ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT OF BRACKISH WATER

AQUACULTURE SYSTEMS IN SRI LANKA

by

R M Upali Senarath

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of
Science.

Examination Committee Dr. C Visvanathan (Chairperson)

Dr.-Ing. Heinz Eckhardt
Dr. Amararatne Yakupitiyage

Nationality Sri Lankan

Previous Degree(s) Bachelor of Science in Botany
University of Peradeniya
Peradeniya, Sri Lanka

Scholarship Donor DAAD

Research Grant Donor AIT Alumni Association

Asian Institute of Technology

School of Environment, Resources and Development
Bangkok, Thailand
August 1998

i
 Abstract

Shrimp export is one of major foreign exchange earner in aquaculture exports of the country,
and it is nearly 40-50% of total aquaculture exports. During recent past, expansion of this
industry was rapid in northwestern province (NWP) of the country. However there were ups
and downs in the industry due to disease outbreaks and due to prevailing environmental
problems of the industry. Currently shrimp industry covers nearly 3000 ha of the coastal area
of the NWP.

This study is designed to study the major environmental issues prevailing in the area, and to
study role of government, non-government agencies in regulating, in supporting and in
monitoring of aquaculture activities to achieve the expectations. Further, existing laws,
regulations and resources are also evaluated.

Lack of enforcement of exiting laws and regulations, haphazard development, farmers

carelessness on the environmental issues, resulted disease outbreaks, pollution of water
bodies, encroachment of sensitive areas and destruction of wetlands are the major issues in
collapsing of shrimp industry in Sri Lanka. Presence of heavy metals such as Pb, Zn, and Cr in
sediments is also major concerned.

The introduction of waste abatement program by proper research work and by adopting of new
methods for local conditions is essential to reduce the potential threat to water quality. This
could be supported by the implementation of existing laws and regulations in order to regulate,
plan and to monitor the shrimp aquaculture sector.

ii
 Acknowledgement

The author wishes, first to express his profound gratitude and sincerest appreciation to his
advisor Dr. C. Visvanathan for his persistent guidance, invaluable suggestions, encouragement
and friendly discussions all of which helped the author to accomplish this study.

Author also wishes to thank specially his examination committee, Dr.-Ing. Heinz Eckhadt and
Dr. Amararathne Yakupitiyage for their time and valuable comments and suggestions thought
out the exercise.

Sincere appreciation is extended to DAAD for their financial support for postgraduate study.
The author extends his appreciation to AIT Alumni Association for the additional research
grant.

Author wish to extend his sincere appreciation to Mr. Thilan Wijesinghe, Director General of
Board of Investment of Sri Lanka (BOI) Mr. G.L Perera, Executive Director (Technical
Services) and Mr. Tissa Fernando, Director (Environment Management) of the BOI for their
generous support extended towards the success of the authors work.

This study may not be accomplished with out the support from Miss. Amara Beling and Mr.
Gamini Gunasinghe of BOI environmental laboratory at Biyagama. Author deeply appreciates
the support of Dr. Lalani Summarapulli and Mr. Michael Perera of Rubber Research Institute
of Sri Lanka. Author also wishes to extend appreciation to Dr. Jayasinghe and Dr. Siriwardena
of NARA, for the generous support and guidance to extend during field study in Sri Lanka.
This study may not be accomplished with out generous support from Mr. Nirmalan, Chairman
of Agro Marine Ltd. of Sri Lanka and his subordinate Mr. Priya Salagadu.

My sincere thanks also extend to Mr. Gamini Senanayaka of ISB, Mr. Lowe of Provincial
Fisheries Ministry and Mr. Piyasena of Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic Developments for
their generous support. Sincere appreciation goes to all his AIT friends, especially to Raja and
Saman who helped in numerous ways. Appreciation of help is also extended to his classmates
and the friends of BOI and, Chadimal and Wijesiri of Agro Marine Ltd. Special words of
thanks to his daughter Sachie, who missed a lot of love and care. Finally the author dedicate
this small piece of work to his beloved farther and mother whose unceasing support,
understanding, encouragement and scarifies lead him to success of his every effect.

iii
 Table of Contents

Chapter Title Page

Title page i
Acknowledgment ii
Abstract iii
Table of contents iv
List of Figures vii
List of Tables ix
Abbreviations xi

I Introduction
1.1 General 1
1.2 Objectives of the study 4
1.3 Scope of the study 5

II Literature Review
2.1 Intensive coastal aquacultue systsm 5
2.2 Environmental impacts of intensive shrimp culture 7
2.3 Nutrient budget in shrimp ponds 8
2.4 Characteristics of effluents from the shrimp farms 9
2.5 Environmental impacts from the effluents 9
2.6 Environmental impacts from chemicals 11
2.7 Sediments characteristics 11
2.8 Impacts of Sediments 11
2.9 Environmental impacts from the changed land use patterns 12
2.10 Salt water intrusion 12
2.11 Factors determining “ carrying capacity” of environment 13
2.12 Factors determining “carrying capacity” ponds 13
2.13 Water Quality Standard for shrimp ponds 14
2.14 Monitoring of estuarine waters 15
2.15 Production 15
2.16 losses 16
2.17 National regulations 17
2.18 Essentials of aquaculture regulation 17
2.19 International regulations and embargoes in trade 17
2.20 Processing of shrimp for export 18
2.20.1 Wastewater 18
2.20.2 Solid waste 18
2.21 History of aquaculture in Sri Lanka 18

III Methodology
3.1 Research outline 21
3.2 Study area 21
3.3 Data collection 21

iv
 3.3.1 Farmers 21
3.3.2 Institutional level 23
3.3.3 Water and wastewater analysis 24
3.3.4 Sediments analysis 26

IV Results and Discussion

4.1 Overview 28
4.1.1 Present status of shrimp industry and its distribution 28
4.1.2 Present culture types and its characteristics 34
4.1.3 Present market trend 37
4.1.4 Present administrative and legislative procedure 39
4.1.5 Present environmental laws and regulations 41
4.2 Internal Environment 42
4.2.1 Ownership, organizational structures and decisions making 42
4.2.2 Financial capabilities 44
4.2.3 Business strategies 45
4.2.4 Human resources development 46
4.2.5 Training 46
4.2.6 Environmental management 48
4.2.7 Environmental degradation 48
4.2.8 Water and wastewater 51
4.2.9 Characteristics of sediments and its disposal 63
4.3 External environment 66
4.3.1 Government and regulative bodies 72
4.3.2 Services providers 77
4.3.3 Information providers 86
4.3.4 NGOS 86
4.4 Summary 87
4.4.1 Institutional framework 87
4.4.2 Environmental and management by authorities 89
4.4.3 Positive and negative factors of proposed and
Present systems 90
4.4.4 Wastewater quality 91
4.4.5 Water quality of water bodies 92
4.4.6 Environmental monitoring 92
4.4.7 Environmental degradation 92
4.4.8 Supportive services by regulative and
Government agencies 93
4.4.9 Issues prevailed in environmental management in
Sri Lanka 94

V Conclusion and Recommendations

5.1 Conclusion 98
5.1.1 Administrative structure 99
5.1.2 Information and technology transfer 100
5.1.3 Infrastructure 100

v
 5.1.4 Rehabilitation 101
5.2 Recommendations for future studies 102

Bibliography 103

Appendix A A-1
Appendix B B-1
Appendix C C-1
Appendix D D-1

vi
 List of Figures

Figure Title Page

1.1 Basin Estuaries and Lagoons of Sri Lanka with detail representation 2
of coastal area of northwestern province.
2.1 Schematic diagram representing the evolution of shrimp industry 6
2.2 Intensification of an extensive Thai-shrimp farm system 7
2.3 Open and closed treatment systems applied in shrimp farm 14
Water quality management
3.1 Location of shrimp farms in the study area 22
3.2 Sampling locations along the Dutch canal and Lagoons 25
3.3 Schematic representation of methodology 27
4.1 Members of the Scoping committee and its role in shrimp industry 29
4.2 Number of farms approved by the PMF on state and private lands
during the period of 1989 to 1997 31
4.3 Distribution of farms approved by the PFM on state and private lands
during the period of 1989 to 1997 31
4.4 Total number of farms approved by PFM in different categories 32
4.5 Total lands approved by the PFM and MFARD under different approval
procedures 32
4.6 Unauthorized farms in different categories based on PLCD of NWPC 33
4.7 Hatcheries approved by the MFARD and its total capacities in
each year 37
4.8 Total quantities of shrimp exported and its value in Rs. Millions
during 1985 to 1996 38
4.9 Total earning of exported shrimps and total earnings of all
aquatic products exported during 1985 to 1996 38
4.10 Total qualities of shrimp imported and exported from
Sri Lanka 1990 to 1996 39
4.11 Schematic diagram showing present approval procedure of
shrimp industry 40
4.12 Interaction of actors in a farm 43
4.13 Diagrammatic presentation of information transfer among the farming
community 43
4.14 Business strategy of shrimp farmers 46
4.15 Mangrove distribution of Puttalam Lagoon and Dutch Bay 1981
and 1992 49
4.16 Salt marsh distribution of Puttalam Lagoon and Dutch Bay
in 1992 and 1981 49
4.17 Environmental degradation and pollution on Mangrove and
Salt marshes and its impacts 50
4.18 Water management approaches in culture ponds 52

4.19 Different water and wastewater treatment systems in Sri Lankan

vii
 shrimp farms 56
4.20 Diagrammatic representation of point and non-point sources of
pollutants at Dutch canal and its lagoon system 59
4.21 Summary of potential pollution aspects of Dutch canal 59
4.22 Salinity changes at selected locations of Dutch canal and connected
Lagoons during the period of May 97 to Feb.1998 67
4.23 Changes in pH at selected locations of Dutch canal and connected
Lagoons during the period of May 97 to Feb.1998 68
4.24 Changes in pH of Dutch canal within each year and during
the period from 1983 to 1998. 69
4.25 Changes in salinity of Dutch canal within each year and during
the period from 1983 to 1998 69
4.26 Temperature variations of Dutch canal with in each and during
the period from 1983 to 1998 69
4.27 Turbidity changes in Dutch canal within each year and during
the period from 1983 to 1998 70
4.28 Changes in TSS within a year and during the period from
1983 to 1998 70
4.29 BOD changes within each year and during the period from
1983 to 1998 70
4.30 pH changes at selected locations and connected lagoons
during study period 71
4.31 Salinity changes during study period at selected locations
and connected lagoons 71
4.32 Turbidity changes in Dutch canal during the study period
at selected locations and lagoons 71
4.33 Changes in total suspended solid contents at selected locations
lagoons during study period 72
4.34 Changes in BOD at selected locations and the lagoons during the
study period 72
4.35 Activities involve in approved, in operation and in abandoned projects 74
4.36 Water management practices in the hatcheries 82
4.37 Schematic diagram of shrimp processing plants, pollutants and issues 84
4.38 Present approval procedure 88
4.39 Proposed administrative and regulative “One Stop Shop” 89
4.40 Positive and negative factors of proposed and present system 90
4.41 Various components which could lead to failure of industry 95
4.42 Integrated approach of Environmental Management 95
4.43 Environmental and economic background of a shrimp farm 96
4.44 External and internal environment of shrimp aquacultue industry 96
4.45 Issues and components of sustainability 97

viii
 List of Tables
.

Table Title Page

2.1 Inputs and out puts of a typical shrimp pond 8

2.2 Quality of effluents discharged from Thai shrimp farms 9
2.3 Principal waste materials from semi-intensive shrimp culture 10
2.4 Summary of physical, chemical and biological characteristics of intensive
shrimp pond effluents 10
2.5 Optimum and minimum water quality parameters of ponds 14
2.6 World shrimp production (tons) 1990- 1995 15
2.7 Total land area, production, and export earning from 1985 - 1995
in Thailand and Sri Lanka 16
2.8 Summary of significant environment parameters, tolerance limits
and impacts 20
3.1 Parameters and analytical methods -water 24
3.2 Sampling locations 26
3.3 Parameters and analytical methods- Sediment 26
4.1 Status of farms approved by the PFM and MFARD 30
4.2 Distribution of farms on government and private land and its status 33
4.3 Status of farms in accordance with farm survey carried 34
4.4 Annual physical performance of semi-intensive and intensive shrimp
farms in Sri Lanka 35
4.5 Summary of a production, feeding and use of chemicals of a farm ponds 35
4.6 Chemicals and its uses in farms 36
4.7 Status of water treatment systems of surveyed farms 37
4.8 Rules and regulations related to shrimp industry 41
4.9 Similarities and dissimilarities of National Environmental Act
and Provincial Environmental Statue 42
4.10 Activities and role of consultants 44
4.11 Summary of status of shrimp industry 45
4.12 Funding sources and requirements 46
4.13 Human resources development and incentive systems for miner and
middle level workers 47
4.14 Physico-chemical methods used by farmers for water treatments 52
4.15 Pond water quality analysis 52
4.16 Pond water quality of a culture cycle 53
4.17 Inputs and outputs of culture ponds during a culture cycles in Sri Lanka 53
4.18 Estimation of organic load during culture period 54
4.19 Other polluting sources 54
4.20 Comparison of BOD5 waste loading of shrimp ponds with other sectors 55
4.21 Water exchange rates of semi-intensive culture systems 57
4.22 Types of wastewater systems and its distribution in surveyed area 57
4.23 Comparison of critical water quality in main water sources for
shrimp culture in Sri Lanka 61

ix
4.24 Concentration of metal ions and pH in water draining ponds pond
preparation in acid-sulfate soil 60
4.25 Characteristics of sediments collected from ponds of seven farms 64
4.26 Extractable and total concentration of heavy metals in sediments
collected from seven farms 65
4.27 Role of MFARD and PFM 74
4.28 Supportive agencies and regulative agencies of government 75
4.29 Regulative authorities- Environmental issues
75
4.30 Services of DFCC and NDB banks 77
4.31 Feed types and its popularity among the farmers in surveyed area 79
4.32 Supportive services of feed suppliers 79
4.33 Services of equipment suppliers 80
4.34 Supporting industries developed in the northwestern coast for shrimp
industry 80
4.35 Services provide by laboratories 81
4.36 Farmers ability for routine analysis of water quality 81
4.37 List of chemicals used in hatcheries 82
4.38 Results of analysis of wastewater of processing plants 85

x
 Abbreviations

AGA - Assistant Government Agent

DO - Dissolved Oxygen
BOD - Biological Oxygen Demand
BOI - Board of Investment of Sri Lanka
CCD - Coast Conservation Department
CEA - Central Environmental Authority
CISIR - Ceylon Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research
DS - Divisional Secretariat
EIA - Environmental Impact Assessment
EPL - Environmental Protection Licence
IEE - Initial Environmental Examination
MFARD - Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Development
NARA - National Aquatic Resources Agency
NWPC - Northwestern Provincial Council
PAA - Project Approving Agency
PEA - Provincial Environmental Authority
PFM - Provincial Fisheries Ministry
PL - Post larvae
PLCD - Provincial Land Commissioner Department
PP - Project Proponent
TOR - Terms of References
TSS - Total Suspended Solids

xi
 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 General

The brackish water area in Sri Lanka is estimated to be 120,000 ha, of which 80,000 ha are
estuaries and large deep lagoons. The rest comprise shallow lagoons, tidal flats, and mangrove
swamp. While the deep lagoons and estuaries are the sites of important fisheries, the shallow
lagoons, mangrove swamps and saline marshes represent area for aquaculture. The land which
is potentially suitable for aquaculture has been estimated at 6,000 ha (Samaranayake, 1986)
and 57 % of such land being situated along the North and East coasts. The larger expanses of
tidal flats and mangrove areas exist in the Kalpitiya and Mannar regions (Fig.1.1). Most of
these brackish water bodies have been used as traditional fishing grounds by small scale
fishing communities.

Interest in shrimp farming developed in late 1970’s with a small farm commencing operations
in Batticaloa in 1977. With the government offering various incentives, a number of small
scale entrepreneurs and a few large multi-national companies have ventured into shrimp
farming since 1982. On the other hand in early 1980’s rearing techniques for shrimps have
made great progress and shrimp farming has now reached industrial dimensions especially
along the cost of Northwestern province of Sri Lanka. Operations along the east coast ceased
after the 1983 civil disturbance.

The estimated total area presently developed for prawn farming is approximately 1200 ha in
northwestern province, with farm distribution on the intertidal and suppertidal areas around
Dutch Canal, Chilaw, Mundel and, Puttalam Lagoons. More than 70% of these developments
are located in the coastal areas around Dutch canal and Mundel Lagoon ecosystems. National
Aquatic Resources Agency (NARA) has identified another 250 ha of potential areas to be
developed as shrimp industry from southern province (Sirwardana, 1990). However it has not
been implemented.

This expansion resulted in considerable changes in land use patterns of northwestern coastal
areas. The land use categories such as shrub lands, grasslands, mangroves and salt marshes
have now been changed for cultivation and for other developments related to shrimp industry
(Jayasinghe and Silva, 1990).

The shrimp industry in Sri Lanka can be divided into four components, post-larva production
(hatchery), grow-out (shrimp farming), shrimp processing and, shrimp feed manufacturing.
(Rupasinghe, 1996). Most important component to be considered in the environmental point
of view is the shrimp farming because it has been originated from natural systems and has
now been transformed to extensive, semi-intensive and to intensive culturing systems. The
culturing systems have now grown beyond natural boundaries or carrying capacities of the
farming areas.

1
Fig 1.1 Basin Estuaries and Lagoons of Sri Lanka with detailed representation of
coastal area of Puttalam district

2
Semi-intensive and intensive farming systems use largely resources and energy sources, such
as electricity and fuel, to maintain farming system. The shrimp industry, in commercial scale,
in the Sri Lanka has been developed by private sector with the initiative of the government.
New Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Act, No.2 of 1996 has now been enforced to ensure
proper resources management and to issue fisheries licences for different sectors engaged in
fisheries and aquaculture production in Sri Lanka. The Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic
Resources Development act as a project approving agency under the National Environmental
Act No. 47 of 1980, as amended by Act No. 56 of 1988 for the approval of prescribe projects
of fisheries sector. It has mentioned that the aquaculture projects larger than the 4 ha should
under go EIA/IEE process. This act is the basic national charter for protection and
management of environment.

Japan and USA is most important market for the Sri Lankan prawns and the export to the
European market is growing rapidly. There are direct and indirect exporters of shrimp from Sri
Lanka. The volume of the shrimp exported by Sri Lanka is nearly 1942 tons against the
162,000 tons that exported by Thailand in 1991. Thailand is the world leading shrimp
exporter. However the annual production of shrimp is Sri Lanka has reached to 3000 tons in
1994 (CP Shrimp News, 1995) against the 10 tons in 1984. The estimated employment
generation through shrimp industry has been increased up to 4000 at the end of 1994
(Wijegunawardena and Siriwardena, 1995). The earning from the export of shrimp was US$
43 million in 1995.

All prawn farms in Sri Lanka are operated on two levels at semi-intensive and intensive scale
(Jayasinghe, 1995). Major differences between level one and two are in stocking density and
aeration systems. In level one stocking density is around 5-12 post lava/m2 and is without
aeration systems and level two 12-25 post lava/m2 with aeration systems. The other deference
between farms is generally relate to average farm size, average production, investment (local
or foreign) and to land ownership.

Dutch canal and the Lagoons are major water sources and are major water bodies for receiving
wastewater generated from the farms (Corea et al., 1996). There is a strong potential for direct
contamination of water sources and it is a threat for continuation of existing farms, future
development and land modifications. The identified contaminants in the effluents are
excessive nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur compounds and suspended particles. It has been a
practice, in some farms, that the pumping of ground water into the culture ponds to dilute the
lagoon water to reduce the salinity of culture ponds, to overcome the diseases and,
contaminant problems in water sources.

Another source of pollutants generally not accounted for is sediment disposal. The sediment,
that accumulated with in the production ponds in each cycle is 185-199 tons dry weight/ha or
139-150 m3/ha (Funge-Sumith and Briggs, 1994); 200-836 tons dry weight/ha or 151-629
m3/ha (Tunvilai et al., 1993). The accumulated sediments is removed or allowed to oxidation
after each production cycle as maintenance measure to safeguard the next cycle. There,
however, are no either proper treatment or disposal methods that have been practiced for
disposal of sediments in Sri Lanka. The usual method that has been practicing from the
inception is dumping on neighboring lands or on the dikes of the ponds.

3
The expansion of shrimp culturing industry has not only affected on the coastal zone of Sri
Lanka but has also resulted in unstable brackish water aquaculture industry. It is well-known
fact that, the natural environment has changed considerably in many areas, especially in water
sources, wetlands and marshes. These waters have been contaminated by organic matter,
waste toxic agents and shrimp. Increasing awareness of the public, has now forced to develop
alternate technologies based on the sustainable system, which could reduce the potential
environmental impacts of waste disposal, in addition to reducing the risk of contaminants by
using the end of pipe treatment.

On the other hand, recent US shrimp embargo in 1996 hit the market of some countries due to
their shrimp harvest with fishing technologies which harmful to sea turtles. The environmental
activist groups in the US and elsewhere have broadened this attack against shrimp production
with claims that aquaculture facilities are destroying mangroves, polluting the environment
and disrupting the local economics (Gutting, 1997). The treaty of the Rome of European
Community aims to facilitate internal and external trade in animals and their products. This
ensure high level of health protection for both the animal and human population of the
European community (Wilson, 1997).

By considering the above, alarming situation has come to think the waste reduction, reuse and
recycle of water and, cleaner technologies to manage farms environmental friendly. Therefore
to move Sri Lanka towards sustainable aquaculture industry, it is necessary to have integrated
aquaculture management system for shrimp industry. The components of the integrated
aquaculture management may be technical, environmental, institutional, and financial or may
also be social or political.

1.2 Objectives

The objectives of the study are:

• to evaluate present status of administrative, management, information and

technology transfer, in shrimp industry with more emphasis on environmental
management in brackish water, intensive aquaculture system; in terms of raw water
and pond water quality analysis; sediments characteristics and disposal method;
• to evaluate industrial and finical supports for farmers and with special reference to
BOI incentives;
• to identify potential areas to be improved for sustainable development
• to analysis methods, systems and measures can be adopt for sustainable
development of brackish aquaculture system;
• to identify major barriers in respect to sustainable development of the brackish
water aquaculture; both in terms of internal and external mechanisms to the
aquaculture industry;
• and to assess environmental management of shrimp processing plants with special
reference to wastewater and solid waste disposal.

1.3 Scope

4
The scope of the work of the study is limited only to the coastal area of the northwestern
province of Sri Lanka.

To achieve the target of the study the following boundaries for the study have been selected:

• Collection of data from the respective agencies, NGOS, and farmers and evaluation
of present status of the environmental management systems of farms in
northwestern province;
• Site visits to farming areas to collect information;
• Sampling of wastewater, lagoon water to asses the present status of pollution;
• Collection of sediments from selected farms having various farming systems to
determine the characteristics.

5
 CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Intensive coastal aquaculture systems

Over the years, intensive shrimp aquaculture has become high revenue industry for many
countries like Thailand, Philippines, Taiwan, India, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. In shrimp
aquaculture, the main components are grow-out ponds comprising farms and hatcheries. The
grow-out culture systems are mainly natural, extensive and semi-intensive to intensive in
accordance with its operations. Figure 2.1 and Fig 2.2 shows the evolution of shrimp grow-out
pond systems.

Coastal Flooding of Lowlands

No water exchange
Natural Food
Low (natural) stoking density
Low Yield
(<1950's)

Open Extensive Farming

5 to 10% water exchange
Natural Food
Low (natural) stocking density (2-5 Shrimp/m 2)
Low yield (312-1,562 kg/ha/y)
(<1980's)

Open Semi-Intensive Farming

5 to 40% daily water exchange
Fertilization and/ or supplementary diet feeding
Medium stocking density (5-10 PL/m 2)
Medium yield (875-3,125 kg/ha/y)
(<1985's)

Open Intensive Farming

5 to 40% daily water exchange
Complete diet feeding
High stocking density (30-40 PL/m 2)
High yield (7,525-9,141 kg/ha/y)

Source: Dierberg and Kiattismukul (1996)

Figure 2.1 Schematic diagram represents the evaluation of shrimp industry

6
 Low land utilization
Low yield

High Yield

High Land Utilization

Figure: 2.2 Intensification of an extensive Thai-Shrimp farm system (A through

D) Ponds; A is unimproved; D is upgraded to semi-intensive; N, nursery pond;
P1,PL Capture pond; P2, semi-intensive pond; P3 extensive pond

Intensive methods involve high investment, proper management and suitable operation
methods that are introduced in order to maintain the highest possible survival rate in every
crop. Intensive shrimp system requires high inputs of protein and phosphorus diets, and a high
rate of water exchange. Then a large portion of nutrients in shrimp feed becomes waste and
discharge directly to the coastal waters causing rapid deterioration of water quality (Lin,
1993). One of the most dangerous consequences of the deteriorating environment is the
increasing frequency of severe disease out-breaks both in hatcheries and in grow-out ponds
(Csavas, 1990).

2.2 Environmental impacts of intensive shrimp culture

Earlier aquaculture was generally considered too small an industry to have significant impact
on environment. The remarkable growth of the aquaculture industry in many countries
(Ackefors, 1989) over the past decade increase adverse impact on environment. The
cultivation of organisms in ponds (Truker, 1985), tanks (Millamena et al., 1991), rivers and
coastal areas may have great influence upon the environment, in addition to the impacts of all
human activities.
It is well known fact that intensive cultivation schemes are ecologically unstable and it uses
large amounts of fossil fuel energy directly and indirectly, as feed and fertilizer, and requires

7
large ecological support areas to be sustained. In such systems resources are pumped in, used
up, and pumped out in linear fashion, rather than being recycled. This leads to accumulation of
wastes in the recipient eco-systems, often causing severe and irreversible environmental
problems.

There are potential and identified environmental impacts of shrimp farming (Hopkins et al.,
1995):

1. Wetland such as mangroves and mud flats, destruction for construction of ponds
2. Hypernutrification of estuarine ecosystems by shrimp pond effluent
3. “Biological pollution” of native shrimp stocks through escarpment of aquaculture stocks
4. Water use and entailment of estuarine systems
5. Impacts of shrimp farm chemicals on estuarine system

The last four impacts can be addressed through improved water management methods. The
environmental impacts of shrimp culture have been well documented as results of the
explosive growth of such operation in South East Asia and, to a lesser extent, in Latin
America (Aiken, 1990) and it has also caused social impacts ( Bailey, 1988). The construction
of ponds has lead to wide spread destruction of mangroves forests, depletion of groundwater,
saltwater intrusion into ground water tables, eutrophication and, disease transmission from one
place to another.

2.3 Nutrient budget in shrimp ponds

The sources of nutrients input of shrimp ponds are feed, water inflow, stocked shrimp and any
organic matter or inorganic fertilizer added to pond as part of management practice. Out put
from the ponds are leaching through the soil into ground water, discharged and drained water,
seepage, nutrient accumulated at the bottom, and nitrogen loss through volatilization of
ammonia and denitrification.

In a typical intensive shrimp culture pond the sources and losses of nutrients are presented in
Table 2.1.

Table 2.1 Inputs and out puts of a typical shrimp pond

Inputs Out puts

• Water inflows at initial filling and water exchange • Water exchange and draining
• Rainfall and runoffs • Harvested shrimp biomass
• Fertilizers • Sedimentation
• Feed • Suspended particles & dissolved organic
• Stocked shrimp biomass matter in pond water
• Chemical treatment • Volatilization
• Seepage
2.4 Characteristics of effluents from shrimp farms

Its physical as well as its chemical characteristics characterizes aquaculture pond water.
Chamberlain (1988) discovered, from shrimp pond management study that dissolved oxygen,

8
pH, ammonia, and nitrite, hydrogen sulfide, redox potential, sediments, phytoplankton, and
bacterial counts are shrimp pond parameters to be monitored. Depending on the stocking
density, the concentration of nutrients, suspended solid and oxygen demanding subsistence
may be varied. During the harvesting time, the water in ponds is drained and the nutrients,
suspended solids and BOD are highest in discharged water. Solid matter, mainly mixture of
uneaten, feces, phytoplankton and colonizing bacteria and devolved matter such as ammonia,
urea carbon dioxides and phosphorous are the major constituents of the effluents of shrimp
farms (Macintosh, and Phillips, 1992a). The quality of the effluents discharged from farms in
Thailand is given in table 2.2 (Phillips et al.,1993). A very high nutrient load can be expected
in effluents during harvesting, draining and cleaning of ponds, because additional discharge of
material previously bound to sediment and particulate matter.

Table 2.2 Quality of effluents discharged from the Thai shrimp farms

Item Units Rage

Pond Size ha 0.48-0.56
Pond depth m 1.5-1.8
Salinity ppt 10-35
o
Temperature C 22-31
pH 7.5-8.9
Total phosphorous mg/L 0.05-0.4
Total nitrogen mg/L 0.5-3.40
Total ammonia mg/L 0.05-0.65
Dissolved oxygen mg/L 4.0-7.5
Chlorophyll a µg/L 20-250
Total suspended solids mg/L 30-190
Water exchange frequency % day 5-40
Source : Phillips et al., (1993)

2.5 Environmental impacts from the effluents

Feed, unconsumed feed and metabolic waste products such as feces, pseudo-feces and excreta
in intensive culture provide the largest source of nutrients causing pollution (Seymour, and
Bergheim, 1991). Bergheim et al., (1985) reported that suspended solid levels ranging from 1
to 100 mg/L during ‘normal’ operation but between 30 to 5800 mg/L during cleaning of
ponds. Tsutsumi et al., (1991) reported that approximately 90% the feed given to fish results
discharge into the environment. In Thailand it has been reported that 77.5% of nitrogen and
86/% of phosphorous added to intensive ponds were lost to the environment (Macintosh and
Phillips, 1992b). There is lack of data specific to the amount and quality of effluents loading
from shrimp ponds as well as to related ecological effects on receiving water bodies. (Barg,
1992). Macintosh and Phillips (1992), however, able to identify the primary and secondary
effects from waste materials from semi-intensive and intensive shrimp culture systems as
indicated in Table 2.3.

Eutrophication of coastal water due to the discharge of effluent from shrimp farm which
contains large load of organic matter, nitrogen and phosphorous is well documented. Based on

9
current annual shrimp production of 150,000 tons in Thailand and feed conversion ratio (FCR)
of 1.5, the waste released from shrimp feed is estimated to be 131,250 tons organic matter;
8,400 tons of nitrogen and 3,150 tons of phosphorous (Lin, 1995). Ecological impact of
eutrophication, is excessive primary production, which may lead to lower biological diversity
and highly imbalance tropic structure of biota in the system. Finally, the highly polluted
environment resulting from continuos nutrient influx would make the water quality unstable as
source water for shrimp pond. Table 2.4 summarized the characteristics of effluents.

Table 2.3 Principal waste materials from semi-intensive shrimp culture

Waste material Primary effect Secondary effect

Uneaten food and dissolved Increased nutrient loading and
excreta reduced oxygen in ponds water
supplies, increased sedimentation
Drugs and hormones Eco-toxicological impacts
Antibiotics Increased antibiotic resistance
among micro-organisms
Source; Macintosh and Phillps (1992)
Environmental changes, reduced
carrying capacity and of
pollution of farm water supplies
Mortality and sub-lethal effect in
target and non-target organisms,
water quality changes, pollution
of water supplies
Increased problem in treating
bacterial diseases, residues in
marketed shrimp

Table 2.4 Summary of physical, chemical and biological characteristics of

intensive shrimp pond effluents

Characteristics Sources/ Causes

Physical properties
• color Decomposition organic mater; algae population; leaching of inorganic.
• odor Decomposition of organic matter from uneaten feeds and metabolites.
• solids Uneaten feed particles; detritus; coagulated/ flocculated products of
dead organisms.
Chemical constituents
• BOD Carbohydrates, proteins, fat from feed and metabolites.
• pH biological and chemical reactions.
• Nitrogen feed, metabolites and dead organisms.
• Phosphorous Decomposing of organic matter, dead plants/animas, feed and fertilizer.
Antibiotics, feeds and disinfectants.
• Drugs and chemicals
Biological constituents
• Planktonic organisms
Phyto-/zooplankton flourishing in ponds.
• Pathogens
Bacteria and viruses.

2.6 Environmental impacts from chemicals

The use of chemicals in aquaculture was widespread because no legal registration was
required for their use (Lin, 1989). Because of their importance in shrimp industry various
drugs and antibiotics were dumped into culture systems. Csavas (1992) noted that, in
Southeast Asian shrimp culture, overuse and abuse the antibiotics and other drugs, to avoid
massive motalities in culture ponds.

10
Antibiotics are usually administered in feed, there are evidences that only 20-30% are actually
ingested by fish and remained goes into environment as unconsumed medicated food.
(Samuelsen 1989) The several studies, on salmon farms, by Aoki, (1992) found that antibiotic
residues can be extremely persistent in marine sediments and may lead to development of
bacterial antibiotic resistance. The commonly used chemicals in grow-out ponds are fomalin,
malachite green, potassium permanganate, copper sulfate, medicated feed, and local herbs
(NACA, 1995).

2.7 Sediment characteristics

Depending on the stocking density and water exchange rate, the sediments removal is vary in
Thailand. In four month production cycle, the pond bottom removal for nitrogen, phosphorus
and suspended solid was 238-321, 455-668 and 196,000-215,000 kg/ha.(Lin et al., 1993) This
represents substantial loading to environment and Funge-Smith (1994) reported, based on
waste production, that the 40,000ha of shrimp industry is equivalent to 3.1 -3.6 million people.
This equal to increasing the population of the coastal zone by 50%. However aquaculture
interest people (NACA, 1994) mentioned that contribution by shrimp industry is smaller
compare to domestic and agricultural wastewater and it has also been mentioned that added
nutrient will help to increase the productivity of Thailand’s coastal areas. Wanuchsoontorn
(1996) found, by his experiments at AIT, that nutrient removal from sludge was maximum
followed by harvesting and other leakage. Total nitrogen and phosphorus removed from water
and sludge in this study was 81.58g/kg and 19.53g/kg of shrimp production for culture period
of 108 days. Thakur (1996) reported that the nutrient budget in shrimp culture in a closed
system indicating the removal of nitrogen from water and sediment was 36.51 and 73.93g
N/kg shrimp produced and for phosphorus that is 21.11 and 15.83g/kg for shrimp produced.

2.8 Impacts of sediments

Another source of pollution, generally not accounted for, is sediments disposal. Collection and
disposal of accumulated sediment deposits between production cycles is considered to be
essential in promoting good water quality for successive shrimp production cycle. Based on
the 40,000ha of shrimp ponds operated in Thailand, in 1996, the total production of sediments
approximately 16.2 million metric tons dry sediments per year (Briggs, and Funge-Smith,
1994). Illegal disposal of waste into drainage by flushing ponds with water will increase the
nutrients, oxygen demand, and solids loading. The Illegal disposal is exacerbated by it s lack
of utility because pond sediments is not suitable for agriculture and horticulture to used as
fertilizer due to low organic content and high salinity. Sediments affect the growth, and
survival of shrimp and, water quality in ponds. For intensive shrimp culture, a major
disadvantage associated with natural bottom ponds, is the deterioration of the pond bottom
with the time. Development of anoxic condition in sediments may adversely affect the quality
of overlying water.
2.9 Environmental impact from the changed land use patterns

Mangrove forest destruction is one issue at the forefront of environmental concerns in tropical
areas. These areas have always been prime candidates for extensive pond construction since

11
they are typically have gentle slopes, adequate tidal ranges, abundant wild shrimp seed, and
untitled land. Land ownership was typically vested with the government, which made easily
available to investors with connections and capital (Menasveta and Fast, 1998). Therefore,
other than the socio-economic exploitation, shrimp culture is well known important factor
contributing to the decline of mangroves. Mangrove ecosystem contributes a reservoir, refuge,
feeding ground and nursery for many useful plants and animals. Several tropical countries
have lost extensive mangrove areas due to clearing and conversion to fish and shrimp ponds
(Barg, 1992). In Thailand destruction of mangroves and wetland are prominent. The
decreasing of mangroves is phenomenal in some provinces (Vibulsersth and Murai, 1991).
The replacement of mangroves by shrimp farming has documented, for example no less that
85% of the 69.4 km2 of mangroves destroyed in northern part of Pak Phanag district among
1966 and 1991 (CORIN, 1992). There were some other reported evidences that decrease of
mangroves in Thailand (Macintosh and Phillips, 1992) and other countries such as Philippines
(Primaver, 1989).

The changes in mangroves include alternation in saprobic status of receiving waters, affects on
benthic communities, microbial flora, phyto-and zooplankton and on wild fish stocks, fisheries
and wild life (Rosenthal, 1992). In absence of terrestrial run off the mangrove litter in natural
systems, there is an annual pronounced drop in shrimp yield (30%-50%) in Colombian shrimp
farms during dry season (Vesga, 1990).

Soil of ponds reclaimed from mangroves areas are typically sulphate soils (Rosenthal, 1992).
Jayssinghe (1994) reported that oxidation of pyrite (FeS2) occurs during pond-bottom drying
which results in the release of sulfuric acid into the pond water and adjacent water bodies
causing acidification and generation of highly toxic soluble aluminum phosphate. The
mangrove and salt marshes are important in sediments and coastline stabilization, trapping of
water, providing habit and food for animals and, breeding area.

2.10 Saltwater intrusion

The intensive farming not only generates impacts to the water bodies and wetlands, pond
construction frequently occurs behind mangrove zones adjacent lands where the freshwater
wetlands and other agricultural areas are located. These areas are effected by surface and
subsurface salt-water intrusions generated by the new ponds. This may leads to changes in the
salinity of the freshwater supplies used for irrigation and potable water sources. (Dierberg and
Kiattisimkul, 1996)

2. 11 Factors determining “carrying capacity” environment.

Barg (1992) says that the carrying capacity of a defined area is an ecological potential to have
maximum production species or population, in relation to naturally available food resources,
within the area. Berveridge (1987) explained, that in the site selection process, the important
factor that could be considered in carrying capacity is maximum production, that a site might
be sustain. Production in aquaculture is determined by capacity of the environment. The
capacity of the organisms is the maximum of the organisms to grow and develop in the
optimum environmental conditions. In shrimp pond fry quality and quantity can act as the

12
capacity of the organisms. The capacity of the environment is determined by the quality of
water and soil. Organisms will live and grow normally when all components are support them.
Some time these components act as a limiting factors for growth if the conditions are
unfavorable.

2. 12 Factors determining “carrying capacity” of ponds

In intensive shrimp farming, the capacity of the environment can be increased through
adoption of technology. Pond construction, water depth, irrigation system, number of pumps
and paddle wheels are technological approaches interacts with water and soil qualities in
deterring the capacity of production, known as carrying capacity of the pond.

There are two types of sea water systems namely open and closed cycle systems, which
improve the carrying capacities of the ponds. The open or flow-through systems are
categorized into three systems (Figure 2.3).

a. Completely open system,

b. Limited pretreatment and internal aeration,
c. More extensive pretreatment, internal aeration and treatment of discharge water.

The closed or reuse systems also divided into two systems

d. Pure closed system, with water addition to make up the evaporation loss.
e. More common, reuse system with some flow through.

To reduce the risk of cross-contamination of diseases and pollutant farmers used to have a
water treatment plant for the treating of incoming water supplies. The usual practice is
settling of particulate by sedimentation and adding of either chorine or benzalkonium chloride
(BKC) as disinfectant.

Water quality is used as parameter for the evaluation of environmental quality and the biology.
UNDP/FAO (1989) recommended to use water quality as a site selection criteria for marine
systems. It has also been used for loading computations (Huguenin, 1989; Bervridge, 1987).
The control and management of dissolved oxygen, suspended solids and algae density in the
water is vital to the proper management of shrimp pond water. The total concentration, size
distribution, and chemical, as well as micro biological characterization of suspended solids are
far more important to shrimp pond water management than the characterization of sediments
or even pH of the water (Wang, 1990).

13
 a. Seawater Culture pond Discharge

Coarse
b. Seawater Culture pond Discharge
Filtration

Pre- Post
c. Seawater
Treatment
Culture pond
Treatment
Discharge

Treated Water
d. water
Culture pond
Treatment
Discharge

e. Pre- Post
Seawater Culture pond Discharge
Treatment Treatment

Water
Treatment
Figure 2.3 Open and closed treatment systems applied in shrimp farm water
quality management

2.13 Water quality standard for shrimp ponds

The water quality parameters based on various researchers, for the cultivation of Penaeous
monodon, (Black Tiger Prawn) are given in following Table.2.5 and Table 2.8 summarized the
significant environmental parameters, tolerance limits and impacts.

Table 2.5 Optimum and minimum levels of water quality of ponds

Parameter Units Optimum Optimum Acceptable Optimal

Range Range
0
Temperature C 28 - 33 26 -33 29 -30
Turbidity NTU 6 -150 2 -30
Total suspended solid mg/L 2 - 14 <5
Dissolved Oxygen mg/L 4.0 (max) >5 3 - 12 4-7
Salinity ppt 10 -25 15 - 25 10 - 35 15 - 20
pH 7.5 - 8.5 8.0 - 8.5 7.5 - 8.7 8.0 - 8.5
Nitrate mg/L 6 - 200 na
Nitrite mg/L 1.00 0.25 < 0.25 < 0.02
Ammonia mg/L 0.10 0.10 < 0.25 < 0.11
Hydrogen Sulphide mg/L 0.005 0.20 < 0.25 < 0.002
BOD mg/L < 10 < 10
Chien (1992) Liu et al. Boyd (1989) ;
(1993) Poernmo (1990)

14
2.14 Monitoring of estuarine waters

Marine and estuarine waters, in general, support a greater diversity of species than do
freshwater rivers and lakes. The physical conditions such as mixing, tidal variations and
temperature gradient are different from the freshwater systems. The chemical parameters
such as buffing capacities, chemical components of solid, liquid, ion varies depending on
whether the effluent is saltwater or freshwater. Biologically marine estuarine waters, in
general, support a greater diversity of species than do freshwater water bodies. These
differences between marine and fresh water environment require different effluent sampling
methods and separate water quality standards (EPA, 1993).

2.15 Production

According to the recent studies, Thailand becomes leading shrimp production country among
the South Asian and Asian Countries. Production Data is given in the Table 2.6.

Table 2.6 World Shrimp Production ( x 103tons) 1990 - 1995

Country 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995

Thailand 110 153 163 209 250 270
Ecuador 73 100 95 76 100 100
Indonesia 120 140 130 100 100 80
China 150 145 140 30 35 70
India 32 35 45 55 70 60
Vietnam 30 30 35 40 50 50
Bangladesh 25 25 25 30 35 30
Taiwan 30 30 25 20 25 30
Philippines 30 30 25 25 30 20
Mexico na na na 9 12 12
Others 32 45 46 45 51 40
Source: From 90 -91; Asian Shrimp News Collected Volume 1989-1995
From 93 - 95 Aqua farm News Vol. XIV Nos. 4 and 5
na = not available

Shrimp industry has been practiced, in Thailand for fifty years, and it has only been 9 years
that the intensity of aquaculture activities increased.

According to the Table 2.6 it is prudent that there is increasing trend in shrimp industry in
Thailand in respect to total production, area and income. However, if we consider the trend in
Sri Lanka it has been fluctuating in volume and its exported value. According to Jayashinghe
(1996), the foreign exchange earning from export of farm shrimp has rapidly increased in Sri
Lanka and has become one of the valuable non-traditional foreign exchange earner.

15
 Table 2.7 Total land area occupied, production and export earning from 1985 to
1993 in Thailand and Sri Lanka

Thailand Sri Lanka

Year Area Production Value Area Production Value
(Rai) (Ton) (Million (Million
Baht) Rs.)
1985 254,805 15,840.560 1,348.420 na 1648 303
1986 283,548 17,885.830 1,737.580 na 1973 427
1987 279,812 23,566.470 3,449.320 na 1231 339
1988 342,364 55,632.840 7,900.550 na 1826 526
1989 444,785 93,494.500 11,072.190 na 2598 762
1990 403,787 118,227.050 14,365.360 na 1855 472
1991 470,826 162,069.690 19,834.110 na 942 454
1992 454,975 184,884.321 25,500.142 na 1246 613
1993 449,292 2125,514.303 32,425.341 na 1426 808
Source: For Thailand; Statistic of Shrimp culture, Fisheries economic Division No 3/ 1995
For Sri Lanka Data Management Unit of MFARD
na = not available

Frozen seafood products from Sri Lanka first entered the world market in 1972, Since then the
export industry of marine products has established itself as one of the most dynamic agro-
based industries in the island. There have been ups and downs in the world trade in shrimps in
recent times. Among the sea food exports of Sri Lanka, shrimp accounts for more than 60% of
total value and more than 50% of the total volume (Piyasena, 1993).

2.16 Losses

According to Dierberg and Kiattisimkul (1996) the advanced technologies, governmental

subsidies, and profitable market are the major driving trend in Thailand for great success in
Shrimp industry. However it has been noted that the rate at which it has grown for 1987-1993
will not be achieved due to lack of suitable land for expansions, scarcity of broodstock,
disease out-breaks, negative public affecting consumer choice, increased competition from
other Asian countries regulatory enforcement, water supply, wastewater, and sediment
disposal.

The shrimp is industry in Sri Lanka has been facing sever crisis due to out-break of white spot
disease since May 1996. The cumulative motalites up to 100% were recorded in farms along
the Puttalam Lagoon. The disease had been spreading very rapidly to other brackish water
systems and more farms become non-functional within three months of disease attack. The
farmers restarted their culture activities during mid December 1996, but farms were stricken
by a second out-break of the same disease. White spot disease is an acute infectious disease
cause by a virus and also knows as white spot syndrome.

1US$=25 Baht = 50 Rs.

1ha = 6.25 Rai

16
The loss in foreign exchange earning due to white spot disease is estimated at Rs. 1000 million
for year 1996. The term loans obtained by the farmers from banks amounts to Rs. 650 million.

2.17 National regulations

In Sri Lanka, there are number of regulations in the fisheries administration and acts dating
back to 1898. The most regulations deal separately with sea fisheries and inland fisheries. The
sea fisheries regulations are concerned primarily with regulating the use of beach seineris,
restricting the use of certain waters and controlling the migration of fisherman. There are
some acts and regulations, which control the development inland and coastal fisheries. Those
are Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance, Plant Protection Ordinance, Land Development
Ordinance, Factories Ordinance, Irrigation Ordinance, and some other regulations of the
country. The National Conservation Act No.47 of 1980 and amended in 1988 provide the
authority to CEA for the issuing of licence and control of the release of wastes into the
environment. The Coast Conservation Act. regulate and control of the activities within the
coastal zone and formulation and execution of schemes of work for coast conservation.

2.18 Essentials of aquaculture regulations

Over a remarkably short span of time, aquaculture has expanded to an extent of which have
been difficult to predict. Unfortunately, its rapid expansion has frequently given rise to
problems, which have been less pronounced had a more gradual development of industry
taken place. Therefore divers legal and administrative structure is required in various
disciplines. Howarth (1995) mentioned, that codification of law and integration of
administration by applying of aquaculture licensing procedure to cover up, location control,
zoning, distribution, environmental impacts, fiscal incentives, activity control, water quality,
water pollution may be required. Houtte (1995) emphasized, that the efforts to resolve
environmental issues associated with aquaculture can involve a variety of techniques and
institutions, such as education, advertising, media reports, and grass roots mobilization of
public opinion.

2.19 International regulations and embargo in trade

Under the US shrimp embargo program, certain wild-caught shrimp imports are prohibited
unless the harvesting nation is “certified” as having either a “comparable” regulatory program
to that in the United States, or a shrimp environment which does not threat of incidental
capture of turtles. Most nations adopted the required regulations and a multilateral agreement
was signed. In December 1995, animal protection groups obtained an order from the US court
of International Trade declaring that the embargo applied to all nations. 1st may the embargo
has been enforced for all nations. On the other hand US conservation groups insist to take
actions to introduce eco-labeling scheme, for shrimp industry saying that farming methods are
environmentally unfriendly (Suraswadi, 1997).

The Treaty of Rome, as amended by the Single European Act and the Treaty of Maastricht,
have both created a single market of 15 countries. The Treaty Rome contains a section on the
establishment of a common aquaculture policy for community. This legislation aims to

17
facilitate internal and external trade in animals and their products, while establishing a high
level of health protection of both the animal and human populations of the community. The
directive lays down rules concerning the design, construction and equipment of facilities, the
supply of potable water, disposal of waste, hygienic working practices, maintenance, cleaning
and disinfecting. These rules apply to entire production line, i.e. to facilities in preparation,
processing, freezing, packaging, storage and transport.

2.20 Processing of shrimps for export

The most important factors to be considered in environmental point of view of the shrimp
processing industry are generation of wastewater from the cleaning and processing and the
solid waste as by product. The heads and parts of guts from the headless production process
and the heads, parts of gut, skeletons and body part from other production process.

2.20.1Wastewater

The wastewater from most shrimp processing plants is ten times more concentrated than
sewage. The additional strength is principally related to dissolved organic material. The
suspended solids concentration is also twice about sewage. It commonly contains large
amounts of organic matter, including small particles of shrimp flesh, soluble proteins, and
carbohydrates. When these materials flow into drains, they become pollutants that must be
removed before discharged into waterways. The BOD was estimated at USA is 117kg/1000kg
of shrimp for processed and for cleanup 104kg/1000kg. Then the total BOD was
221kg/1000kg (Carawan, 1996). As an average total discharged pollutants in 1kg/100kg of
raw shrimp processed. The seafood wastewater tended to spoil rapidly and become even when
stored refrigeration.

2.20.2 Solid waste

The chemical composition of shrimp waste is expressed as percentage of protein, chitin and
calcium carbonate. In hand picking operation, it was 27.2, 57.5 and 15.3 % respectively. In
mechanical picking it was 22.0, 42.3 and 35.7% (Mauldin, 1974). However the waste contain
considerable amounts of lipids, pigments, and flavors. Interest in the utilization of shrimp
waste, has never been higher as evident by global in trend in economic potential. Space for the
chilled storage is a problem where the child storage space may be reserved for the higher
value products rather than the waste. There is potential to use as a silage with addition of acid
such as propionic or acetic. (De Silva and Hall, 1994). The acid is expensive and could be
corrosive to processing plant equipment. When mixed with grass straw, these high protein
waste could be incorporated into ruminant feed in the form of silage (Carroll and Evers, 1996).

2.21 History of aquaculture in Sri Lanka

The introduction of the exotic freshwater thilaipia species in 1952 is accepted as the key event
for the development of inland fisheries in Sri Lanka. Ceylon Fisheries Corporation gave
Aquaculture the first emphasis on brackishwater in the year 1968 by establishing the first
coastal Aquaculture station in Negombo. The objective of this program was to transform

18
10,000 ha of marshland into ponds for milkfish, However, by the early 1970s, the entire
program was abandoned (Weerakoon, 1986). The Coastal Aquaculture Development Program
was revitalized after 1997 when, a small shrimp farm of Penaeus sp. covering 0.7 ha was set
up in the shallow edge of Batticaloa lagoon. Later the Ministry of Fisheries created another
brackishwater research station at Pambala, Chilaw. Then it was abandoned after the
government withdrawn the government patronage from the inland fisheries in Sri Lanka in
1992.

A part from 120,000 ha of brackishwater resources, 6,000 ha are considered potentially

suitable for coastal aquaculture (Samaranayake, 1986). Figure 2.5 illustrates the availability
of land for shrimp farming on a district basis. At present shrimp farming operations are
confined to the coastal belt from Negombo to Puttalam. The only large-scale farm located in
the east coast has been abandoned owing to civil disturbances. The FAO/ADB estimated that
shrimp production would be 8,000 tones per annum if the situation of north and east improved
and if 2,000 ha of land in these areas is made available for shrimp farms.

Figure 2.4 Total land available vs district land availability for shrimp culture
Source:Subasinghe and Sririwardena (1990)

19
Table 2.8 Summary of significant environmental parameters, tolerance limits and
impacts

Parameter Tolerance limits Impacts

Temperature 200C to 300C Optimum range;
Rain fall Low and High Poor growth and survival rate
Seasonal Changes Ponds also exhibits strong temp. Patterns and there is an interaction between temp. and
salinity; High Temp. and High salinity synergistic effects

Winds Heavy rain fall Acid water intrusion into the ponds
Duration, monsoonal Formation of acid sulfate and formation of subsequent properties
seasons Lowering of salinity, high turbidity, and physical damages to ponds and danger of agro
chemicals (Jayasinghe, 1991)

Evaporation High and Low Estuarnine circulation and salinity distribution, enhances the tidal variations and influence
the penetration of sea water to lagoons.
High salinity; Low salinity in lagoons.

pH 6.8 - 8.7 Low and high poor growth; prolong pH prolong exposure of low pH 4 and high 10 above
7.6 - 8.5 lethal to prawns (Annon, 1994)
Low Optimum rage for semi-intensive culture (Annon, 1994)
High High H2S; Low NH3; Toxicity of Nitrate (Boyd and Fast, 1992)
High NH3; Low H2S
Influence the concentration of week acids and bases. Solubility of Al and Fe
compounds(Sing, 1980)

Salinity 5ppt Stressful

35 ppt Negative effect on growth (Faster and Laser, 1992)
15 to 25 ppt Optimum for Penaeus monodon

Visibility Secchidisc visibility 25 to Desirable for shrimp ponds; High: inadequate plankton and scare on natural food organisms;
35 Low: excessive plankton and low DO (Boyed and Fast, 1990)
Distinguish turbidity, suspended particles, Changes in plankton community.
P.monodon
Dissolved (1.5 to 2.2) mg/L For small shrimp; higher gill area to body volume ratio
Oxygen (0.2 to 0.5) mg/L Temp, Salinity

BOD <10 High BOD; Low DO, leathal effct on organisms

Ammonia 1mg/L Potentially lethal; fluctuating NH3 concentration is more toxic than constant unionized NH3
At pH 9, 20ppt 25% of levels. (Thrtan et al. (1981)
Total ammonia is
unionized.
Total ammonia 0.4mg/L Negatively affect the growth.

Nitrite 4 to 5 mg/L Lethal effect. (Boyd and Fast, 1992)

Nitrate High growth of phytoplankton.

Hydrogen 2 mg/L It is a problem in intensive systems; Long term health problem. Any detectable concentration
Sulphide has lethal adverse effect.

20
 CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research outline

The study was conducted to determine environmental issues and environmental impacts of
shrimp farms and shrimp related industries and to find environmental management practices
adopted by shrimp farms and shrimp related industries. The collection of existing data
pertaining to environmental problems, impacts and management of shrimp industry was the
main objective of the research. To achieve these objectives questionnaires, discussions and
field surveyed were used. The targeted agencies were farms, shrimp processing plants,
governmental and non-governmental institutions related to shrimp industry. The commercial
scale farms are operated in coastal line of Puttalam district of northwestern province of Sri
Lanka. Therefore the study was confined to coastal belt of Puttalam district. In addition to data
available on shrimp industry for environmental management systems, special emphasis was
made to collect data on water quality of water sources, water and wastewater quality of ponds,
and sediment quality of ponds.

3.2 Study area

The study area of the project was included the coastal area of the Puttalam district as indicated
in Figure 3.1. Dutch canal and three major lagoons such as Chilaw, Mundel and Puttalam are
the major water sources for the shrimp industry in this district. The Dutch canal interconnects
the Chilaw, Mundel and the Puttalam lagoons. The detailed area maps of Chilaw, Mundel and
Puttalam lagoons, indicating study area, are shown in Figures A-1, A-2, and A-3 of appendix
A respectively.

3.3 Data collection

Data collection was made on two ways; collection of existing data (secondary data) such as
published literature, books, research articles and maps etc. of institutions. The history of the
industry, present status, current problems, related legislation were collected from the literature
survey. The collection of new data by filling of questionnaires (Appendix B) and by
analyzing of water, wastewater and sediments were also carried out.

3.3.1 Farmers

The list obtained from provincial fisheries ministry of northwestern provincial council
indicates only the address of authorized farms. There are more farms in the area, which have
no valid approval from respective agencies. Completely randomized method was used to
select the farms for survey. Farms ranging from 0.2 ha to 130ha in size were surveyed. The
number of farms surveyed was 108. During visits to farms, prepared questionnaires of B-1 and
B-2 of Appendix B were used to collect the required information.

21
 Figure 3.1 Locations of shrimp farms in the study area.
The collected information were on farming system, financial status, environmental issues
pertaining to the use of water sources, water treatment, wastewater treatment, disposal of

22
wastewater, disposal of sediments, the use of chemicals and antibiotics and probiotics,
government support, role of consultants etc. The questionnaire was filled in front of the farmer
or representative worker at the farm. However, most of the time, owner of the farms especially
in large-scale farms were not present at the time of the inspection. In additions to technical
information, the social problems were also discussed.

3.3.2 Institutions

The following institutions were visited when and where it is necessary to get complete data
sets in order to achieve the goals of the project. Data collection of institutions included
involvement in shrimp industry, manpower involved, current and future development
programs/plans, inter-institutional coordination and the related legislation etc. The prepared
questionnaires of B-3 to B-9 of Appendix A were used to collect information from,
governmental institutions, banks, processing plants, non-governmental organizations.

3.3.2.1 Government institutions

1. Ministry of Fisheries Aquatic Resources Development

2. National Aquatic Resources Agency (NARA)
3. Central Environmental Authority (CEA)
4. Board of Investment of Sri Lanka (BOI)
5. Industrial Services Bureau (ISB) of Northwestern Provincial Council
6. Pradeshiya Sabhas of the area - Local administrative authority for the divisions of
district.
7. Sri Lanka Customs
8. Banks
Central Bank
DFCC
NDB

3.3.2.2 Other private institutions

1. Prawn Processing Plants

Alpex Marine Ltd.
Agro Marine Ltd.
Prawn Ceylon Ltd.
Skyway Foods Ltd.
2. Hatcheries
Agro Marine Ltd.
Aqua Services (Pvt.). Ltd.
3. Banks
Seylan Bank
Hatton National Bank
Commercial Bank
Vanik International

23
 4. None Governmental Organizations
Environmental Foundation
Mangrove Conservation and Development Center - Small Fisheries Federation

5. CP Environmental Laboratory

6. Feed and Equipment Suppliers

Kings International (Pvt.) ltd.
Aqua Services Private Ltd.
Global Feed

7. Hardware Centers and Lime Outlets

A prepared questionnaire for each and every organizations were filled in front of respective
officers and few organizations kept the questionnaire to provide completed information in two
to three weeks time. In order to get further information, discussions were held with the
respective officers of the organizations. However there were some data gaps and further visits
were made to organizations which were previously visited.

3.3.3 Water and wastewater analysis

The water quality parameters such as pH, Salinity, Phosphates, Nitrates, Nitrites, Sulphides,
Temperature, Turbidity, Total Suspended Solids and, BOD were obtained from NARA for
Dutch canal for 1983, 1987, 1992 and 1997. The water quality of the different water sources
such as Chilaw, Puttalam and, Mundel lagoons situated in Puttalam districts were also
obtained form NARA for 1997. The water samples of Chilaw, Mundel and Puttalam lagoons
and, the selected locations of Dutch canal (Figure 3.2) where the easy access is available and
the farm density is high, were collected in different time intervals for analysis. The samples
were analyzed for the parameters shown in Table 3.1 in Environmental Laboratory of Board of
Investment of Sri Lanka at Biyagama Export Processing Zone. Respective numbers for
sampling locations are given in Table 3.2.

Table 3.1 Parameters and analytical methods

Parameter Units Methods

pH Digital pH meter
Salinity ppt Salinity meter
Turbidity NTU HATCH Turbidity meter
Total Suspended Solid (TSS) mg/L
Ammonia mg/L Ammonia Electrode
BOD mg/L 5 days at 20 0C, Manometer method

24
Figure 3.2 Sampling locations along the Dutch canal and lagoons
Figure 3.2 Sampling locations and respective numbers

Sampling locations of Figure 3.2 Number

Puttalam lagoon 1
Palavi-Bridge 2
Aquatic exports 3

25
 Madurankuliya 4
Mundel lagoon 5
Uddapuwa 6
Virankatuwa 7
Karaukapone 8
South of Dutch canal 9
3.3.4 Sediment analysis

The sediments accumulated during the culture period were collected after the day of
harvesting of the shrimps from culture ponds. Samples were air dried for further analysis.
Then the samples were submitted to Soil and Plant Nutrition Department, Rubber Research
Institute of Sri Lanka for the analysis to be done to find fertilizer value of sediments. The
exchangeable ions in soil such as K, Na, Ca, Mg were determined to find its fertilizer values.
The following analysis presented in Table 3.3 were carried out for sediments collected from
seven farms.

Table 3.3 Parameters and analytical methods

Parameter Unit Method

pH Digital pH meter
Organic Carbon % K2Cr2O7
Total Nitrogen % Kjeldhal
Total Phosphorous mg/kg Se/H2SO4
Available Phosphorous mg/kg HCL
Exchangeable:Ca2+ , Mg2+, mg/kg Extracted by Ammonium acetate solution and
K+ , Na+ determined by Atomic Absorption
Spectrophotometic
Heavy metals - Extractable : mg/kg Extracted by Ammonium acetate solution;
Cu, Cr, Zn, Ni, Pb and Cd determined by Atomic Absorption
Spectrophotometic
Heavy metals - Total Digested and extracted by Se/H2SO4; determined by
Cu, Cr, Zn, Ni, Pb and Cd Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometic

3.3.5 Prawn processing plants

The environmental management practices especially in disposal of solid waste and wastewater
of four prawn processing plants were studied.

3.4 Expert advice

After analysis of views of farmers, consultants and respective individual's recommendations

were made to improve the present environmental management systems in shrimp industry in
Sri Lanka. These recommendations were discussed with the National Aquatic Resources
Agency. Industrial Service Bureau, Board of Investment of Sri Lanka, Ministry of Fisheries
and Aquatic Resources, and Provincial Fisheries Ministry of Northwestern Provincial Council.
The schematic representation of methodology is given in Figure 3.3

26
 Selection of Farms and
related agencies

Site visits / Discussions/ Data collection

/ meetings / data on water and
wastewater quality and quantity

Government Bankers Research

Industries Agencies Institutes
Financial
Knowledge Basic Research
Approvals Lending Rates
Training Adaptive Research
Regulations Leasing
HRD Extension
Laws Loans
Joint ventures Technology Transfer
Incentives Views
Marketing
Support
Financing
Marketing
Expansions
Promotion
Diseases
Extension
Laws
Lands
Regulations
Monitoring
Environmental Problems
Sensitivity Green issues
Polluter pay principal
Short and long term visions
Co-operate polices

Political and Public views

External Supporters

NGOS, Feed, Equipment and Chemical Suppliers

Market; Hatcheries; Processing plants

Data

Required
Analysis

Conclusions

Expert Advice

Sustainability

Figure 3.3 Schematic representation of methodology

27
 Palavi-Bridge

Aquatic Exports - Farm

Madurankuli

Uddappvi

Varankatuwa

Karukapone

Puttalam Lagoon

Mundel Lagoon

28
 Table 4.9 Similarities and dissimilarities of National Environmental Act and
Provincial Environmental Statute.

Provisions Nat. Env. NWP Env.

Act Statute
Provisions
Protection * *
Management and Enhancement of the Environment * *
Regulation * *
Maintenance and control of the quality of the * *
environment * *
Prevention, abatement and control of pollution * ?
Authority CEA PEA
Environmental Management
Natural Resources * *
Fisheries * *
Wild life * *
Forestry * *
Soil Conservation * *
Environmental Protection
Discharge, deposit, or emit waste; License * *

Environmental Quality
Discharge standards for control of waste water * ?
Noise standard * ?
Ambient Air Quality Standard * ?
Hazardous waste control standard * ?
EIA regulations * ?
* Present? Not clear or not present

4.2 Internal environment

According to the study, it can be recognized that shrimp farm is an isolated individual based
industry that links with other outside individuals or agencies. Internal organizational setup
consists of owner and the employees of industry and following chapters described the internal
environment.

4.2.1 Ownership, organizational structures and decision making

Government participation in carrying out farms is not in practiced in Sri Lanka. The private
owned-farms of various sizes (small, medium and large) are being operated in Sri Lanka. In
small farms, the owners of different capacities make co-ordination with consultant to carry out
farm activities. Farms are operated on the recommendations of the consultants and, the
consultations are given in different stages of farming activities. The stages of consultations in
farming activities and related activities are given in Table 4.10. In lager farms, the owner or
the highest shareholder takes control of the whole business and often acts as the president or

42
chairman. Decision-making is fast and always comes from the top management. Most of the
farms, the consultant is a shareholder and he get income from shares and from the consultation
during the cause of the farming period. The consultants are free to carry out their own
consultancy with out any restriction or any guidance form the government. The interaction of
actors in a farm is given in Fig 4.12.

Manager Consultant

Farm
owner

Employee Aquaculturist

Technical
Financial & Administrative

Figure 4.12 Interaction of actors in a farm

In the farming community consultant, play major role in controlling of farming practice,
technology and transfer of information. Farm owners play role in management and
negotiations. Managers directly link with employees, consultant and owner as mediator to
handle administrative and technical works. Consultant directly links with aqucculturist when
and where necessary to execute consultant ideas and technology in farming practices. In
small-scale farms owner execute the consultant instructions. However the consultant is
responsible for final harvest. Most of the employees are paid daily and, few of them are work
on monthly paid basis. Minor workers are employed in preparation of ponds, pond
maintenance and, feeding etc.
Local Consultants

Foreign Consultant
Foreign Company
Collaboration
Manager/
Foreign Magazines Information pool Farm
Owner
Seminars
Workshops
NGOS

New developments

Figure 4.13 Diagrammatic presentation of information transfer among the

farming community

Most of the farmers have limited interaction and sharing of experiences between similar farms
because of fear of divulging confidential farming practices and the competitiveness. The

43
experienced small farmers are quite positive on co-operation and sharing of knowledge and
experiences among the small farmers in use of feed, use of chemicals, water exchange,
plankton control, exchange of equipment such as pH and Salinity meters and, day to day
requirement of farming practices. The possible interaction of technology transfer is given in
Figure 4.13.

The summery of farmer's comments regarding the farming activities and the difficulties faced
during the cause of farming are given in Table 4.11.

Table 4.10 Activities and role of consultants

Activities Consultancy
Before implementation
Site selection Charges depending on the extent of the farm, activities and the
Project proposal location of the project.
IEE or EIA report

Under construction stages

Designing of farm lay out Charges depending on the extent of the farm, activities and the
Pond preparation location of the project.
Chemical and fertilizer application

After implementation
Water exchange Consultant is responsible for the harvest and visit frequently to the
Water treatment farm.
Disease treatment
Feeding • The 10 -15% of the income will be paid to consultant as
Chemical application consultant fee.
Probiotic application • The negotiated amount will be taken for a pond once the
Sediments removal harvest is collected.
Cleaning of ponds after harvesting • Charge for each visit
Either one of above will be negotiated as a fee for consultant.

4.2.2 Financial capabilities

In both small and large farmers, whose projects were approved by authorities concerned,
capital required for framing operations as mentioned in Table 4.12, acquired by applying loan
from development and or commercial banks. The securities that required in issuing loans are
normally properties or deposits of the client, or personal guarantees. The land of the farm is
not considered as security for bankers to issue loans because the low values of lands where the
farms are situated. Unauthorized farmers use their own funds or barrow from private lenders,
who provide the capital, feeds and equipment on lease.

When disease outbreaks most of the banks are reluctant of refinancing the sector due to
uncertainties in the future, and failures in recovering the loans given to farmers. Due to lack of
awareness on soft loan schemes and technology grants, farmers are facing problems in inviting
new technology for farming activities.

44
 Table 4.11 Summary of status of shrimp industry

Categories Problems/comments
Ownership The present owners due to financial crises lease some farms out.
Under different ownership farms are managed by different management parities
who are successful in farming activities.
Some farms have been abandoned due to labour problems in addition to financial
crises.
Two farms of pioneers in shrimp industry have been sold including a local feed
manufacturing plant, which has not been operated for last three years.

Organizational structure Larger farm owners willing to get consultation from reputed consultants and to
employee aquaculture graduates who can run the farms effectively.
Small farmers get consultation at a low cost from experienced workers.
Larger farms operate backyard hatcheries and own laboratories to check water
quality, microbial activities, soil pH etc.
Small farmers use pH and Salinity meters for water quality checking or seek
assistance from neighboring farms for water quality analysis.

Decision making Most of the farms, decisions regarding the farming activities are decided by the
consultant.
Administrative, financial and personnel decisions are taken by management or
owner of the farm.

However government instructed to the banks to reduce interest rates and, by the requesting
rescheduling the loans given to farmers to over come the financial crises due to disease
outbreaks in 1996. The government has provided Rs1. 100 millions to development banks to
issue loans for the modernization of farms to include at least a sedimentation tank to treat
wastewater generated from farms. NARA and banks are co-coordinating the loan scheme
through farmer associations to issue capital for authorized farms for modernization of the
industry. A copy of government notice appeared on a paper is given in Fig C-1 of Appendix. C

4.2.3 Business strategies

Every farmer examined in the survey wants to obtain maximum profit at the end of the harvest
by gaining at least 25g of weight of a shrimp to export as head on where the higher price is
guaranteed by the buyers. The farmers have been trying to achieve higher profit by
maximizing production capacity, by minimizing feed where the higher capital is required, and
by operating at least coast.

Buyers visit the farmers and based on on-site inspection of quality of shrimp offer the higher
price. Most of the buyers run their own processing plants and have separate exports lines to
the world market. There are also small buyers who supply the shrimp for the processing
plants. Buyers transport harvest in freeze trucks to respective processing plants. The pictures
in C-2 to C-7 of Appendix C show the various stages from the collection of shrimps from a
farm to processing of shrimp. Figure 4.14 shows the business strategies adopted to achieve
these goals.

1
1US$ = Rs. 60

45
 Table 4.12 Funding sources and requirements

Investment sources Funding requirements

Development banks–Long term loans Capital investment to purchase lands and equipment,
Consultation fees

Commercial banks – Short term loans Consultation fees, Feeds, Chemicals, labour charges,
Haring of equipment
Opening of letter of credit (LC) to import feed or
equipment, Bank guarantees

Financing Companies Leasing of heavy machinery and equipment

Private lenders - Short term loans Capital for feed, chemicals, labour charges, etc.

Use of quality PL
Use of chemicals
Disease prevention
Use new technology
Highwater quality
High water exchange
Consultant Low motalities
Quality feed
Capital Low-FCR Profit
Antibiotics
Owner Low energy use
Water treatment
Maximum weight
Wastewater treatment
Quality shrimps
Employee/HRD

Figure 4.14 Business strategies of shrimp farmers

4.2.4 Human resources and development

Manpower is an important component of an organizational structure. Cheaper manpower

ensures a higher profit in industry. Labour migration and difficulty of workers in working at
farming environment under dry, hot and humid climate are the major problems faced by
owners of the farms. Twenty four-hour workmanship has created two or three working shifts
for workers to facilitate feeding four to six times a day, water exchange and pond management
of culture ponds. An aquaculturist or a responsible persons of similar capacity should be
available at farms to ensure the safety in any emergency situations, for a example, high
sensitivity of shrimps for dissolved oxygen of pond water during night, continuos operation of
paddlewheels are required to supply oxygen. Human resources activities in the shrimp and
shrimp related industries are given in Table 4.13

4.2.5 Training

Capabilities of human resources in some farms are developed through local training. When
consultant play major role, limited numbers of farms provide training facilities to the
managers and technical assistants of the farms. The consultant may provide training to the
workers at site for feeding, pond management, site preparation, lime and dolomite application,

46
and water exchange. The training workshops and programs conducted by the NARA,
MFARD, PFM and ISB also help in the development of capabilities of managers and technical
assistants of farms. The most of the participants for these seminars/ workshops are from
farmers associations or from authorized farms.

Table 4.13 Human resource development and incentive systems for miner and middle
level workers

Human resources development and intensive systems

Activities Medium and large scale Small scale
Human resources development
Pond Preparation yes No
Pond management yes No
Use of pH and salinity meters Yes Yes
PL selection Yes No
Water exchange Yes Yes
Feeding Yes Yes
Chemical application Yes No
Water treatment Yes Yes
Wastewater treatment No No
Environment management No No
Disease treatment Yes No
Use of probiotics Yes No
Bacteria control in ponds Yes No
Plankton control in ponds Yes No

Incentive System No
Awards Some farms Some times
Bonus Some farms No
Recognition Some farms Some times
Salary increase Yes No
Subsidized meal Some farms Some times
Free meal Some farms Some farms
Free tea Some farms

Compensation and benefits Not found

Medical and accident insurance Few farms Not found
Provides housing Some farms Not found
Transport facilities Some farms Not found
Employee’s loans Some farms
Note: executive grade staff members get more facilities than miner and middle level workers.

Opportunities for the small scale and unauthorized farmers are limited. Due to lack of proper
training on this sector small and unauthorized farms tend to seek consultant support at any
cost to maximize the profit. Language problem is one of the major obstacles in training
programs in respect to small farmers. Most of the seminars/workshops were conducted in
English. The farmers association has undertaken to disseminate the ideas, technology other
important issues. However it has not been successful and it was limited to few powerful
people of the associations. The number of small farmers interviewed in the study has gained
technical knowledge by working in shrimp farms. However there are no dedicated farmers
training centers for farmers to obtain new technologies available and, exchange ideas and

47
experiences among the farmers.

4.2.6 Environmental Management

Environmental management and protection of shrimp culture industries which are in operation
vary depending on their ability to acquire funds, available lands, technical knowledge and
environmental regulations. In Sri Lanka, due to lack of proper enforcement of existing
environmental regulations and post monitoring by concerned authorities, there is a low
priority in the industries to carry out environmental management and protection though the
conditions have been laid by the authorities concerned by the time the projects are approved.
The main priorities of the shrimp industries are pond management and disease control to over
come the losses and to minimize motalities during the cause of the culture period. After
outbreak of diseases in 1996 there is a trend among the farmers to include environmental
management systems to manage water quality of the ponds. Chlorination is more popular
among the farmers prior to the PL is stocked in ponds.

The consultants who assist farmers in culture period also help in some farms in order to
maintain environmental management systems. There are no specialists in Sri Lanka in
environmental field who could provide guidance to farmers. NARA plays special role in
environmental management systems by providing guidance. They have published a booklet
explaining importance of sedimentation, semi-closed and closed systems in treating
wastewater of shrimp culture ponds (Figure C-8 of Appendix C). Bankers who provide
lending facilities for long-term basis also insisting on having environmental management and
protection programs for shrimp farms.

4.2.7 Environmental degradation

The environmental degradation can occur due to haphazard development of industries in

environmentally sensitive areas. In the areas where the shrimp industry was established,the
environmentally significant ecological habits such as mangroves, salt marshes, seagrass beds
and mud flats are of most important. There are some reported evidences on the degradation of
these areas. Most of the wetland in demand for aquaculture developments is located in flood
plain. In Puttalam nearly 180 ha has been used from flood plains. It has clearly been observed
by survey that the construction of ponds on the mangrove areas, on mud flats, inside or on
buffer zones of lagoons, banks of Dutch canal, streams and rivers by farmers ignoring its
ecologically impotence. It was clearly observed fact that the some authorized farms also
encroached the sensitive areas. Figures C-9 to C-14 of Appendix C shows the destruction of
sensitive habitats.

4.2.7.1 Mangroves

Recent remote sensing survey has estimated the mangrove cover along the shores of the
Puttalam Lagoon, Dutch Bay and Portugal Bay complex. Figure 4.15 and Tables C-5 to C-6 of

48
 1200

Puttalam
1000 1181.5
Dutch bay

800
Area -ha

600

400 296.91
262.04
431.57
200

0
1981 1992
Situation in 81 and 92

Figure 4.15 Mangrove distribution of Puttalam Lagoon and Dutch Bay in 1981 and
1992

1400

1200 1303.27 Puttalam

Dutch bay
1000
Area-ha

800
640.95
600

400

200
70.3 60.5
0
1981 1992
Situation in 81 and 92

Figure 4.16 Salt marshes distribution of Puttalam Lagoon and Dutch Bay in 1992
and 1981

49
 Figure 4.17 Environmental degradation and pollution on Mangroves and Salt
marshes and it impacts *

Changes in fauna and flora

Land Use Inputs
Loss of biodiversity
Aquaculture -farms, Nutrients
Loss of endemic spp.
Roads, Villages Chemicals Water Loss of breeding grounds of
Land reclamation Antibiotics quality fish and wild shrimps
Unwanted bacteria
Loss of income for fishing
Water use Heavy metals
communities
Changes in water flow rates Fe and Al
Floods
Changes in flooding N-compounds
Prolong retention of floods
Changes in sediments silting P-compounds
Inundation of paddy fields
Cl2-by products
High turbidity in water
Fecal pollution
Erosion
Population growth Accumulation of organic
Food and energy demand matter

Changes in physical and

biological environments

Causes Changes Impacts

* Figure was prepared by using ideas of framers generated during field survey and interviewing of respective
experts. Most of the reported evidence were not quantified. During 1992, unusual flood levels were observed in
Archikattuwa AGA division where there is considerable development of shrimp culture. (Jayassinghe 1994)

Appendix C shows the area of mangroves around the Puttalam Lagoon and Dutch Bay in 1981
and 1992 based on aerial photographs from the survey department. Considerable areas of the
mangroves have been eliminated between 1981 and 1992 in Puttalam lagoon (64%) and Dutch
Bay (11%). It has not been clearly estimated the extent of mangrove lost due to shrimp
industry in Puttalam area. The reported evidence were the removal of mangroves for shrimp
farms and for obtaining fence posts for shrimp farms. Of a total area of 1,083 ha utilized for
barckishwater shrimp farming on the NWPC coast in 1987, 359ha were located in healthy
mangrove areas (Jayashinghe, 1992). Amarasinghe (1988) reported that, in mid-1980’s
mangrove has been used as firewood by 55% of the households around the Puttalam estuary.
As a result of the influx of refuges to the area, consumption of mangroves as firewood has
increased considerably. Figure 4.15 shows the loss of mangroves in Puttalam lagoon and the
Dutch Bay in 1992 in comparison with the distribution of 1981.

4.2.7.2 Salt marshes

Salt marshes are common along the landward of the mangroves in the semi-arid Puttalam/
Mundel Estuarine system. Based on the Arial photographs taken in 1981, the extent of salt
mashes in Mundel and Puttalam lagoons are given in Figure 4.16 and Tables C-7 to C-8 of
Appendix C. Figure 4.16 shows the present status of the slat marshes of the area. It shows that
the destruction of salt marshes in the Puttalam (51%) and Dutch bay (14%) from 1981 to
1992. The losses of salt marshes are critical in Puttalam lagoon compared with Dutch bay.

50
In addition to these lagoon areas, Mi Oya flood plains, have been severely threatened by the
advent of shrimp farming in the area. 160 ha of salt marshes have been legally approved for
shrimp farming (PMF). In addition to the disturbance to the habitat environment impacts can
be observed due to the pollution loads from shrimp pond wastewater, domestic waste from
urbanization, and other non-point sources such as over land flow. Figure 4.17 summarized the
possible pollution aspects on the mangroves and the salt marshes.

4.2.8 Water and wastewater

4.2.8.1 Water quality of ponds

Water quality in aquaculture encompasses all physical, chemical, and biological variables that
effect aquaculture production. Most pond management procedures are aimed at improving
chemical and biological conditions in ponds. In Sri Lanka, after the adverse effect of water
born diseases in recent past in shrimp industry, farmers are alert on water quality management
of ponds. They have realized the alarming situations of water quality, which is critical for the
aquaculture industry. Various methods used by Sri Lankan farmers for water management in
ponds are presented in Fig 4.18 Present water treatment systems used by the farmers are also
given in Table 4.14. Now farmers have an intention to use water treatment in combination
with recycling systems that circulate wastewater into ponds effectively after biological and
physical treatments. Chemical treatment is an optional in the re-circulation system. When the
salinity is high during dry seasons, the use of ground water for diluting of lagoon water has
been increasing in the farms situated at Kalpitiya and Madurakulia. Salinity may some times
be increased during dry season, beyond the 35 ppt by high evaporation and low mixing of
seawater in Dutch canal in between Puttalam lagoon and Mundel lagoon. Tube wells situated
in areas where the salinity was high are 100 m deep, and 5 ppt of salinity was recorded in
some tube wells in Puttalam area. Limited ground water resources have been observed in
Kalpitiya area and NARA is engaged on a research project to ascertain the water quality and
the resources availability. The interesting situation observed by field survey was that nearly 50
ha block of land of shrimp farms at Wanathvilluwa area was totally depend on the ground
water where the salinity of the water was 18 -20 ppt. However, the red coloured stains of
ferrous ions on the canals and on the drains of the farms were observed during the site visit.
Jayasinghe (1994) reported that the deposition of iron hydroxide can generate stress on shrimp
and it may also cause disease out breaks due to stress condition.

As per the data available in data sources, the following paragraphs discuss the present water
quality of ponds.

The physico-chemical parameters were measured in a culture cycle of well managed ponds of
farms are presented in Table 4.15. In comparison to the other parameters, TSS of the ponds
was always higher. Hydrogen sulphide, ammonia, nitrite and BOD levels of some ponds were
also above the acceptable levels. The pond water quality changes quickly in responses to input
of large quantities of feeds. As consequences of this it may lead to increase the TSS and
organic matter of ponds. The microbial activity under aerobic conditions, the organic matter is
converted to inorganic compounds, such as phosphates, ammonia and carbon dioxide and
under anaerobic condition favor to produce hydrogen sulphide and nitrogen gas. Therefore

51
levels of ammonia, phosphates and hydrogen sulphide are determined by the aeration and by
organic matter present in the ponds.

Natural
Pump Screen Screen
Waters Filling of
water
Fertilizer
Internal
Reservoir Pond chemicals
canal
Feeds
Antibiotics
Sedimentation Vitamins

Outlet canal

Figure 4.18 Water management approaches in culture ponds

Table 4.14 Physico-chemical methods used by farmers for water treatment

Types of Treatment
Water Treatment
• No treatment - water is pumped directly to ponds
• Chlorination before stocking of PL
• Chlorination and probiotics
• Sedimentation and chlorination
• Sedimentation or reservoir
• Ground water only - Salinity (18 -20) ppt*
River water from close vicinity of lagoon -Salinity (12 - 16) ppt
*Ground water with low salinity (5ppt) is used for dilution
of high salinity brackishwater (>35ppt)

Table 4.15 Pond water quality analysis

Parameter Units Farm 1 Farm 2 Farm 3 Acceptable

range
0
Temperature C 29 - 30 - 29 - 30 26 - 33
Turbidity NTU 16 - 36 - - 0 - 150
TSS mg/L 30 - 59 34 - 75 - 2 - 14
DO mg/L 5.7 - 10.5 - 5.9 - 6.3 3 -12
Salinity ppt 11 - 28 - - 10 -35
pH 8.2 - 8.6 - - 7.5 - 8.7
Nitrate mg/L - 0.43 - 0.69 0.03 - 0.036 0 - 200
Nitrite mg/L 0.01 - 0.17 0.03 - 0.47 0.005 - 0.014 < 0.25
NH4 (Unionized) mg/L - 0.25 - 0.62 0.05 - 0.058 <0.25
H2S mg/L 0.17 - 0.19 0.28 - 0.80 - <0.25
PO4- mg/L - 0.36 - 0.72 0.017 - 0.031 -
BOD5 mg/L 5.2 - 14.6 - 3.9 - 4.3 <10
Source: 1. Edirisinghe and Jayasinghe (1997) ;2. Corea et al. (1995);3. Thariq (1996)
4.2.8.2 Wastewater

52
 It is difficult to differentiate pond water and wastewater because the continuous water
exchange and deterioration of water quality, during culture cycles, would increase the
discharge of pond water. However during harvesting, entire pond water is discharged. As a
result of this the discharged water would leads to sudden increase of pollution loads in water
bodies and it would also effect the neighboring farm who use the water for ponds.

Physico-chemical parameters of wastewater sources were measured for wastewater during the
study period from March to April 98, in a culture cycle of a farm, are given Table 4.16. There
were no significant changes in pH and salinity during the culture period because the pH was
maintained by adding dolomite and quick lime, while the salinity is normally determined by
the water quality of water sources. The levels of BOD, TSS and Turbidity increased within the
period of a culture cycle. This indicates farmer’s ignorance in maintaining these parameters.

It is necessary to understand the wastewater qualities of international shrimp ponds, in order to

adequate mitigatory measures to be proposed. The values recorded in Thailand for TSS and
BOD are within the levels recorded by the study (Table.C-9 of Appendix C).

Table 4.16 Pond water quality* of a culture cycle

Parameter Units Initial Middle Prior to

stage stage harvesting
pH 8.46 8.02 7.76
BOD5 mg/L 7.5 23.34 31.17
TSS mg/L 28 56.33 94
Turbidity mg/L 11.67 23.33 30.33
Salinity ppt 27.67 28 27.33
* mean of three ponds

The inputs and outputs of the shrimp ponds, reported by Wannigama (1997) is presented in
Table 4.17.

Table 4.17 Inputs and outputs of culture ponds during a culture cycle in Sri Lanka

Inputs Out puts

Material Units ha/Cycle Loads kg/ha/Cycle Units Concentration
Triple supper P kg 9 Organic load 105
Urea kg 35 Total P 3-8 mg/L 1.45
Water m3 100,000 Total N 14-20 mg/L 0.7
Dolomite kg 1000 Ammonia 06-1.0 mg/L 0.1
Prawn feed kg 2000 TSS mg/L 75-100
Tea seed cake kg 50 BOD mg/L 40-60
COD mg/L 175-200
pH mg/L 7.5-8.9
Source: Wannigama (1997)

According to the study carried out in a farm, the estimated organic load as BOD5 is presented

53
in Table 4.18 Therefore, the estimated, total discharge of BOD5 during culture cycle is
2386.kg/ha/cycle. The total pond area used by farmers of Sri Lanka is nearly 2000 ha of total
area approved for farms. Therefore total discharge of BOD5 would be 4772 tones per cycle.

Table 4.18 Estimation of organic load during culture period

Days %Water Total discharge, BOD5 Total Organic

Exchange m3/day load (kg)
1-30 5 645 7.5 145
30-90 12.5 1612 7.5 725
90-120 20 2580 23.5 1806
Day of Harvesting 12900 31.5 402

Total 3078
Capacity of ponds 12900m3

It is necessary to justify the importance of the pollution caused by effluents of ponds into the
water bodies in comparison with the other pollution aspects of the area or the industrial sector
of the area. According to Table 4.19 the aqcuacuture industry may be a significant
environmental issue of the area. With the limited data availability of the other sectors, Table
4.20 shows the comparison BOD5 loading of selected sectors and Table C-10 of Appendix C
briefed the BOD5 loading of each sector. In Sri Lanka, two shrimp production cycles per year
are possible. Therefore the estimated, BOD5 loading is nearly 9544 tones/y (Table 4.18)

Table 4.19 Other polluting sources

Location Causes
Puttalam lagoon Dust - Cement factory, drainage of domestic wastewater from Puttalam
Town and from other settlements, leak or spill of oil from boats into the
water
Mundel lagoon No major industries to generate wastewater, Two fiber mills-acids and
hydrogen sulphide
Chilaw lagoon Drainage of domestic wastewater from Chilaw town and from other
settlements, leak or spill of oil from boats
Source ; Wetland conservation project. (1994) , Present situation is more or less same; fish processing plant is
under construction at Mundalama.

It is prudent that the percentage contribution of the BOD5 loading is relatively significant in
comparison with other industry activities of the area (Table 4.19) However the loading in
comparison with the population, it is less significant. Population is distributed in entire
province and the shrimp industry is restricted only to coastal areas of the province. Therefore
the impacts of shrimp industry would be more important than the impacts of the population of
the area.

54
 Table 4.20 Comparison of BOD5 waste loading of shrimp ponds with other sectors

Sector % Contribution of
shrimp wastewater
Total waste of industries in Colombo* 699
Sewage from Colombo City to Kelani river through 100.1
out falls*
Individuals in Colombo city 26
Individuals in Northwestern province 24
*1989

Considering the feed application into ponds, the calculated out puts and in puts of Sri Lanka
shrimp ponds is given in Table C-11 Appendix C. The loss of organic matter, in 1996, into
water bodies is nearly 3308 MT/y and percentage loss of nitrogen and phosphorous is 62%
and 89% respectively. As per the Thailand predictions, nearly 77% and 86% of nitrogen and
phosphorous applied as feed to ponds is wasted to water bodies as uneaten feed (Table C-12 of
Appendix C).

Calculated value of BOD5, using 2000 ha is nearly two times higher than the estimated value
of organic loading, which calculated base on the feed loading.

The values obtained from two methods for pollutant loads are incompatible. Therefore it is
necessary to study pollution loads of ponds, to improve carrying capacity of the water bodies.

High organic loads would increase the oxygen demand in water bodies and it would eventually
reduce the dissolved oxygen levels. Finally this would increase the anaerobic condition
inducing the ecological stress to the organisms. Nitrogen and phosphorous contents are
equally important for water bodies, because it leads to formation of eutrophication and algae
blooms causing sever problems on water quality. The stagnating of water is prevailed in Dutch
canal during dry seasons and it would also aggravate situation of natural recovery.

It is useful to compare the quality of shrimp farm effluent with wastes from other potential
sources of pollution (Table C-13 of Appendix C) this comparison shows that the pollution
potential of shrimp farm (Well-managed) effluent is considerably less that of domestic or
industrial wastewater. However, the effluent produced during harvesting has much greater
pollution potential for a shorter period. Although the actual quality of shrimp farm effluent is
less noxious than many other sources of coastal effluent, water pollution problems may arise
because of the large volumes discharged, particularly when shrimp farms become too
concentrated in the areas with limited water supplies or poor flushing capacities.

55
 1 Water Source Culture ponds

Water Source Chlorination of Stocking of culture

2 culture ponds ponds

Water Source Reservoir &

3 Culture ponds
Sedimentation

Water Source Chlorination of Reservoir &

4 Culture ponds
reservoir Sedimentation

Water Source Culture ponds Effluent canal*

5

Water Source Reservoir &

6 Culture ponds
Sedimentation

7 Water Source Reservoir &

Culture ponds
Sedimentation

Treatment
8 Water Source Reservoir &
Mussels
Sedimentation
Thilapeya
Areation Culture ponds
Milkfish
Aquatic plants

Water source; Surface water of lagoons and canals or ground water;

*Effluent canals were also found in other systems;

Ground water could be used for dilution of lagoon water or used directly as water source where the ground water
was salty.

1. Direct intake & discharge; 2 Cl2 before stocking; 3. Storing of water at sedimentation to remove SS; 4: Cl2
before reservoir; 5: Effluent canal to remove SS; 6 Closed system;7. Semi-Closed system; 8. Closed system with
biofiltreation

Note: Chlorination may be used at the beginning of the water intakes in any system.

Figure 4.19 Different water and wastewater treatment systems in Sri Lankan
shrimp farms

56
 Table 4.21 Water exchange rates of semi-intensive culture systems

Culture period Daily water exchange

(Days) percentage
0 - 15 2.5
16 - 30 5 - 7.4
31 - 45 10 - 7.5
46 - 60 10 -12
61 - 90 12.5 -15
91 - 120 15 - 20
>120 20 -25
Sources: Nakara (1994)

Table 4.22 Types of wastewater systems and its distribution in surveyed area

Types of Treatment Number % of Total

Drain canal and seepage canal 3 3
Closed and semi-closed system 11 10
Closed systems with biofitration and aeration 1 1
No wastewater treatment 85 77

In Sri Lanka, nearly 80% of the farms directly discharge the wastewater, generated by water
exchange and harvesting, into the canal or the lagoons without further treatment at the farm
premises. Then, however, disease outbreaks and low quality of water of sources, force farmers
to use systems to recirculate wastewater into culture ponds to minimize discharge and intake
Show the water exchange rates of semi-intensive culture systems. Table 4.22 indicates the
present wastewater treatment systems adopted by farmers and its distribution in surveyed
farms. Intake of water from the Puttalam canal and release of discharged water into it is the
common practice (Siriwaddena et al, 1988). Therefore prior to disease outbreaks the situation
was different, farmers were reluctant to spend money, time, and land for the waste treatment
since they thought it was not necessary though the authorities were forcing them to use
wastewater treatment. Large and small-scale farmers complain to each other in respect to
disease transmission and pollution. The complains from small farmers were that large farmers
spread disease and pollute water sources by discharging untreated wastewater. The struggle
between two groups is continuing and is causing severe damage to farming industry.

As shown in Table 4.22 only 15% of the farmers have been using some kind of wastewater
treatment. It was well-known fact that during 80’s natural recovery of water quality was
sufficient to sustain farming community. Therefore, at early stages of shrimp industry, NARA
with limited knowledge of shrimp industry, and other agencies, recommended only to use
drain canal and seepage canal for the sedimentation of suspended solids of wastewater.
Haphazard development has already destroyed the natural recovery causing severe water
quality problems. After disease outbreaks some farmers realized the situation seriously. As
shown in figure 4.19 they are compelled to use wastewater treatment (6-8) together with water
treatment. Farmers having more than 5 ha can spare 10% of land for sedimentation tank or

57
stock tank. However small scale farmers are not in a position to spare land for sedimentation
or stock tank. During crisis situation NARA has produced a booklet recommending
sedimentation, semi-circulation and closed wastewater systems for farmers. These methods
can be implemented only by medium and large scale farmers because the clusters of small
farmers face difficulties in implementing these methods due to lack of land and coordination
with neighboring farmers to find common land for the location of sedimentation tank. Further
lack of common intakes and outlets for neighboring farms to facilitate the recommended
systems are making difficulty when it comes to implement the recommended system.

4.2.8.3 Water quality of water sources

The present water quality of water sources was explained in next paragraphs by making use of
different data sources and by water quality analysis made during the field survey.

Pond water management and water quality of water sources are equally important because
high expenditures and work force are required to maintain pond water quality at acceptable
levels for shrimp industry. Figure 4.20 shows the area of farms and other potential point and
non-point sources that could generate wastewater into Dutch canal and inter-connected
lagoons. Figure 4.21 explains the potential impacts on water quality and its consequences.
This figure was prepared based on the information collected from farmers, interviewing
experts and during field visits survey.

According to farmers, salinity and pH values are most important for routine farming activities
and for maintenance of water quality in ponds. Figure 4.22 shows the salinity changes of the
selected locations during the period of May 1997 to Feb 1998. Relatively low Salinity (5 -
40ppt) values were recorded in Karukapone, Uddapuwa, and Vairankatuwa areas through out
the year. This may be due to the dilution from fresh water of connected freshwater bodies to
southern part of Dutch canal. (Fig 4-A of Appendix A) Salinity values recorded in all
locations were relatively higher in May to Sept. compared with the values of Oct. to Dec.
period. Arulananthan (1995) reported that, in Puttalam lagoon, the evaporation is dominating
term in the freshwater balance of lagoons. Therefore the high evaporation may be a reason for
the high salinity of Dutch canal during dry season and it may also be due to more intensive use
of freshwater sources. High salinity indicates the groundwater requirement for the dilution of
lagoon water, in the areas of Mundel lagoon to Puttalam lagoon. Farmers in these areas are
compelled to carry out one culture cycle per year i.e. only during the low salinity period.
However farmers in Karkanpone to Uddapuwa areas used to carry out two cycles per year.
Some time farmers are to carry out 2.2 cycles per year in the areas having low salinity through
out the year.

58
 Main Road
Railway line

Land drainage

Silts from floods

Dutch canal
Land overflow

Forest, mangroves
Ratambal Oya

Sewage
Soid waste Sea
Mundel Lagoon

Urban areas
Water intakes
Effluents
Sediments
P
Madurankuli Aru

P
P
P
P

P: Shrimp ponds
Figure 4.20 Diagrammatic representation of point and non-point sources of
pollutants at Dutch canal and its lagoon environment.
Inputs
Land Use
Organic matter Changes in fauna and flora
Aquacultue -shrimp
Nutrients Changes in fisheries sources
Land overflow Water
Chemicals Changes in DO
Village Developments quality
Antibiotics Changes in BOD
Encroachments
Unwanted bacteria Antibiotic resistance varieties
Heavy metals Bioaccumulation
Water use
Fe and Al Biomagnification
Changes in water flow rates:
N-compounds Silting
Canalization, Water intakes
P-compounds
and discharge of farms,
Cl2-by products
Sediments, Unconsumed
Fecal pollution
foods, Probiotics

Population growth Changes in physical and

Food and energy demand biological environments

Pollution Sources Changes Impacts

Figure 4.21 Summary of potential pollution aspects of Dutch canal

59
Figure 4.23 shows the changes of pH at the selected locations of Dutch canal, Mundel and
Puttalam lagoons during May 1997 to Feb 1998. The pH values varied in the ranged of 7 -
8.75 and there is no significant differences among the locations and studied months, in respect
to acceptable levels of shrimp industry.

Table 4.23 indicates the water quality at the different locations of Dutch canal and the lagoons.
The recorded values of BOD, TSS was higher in all locations compared with the acceptable
levels. The pH values were within the limits during the study period, but salinity increased in
the locations of Mudel lagoon, Dutch canal and Puttalam lagoon. Salinity changes in the
Dutch canal Mudel and Puttalam lagoons are more or less similar to Figure 4.22 The level of
ammonia and nitrite exceeded in all locations except at Chilaw and Puttalam lagoons.
Sulphides values also increased in all locations except at Gambarandeniya.

The change in physico chemical parameters in a long time period is a factor to decide the
carrying capacity of the water sources. The carrying capacity of the water bodies is based on
the balance between the quantity of waste products being generated by shrimp ponds and the
capacity to assimilate those wastes by microorganisms in the water bodies. Table C-14 of
appendix C shows the changes in water quality parameters in the Dutch canal from 1983 to
1998. The pH of the Dutch canal was lower as 4.5-6.0 (Fig 4.24) during 1983, before the
shrimp farming was established. Since then it increased and has come to a level that varied
between 7 to 8.5 from 1992 to 1998. This attribute to the fact that the ponds are heavily limed
to over comes acidic conditions of acid sulphate soils commonly know as pyretic soils. The
majority of shrimp farms are located in pyrites soils. Pyrites in the deeper layers of soil get
exposed during pond construction. Fe2S reacts with O2 producing Fe3+and SO4- As a
consequence of this lowering of pH of the ponds soil and water was reported.

Jayasinghe (1994) reported that the release of high concentration iron, aluminum and
manganese ions from pyretic soil are due to low pH levels of water (Table 4.24).

Table 4.24 Concentration of metal ions and pH in water draining ponds during
pond preparation in acid-sulphate soil

Farm site pH Iron Aluminum Manganese

(mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L)
A 3.5 19.3 2.5 <0.16
B 3.9 12.7 1.8 1.12
C 2.7 17.6 2.35 3.18
Screening level* <0.3 na <0.05
Production level* <0.1 na <0.025
Source: Jayasinghe, 1994
* Huguenin and Colt (1986)
na; not available

60
Table 4.23 Comparison of critical water quality in main water sources for shrimp culture Sri Lanka

Parameter Units Gembaran- Chilaw Dutch canal Mundel Dutch canal Puttalam Acceptabl
deniya lake North lagoon e
(Mee Oya range
area)
pH 7.3 - 8.2 7.5 - 8.6 7.4 - 8.7 7.2 - 8.7 7.5 - 8.6 7.2 - 8.6 6.8 - 8.7
Salinity ppt 2 - 30 5 - 31 0 - 38 2 - 52 1 - 46 10 - 48 10 - 30
Turbidy NTU 6 - 32 5 - 35 5 -32 9 - 53 7 - 30 6 - 25
Nitrite mg/L 0.005 - 0.017 0.002-0.034 0.002 - 0.51 0.001 - 0.43 0.003 - 0.59 0.002 - 0.14 < 0.2
Ammonia mg/L 0.007 - 0.08 0.01 - 0.18 0.20 - 0.56 0.09 - 0.47 0.27 - 0.43 0.04 - 0.15 < 0.2
Sulphides mg/L 0.0 - 0.14 0.04 - 0. 36 0.12 - 0.72 0.10 - 0.7 0.16 - 0.7 0.16 - 0.6 < 0.2
TSS mg/L NA 50 - 300 100 - 400 125 - 425 150 - 400 100 - 275 < 100
BOD5 mg/L NA 8.8 - 20.4 8.6 - 36.2 6.0 - 22.4 10.8 - 48.4 7.8 - 18.2 < 10
DO mg/L NA 6.2 - 12.2 6.2 - 13.2 6.8 - 12.4 5.4 - 10.8 4.2 - 9.6 6.8 - 8.7
NA :- Not available
Source :- NARA 1997

61
There was no significant variation in salinity from 1983 to 1998 but it varied with in a year of
study from 0 - 35 ppt. (Fig 4.25). Temperature variations were also more or less constant from
1983 to 1998 (Fig 4.26). Average temperature variation was within 24 to 32 0C.

Turbidity did not show significant variations from 1983-1998, however there was one
occasion that the turbidity was raised beyond 55 NTU in 1992 (Fig 4.27). The changes in TSS
were quite significant after the shrimp industry was established in 1986. Then it has been
increased and varied from 50-400 mg/L. The average value already exceeds the acceptable
level (Fig 4.28).

The recorded BOD values (Fig 4.29) from 1992, at all locations, were always above the
acceptable levels.

There were gaps of data for water qualities in 1988 for the water bodies. Therefore the study
was carried out from first week of March to mid of April 1998 for determination of water
quality at selected locations (Figure 3.2) of Dutch canal and lagoons are given in Figures 4.30
to 4.34 for pH. Salinity, Turbidity, TSS and BOD. The corresponding sampling locations of
figures represent the following set of numbs.

Sampling locations of Figure 3.2 and for Number

corresponding results in Figures 4.30 to 4.34
Puttalam lagoon 1
Palavi-Bridge 2
Aquatic exports 3
Madurankuliya 4
Mundel lagoon 5
Uddapuwa 6
Virankatuwa 7
Karaukapone 8
South of Dutch canal 9

The pH values of all locations were within acceptable levels required for shrimp industry
during the period of study. During the study period nearly 85% of the farms in the area were
being operated or were being prepared for culturing the ponds. The recorded levels of salinity
of the locations were also at optimum levels for shrimps. However the increasing trend of
salinity was observed in locations 1 to 5. Turbidity values were varied between 15 to 30 NTU
at all locations except one occasion at Puttalam lagoon. TSS levels of all locations were
relatively high and the locations 1 and 2 have high TSS values on 20.4.98. The recorded BOD
values were also high in all locations compared to acceptable levels of shrimp water quality.

It is necessary to understand the water quality of the water sources of other countries, which
supply water to shrimp industry. Table C-15 of Appendix C, shows the water quality of
Thailand water sources. There are no significant difference of pH and salinity of Sri Lankan
water bodies and respective values of Thailand water sources. Ammonia and phosphate values
are high in Thailand water bodies compared with acceptable levels for shrimp industry. The
water bodies in Samut Sakorn province were polluted and are not suitable for shrimp industry

62
mainly due to low Dissolved oxygen level. Comparison indicates that the Sri Lankan water
bodies also reaching to a level that could be considered as a serious situation for the
continuation of shrimp industry.

Standard stipulated by authorities for the discharged of wastewater from shrimp ponds into
Inland Surface waters and Marine coastal waters are given Table C-16 of Appendix C. When
compared standards with the wastewater quality in discharges of properly managed culture
periods (Table 4.15), are within the limits of Standards. However BOD and TSS levels during
the harvesting periods (Table 4.16) were not within the specified levels for Inland Surface
Waters. On the other hand wastewater of properly managed ponds may not exceed the
standards. Therefore the authorities have to consider the proper monitoring program, which
could base on load basis not on concentration basis, to safeguarded the water qualities of water
bodies. Major obstacle in the area is high farm density and high waste loads to the water
bodies from these densely located farms.

4.2.9 Characteristics of sediments and its disposal

The accumulated sediment on the bottom of pond, during harvesting and after it’s water is
discharged, normally appeared as black in colour. Sediments accumulated in culture period is
allowed to dry for two to three weeks and is removed by scraping the 5-10 cm thick top soil
layer. After drying, the colour of the top sediments layers turns into normal soil colour of the
area. When pond bottoms are dried between culture cycle, evaporation of water from soil
enhances aeration and favors the microbial decomposition of soil organic matter. The
oxidation of organic matter and ferrous sulfide during the drying period may be a reason for
the change of colour of soil. Sulfuric acid is formed due to the oxidation of ferrous sulphide.
This tends to reduce pH, and farmers used to apply dolomite and lime to increase the pH up to
an optimum level.

In Thailand farms with lined ponds, used to discharge sediments by flushing of ponds but in
Sri Lanka it is not practiced because the ponds are not lined. Methods used to dispose off the
sediments in Sri Lanka, are either dumping of sediments on dikes of ponds or dumping on
neighboring lands and roads (Figure C-15 of Appendix C) or use as fertilizer for neighboring
coconut plantations. Data available on characteristics of sediments are limited in Sri Lankan
literature, because disposal of sediments is not a current problem faced by farmers. However
some farmers and environmentalist complain that there is an increasing trend of silting of
Dutch canal during rainy seasons due to disposal of untreated wastewater of ponds. According
to Tunvilai et al., 1993 the generation of sediments from Thai shrimp ponds is 200-836 tons
dry weight/ha or 151-629 m3/ha. Using these figures it was calculated Sri Lankan sediment
generation for 1 ha is 230 tons and for 2000 ha of pond area, it would be 460000 tons/cycle.

The characteristics of sediments collected from the ponds of farms at different locations are
given in Tables 4.25 and 4.26.

The values of pH varied within a small range of 7.37 to 7.81. Sediment is appeared to be
alkaline. However the contents of Ca2+ in all farms were very high compared to the Mg2+ and
K+. This indicates the over use of lime and dolomite and, resulted residual effects of use of

63
lime and dolomite, to increase the pH of soil to overcome the acid sulfide condition. Most of
the farms, where the soil was collected, are 5 to 6 years old.

Table 4. 25 Characteristics of sediment collected from ponds of seven farms

Location
Parameter Units 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
pH 7.47 7.37 7.79 7.77 7.39 7.81 7.51
Organic C % 5.14 4.18 3.80 3.34 3.83 3.62 2.19
Total solids % 90.6 92.5 93.5 93.9 93.1 93.5 96.8
Total N % 0. 28 0.21 0.07 0.07 0.14 0.207 0.23
Total P ppm 740 560 280 400 680 360 660
Extract - P ppm 50 36 29 30 58 38 41
Exch.- K ppm 458 417 252 253 285 301 401
Exch. - Mg ppm 1745 1728 1415 1549 1390 1649 1668
Exch. - Ca ppm 14220 7845 7716 8966 5851 7974 6810
Exch. - Na ppm 3290 1031 6532 2291 3547 4141 3576
1. Former Liver Brothers farm - Thoduwawa 5. Fivestar farm - Irranawilla
2. Nuwan 1 Farm -Thoduwawa 6. Smaller farm - Mudalama
3. Nuwan 2 Farm - Irranawilla 7. Agromarine - Bangadeniya
4. Smaller farm - Uddapuwa

Liver Brothers farm is a one of first farm established in Sri Lanka. It indicated fairly high
Ca2+ contents. Farm was constructed after clearing of mangrove area. Therefore it is prudent
that the farm to reduce the pH of the soil, would have used excess load of lime and dolomite.

There is a possibility to accumulate organic matter into ponds during the culture periods,
therefore, reported concentration of organic carbon is relatively high and it is in the range of 3-
5%. However it is relatively higher in comparison with sediments of the other countries.
(Table C-17 of Appendix). This indicates, either the low microbial activity or limiting factors,
which could inhibit the degradation of organic matter, during culture period, at bottom of the
pond. Variations of nitrogen content were within the levels reported in Table C-17 of
Appendix C for sediments of other countries.

Levels of K were lower when compared to levels Ca2+ and Mg2+. Total phosphorous values
varied among the farm ponds. The concentration of phosphorous may depend on the level of
phosphorus fertilizer application, soil types and clay fraction of soil. High Na+ content of the
sediments indicates salinity of the sediments.

When compared with the values reported in sediments of the region (Table C-17 of Appendix
C) the reported concentrations of all elements, pH, total nitrogen and phosphorus are within
the levels of sediments in the region. Values reported by the study also falls into values
reported in Sri Lanka for Ca2+, Mg2+,K, and pH. However concentration reported for organic
carbon is relatively low compared to the values of Sri Lanka in 1992. On the other hand
nitrogen concentrations reported by the study were high compared to 1992. Since the sewage
sludge is used as substitute for fertilizer in the world, it is necessary to compare the
characteristic of sediments with characteristic of sewage and soil. Nitrogen and much of
phosphorous and potassium normally required for agricultural crop production would be

64
supplied by substitute. In addition, other valuable micronutrients and the organic matter
contained in substitute will provide additional benefits.

Nitrogen contents and organic carbon are low in respect to concentration of the sewage sludge.
Therefore the potential use of nitrogen in sediments as fertilizer for plants is questionable. If a
plant required N-250kg/ha/year and nitrogen mineralization is 20% in first year, the estimated
application of sediments application would be 735.5 t/ha/y (Average N-0.17). According to
the estimation in Thailand, 200-836 t dry wt/ha of sediments is removed from a pond (Tunvilai
et al. 1993). Ca2+, Mg2+ and K contents are relatively low in comparison with the sludge of
Tunisia. K is low compared to Bangkok and Tunisian sludge. Total phosphorus is also low
compared to Tunisian sludge. It can be concluded that the sediments have low fertility
compared to sludge concerning the macronutrients. On the other hand N, P, K, Ca and Mg
content of soil are always low compared to sediments.

4.2.9.1 Heavy Metals in sediments

Lead and zinc were found in an exchangeable and fixed form in the sediments. Lead content
was slightly higher compared to the resulted values for sediments in the Table C-18 of
Appendix C. High pH level in sediments due to application of lime would have increase the
precipitation of most heavy metals received to ponds (Boyd, 1994). Water is exchanged at 5-
20% of pond volume per day, in ponds to improve water quality, this may also lead to
precipitate and to accumulate heavy metals in the pond bottom. There are two ways that could
deposit heavy metals on the earth either from contamination from anthropogenic or from
natural sources or both. Release of heavy metals from natural sources due to weathering and
other pedogeic process acting on the rock fragmentation. Studies of heavy metals in
ecosystems have indicated many areas near urban complexes, metalliferous mines or major
road systems contain anomalosuly heavy metals such as Pd, Cd, Hg and As. Cu, Cd, and Zn
are mainly from by products of industries

The total levels recorded for Cr were high in all locations in comparison to sludge in
Bangkok. Even, the recorded levels of Pb for exchangeable and total forms are high in respect
to sludge of Bangkok but it is low in comparison to sludge of Tunisia. Level of Cd is relatively
low in total and exchangeable forms. Levels of Zn, and Cu are low in sediments than sludge. It
can be concluded that the recorded heavy metals concentration of sediments is relatively low
compared to sludge except the Cr and Pd.

On the other hand, in Sri Lankan soil, the exchangeable levels of Cu, and Zn are more or less
similar in concentration with sediments. (Table C-18 of Appendix C).

Still it is unclear the sources of heavy metals indicated in exchangeable and fixed form of
sediments in Sri Lanka because there was no available data on heavy metals concentrations of
sediments of shrimp ponds. There are no industries in the farming area, which could generate
these metals as by products.
The possible sources of heavy metals are:

• Pd and Zn can be washed out from the deposits of roads, which goes in parallel to Dutch

65
 canal in some areas.
• Some of the area of ponds and Dutch canal is flood plans for the streams and rivers
connected to the lagoons and Dutch canal. Deposition of silt and organic matter, during
rainy season, would have increased the heavy metals especially such as Cr and Pb. The
prevailing water stagnation would also lead to increase the setting of sediments.
• Area is closed to the harbour of Colombo, some time oil spills and oil leak may have given
rise some heavy metals
• Exchange of lagoon water with sea water
• The area has extensively been excavated to remove the clay for bricks and for tile industry.
The exposure of deep soils and water stagnation in pits may have released heavy metals to
surface waters.

Table 4.26 Extractable and total concentration of heavy metals in sediments

collected from seven farms.

Location
Parameter Units 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Extractable
Cd mg/kg 0.11 0.02 nd nd nd nd nd
Cr mg/kg 0.8 nd nd nd nd nd nd
Cu mg/kg 1 nd nd nd 2 9 2
Ni mg/kg nd nd nd nd nd nd nd
Pb mg/kg 5.3 3.9 3.8 5.1 4.2 6.0 5.3
Zn mg/kg 5 3 3 2 4 15 4
Total
Cd mg/kg 0.85 0.75 0.6 1.25 02 1.25 1.1
Cr mg/kg 83.5 62.5 30 79.5 39.9 43 62
Cu mg/kg 20 20 10 15 10 25 20
Ni mg/kg nd nd nd nd nd nd nd
Pb mg/kg 37.5 45 37 52 75.5 75.5 41
Zn mg/kg 50 50 20 50 40 40 45

1. Former Liver Brothers farm - Thoduwawa 5. Fivestar farm - Irranawilla

2. Nuwan 1 Farm -Thoduwawa 6. Smaller farm - Mudalama
3. Nuwan 2 Farm - Irranawilla 7. Agromarine - Bangadeniya
4. Smaller farm - Uddapuwa
nd not detected.

4.3 External environment

Major components of external environments are individuals or agencies such as consultants,

suppliers, bankers, politicians, regulators, research institutes, NGOS, public and international
organizations. Then, these components can again be described based on role and the service
offered to industry.

66
 80

70

Karukupone

60 Viarankattuwa

Uddappuwa

Mundel
50 Vinitha-Bridge

Wayamba-Bridge
ppt

40 Palavi-Bridge

Puttalam Lagoon

30

20

10

0
May June July August Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Feb.
Month

Figure 4.22 Salinity changes at selected locations of Dutch canal and connected Lagoons during the period of
May 97 to Feb. 1998 (Source :May 97 to Dec. 98 - CP Laboratory; Feb 98 by this study)

67
 9

8.8 Karukupone Viarankattuwa Uddappuwa Mundel Lagoon

Vinitha-Bridge Wayamba-Bridge Palavi-Bridge Puttalam Lagoon

8.6

8.4

8.2

7.8

7.6

7.4

7.2

7
May June July August Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Feb.
Month
Figure 4.23 Changes in pH at selected locations of Dutch canal and connected Lagoons during the period of
May 97 to Feb. 98 (Source :May 97 to Dec. 98 - CP Laboratory; Feb 98 by this study)

68
 9.0
8.5
8.0
7.5
7.0
pH
6.5
6.0
5.5
5.0
4.5
4.0
1983 1987 1992 1994 1997 1998
Year
Figure 4.24 Changes in pH of Dutch canal within each year and
during the period from 1983 to 1998.

40
35
30
25
ppt

20
15
10
5
0
1983 1987 1992 1994 1997 1998
Year
Figure 4.25 Changes in salinity of Dutch canal with in each
year and variations during period of 1983 - 1998.

32
30
28
26
C
o

24
22
20
18
1983 1987 1992 1994 1997 1998
Year
Figure 4.26 Temperature variations of Dutch canal with in each
year and during 1983 - 1998

69
 60

50

40
NTU

30

20

10

0
1983 1987 1992 1994 1997 1998
Year
Figure 4.27 Turbidity changes in Dutch canal within each year
and during 1983 - 1998

400

350

300

250
mg/L

200

150

100

50

0
1983 1987 1992 1994 1997 1998
Year
Figure 4.28 Changes in TSS within a year and during the period
of 1983 - 1998

50

40

30
mg/L

20

10

0
1992 1994 1997 1998
Year
Figure 4.29 BOD changes within each year and during period of
1992- 1998

70
Activities carried out by the Environmental foundation ltd. are, monitor of development of
industry, participation of meetings, seminars, legal supports, prosecution of court case
against farmers who destroyed and pollute environments. Participation and at public hearings
of EIA procedure and made of comments on EIA reports to PAAS. Participation at workshops
and provide of suggestion to improve shrimp industry in Sri Lanka.

Small Fisheries Federation, which is funded by donor agencies, is another NGO operating in
Sri Lanka, engage in the following programs;

1. Improvements of life pattern of small fishermen by making cooperative societies to

discuss and to raise the issues
2. Environmental awareness
3. Mangrove conservation and rehabilitation

Forest department and other relevant agencies are supporting the programs. They expressed
the following views on the shrimp industry;

1. Loss of natural stock of shrimp due to collection of broodstock,

2. Destruction of mangroves,
3. Loss of native fish species in the lagoon due to discharge of chemicals used to kill
fish in shrimp ponds
4. Lack of proper law enforcement
5. Lock of dedicated officers

However there were protests against the NGOS from government officers and industrialist,
saying that, NGOS are always in negative on development.

4.4 Summary

Based on the study of present situation, main issues that have created uncertainties in the
industrial environment are discussed according to institutional, legislative, regulative, and
framework; the environmental degradation and pollution, and supportive services.

4.4.1 Institutional framework

Most of the farmers, experts and other concerned parties are not happy, due to the current time
consuming, complex and bureaucratic procedures (Figure 4.38) adopted by the authorities in
approving projects. This may have increased the number of unauthorized farms, illegal
encroachments and discharge of untreated wastewater into water bodies. The situation was
aggravated due to lack of proper monitoring systems in complex environmental issues.
Therefore new institutional farm work can be proposed (Figure 4.39) to make convenient
environment for industrialist and for officers. “One Stop Shop” concept provides necessary
support to farmers while ensuring administrative, legislative and regulative expectations. At
present system, farmer has to visit number of places to obtain permits, clearances and
necessary documents prior to get approvals (Figure 4.38).

87
 Project proponent

Letter of intent

MFARD/PFM

CEA
No Yes NARA Frequent visits by Project
Acceptance
AGA Proponent to Agencies
PLCD

Tonal Clearance
No

Yes
Project report by PP

Reject Land Area

<4a >4a

No No Frequent visits by Project

PFM MFARD
proponent
Yes

Technical working group

CEA/PEA Frequent visits by Project
NARA proponent to Agencies
PLCD
No NGOS
Water Resources Board
Forest Dept.
Wildlife Dept.
CCD
Irrigation Dept.
Other necessary Dept.

Yes

EIA/IEE
Approval With
Conditions TOR

EIA/IEE report

Yes No Further
IEE Satisfied
Clarification

Yes

Public
EIA
comments

Yes No
Satisfied

Figure 4.38 Present approval procedure

88
 Project Proponent

Application

One stop Shop

Officers:
Administrative,
Environmental, Administrative, legal, regulative and
Aquaculture, monitoring powers
Legal, Engineers, Technical
and information supportives

Concurrence from No
Preliminary Approval
CEA, NARA, CCD and
based on zoning plan
Reject
other agencies

Yes

Planning approval for projects <4ha >4ha EIA Procedure by One stop
&
shop
EIA/IEE for >4ha

<4ha

Submission of detailed report

including wastewater treatment

Project approval

Figure 4.39 Proposed administrative and regulative “One Stop Shop”

New proposed method will minimize most of the obstacle because farmer has to visit only one
place. This institute on behalf of farmer would obtain rest of the work such as clearances and
concurrence. The positive and negative factors proposed farm work be given in Figure 4.40.
This is a good baseline for a new institute and suitable modification be done when it is
implemented.

4.4 2 Environmental protection and management by authorities

The present uncertainties in CEA’s and PEA’s role should be solved to achieve a better
environmental management and monitoring systems. A group of expertise says, that the CEA
should handle environmental issues while centralizing the authority, because pollution of

89
water bodies and air is a national issue not regional issue. However other group says that, if it
were on provincial authorities it would help better environmental management and protection.
The struggles between two parties are always on. However CEA accepted that the monitoring
of shrimp industry was on lower profile and all approved EIA reports were failed in
implementation in its priorities. On the other hand PEA is struggling to enter the filed but lack
of work force, training and other logistic requirements hinder the move.

A single government unit to administrate on integrated

manner of aquaculture sector.

Positive factors (+) - Negative factors (-)-

Proposed system Present system

Several administrators for complicated issues

Administrator - planning, licensing, law
Several planners from different agencies for one
implementation( Surveillance & monitoring) and
Application objective
law enforcement
Over lapping of several laws and regulations
Integration -co-ordination and consultation with
Lack of Integration
other other agencies, where and when necessary
Several licenses
Lack of co-ordination

Uniformity of the implementation of the law; Lack of uniformity of the implantation of laws
More informed concerning technical and legal less informed concerning technical and legal matters
matters; Planning approval More political pressure from various sectors
Neutrality and isolation of government officials Fragmentation of efforts and inconsistent
from the pressure exercised on local decision- application of policies
makers to favor the particular interest;
Fragmentation of effects are avoided as well as
inconsistent application of polices and other
disjointed results;

Less bureaucratic Project approval Buearucratic

Less time consuming Time consuming
Less expenduture High expenditure
Friendly environment Non-friendly environment
Easy access Limited access
More information Complex information

Implementation

Figure 4.40 Positive and negative factors of proposed and present system

4.4.3 Water quality

Low water quality in water bodies is compelled to treat intake water. Most of farmers use
barrels of chlorine to treat water and then tones of fertilizer to bring water quality and algae
into acceptable levels. There is a lack of transfer of existing technologies in water quality
management. During culture period there is a trend to increase TSS and BOD levels and to
reduce visibility of ponds. As a result of this, farmers tend to use aerators extensively to

90
maintain dissolved oxygen level in ponds, but present methods waste energy. There is lack of
consultancy in water quality management using simple methods such as sedimentation.
Accreditation program for consultants and continuous workshops and seminars would help in
reducing the energy losses and unnecessary expenditure.

There is a lack of knowledge in farmers on using of chemicals such as chlorine, lime, and
dolomite in required quantities. They apply it because neighbors do it. Special training
programs are required for small-scale farmers to eliminate the misconceptions in the field.

The use of probiotics also reduces the nitrogen and sediments level of ponds. The use of
Probiotics may be a good method for the small-scale farmers who face problems of lands for
setting up of sedimentation tanks. However more research is required to find suitability of
probiotics in Sri Lanka. Stocking of water in sedimentation and reservoir is recommended
because sunlight would reduce the virus and other microorganisms and it would also facilitate
the reduction of TSS.

4.4.4 Wastewater quality

One of the priorities of the farmer is to have good quality water, once this is achieved, there
will be improvement in wastewater quality parameters specially ammonia, nitrates, hydrogen
sulphides and phosphates. It is a controversial situation that authorities cannot force small-
scale farmers to adopt sedimentation tanks, due to lack of lands and due to high percentage of
unauthorized farms. Only way to improve the situation is to provide assistance to medium and
large-scale farmers to have sedimentation and circulation systems. Monitoring of these farms
is a must. During filed survey it was found that a farm has taken financial assistance to have
sedimentation tank but they have stock PL in sedimentation tank. Due to complicated water
intakes and out lets in the farm it is difficult to find the circulation system.

Sedimentation tanks used by farmers normally, is just a pond, therefore proper buffles system
can increase the circulation and sedimentation time. NARA has recommended biological
organisms treatment systems but farmers face the problems to find the plants and animal
species required for this. However the following are the major requirements of the waste
abatement in shrimp industry. The required technological expectations of the waste treatment
of shrimp ponds would be:

• Solids capture, to remove fecal waste, uneaten feed, excess bacterial biomass;
• Biological filtration, primary nitrification to convert the toxic ammonia and intermediate
products;
• Aeration to ensure sufficient oxygen supply for shrimp and biological filtration
• Ions balance primary to maintain alkalinity and prevent the buildup of nitrate and
dissolved organics.

4.4.5 Water quality of water bodies

91
When the water quality and wastewater quality are improved, the pollution loads to the water
bodies would reduce by considerable extent. Present water quality situation is threatening to
the shrimp industry, and government should take immediate steps to restore water exchanges
in Dutch canal, removing sand barriers from sea. Due to high salinity in the areas between
Mundel and Puttalam lagoons, steps should be taken either to reduce the farm density or to
advise to carryout one cycle during low salinity period. It eventually reduces the threat posed
by extensive use of groundwater.

The standard stipulated by authorities for discharging of wastewater assume that the eight fold
dilution at the discharged point. Standard for Inland Surface Waters is based on the dilution of
freshwater bodies. The lagoon and canal water systems are always stagnated and flushing and
dilution is different from rivers, and streams of the country. The standard for canal should be
formulated after a study of pollutant loading, modeling of water exchange and silting of
ponds.

4.4.6 Environmental monitoring

All this recommendation can only effected by proper monitoring program. According to the
farm densities of small and medium scale farms, it is difficult the authorities to measure
parameters by collecting samples from farm to farm, because it is time consuming and
demands lot of human resources. Considering the pollution loads, farmers can be advised to
maintain required water quality of canals of farm clusters. A farm group in a particular canal is
responsible for maintaining of water in proper levels in the canal. In large-scale farms, it is
very easy to implement by measuring water quality of outlet canal. There is a possibility to
have a suitable environmental taxation scheme with proper monitoring program.

4.4.7 Environmental degradation

Wetlands such has mangroves and salt marshes are in critical situation. At least NGO is
operating in conservation and rehabilitation of mangroves and it is necessary to monitor
effectiveness of programs of NGOS. However it appeared that the destruction is going-on at
lower scale. Mangroves at Kalpitiya area have been protected by intervention of villages and
police. Enforcement of existing regulations and laws is required to protect wetlands. Most of
the salt marshes, buffer zones of lagoons have been encroached. The recommended buffer
zone is 100m from upper water level. This is impractical. If authorities maintain 100-m buffer
zone rule, farms would move to the inside of the country. This will create another problem in
salinisation of groundwater. Therefore the criteria to buffer zone should be reviewed. Wet land
conservation project of CEA and NARA have identified and recommended suitable measures
to restore wetlands in the area. It is necessary to implement these recommendations without
further delay with the support of administrative, technical and financial agencies. Further
research can be done to rectify the shortcomings to be found when implementing these
recommendations.

4.4.8 Supportive services by regulative and government agencies

92
A constant complaint of farmers that, government officers are lethargic, and not supportive
etc. According to the survey it was found that, government offices have done a certain
contribution, within their official framework, to improve the situation. During disease
outbreaks, farmers requested assistance from government without realizing the situation of
their farms and the obligations to fulfill the environmental safeguard measures. Farmers
request from government to clean the sediments of Dutch canal instead of doing sedimentation
at own farms. It is necessary to integrated and arrives at compromised solution for this
situation.

Bankers and feed suppliers have gone beyond their scope to provide assistance to farmers.
DFCC has arranged training programs, seminars and even contribute support to trained NARA
officials during disease crisis situation.

Laboratories and other supportive services such as equipment and chemical suppliers have
helped to achieve the objectives at the maximum capacities. However a new laboratory is
required in the area to identify of disease, quality assurance and testing of water quality.

Universities and other research organization have expressed their willingness to support
industry by doing research and sending undergraduates to carry out research in farms.
However farmers contribution to setup a research fund within farming community has low
priority in farming community.

NARA attends to regulative, supportive and research work of shrimp industry. Under the
zonal clearance, NARA’s recommendation is essential. NARA says that projects are approved
according to the zoning plan drawn by them. However it is not available in authorities or even
in NARA. If the zoning plan is available in authorities, it is easy to eliminate projects to be
located on sensitive areas, from primary stage without going up to further, time consuming,
bureaucratic procedures.

Laboratories of NARA are located in Colombo nearly 50 km away from nearest farming area.
It is difficult to take sample from farming area to Colombo. NARA should change the
bureaucratic procedure setting up every thing in Colombo. Research carried out by NARA
were mainly focused on collection of base line data. The collection of data was excellent
However there is lack of carrying out environmental engineering applications on
environmental issues and to provide guidelines for disease identification, guidelines for site
identification, water quality management, sediment disposal, design and development of
wastewater treatment systems. Water quality modeling in Dutch canal, determination of
pollution loads and measures to improve caring capacities and, testing of quality of feed and
chemicals.

There are no newsletters issued by authorities for farmers to provide ideas of farming practice,
environmental issues, marketing etc. Information and trade statistics are available in libraries
of national and international organizations.

93
4.4.9 Issues prevailed in environmental management in Sri Lanka

According to present study it was able to find major components in the failure of the industry
as shown in Figure 4.41.

As discussed in previous chapters, environment management of an industry is not just end

pipe treatment or waste minimization or cleaner technology, it is an integrated system of
administrative, regulative, technological, financial and legislative aspects prevailing in the
country. Figure 4.42 shows the integrated link of these aspects to environment management.

According to the situation prevailing in shrimp industry, Figure 4.43 shows the environmental
and economic back ground of a individual farm industry and its relationship towards the
common difficulties encountered in culturing shrimps and environmental issues.

Finally Figure 4.44 shows the link of external environment with out side forces to internal
environment of shrimp aquaculture industry in Sri Lanka and resulted force towards the
viability of the industry.

The issues and components identified for the sustainability of shrimp aquacultue industry
presented in Figure 4.45 must cater to:

• the needs of not only the present generation but also future generation
• conserve natural resources and genetic diversity
• not endanger the environment but instead protect it
• adopt appropriate technology for the culture system
• be socially acceptable

94
 Lack of implementation of existing laws
and regulations:
(Encroachment, National Environmental
Act, etc....)

Water pollution of
Industry
sources; Low carrying Diseases
capacity of the area Collapse

Farmers Ignorance on
Environmental issues

Figure 4.41 Various components, which could lead to failure of industry

Financial

Tech
nolog ative
ical Environment dm inistr
A
Management
of Shrimp
Industry
e
iv
e
iv

at
at

ul
sl

eg
gi

R
Le

Figure 4. 42 Integrated approach of Environmental Management

95
 External
Environment

Internal Disease
Environment Env. Destruction
Pollution
Cannibalism
Carrying capacity of area
Low quality water
Algal floods
bloom Aquaculture Stress
Farm
Water treatment
Wastewater treatment
Gov. Subsides
Motalities Moulting
Feeds
Chemicals
Probiotics

Figure 4.43 Environmental and economic background of a shrimp farm

External
Environment

Research
Regulators Consultant
Institute

Gov-
Supporters NGOS

Chemical Hatcheries
Suppliers Shrimp
Aquaculture
Processing
Feed Industry Plants
Product demand Suppliers
Bankers
Regulators-MFARD, Equipment
PFM Equipment
Suppliers Bankers
Trade Unions Lease
Farmer Associations
Politicians Lime &
Dolomite
Suppliers

Figure 4.44 External and internal environment of shrimp industry

96
 Technical advice
Resources availability
Planning
Location
Moderate stocking density &
intensification
Profit
Use of high quality Feeds
Aeration
Recycling system
Settling ponds
Constructed wetlands
Sustainablity
Integration with modern traditional farm
aquaculture
Minimal use of organic and inorganic
Environment fertilizer
Biological filtration
Organized farming community discharge
programs
Government mandate monitoring program
Industry-wide self regulations.

Figure 4.45 Issues and components of sustainability

97
 CHAPTER V

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusions

Environmental issues can not be separated from administrative and technical aspects of
industries. In order to have improved environment within industries, there should be a
development of environmental management schemes in parallel to administrative and
technical aspects. Therefore, on the basis of the study carried out, the following suggestions
and recommendations can be made for the sustainability of the industry.

The identified areas to be improved:

1. Administrative structure
2. Information and Technology Transfer
3. Infrastructure availability
4. Rehabilitation of existing environment and social welfare

1. Administrative structure
◊ Changes to the administrative and legislative functions
◊ Accreditation of aquaculture consultants
◊ Proper environmental monitoring program
◊ Authorization of unauthorized farms
◊ Control of importation of shrimp for re-export
◊ Further development of shrimp industry in other parts of country

2. Information and Technology Transfer

◊ More facilities for information and technology transfer
◊ Supportive services

3. Infrastructure:
◊ Improvement of water quality of the water source
◊ Improvement of water quality of pond water
◊ Installations of wastewater treatment systems
◊ Proper disposal of sediments
◊ Potential use of solid waste from processing plants.

4. Rehabilitation
◊ Disturbed wet lands
◊ Improving of social and infrastructure facilities
◊ Funding research and development activities

98
5.1.1 Administrative structure

Changes to the administrative and legislation functions

It is recommended to have “One-stop-shop” concept with more suitable modification under

appropriate administrative level of PFM or MFRAD. One stop shop is an institution, which
coordinates with other agencies to get approvals, and it is responsible for implementing laws
and regulations with the concurrence with respective agencies in Inter-Ministerial Scooping
Committee. Farmers have to be dealt with “One-Stop-Shop” for their approvals and other
requirements. This institution should be located in northwestern province providing easy
access to the farmers. The existing laws and regulations are enough to achieve the sustainable
development of industry and proper enforcement laws and regulations are must. Enforcement
of a fine based on the pollution loads is also recommended based on the concept of Polluter
Pays Principal (PPP).

Accreditation of aquaculture consultants

To manage proper transfer of technology, environmental management and government

priorities, it is necessary to control of consultant's role in shrimp industry to avoid consultation
of untrained and less experienced persons. Consultants should be registered at the authorities.
A list of consultants should be made available for farmers. Authorities can send the
government priorities such as required environmental management guidance to farmers
through the consultants.

Proper environmental monitoring program

The authorities should carry out compliance monitoring to check maintenance of buffer zones,
construction, and waste disposal. Monitoring of wastewater quality in small-scale farmers are
difficult and a suitable monitoring program should be drawn to monitor water canals of
respective farm clusters. The criteria should be based on the water quality parameters. The
pollution loads can be used to make farm clusters for each canal.

Authorization of unauthorized farms

Most of the farms less than 1 to 2 ha are unauthorized and are situated in the government land
which were encroached by them. There should be criteria are to authorize them in order to
take them into legislative and regulative track. Considering the on going GIS applications and
available information farmers can be relocated from sensitive areas. Relocation and removal
of farmers are political issues and it may be dealt with precautionary measures.

Control of importation of shrimp from other countries

Immediate actions should be taken by authorities to stop further approval of processing plants.
Under capacities of existing processing plants make influence to import shrimp for re-export.
Quarantine laws should be drawn to control and re-export of shrimp from other countries.

99
Further development of shrimp industry in other parts of country

It is necessary to identify the loopholes in order to study the present prevailing situation. Once
the proper integrated management and zonal plans are drawn for present situation, further
expansion should be carry out in the other areas. Proper legal power and political interference
would be required to eliminate unauthorized and illegal encroachment of lands

5.1.2 Information and technology transfer

More facilities for information and technology transfer

Printing of news letter in three languages; English, Sinhala and Tamil, pertaining to export
market, new technology, use of chemicals, feed, equipment diseases, current problems and
farmers ideas to improve the farming practices and environmental management. Seminar
workshops may be carried out in an appropriate language for farmers by organizers. One line
information system should be operated by regulative authorities for farmer's consultants to
access global market situation and feed prices, etc. trained officers to carry out extension,
awareness in environmental issues and in farming practices is required in farming area.
Material should be available for farmers regarding check list for rapid assessment water
quality and disease.

Supportive services

Supportive services could be stream lined. Feed supply should be standardized and accredited.
Laboratories could be initiated under the joint ventures with government to provide water and
wastewater analysis, disease identification etc. Taxation (GST) should be evaluated in respect
to shrimp industry. Incentives to farmers who adopt pollution prevention methods i.e. Tax
reduction, Low interest loans, etc., should be introduced. NARA should operate an
information center to transfer the research findings and a panel comprising industrialist and
other expertise should be operated at NARA to determine research requirements.

5.1.3 Infrastructure

Improving of pond water quality

The proper guidance should be provided to reduce the excessive use of chemicals for water
quality management. NARA should carry out pilot scale studies before introducing of new
technologies into Sri Lankan climate. Research should be oriented to carry out adaptive
research using present back ground data to improve water quality. It is very easy to promote
probiotics in small scale and medium scale farms, after making proper study on the
improvement of water quality in ponds and its consequences on water bodies, who face land
limitation in implementing sedimentation tanks.

Improving of water quality of water sources

Farmers should be warning by the authorities against the discharge of untreated water into
water sources. Research and follow up actions could be carried out in order to improve water

100
quality of the sources. Measures could be implemented to improve water exchange and the
flushing out the sediments accumulated in the Dutch canal. The detection of heavy metals in
sediments of pond is a crisis situation. There is a possibility to have toxicity levels of heavy
metals in sediments of Dutch canal. Regular opening of the sand barriers at Uddappuwa would
be a solution to water exchanged of farms.

Installations of wastewater treatment

Farms having ponds exceeding 4 ha may strictly be advised to have a sedimentation tank prior
to discharge of water. Ponds exceeding 10 ha may strictly be advised to have semi or complete
recirculation system. Further ponds lower than the 4 ha may strictly be advise to make a
cluster among the farmers and to have a common sedimentation tank. On the other hand self-
purification of ponds using probiotics could be studied for small-scale farmers who could not
find common sedimentation facilities.

Shrimp processing plants should strictly be advised to have treatment plants and waste
auditing program to minimize the entrance of flesh in to wastewater drains because it would
reduce the nitrogen load into treatment plants. It should be advice to send the washing of
detergents and chlorine to separate tanks to avoid toxic effect on biological treatment plants. It
should not be encouraged to use chemical treatment to precipitate proteins, lipids and
carbohydrates in wastewater because there is no proper disposal facility for the solid waste
available in Sri Lanka.

Proper disposal of sediments

The use of sediments as a fertilizer is not an encouraging application because of due to low
nitrogen content in sediments in comparison with fertilizer substitute such as sewage sludge
and due to heavy metal concentration. The presence of Pb and Cr in sediments indicates the
accumulation of heavy metals during the cause of culture cycle form the water exchange. The
dumping on dikes is not recommends because there is potential to leach into ponds and further
accumulation of heavy metals in sediments. As a result of this there is a potential to develop
toxic levels in shrimps because of due to bottom feeding habit of shrimps.

Proper method of disposal of shrimp head

Due to potential use of shrimp heads, it is recommended to get government patronage to

develop infrastructure for collection and to storing under freeze condition for further use of
shrimp heads for poultry feed, silage and as fertilizer amendments. There is a possibility to use
chitin of shrimp head for biotechnological products.

5.1.4 Rehabilitation

Disturbed wetlands

There were management plans for the rehabilitation of Chilaw, Mudel and Puttalam lagoons
including the rehabilitation of Dutch canals made by WetLand Conservation Project of CEA
and NARA during the period of 1994 to 1997. These reports explained the issues pertaining to

101
shrimp industry and other related issues pertaining to management of wet lands and sensitive
areas. It is recommended to use these studies as baseline data to form a proper rehabilitation
program, identifying most important areas to preserve as reserves and to use for other
development activities paying attention to the development of the area.

Improving of social and infrastructure facilities

The commercial shrimp culture is money earning and highly profitable business. The funding
from donor agencies for rehabilitation of infrastructure and social structure is difficult due to
reluctance of donor agencies. Therefore it is recommended to have rehabilitation fund to
develop infrastructure such as roads, schools, water supply etc. and to some social welfare and
for the people area, to avoid the conflicts between farm workers and villages. Formation of
fund can be done by collecting money from the levying a fee for kilo of shrimp exported or
collecting funds through associations.

Research and development fund

Shrimp industry is a profitable business, therefore, there is obligation from farmers to

contribute capital to carry out research for the sustainability of the industry.

5.2 Recommendations for future studies

Shrimp Farming

• Analysis of waste loads into water bodies for formation of proper monitoring program
• Modeling of water exchanged in Dutch canal and connected lagoons to identify the proper
standards
• Detailed analysis of sediments of ponds for heavy metals,
• Identification of sources of heavy metals in Dutch canal and ponds
• Analysis of heavy metals in shrimps.
• Detail Environmental audit in shrimp ponds.
• Model design for proper waste treatment - Detailed design of waste treatment
• Exploring the possibility in use of probiotics
• Research should be oriented to study transport of sediments and silting, and to improve the
natural recovery of water quality of water bodies
• Risk assessment for shrimp industry; to evaluate environmental risk and harvest loss in
order to protect the financial values of the shrimp harvest in case of loss and identify areas
where environmental risk could be reduced.
• Detailed study of environmental audit for enter industry and to rectify the shortcomings.

102
 Appendix C
Table C-1 Projects approved by the Provincial Fisheries Ministry of NWPC during 89 to 93
under the scooping committee and from 93 to 98 as PAA for projects less than 4 ha.

Year Private land Government land

No. of Farms Extent (ha) No. of Farms Extent (ha)
1989 2 26.00
1990 6 37.60 3 92.30
1991 7 18.14 19 38.64
1992 58 127.90 19 169.00
1993 62 133.70 28 96.56
1994 93 125.73 21 42.20
1995 25 33.70 7 19.96
1996 21 54.49 7 14.60
1997 1 3.80 1 0.80

total 535.07 500.06

Source :PFM (1998)

Table C-2 :Number of Farms approved by the MFARD under scooping committee from
1986 to 1989 and from 1993 to 1998 as a PAA under EIA regulations for projects larger
than 4 ha.

Year Private lands Governments land

Under Scooping No. of Extent No. of Farms Extent
Committee Farms (ha) (ha)
1984 1 110
1986 1 10 3 450
1987 1 12 9 106
1988 2 38 5 318
1989 1 15
Total 4 60 16 999

Under EIA
Regulation
1993 105 18 334
1994 3 263 3 82
1995 8 46
1996 3 2 54
1997
Total 14 414 23 470

Source :MFARD (1998)

C-1
 Table C-3 Farms approved by PFM in different categories in ha.

DS division <2 2.0 - 4.0 4.0 - 10.0 10.0 - 20.0 > 20.0
Chilaw 21 38 4 1 2
Mundel 10 25 53 9 9
Kalpitiya 0 2 13 1 1
Madampe 3 3 1 0 0
Wanathawilluwa 0 1 1 0 4
Puttalam 1 0 0 0 1
Mahawewa 19 10 4 3 0
Arachchikattuwa 61 29 11 7 8

Total 115 108 87 21 25

Source :PFM (1998); DS : Local Administrative Divisions of Puttalam District

Table C- 4 Characteristics of Thai-shrimp culture at three levels of intensity

Characteristics Units Extensive Semi-intensive Intensive

Land elevation m 0 to +1.4 MSL 0 to + 1.4 MSL >+ 2.0 MSL
Pond size ha >5 1 to 2 1 or less
Aeration Natural Water exchange or Continuous
mechanical Mechanical
Stocking rate PL/m2/Crop <5 5 to 15 20 or more
Feed type Natural (No Natural + Formulated
Supplement) Supplement
Production level kg/ha/year 100 - 300 600 - 1800 >6000
Source: Menasveta and Fast (1998)

Table C- 5 Area (ha) of Mangroves around Puttalam lagoon in 1981 and 1992

Puttalam Lagoon 1981 1992

Daluwa-Palavi 77.70 36.75
Vettali 65.60 14.25
Anjittivu Islands 6.10 8.41
Mi Oya basin 664.60 398.60
Inlets off Mi Oya 15.30 7.91
Tannkudah 9.60 9.37
Kanaludaha-Palliwasalthurai 52.10 31.37
Pullupidi Island 45.30 37.12
Udayarpidi Island 40.40 15.37
Mungil Aru 34.90 21.75
Nagamadu - 5.50
Serakkuli 51.7 35.25
Matuutivu Island a0.00 14.00
Ambantativu Island 17.00 16.25
Wannimundel 14.00 13.00
Mandalakudah-Kuringipitiya 70.00 54.80
Neduntivu Islands 7.20 11.87

Total 1181.50 431.57

Source : Amarashinghe and Perera 1995

Table C- 6 Area (ha) of Mangroves around Dutch Bay in 1981 and 1992

C-2
 Dutch Bay 1981 1992
Anniwasal 10.90 10.41
Vellaimanal 13.20 1.70
Kovikudaha 49.30 15.75
Odakarantivu Islands 29.90 21.81
Erumathivu Islands 63.10 66.69
Kirimundel 91.50 100.62
Sinna Arichchal Island 9.30 14.25
Periya Archchal Islands 29.71 30.81

Total 296.91 262.04

Source : Amarashinghe and Perera 1995

Table C-7 Area of Salt marshes around Puttalam Lagoon in 1981 and 1992

Puttalam Lagoon 1981 1992

Daluwa-Palavi 447.10 109.87
Vettali 148.50 44.58
Anjittivu Islands - -
Mi Oya basin 381.30 302.87
Islets off Mi Oya 6.90 4.08
Tannkudah - -
Kanaludaha-Palliwasalthurai 273.30 109.81
Pullupidi Island na 6.75
Udayarpidi Island na 16.31
Mungil Aru 46.17 28.87
Nagamadu na 9.00
Serakkuli na 6.69
Matuutivu Islnad na -
Ambantativu Island na 2.12
Wannimundel - -

Total 1303.27 640.95

Source : Amarashinghe and Perera 1995

Table C-8 Area of Salt marshes around Dutch Bay in 1981 and 1992

Dutch Bay 1981 1992

Anniwasal 42.00 3.75
Vellaimanal na 2.25
Kovikudaha na 9.25
Odakarantivu Islands na 5.75
Erumathivu Islands 15.00 24.56
Kirimundel 13.30 4.06
Sinna Arichchal Island na 1.88
Periya Archchal Islands na 9.00

Total 70.3 60.5

Source : Amarashinghe and Perera 1995

Table C-9 Water qualities of shrimp pond in Thailand

C-3
 Locations
Parameters Units Rayong Songkla Chachengsao Chunthaburi
TSS mg/L 64 64 162 88
BOD mg/L 12 - 26 21
Total Organic C mg/L - - 65 40
Total N mg/L 6.7 2.7 12.0 8.2
Total P mg/L 0.5 0.3 3.0 0.3
Sansanayuth et al., 1996

Table C-10 Other polluting sectors - BOD5 loading

Sector Number BOD5 tons/yr.

Total waste of industries in Colombo 1365
Katunayake Trade zone (Treated wastewater) 132.47
Biyagama Trade zone (Treated wastewater) 140
Sewage from Colombo City to Kelani* river through out falls 3500 -9240
Ratnapura district 28,300
Individual in Colombo city 1,9 36575
Nothwatern province 2.01 38692.5
*1 individual = 55g of BOD5 per day.; Population of Colombo =1.9 million; Population ofNothwatern
provonev;2.01 million (by prediction of 1981 Sensous and Statictics-1997)

C- 11 Total inputs and out puts of Sri Lankan shrimp ponds

Year Total feed N (6.5%)* P shrimp Organic matter N -load P -load

(MT/y) (1.5%)* production load (MT/y) (MT/y) (MT/y)
(MT/y)
92 2180 141 33 1246 1323 88 29
93 2495 162 38 1426 1514 101 34
94 4025 261 61 2300 2442 163 58
95 4865 316 72 2780 2957 197 66
96 5521 358 82 3155 3308 221 74
% loss 62 89
FCR = 1:1.75;
* % Nitrogen and Phosphorous of feed.
Pollution loads calculated based on the method used by Lin (1997) for Thailand

Table C-12 Theoretical estimation of waste product (kg) per MT of shrimp

production from intensive shrimp culture.

FCR Organic matter Nitrogen Phosphorus

1.0 500 26 13
1.5 875 56 21
2.0 1250 87 28
2.5 1625 117 38
Lin, 1995
Table C-13 Comparison of Shrimp farm effluent and other wastewater
(Concentration in mg/L)

C-4
Parameter Shrimp farm Domestic Domestic wastewater Fish processing
effluent wastewater (Primary Treatment) wastewater
(Untreated) (Untreated)
BOD 4.0 - 10.2 300 200 10,000 - 18,000
Total nitrogen 0.03 - 1.24 75 60 700 - 4530
Total phosphorus 0.01 - 2.02 20 15 120 - 298
Soilds 30 - 225 500 6880 - 7475
Macintosh and Phillps, 92

Table C- 14 Changes in some water quality parameters in Dutch canal

Parameter Units 1983 1987 1992 1994 1997 1998

pH 4.8 - 6.0 5.3 - 7.3 7.25 - 8.8 7.6 - 8.5 7.4 - 8.7 7.7 - 8.7
Salinity ppt 0 -26 0 - 33 15 - 33 2 - 31 0 - 38 16 - 30
Phosphate mg/L 0.02 -0.5 0.05 - 0.85 0.026 - 2.0
Nitrates mg/L 0.01 - 1.6 0.01 - 2.7 0.02 - 3.4 0.1- 2.05
Nitrites mg/L nd 0.02 - 0.32 0.2 - 1.4 0.07- 0.50 0.02 - 0.51
Sulphide mg/L nd 0.02 - 0.61 0.2 - 1.8 0.07 - 0.50 0.12 - 0.72
0
Temperature C 23 -32 23 - 32 25 - 32 28 - 31 24 - 32 26 - 32
Turbidity NTU 5 - 19 7 - 32 5 - 98 5 -32 8 - 45
TSS mg/L 10 - 22 30 - 160 50 - 300 110 -150 100 - 400 34 -120
BOD5 mg/L nd nd 25 - 48 5 - 48 8.6 -36.2 13 - 50

Table C-15 Water quality parameters of water sources of shrimp industry in

Thailand

Table C-16 Tolerance limits for shrimp aquaculture waste discharged into
inland surface and marine coastal waters.

C-5
 Table C-17 Concentration of different variables in Brackishwater shrimp pond
sediments, domestic sludge and soil.

Component Unit Thailand - Sri Lanka- Sri Lanka Sludge- Sludge - Sewage sludge Sri Lanka -
sediments sediments -sediments Bangkok digested -Tunisia Soil
pH 6.55 ±1.49 8.04 - 8.6 7.9 - 8.68 6.9 -7.8 6.5 -7.5 7.2 - 7.9 6.34 ± 0.73
Total Carbon % 1.79 ± 0.16 na 4.72 - 7.71 na 10 -20
Total N % 0.30 ± 0.01 na 0.04 -0.08 2.5 - 5.9 1.6 - 6.0 1- 2.5 0.108 ±0.026
Total P % na na na 1.5 - 4.0 0.5 - 1.0
Extractable. P ppm 164 ±36 na na 1217 -2357 na 12.9 ±12.7
Exchangeable -Ca ppm 3450 ±363 664 - 1630 900 - 6270 na 50,000 -90,000 1286 ± 896
Exchangeable- Mg ppm 2258 ± 142 1280 - 1800 1440 - 420 na 1000-8000 199 ± 140
Exchangeable - K ppm 822 ± 61 na 80 -330 744 - 1531 na 2000 - 3000 145 ± 62
Exchangeable -Na ppm na na na 1000 -4000 12 ± 14
15,153 ± 2,980
Boyd et al. Jayasinghe Wijesekara Pakkttang, Metcalf & Bhari (1988) FAO (1982)
(1994) et al. (1997) (1992) (1997) Eddy, Icn

Table C-18 Concentration of heavy metals in sediments of brackishwater ponds,

domestic sludge and soils
Variable Unit Thailand, Sludge - Sludge - Sewage Sewage Sri Lanka-
Ecuador, Bangkok* Bangkok Sludge Sludge - Soil
Philippines and ** Tunisia*
Venezuela*
Cadmium mh/kg na 0.2 -0.5 2.3 - 3.0 nd - 1,100 4.0 -7.0
Chromium mg/kg 3.35 ± 0.35 0.3 22.3 -26.8 22 - 30,000 51 -78
Copper mg/kg 7.6 ± 7.16 6.7 - 8.3 231 - 395 45 - 16, 030 150 - 320 4.1 ±2.8
Nickel mg/kg na 6.7 -18.3 40.8 -86 nd -2.800 21 -51
Lead mg/kg 5.38 ± 3.71 0.7 -0.9 21.0 -23.9 80 -26,000 192 -526
Zinc mg/kg 7.98 ± 1.05 206.3 -424.3 2054 - 2389 51 - 28,360 400 - 982 4.6 ±12.16
Arsenic mg/kg na 10 - 50
Mercury mg/kg na 0.1 - 89 0.6 -1.8
Manganese mg/kg na 47.5 - 63.1 353 - 404 100 - 2,800 103 - 320 67.1± 50.3
Aluminum mg/kg 157 ± 27
Ferous mg/kg 371 ± 43 7.6 - 1.8% 154 ±104
Boyd et al. (1994) Amarasinghe Amarasighe Metcalf & Bahri (1998) FAO (1982)
(1997) (1997) Eddy, Inc.
* Plant available form
*Total heavy metals

Table C-19 Status of shrimps and shrimp related Projects approved by the BOI

C-6
 Status Number Estimated Estimated Investment Estimated
Investment Foreign Local Employment
(Rs1. Million) (Rs. Million)
Awaiting Agreements 09 32.42 156.76 639
Awaiting Construction 20 145.35 341.04 1154
Under Construction 28 137.67 495.13 1350
In Commercial Operation. 16 163.04 233.89 1191

Total 71 478.48 1126.83 4334

Source : Information Dept. of BOI (1998).

Table C-20 Characteristics of Effluents from Prawn and Fish processing plants
1
1US$=Rs.60

Parameter Units Shrimp Shrimp Shrimp Shrimp

Effluent processing Processing Processing
(mg/L) Effluent Effluent Effluent
BOD5 - Processing kg/Tone shrimp 117
BOD5- Cleanup processed 104
BOD5 - Total -do- 1188 - 1878 221 63 - 155 52
TSS -do- 239 110 - 320 22
Oil & Grease -do- 36 -126 4.6
COD -do- 1536 - 3874
Ammonia 22 -45

Mauldin & Carawan 96 USEPA, 92 World bank

Szabo ,74 90

C-7
Figure C- 1 Copy of government notice appeared in a local News papers regarding
the modernization of farms

C-8
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