income .984 -.037 .012 .057 -.055 .053
Type of farming .056 .862 .020 -.029 .131 .081
Cultivated land .914 .215 .090 .031 -.044 .019
Sex -.002 .387 .368 -.043 -.465 .096
Age .154 -.153 .879 -.082 .047 .045
Ethnic -.061 .897 -.184 -.012 .081 -.082
Education .190 -.289 -.496 -.091 .031 .464
Family size .038 -.049 .317 .667 -.149 .277
Dependent .095 -.018 -.107 .973 .001 -.048
Dependency ratio .075 -.046 -.299 .838 .101 -.158
farm exp (yr) .039 -.092 .907 -.105 .123 -.038
training exp -.116 .168 .040 .087 .086 .499
expo_city .152 .026 -.281 -.194 -.066 .639
Loans -.084 .191 .213 -.069 .886 .099
GO_NGO -.096 .227 .046 .033 .894 .095
Extension -.062 .096 .446 -.001 .080 .589
level of accessibility
.175 -.174 .032 .046 .043 .709
to information
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.
Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization.
a Rotation converged in 7 iterations.

63
Table 6.13 The components extracted by PCA and their independent variables
(Second method)

No. Name Independent Variables included

Cultivated land, Family Income, Farm Income and Off-farm
1 Wealth Status
Income
2 Habitual Strata, Ethnic, Type of farming
3 Experiential Farming Experience, Age and education(-)
Dependent numbers in household, Dependency ration and
4 Family Structure
family size
5 External support Loans, sex (-)
Exposure to Information accessibility, Exposure to city, extension
6
information contact, training experience

The multiple regression (backward method) of the six factor scores of main components
together with AWAI on AWBI shows four models among which the 4th one is the one to
be used as it show only components or factors having high significant association with
dependent variable, AWBI. R square value was found as 0.447 and it is much higher than
that of the first method.

Table 6.14 Model Summary on regression models of (contextual variables + AWAI

and (AWBI)

Adjusted R Std. Error of the

Model R R Square
Square Estimate
1 .677(a) .458 .422 .09299
2 .677(b) .458 .428 .09255
3 .676(c) .457 .432 .09224
4 .669(d) .447 .427 .09260
d Predictors: (Constant), awareness, REGR factor score 2 for analysis 8, REGR factor score 5 for
analysis 8, REGR factor score 6 for analysis 8
e Dependent Variable: weighted behavioral index

The multiple linear regressions of the factor scores by using backward method gave four
models and the model 4 was found to be the most significant and the R square value was
0.447. Therefore the second method of PCA explained better correlation between the
independent (contextual + AWAI) and dependent (AWBI) than the first method. The 0
value (constant) was -0.111 and the components (2), (5), (6) and AWAI are associated
with AWBI at highly significant level (Table 6.15).

64
Table 6.15 Regression of (main components + AWAI) and (AWBI)

Un-standardized Standardized
Model t Sig.
Coefficients Coefficients
B Std. Error Beta Beta
(Constant)
-.111 .069 -1.607 .111
REGR factor score
.024 .009 .197 2.755 .007
2 for analysis 8
REGR factor score
.021 .009 .173 2.314 .023
5 for analysis 8
REGR factor score
.021 .009 .169 2.228 .028
6 for analysis 8
awareness index
.794 .107 .584 7.413 .000
new

" # !
!

Figure 6.2 Scatter plot showing the regression line of socio-demographic contexts
together with awareness index and behavioral index (second method)

65
6.6 Summarized Inference

The result of the regression in second method also proves that the combination of main
components of socio-demographic contexts and the environmental awareness of the
farmers. have significant relation with AWBI. The multiple regression results from
method 2 point out that the three components, Habitual, External support and Exposure to
information together with Awareness index influence the behavioral index at high
significant level. And it shows that the environmental awareness of the farmers influence
on their behaviors together with other three related components or factors. Therefore the
alternative hypothesis of research thesis (1) is accepted that there are some socio-
demographic contexts and institutional contexts which are relating with the environmental
awareness level the farmers and hypothesis (2) that the awareness in turn influence the
their farming behavior

Therefore the regression model for environmental awareness (first method) would be

Y = β 0 + β1 ( Component 1) + β 4 ( Component 4 ) + β 6 ( Component 6 )

Y = aggregated weighted awareness index
β 0 = constant
β1 = coefficient for independent variable Component 1 and so on
Comp1( wealth ) = cultivated land, family income, farm income and off farm income
Comp 4( family ) = dependent numbers in households, dependency ratio and family size
Comp6( exposure ) = loans receiving, sex

In fact, this research was not to predict the environmental awareness of the farmers but to
find out the factors influencing on the environmental awareness. Although the model
gave only three components are significant at 0.001 levels, all the other components are
also bearing a value greater than one.

By the multiple regression results,

β1 ≠ 0, β 2 ≠ 0, β3 ≠ 0, β 4 ≠ 0, β5 ≠ 0, β 6 ≠ 0, , β 20 ≠ 0

Therefore it can be concluded that the selected socio-demographic contexts and

institutional contexts are associated with the environmental awareness level of the
farmers.

Then the correlation and regression between the AWAI and AWBI also show the
significant values and it can be concluded that the environmental awareness of the
farmers can influence on their farming behaviors in terms of environmentally friendly
practices.

The second method of regression model for behavioral index would be

Y = β 0 + β 2 ( Component 2 ) + β5 ( Component 5) + β 6 ( Component 6 )

Y = aggregated weighted behavioral index

β 0 = constant

66
β1 = coefficient for independent variable Component 1 and so on
Comp 2( habitual ) = Strata, Ethnic, Type of farming
Comp5( external support ) = Loans, sex (-)

Comp6(exposure) = Information accessibility, Exposure to city, extension contact, training experience

In this model, the constant value was found to be negative and the coefficient of
awareness index was very significantly high among other three components. All
regressors have positive coefficient and it means that the farming behavior is positively
dependent on those components and awareness index. But the variable sex was negatively
correlated to Loan receiving showing that most of the women respondents don’t get the
loans but here Loans is considered as the main variables as the weight of Loan and Source
of Loans are twice of that of sex. So it can be concluded that environmental awareness of
the farmers plays a vital role in expressing the farming behavior or activities.

67
 CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

According to the results of the multiple regressions, there are so many factors influencing
the environmental awareness of the farmers. It is a very complicated process and difficult
to predict by the use of model. It may vary based on the nature of questionnaires, type of
research interview and methods of developing the awareness index. The researcher used
the proxy questions and the twisted questions mostly to test the knowledge and
consciousness level of the respondents. In the previous research surveys, it was found that
some questionnaires are leading questions and the respondents can easily answer them.
That is why the researcher mixed the positive and negative questions randomly and the
informal group discussions were conducted only after individual questionnaire interviews
had already been done so as to avoid the bias of overwhelming of the surveyors’ ideology
upon the respondents.

7.1 How to Raise the Environmental Awareness

The multiple regression points out that there are 3 components which influence on the
environmental awareness index. The component 1 includes wealth related factors such as
farm income, family income, off-farm income and land holding. The people with high
income can have facilities like TV, Radio and newspapers and they can have much more
exposure to information. They can spend more money and time than the poor farmers to
visit urban area where they can meet many people in the market and share the news and
experiences. Moreover they can spend money for their children’s education. Some
farmers having sons or daughters who graduated from High schools or Universities can
be think very differently from others ordinary farmers as they can learn or used to hear
the up-to-date information and news. Nowadays, due to demand of the information age,
people need to have the communicating facilities. For example, news or documentary on
agriculture and environmental affaires are being broadcasted through TV channels. So if
the farmers have high income, they can probably improve the awareness level. Moreover
the law does not allow anymore expansion of human settlement, and thus the only way to
meet the necessities by means of intensive crop production to raise the yield per acre. To
ease the problem, more opportunities for income generating and job creation should be
empowered.

Variables from Component (4), Family size and dependent numbers in households have
high correlation with AWAI. In the study area, the people are still working even when
they are 70 years old and therefore the old people are not mostly put in the dependent list.
It can be assumed that the farmers from extended families are much more aware because
they can have much more information exposure to outside. On the other hand, the farmers
with dependent children might have more environmental concern and care about the use
of modern agrochemicals. But this factor is very complicated and may have interaction
effects with other factors and it cannot be expressed in detail as it is beyond the scope of
this study.

Information accessibility plays a vital role in expressing the AWAI levels of farmers.
They can gain up-to-date information and news through diversity of media. Myanmar has
just three TV-channels broadcasting in free of charge and only 2 of them used to
broadcast the documentaries on agriculture. But most of them are not much concerned
with environmental conservation and sustainable agriculture. There should be a special

68
channel for the farmers for their knowledge and awareness. Another difficulty is that most
of the villages in the study area have no electricity supply and only some villages at the
foot hills have community owned small scale hydro-generators.

But there is one disadvantage in having TV access is the farmers can be easily convinced
by agrochemical companies with various kinds of attractions that can force the farmers to
use their chemicals. Advertisement is a very effective way tool in motivating the farmers
to use chemicals. Being an ecologically important area, Inle lake should be paid intensive
care and management to disseminate environmentally sound farming practices and
upgrade the development of organic farming activities. The government should imply the
rewarding systems supporting the farmers to practice the environmentally friendly
farming systems so as to come up with these positive images in the near future.

Exposure to urban area is more common in the villages in water strata and lowland than
those in upland. They main purpose of going to town is marketing i.e., to sell out the farm
outputs and purchase the required commodities. The local people are much found of
meeting people from different regions at the markets to exchange or share the information
and experiences. It is a good place for them to get the information free of charge.

Nowadays extension service of Myanmar Agriculture Service (MAS) is in a very

seriously weak situation and becomes ineffective. There are not sufficient extension
agents per area and the lack of budgets for extension education processes. Moreover
trainings for adult learning and extension education have not been conducted for a
number of years. But some farmers who have exposure to extension agents from MAS
and those who have attended the short course on EM-trainings (effective microorganism)
are found to be quite aware. UNDP projects are very wide scope and there have not been
found any specific program on raising environmental awareness and empowering
sustainable agriculture practices. But it has been studied that UNDP tried to distribute the
Organic Pesticides made from Neem in some villages and in some projects they even
provided the sprayer tanks. It should also go along with the safe and sound application
trainings and demonstrations rather than only providing the equipments. And on the other
side, it looks like encouraging them to use the pesticide and fertilizers. KARAMOSIA is
another NGO residing on the wets shore of the lake and they aimed to work for the
sustainable agriculture and community forestry for the Inle watershed conservation. They
have conducted some training for the farmers but the number of participants attended was
too small to meet their goals. Now they do not continue these trainings in Inle due to
some unexpressed constraints and it actually should have been extended so far. It was a
good training conducted by KARAMOSIA as it trained the participants to know much
more about side effects of chemical farming, importance of organic farming, sustainable
use of NTFP and community forestry implication, and as a whole, it encompassed the
raising the environmental awareness of the participants.

Once AWAI is considered in the independent variables together with other components,
the R square value become higher. The higher the awareness level of the farmers, the
better behavior he has and it supports the hypothesis of the research study’s concept.

7.2 Environmental Issues in Inle Lake

As a physical survey, it was found that there are various kinds of potential environmental
problems in the study area. And the root causes of these problems are mostly related to
human’s activities. Like most development people say, due to the poverty and difficulties

69
for subsistence, the human pressure is exerting on the natural resources and environment
so viciously.

Along the ranges of mountains in the east and west of the lake Inle, soil erosion (even
gullies in some area) and deforestation due to too much pressure on steep slope soil by
improper ways of farming practices and soil management. It is one of the root causes to
force up sedimentation process and shallower the lake. Moreover the Pa Oh people are
using a lot of pesticides in Thanatphet (Cordia diachotoma) or (sbstan plum) plantations
without sufficient knowledge and improper methods. The lack of awareness of the
mountain people also can contribute to the undesirable environmental impacts to the
Lake. The people from the eastern mountains are more economically prosperous than
those living in the western mountains. The latter have problems of water scarcity and very
low soil fertility level. Finally they rely on the forest and forest products for their
livelihood. They used to dispose the pesticide containers into the gullies or bushes but it
can eventually flow into the lake by runoff or streams. Too many frequencies of pesticide
sprays can cause not only air pollution and human health hazards but also the damage to
other native benefactor species. It can lead to biodiversity imbalance and loss of natural
control.

For low-land area, the farmers used to grow rice, corns, groundnut, onion and garlic. The
use of pesticide was found to be not very high intensity like in the upland and water
gardens. But they use a lot of fertilizers and it can also easily get into the lake with runoff
and flood due to the water level rises. It is one of the factors which have a high potential
of eutrophication. Moreover the farmers in the lowland area nowadays use high yield
varieties which are especially imported into the area by the government’s policy and
project plan. The extension service in Myanmar is just mainly focus on the rice
cultivation and most of the rice farmers have extension contacts rather than those from the
upland (taungyar) and tomato cultivation.

Tomato is the major cash crops in the water gardens and it constituted almost half of the
total floating gardens in the whole lake. It is very susceptible to pest and diseases attacks
due to the warm and humid climatic conditions. In addition monoculture and the use of
HYVs demand more fertilizers and pesticides consequently. Nowadays the local native
species “Inn-thee” has disappeared for a long time and it is supposed to be totally lost.
One thing to be worried about is that most of the farmers in the area are not aware that
HYVs may bring other undesirable as well as unexpected problems in the Inle lake
ecosystem. They are now totally dependent on the imported HYV seeds but they do not
notice the negative consequence of it.

The intensive use of chemical fertilizers is contributing a lot for nutrient loading and
eutrophication. However there has not been conducted any research on the water quality
analysis and eutrophication. The results of preliminary survey on pesticide residues in
water, sediment and floating islands showed that there are still some pesticide residues
like DDT, Aldrin and Dieldrin, etc. The pesticide pollution is risky topic for a local
researcher to conduct as it can be very costly and it is also difficult to get the permission
from the government.

70
7.3 Recommendations

To be summarized, the followings points appear to be considered and implemented for

the sustainable resource utilization and conserving the wet land ecosystem of the Inle
Lake;

(1) The income generating programs should be implemented especially for the “Pa Oh”
and “Taung Yo” ethnic minorities living along the high mountainous area around
the lake so as to release their intensity of exerting pressure on the steep and
vulnerable slope land. SALT should be introduced as an urgent need to stop the
slash and burn practices and to upgrade the farmers’ knowledge on soil fertility
improvement.
(2) As income level is significantly correlated with many other factors including the
environmental awareness level of the farmers, it should be taken care of as
important issue to create the job opportunities in order to reduce the heavy pressure
on intensive farming and raise their agricultural knowledge especially in the aspects
of efficient as well as effective production and safe as well as sustainable farming
practices.
(3) The government should spend more budgets for upgrading the Extension Service to
increase the knowledge and awareness of the farmers and empower the Inle Lake
Wetland Wildlife Sanctuary Section to increase the environmental awareness of all
local people. The non-governmental organizations and UNDP should spend more
on raising the farmers’ environmental awareness level despite its difficulties to task
evaluation and monitoring because it is a long term expecting program.
(4) Loans should be increased in both numbers and amount and it should go to the
farmers who are practicing organic farming as rewarding for their efforts to sustain
the nature.
(5) The Agricultural Research Institute, Agricultural University and State Agricultural
Institutes should have a good network with the extension service in order to update
the new findings and information to deliver to the target people. Environmental
conservation and sustainable agriculture should be included as important courses in
the curricula of Agricultural University and State Agricultural Institutes.
(6) Pesticide laws and seeds law should be effectively enforced to empower the
regulations on pesticides and seeds imports and exports. Banned pesticides should
be strictly prohibited in the domestic markets as a special case in order to protect
the wildlife and wetland ecosystem of Inle lake.
(7) EIA (Environmental Impact Assessment) should be done to know the current
situation of the lake ecosystem so that sufficient data and information can support
the effective lake management.

7.4 Further Researches and Studies

More detailed research survey on this issue should be continued to draw the action plans
and capacity assessment and development. Water quality analysis and monitoring should
be done regularly and there should be a special weather forecasting station in such an
important place to support the research studies with enough and accurate data.

Experimental Research on organic farming, SALT and IPM practices should be done in
the lake area. As some fish species are said to be lost and some are in endangered
situation, research on fish and freshwater biodiversity assessment should be conducted.

71
Being a hot site for tourism industry, there might be its impacts and it is also interesting
issue to study tourism impact on the lake and its associated society.

In fact, there are a lot of interesting research fields for scientists and sociologists to
explore the natural as well as social phenomenon and their interactions.

72
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76
APPENDICES

77
 APPENDIX 1

Asian Institute of Technology

School of Environment, Resources and Development
Natural Resources Management

A questionnaire survey on

“Environmental awareness and farming behavior of farmers in the Inle

Lake”, Nyaung Shwe Township, Southern Shan State, Myanmar

Student: Bo Bo Lwin (st102885)

Advisor: Dr. Edward L. Webb

Zone Number ---------------------------------------------

Name of the Village Tract ---------------------------------------------

Name of the Village ---------------------------------------------

Name of the Farmer ---------------------------------------------

House-hold Number ---------------------------------------------
Interview Number ---------------------------------------------

Date of Interview ---------------------------------------------

Thank you very much for your coordination. Your participation is heartily
appreciated. All the information given in this questionnaire is strictly used
just the student’s research thesis and will not be enclosed in this form.

78
Part (I): Farmer’s Socio-demographic Data

1 Name of the farmer

2 Age under 20 21 - 40 41 - 60 Above 60
3 Sex Male Female
No formal education Primary Middle
4 Education
High school University graduate
5 Ethnic group Innthar Shan Pa-oh Myanmar ther
6 Family member(no) None 1 2 3 4 5 6 and >6
7 No. of dependents None 1 2 3 4 5 6 and >6
Farm-income
8 <10,000 10,000 – 30,000 >30,000
(Kyats/moth)
Non-farm income Waged-labor Service Small business
9
sources Medium business Fishing Other
Household income
10
(Kyats/month)
…………………… acres Or ……………………. alan
11 Total cultivated land
Owned Hired
Farming experience
12 <10yrs 10-25yrs 25-40yrs 40-55yrs 55yrs
(years)
Floating island / water-garden (kyun-myaw / kyun-thay)
On-land / terrestrial (horticultural)
13 Type of farming On-land (field crops)
Upland (taung-ya)
Upland (orchard)
14 Training Experience? Yes No
If yes, types of
15 Agriculture Environmental Forestry Others
training?
16 Length of training a few days < a week 1-2 months > 2 months
Extension worker’s
17 not at all <1 or 2 times a year once in 5 years
visit
Agri-Environmental TV / Radio demonstration seminar / talk
18
information access exhibition / poster advertisement from neighbors
Get Loans or financial Yes No
19
support? If yes from? GO NGO
Exposure/visit to the
20 Not at all seldom sometimes frequently
city/market
What is the
government’s major
21
agricultural policy in
this area?

79
PART (II): Agricultural Practices

Section (A) Nutrient Management

(i) Do you use chemical fertilizers?

If yes, continue until no (xii). If No, go to question (xiii).
Yes No

(ii) When did you start to use fertilizers?

<5 years ago 5-10 years ago 10-15 years ago
15-25years ago >25 years ago since my father’s age

(iii) What types of chemical fertilizers do you commonly use?

I don’t know the type
Only Nitrogen
Nitrogen and Phosphorous
Only Phosphorus
N+P+K (compound)
Complete (include micronutrients)

(iv) Amount of fertilizers you are using now is

Very low low medium high very high

(v) What is your opinion on the requirement of fertilizers?

essential important neutral
not so important not require at all

(vi) Do you think you can continue farming by alternative ways without using
fertilizers?
Yes No

(vii) What do you think the expense of fertilizer input?

very expensive (I cannot afford)
expensive (but I can afford)
optimum (neither expensive nor cheap)
cheap

(viii) If you have enough money, will you buy and use a larger amount of
fertilizers than the current use?
Yes No

(ix) What is your level of knowledge on the fertilizer application?

I know the proper type, amount and time of fertilizer application
I know the proper type of fertilizer but not so sure the amount and time
I don’t know the proper type of fertilizer but I know the time I need to
apply
I don’t know anything about use of fertilizers (type, time and amount)

(x) How do you get the technical information about fertilizers use?
from shopkeeper (drug stores)
from neighbors

80
 from father and grand father
extension worker
NGO
Agro-chemical Companies
Media (TV / Radio / Books or journals)

(xi) Do you know some of the environmental impacts of the fertilizers?

Yes No
If yes, please give one example ………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………

(xii) What is your agreement on the point that the lake is polluted due to the
fertilizers use in the area?
very seriously polluted
very polluted
more polluted than before
slightly polluted
not at all polluted

(xiii) What do you adopt the following practice?

crop rotation with legumes
green manure
Composting or reuse the crop residues
EM-Bokashi
Farm Yard manure (animal manure)
commercial organic fertilizers
mixed cropping
none

(xiv) What do you think of the macrophytes (aquatic weeds) in and around the
lake?
all are very valuable and useful
some are useful but not all
all are not important at all

Section (B) Crop Protection

(i) What is the most common insect pest found in your farm?
……………………………………………………………….

(ii) What is the secondly most common insect pest found in your farm?
………………………………………………………………..

(iii) Do you use insecticides?

Yes No
If insecticide is not used, go to No. (xxi).

(iv) How long have you been using pesticides in your farm?
just last year

81
 less than 5 years ago
less than 10 years ago
less than 15 years ago
more than 15 years ago

(v) Who advise/recommend you to use it?

relative neighbors drug-seller/sale-promoter
extension-worker training experience self-decision

(vi) What is the cost/expenditure on pesticides use last year? (cost/acre)

…………………………………………………………………

(vii) Without pesticides, how much do you think you will lose the yield?
1-20% 20-40% 40-60% > 60%

(viii) Have you experienced great losses due to the pest outbreak? How many
times in the past 10 years?
Yes No
If yes, …………………………………………times in the past 10 years.

(ix) Mention the amount of pesticides you used which are well-instructed in
Myanmar language.
all almost all some just a few none

(x) Do you read the instructions attached or labeled on the pesticide

container?
never seldom sometimes
always exactly follow the instruction

(xi) Have you experienced the incidents or damage to you or your family
members by the exposure of insecticides? Mention the types.
Yes No
If yes, ……………………………………………………………………….

(xii) Which pesticide is your favorite? Why?

………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………

(xiii) Do you know the suitable type of pesticide you should use for the specific
insect-pest you used to find in your field?
Yes No

(xiv) Will you use pesticides more if you have enough money?
Yes No

(xv) Have you drop/throw the pesticides containers into the water or near by?
Yes No

(xvi) What time do you use pesticides?

before you see the pest
when you see one or two insect pests

82
 when you see severe damage of pest infestation
only when you think that the infestation reaches at the ETI level

(xvii) Do you harvest the crops

Immediately after spraying?
A few days after spraying?
A few weeks after spraying?
One month after spraying?

(xviii) Do you know the recommended rate of pesticides?

Yes No

(xix) Who apply the pesticides mostly?

………………………………………………………………………………….

(xx) Do you use any protective materials (glove/mask) while you are spraying
the pesticides?
Yes No

(xxi) In formulating the pesticides, which material do you normally use?

By hand
With bamboo stick
Metals
all

(xxii) Have you ever used herbicides/weed-killers?

Yes No

(xxiii) Have you ever used fumigants for farm pests?

Yes No

(xxiv) Have you used pesticides for killing the fish or other organisms (non-
pest)?
Yes No
If yes, to kill ……………………………………………………………………

Section (C): Use of Local Varieties and HYVs.

(i) What kinds of varieties are you using?

Local varieties only High Yield Varieties only both
What are the major crops you grow?
…………………… Variety ……………………………………..
…………………… Variety ……………………………………..
…………………… Variety ……………………………………..
…………………… Variety ……………………………………..
…………………… Variety ……………………………………..
If local only, go to (v).

(ii) How long have you been using the hybrids varieties (HYVs)?
since last year since 2-4 yrs since 4-6 yrs
since 6-8yrs since8-9yrs >10 years ago

83
(iii) What do you think the cost of seeds for HYVs?
very expensive and not economy
expensive but I can afford
normal, neither expensive nor cheap
cheap
very cheap or very easily available

(iv) Will you continue to use HYVs more if you have enough money?
Yes No

(v) What is the major consequence (negative) of using HYVs?

…………………………………………………………………………………

(vi) Do you think there will be some problems in your environment due to the
wide spread use of HYVs all over the lake?
Yes No

84
Part (III); Farmer’s Environmental Awareness based on Agricultural Knowledge

1=strongly disagree
2=disagree
3=neutral
4=agree
5=strongly agree

No. Impacts 1 2 3 4 5
A Use of High Yield Variety
1 Use of HYVs can lead to loss of local genetic resources.
2 Use of HYVs demands more inputs and cause more
pollution.
3 HYVs are good for long term use.
4 Use of HYV crops causes more insect/disease infestation
than local varieties.
5 Local varieties should be maintained and cultivated much
more.
6 Relying on the seed-companies only is not a sustainable
agriculture.

B Use of Fertilizers 1 2 3 4 5
1 It is very good and efficient in crop production if we use
chemical fertilizers as much as possible.
2 There are negative impacts (side effects) of chemical
fertilizers.
3 Use of fertilizers can cause land degradation/soil fertility
deterioration.
4 Use of fertilizers can cause eutrophication (too much algae
and macrophytes in the water body of the lake).
5 Use of fertilizers can increase nutrients loading in the lake
and it is not safe for drinking water.
6 Synthetic fertilizers are not good for the effective
microbes in soil and water.
7 Monocropping is not good for the soil fertility.
8 Without fertilizer, I can produce at least to some extent by
alternative ways.
9 Organic matter should be applied more in stead of using
fertililzers.

C. Use of Pesticides 1 2 3 4 5
1 Pesticides are very effective and essential in crop
production.
2 Pesticides can cause serious water pollution.
3 Pesticides should not be used more in the future for the
sake of protecting our environment.
4 Pesticide is very dangerous to health as well as natural
environment.
5 Pesticides can be handled /used easily.

85
 6 Present rate of pesticide usage in Inle lake is reaching the
alarming stage for future damage to the lake environment.
7 Pesticides should be the last choice in pest control (not 1st
priority).
8 Mono cropping increase pest and disease outbreak.
9 All insects in the field will cause yield loss.
10 Crop rotation or multi-cropping can improve soil fertility
and reduce insect /disease outbreak.
11 Insecticides kill not only pests but also other beneficial
insects and organisms.
12 All insects in the field need to be killed.
13 Some insects and animals are beneficial to crops
production.
14 The use of herbicides (weedicides) in the lake region is
very dangerous.
15 Heavy application of pesticides is one of the reasons of
fish reduction in the lake.

D. Farmers’ perception/attitudes on the use of fertilizers, pesticides and imported

HYVs

Have been
Have used but
Have been using but Have never
Attitudes have already
using and will thinking to used and will
on reduced or
be using reduce or stop not use it
stopped
in the future
Fertilizers
Pesticides
HYVs

Thank you very much for your coordination!

86
 APPENDIX 2

Figure: Map of Inle lake showing the study area and surveyed villages

87