Manual of Best Management Practices For

MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei
FARMING
REGIONAL INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION OF

AGRICULTURAL HEALTH
OIRSA
FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE ORGANIZATION OF

CENTRAL AMERICAN ISTHMUS (OSPESCA) AS PART OF
THE SYSTEM OF CENTRAL AMERICAN INTEGRATION
(SICA)
Authors:
Jorge Cuéllar-Anjel
Cornelio Lara
Vielka Morales
Abelardo De Gracia
Oscar García Suárez
Panama, July, 2010

PRESENTATION
Aquaculture is undoubtedly one of the great Central America isthmus potentials to produce high quality food, the same as
to generate human wealth through employment and revenues. This has been evidenced by the Regional Inventory of
Continental Water Bodies lifted by the Fisheries and Aquaculture Organization of Central American Isthmus (OSPESCA)
and the Regional International Organization for Agricultural Health (OIRSA). In particular, marine shrimp farming is an
aquaculture activity that generates significant social and economic benefits for the region, for extra-regional exports and for
intraregional market during last years.
However, marine shrimp farming is also exposed to health risks due to the presence of harmful pathogens that have forced
the region to take steps to protect production and investments. As a response to this need, OIRSA and OSPESCA under a
partnership with the health authorities of the member countries, OIE, FAO and private sector, have established a group of
experts known as the "Ad-hoc Group for Aquatic Animal Health". This group has been gradually giving valuable inputs for
a healthy and sustainable production, one of which is the present "Best Management Practices Manual for white shrimp
Penaeus vannamei farming". This Manual will be a support tool for shrimp producers and technical staff for aquaculture
crops that ensure quality production and profitability with sustainability and attachment principles.
The preparation and publication of this Manual has also been supported by the Republic of China (Taiwan) through the
Support Project for Central America Fisheries and Aquaculture Integration Process (PRIPESCA) that OSPESCA runs with
the administrative participation of OIRSA.
The goal of this Manual is to become a continuous query tool for the aquaculture producers and technical staffs obtain a
high quality shrimp production, based on a farming competitive model which meets sanitary requirements demanded by
regional and international markets.
Guillermo E. Alvarado Downing Mario González Recinos

Executive Director - OIRSA Regional Director - SICA / OSPESCA
3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful for their special collaboration with the technical structure and review of this Manual to the
following people from Panama: Itzela Davis, Roberto Chamorro, Mariola Lemieszek de Camargo, Rigoberto Camargo,
Hugo Pérez, Orlando Vernaza, María del Pilar Moyano, Eva Correa, Ricardo Villarreal, Susset Dager and Eva Bravo; from
Nicaragua: Agnes Saborio; from Honduras: Carlos Girón; from Guatemala: Alexander De Beausset, and from Mexico:
María Cristina Chávez Sánchez.
Author also thank the support from the following companies and organizations that allowed the participation of their
technicians and the use of their facilities in the development and review of this Manual: Camaronera de Coclé, S.A.
[Shrimp Company from the Panamanian Cocle province] (CAMACO) and Industrias de Natá S.A. [Feed Plant from the
Panamanian Cocle province] (INASA), both companies from CALESA Panamanian Agroindustrial Group; Aquatic
Animal Health Program from the Animal Health Directorate of the Ministry of Agricultural Development of Panama
(MIDA); the Research and Development Directorate from the Aquatic Resources Authority of Panama (ARAP); the
Fisheries and Aquaculture Organization of Central American Isthmus (OSPESCA) and the Regional International
Organization for Agricultural Health (OIRSA).
4
CONTENTS
1. Introduction 13
2. Existing Regulation Compliance 15
2.1 Social aspects 15
2.1.1 Relationship with neighboring communities 15
2.1.2 Labor and occupational health relationships 15
2.1.3 Existing labor regulations compliance 17
2.1.4 Social responsibility 18
2.2 Environmental aspects 19
2.2.1 Site selection for farm location 21
2.2.1.1 Topography 21
2.2.1.2 Hydrology and hydrography 22
2.2.1.3 Soil characteristics 22
2.2.2 Farm design and building 25
3. Farm operation 32
3.1 Pond preparation 32
3.1.1 Complete pond drainage 32
3.1.2 Pond drying 33
3.1.3 Trash removing from pond bottom 34
3.1.4 Evaluation of the pond bottom conditions 35
3.1.5 Sediment management 36
3.1.6 Liming (lime application on pond bottom) 38
3.1.7 Pond bottom ploughing 39
3.1.8 Pond filling 39
3.2 Pond stocking 40
3.2.1 Postlarvae sources 41
3.2.2 Postlarvae quality verification 42
3.2.2.1 Postlarvae acclimation 43
3.2.2.2 Postlarvae stocking 43
3.3 Feed management 44
3.4 Water quality management 49
3.4.1 Water quality monitoring 50
3.4.2 Aeration 52
3.4.3 Pond water exchange 53
3.4.4 Fertilization and natural productivity management 54
3.4.5 Predators and competitors management / exclusion 57
3.4.6 Shrimp escape prevention 58
3.4.7 Effluent management 59
5
3.5 Shrimp disease management 61

3.5.1 Response / action plan for shrimp disease outbreaks 63
3.5.2 Shrimp disease diagnostic research and confirmation 64
3.5.3 Shrimp mobilizations restriction 65
3.6 Use of veterinary drugs and chemical/biological products 66
3.7 Handling of household waste 68
3.8 Management procedures during harvest 70
3.9 Biosecurity 74
3.9.1 Control of people and vehicle farm incoming 75
3.9.2 Cleaning and disinfection of farming facilities 76
3.9.2.1 Coordination of the facilities total disinfection plan 76
3.9.2.2 Harvest schedule optimizing 77
3.9.2.3 Appropriate management of discarded shrimp 77
3.9.2.4 Facilities and equipment disinfection 77
3.9.2.4.1 Earthen ponds disinfection 78
3.9.2.4.2 Tank disinfection 79
3.9.2.4.3 Equipment disinfection 80
3.9.2.4.4 Office disinfection 80
3.9.2.4.5 Other buildings disinfecting 80
3.9.3 Control systems for pests eradication 81
3.9.4 Data recording and verification 82
4. Waste disposal based on classification and recyclability 83
5. Energy use 86
6. Contingency plans 87
7. Data recording in a shrimp farm 88
8. Traceability 89
Bibliography 91
Annexes 93
Abbreviations 121
Glossary 122
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LIST OF ANNEXES
Annex 1. Postlarvae quality evaluation and stress tests 93

Annex 2. Postlarvae acclimation: technical details to proceed 95
Annex 3.. Feeding management based on molting cycle 97
Annex 4. Population sampling in a shrimp farm 99
Annex 5. Parameters monitoring in shrimp ponds 100
Annex 6. Samples fixation for laboratory analysis 102
Annex 7. OIE model for preparing an Emergency Plan 104
Annex 8. International regulations for veterinary drugs 106
Annex 9. Regulation EU No 37/2010 - Toxic substances limits 112
Annex 10. Traceability 117
Annex 11. International metrology 119
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Kindergarten "Froylán Turcios" rebuilt by the shrimp company LARVIPAC, Seajoy Group, Honduras. 15
Figure 2. School supplies donation by Seajoy Shrimp Group, Honduras. 15
Figure 3. Free access to other users (fishermen) to the water source near the shrimp farm. Coquira (left) and 16
Aguadulce (right), Panama.
Figure 4. Training for a shrimp farm staff on topics related to public health and disease prevention. 16
Figure 5a. Health care for the staff as part of occupational health farm plan. 16
Figure 5b. Personal security measures signaling placed in work areas of a shrimp farm, in order to prevent staff 17
accidents at work and whose compliance must be mandatory.
Figure 5c. Evacuation route signaling in a work area of a shrimp farm, and fire extinguishing equipment for fire emergencies. 17
Figure 6a. Technical and administrative offices of a shrimp farm, equipped with air conditioning and tinted 17
windows for a more comfortable and healthy work environment.
Figura 6b. Bathroom facilities in a shrimp farm including showers (left) and urinals (right) for the farm workers. 18
The showers help for washing salt water and irritating substances such as lime or some fertilizers.
Complete bathroom elements including sink and toilet for employees of a shrimp farm, equipped also
Figure 6c. with cleaning and disinfection supplies (left). Portable latrine located near the resting areas for the 18
field staff in a shrimp farm (right).
Figure 6d. Source of drinking water for a shrimp farm workers (left); conventional telephone system and radio 18
(right) used for communications in a shrimp farm.
Figure 6e. Boarding a bus by staff of a shrimp farm at the end of a working day, as part of the free service offered 18
by the company. Note the guard near the door checking bags and backpacks of workers before boarding.
Figure 7. Integration activity of a shrimp farm with the near communities during a religious celebration held in 19
a reservoir channel (“Virgen del Carmen”), Anton, Panama.
Figure 8. Protected wildlife area adjacent to a shrimp farm (nesting area for local and migratory birds), Honduras. 20
Figure 9. Palo Blanco" sea arm (Aguadulce, Panama) with well-preserved mangrove forest, used as a water 20
source for several shrimp farms.
Figure 10. Map showing the location of shrimp farms built in albino (salt land) areas and areas of possible ponds 21
expansion (right of the ponds).
Figure 11a. Virgin albino (salt land) area, characterized by humid zones due to tidal influence, flat terrain, little 21
vegetation and surrounded by mangrove forest.
Figura 11b. Assessment of a virgin albino area for the location of a shrimp farm. 21
7
Figure 12. Shrimp farm flooding caused by a river overflow as consequence of a strong storm and simulta 22
neous high tides.
Figure 13a. Pond building in a shrimp farm located in an albino area with high in clay and silt (adequate texture) 23
allowing good dikes compaction.
Figure 13b. Ponds covered with liners in an intensive system for shrimp production, to avoid leakage due to sandy 23
soil composition.
Figura 14. Design plan of a shrimp farm. 25
Figura 15a. Design plan of a shrimp farm (left) and cross sections of the dikes (right). 26
Figure 15b. Strategic section in a dike of a pond during building of a shrimp farm, which is being built a water 26
income structure.
Figure 16. Pumping station of a shrimp farm with axial pumps. 26
Figure 17. Fuel tank properly labeled with a security pit to contain spills. 27
Figure 18a. Natural regeneration of mangrove trees in a drainage channels of a shrimp farm. 27
Figure 18b. Buffer zone adjacent to a shrimp farm, with natural proliferation of different types of mangroves that 27
serve as shelter for wildlife.
Figure 19. Service road bridge on a canal in a shrimp farm, to allow the natural drainage water flow as tidal 27
dynamics.
Figure 20. Administrative, technical and logistical-support facilities for production activities of a shrimp farm, with 28
adequate service roads for vehicles and heavy equipment traffic.
Figure 21. Main feed warehouse of a shrimp farm receiving shrimp feed transported in a covered truck (see right 28
on the picture).
Figure 22. Concrete stalls used as small warehouse for feed storage; they are strategically located in the pond 28
production area of a shrimp farm and facilitate the distribution of daily rations. They should be
designed to preserve feed quality and to avoid either rodents and other pests contamination or theft.
Figure 23a. Raised drinking water system supply (left) and comfortable housing for a shrimp farm workers who live 29
in it (right).
Figure 23b. Dining for a shrimp farm staff. 29
Figure 24. Security shelter and electric gate to control personnel and vehicles entry and exit in a shrimp farm. 30
Figure 25. Recently harvested pond under total draining process for a posterior sunshine and wind exposure to 33
soil dry.
Figure 26. Pond bottom drying and disinfecting through the sunlight and wind effect; note the deep soil cracks. 33
Figure 27. Physical pond soil examination (left) and soil sampling for laboratory analysis (right) in a shrimp farm. 34
Figure 28. Two adult organisms of “ghost shrimp” - "Callianassa" (Lepidophthalmus bocourti) (left) whose size is 35
comparable to a coin equivalent to U.S. $0.10. On the right the picture shows the bottom of a shrimp
pond with holes built by these organisms
Figure 29. Two adult organisms of Tanaidacea (left) whose size is comparable to a coin equivalent to U.S. $0.25. 36
To the right is presented a lump removed from the bottom of a shrimp pond with holes built by these
organisms.
Figure 30a. Sediment removal and harvest channel restoration on a shrimp pond bottom (left) and dikes 37
restructuring (right).
Figure 30b. Manual sediment removal from the bottom of a shrimp pond after a harvest, when it coincides with
the rainy season and it becomes difficult tractors entering to the ponds. 37
Figure 31a. Manual liming of a shrimp pond as part of its stocking preparation. Note the consistency with which
lime is being spread on the bottom. 38
Figure 31b. Reservoir channel manually limed as a best management practice in a small shrimp farm. 38
Figure 31c. Mechanical liming of a shrimp pond during preparation for stocking. Using specialized equipment
allows evenly lime application on the soil, in less time and safer for workers. 38
Figure 32. Reservoir channel manually limed as a best management practice in a small shrimp farm. 39
8
Figure 33. Early shrimp pond filling process using wooden fine mesh filter bags in order to retain undesirable 39
biological material.
Figure 34. Late shrimp pond filling process in a shrimp farm still remaining wooden filters and fine mesh filter
bags to prevent entry of debris and undesirable biological material. 40
Figure 35. Shrimp postlarvae production tanks in larval production center. 41
Figure 36. Plastic trays distribution in a shrimp enclosure system in a pond, which will be used for shrimp feeding 42
with 100% of the daily ration.
Figure 37a. Macroscopic postlarvae checkup performed by shrimp farm staff to determine its quality and health 42
conditions before purchasing the batch.
Figure 37b. Postlarvae transport in oxygenated bins and acclimation after arrival at the shrimp farm (left), and 43
physicochemical parameters monitoring during acclimation (right).
Figure 38a. Shrimp feed unloading and stowage for temporary storage in a shrimp farm warehouse. 45
Figure 38b. Shrimp feed temporarily stored on pallets in a warehouse of a shrimp farm. Note the warehouse 45
ventilation, lighting and cleaning conditions, the same as the use of wooden pallets and order and
space in the stowage system.
Figure 39. Hydrostability test performed with a feed sample lot on arrival at the shrimp farm, in order to assess 45
its physical quality. Pellets were immersed in sea water in a volumetric flask (beaker), without
agitation. Note the pellets consistency and hydration after 2 hours of testing.
Figure 40. Plastic trays distribution in a shrimp enclosure system in a pond, which will be used for shrimp feeding 47
with 100% of the daily ration.
Figure 41. Feed tray review by shrimp farm workers at a pond (left); circular mesh-made feed tray showing feed 47
and shrimp eating during a routine checkup on a shrimp farm.
Figure 42. Shrimp feed distributed from a rowboat; this is a good feeding practice management to the 48
environmental in a shrimp farm, as long as staff effort be considered.
Figure 43. Routine analysis of pond water in a shrimp farm, where pH (left) and salinity (right) is monitored. 50
Figure 44. Routine operation of a laboratory in a shrimp farm, which includes algae counting (left), water 51
chemical analysis (right) and data recording (center).
Figure 45a. Secchi disk design (left) and how to use it for turbidity measurement in a shrimp pond (right). 51
Figure 45b. Basic equipment for field and laboratory analysis which must be in a shrimp farm. From left to right: 51
regular gram scale, oxymeter (behind), pH meter, salinity meter and stirrer with hot plate.
Figure 46. Paddlewheel aerators in a shrimp farm ponds with an intensive shrimp farming system. Location must 52
be strategic looking to form a continuous water flow to prevent stratification.
Figure 47. Shrimp farm pumping station that supplies water to the ponds through the reservoir channel; it can 54
be observed behind pumps a well-preserved mangrove with abundant vegetation, which follows the
path of the estuary.
Figure 48. Microalgae belonging to diatoms: Navicula (left) and Chaetoceros (right). This group is the main feed 55
source of zooplankton consumed by shrimp in farming ponds.
Figure 49. Metabolites-producing microorganisms which affect shrimp health or quality: on the left 55
dinoflagellates (Peridinium) and on the right cyanophytes (Oscillatoria).
Figure 50. Agricultural inputs application (fertilizers) in a shrimp pond. Worker is protected with gloves and 57
masks to avoid contact with the product.
Figure 51. Structure for sedimentation control and filtration in a reservoir channel of a shrimp farm, which are 58
using bag filters.
Figure 52a. Water input gate (left) and water output gate (right) in a shrimp pond of a shrimp farm which have 59
mesh filters, bag and wooden seal to prevent the either foreign organisms entry or shrimp escape
during farming cycle.
Figure 52b. Wooden frames with black mesh filter installed in a water output gate of a pond in a shrimp farm. 59
The purpose is to prevent shrimp escape during pond water exchange.
Figure 53. Meeting between shrimp farms managers and technical staff with representatives of the Competent 61
Authority to discuss a shrimp health crisis and to establish an emergency plan.
Figure 54a. Diseased shrimp (left) and healthy shrimp (right) captured during a routinely health monitoring in a 62
shrimp pond.
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Figure 54b. Linical examination carried out during a routine health shrimp sampling in a shrimp farm. 62
Figure 55. TCBS petri agar dishes (left) and TSA agar (right) showing colonies growth from sick shrimp 63
hemolymph.
Figure 56a. Temperature-controlled incubator (left) and laminar flow chamber Class II used for studies of 64
bacteriology in the laboratory of a shrimp farm.
Figure 56b. Tissue processing equipment used in the preparation of histological slides to study shrimp organs and 64
tissues suspected to have a disease.
Figure 56c. PCR machine (thermocycler), used for the genomic amplification (DNA or RNA) of shrimp pathogens 64
from tissue samples.
Figure 57a. Competent Authority personnel from the Aquaculture Health Authority of a country, performing 65
shrimp sampling for PCR analysis as part of the routine health surveillance in a shrimp farm.
Figure 57b. Shrimp farms personnel in aquatic health making microscopy observations and recording findings, 65
from sick shrimp samples.
Figure 58a. Identified containers with colors and signs, which can be used in shrimp farms for garbage collection 69
according to their recycling classification, or for a proper disposal of certain kind of materials that
require special handling such as used batteries.
Figure 58b. Domestic waste collection by a specialized vehicle contracted for this particular service in a shrimp farm. 69
Figure 59. Shrimp sampling to determine its quality before deciding pond harvesting. 71
Figure 60. Using of a harvest machine in a pond of a shrimp farm which provides a better product quality. 71
Figure 61. Quick icing process during a harvest in a shrimp farm, causing shrimp death by heat shock and thus 72
initiating the cold chain.
Figure 62. Technical training courses for the shrimp farm staff about diagnostic methods for recognizing shrimp 74
diseases.
Figure 63a. Sign on the wall of a shrimp farm explaining biosecurity levels as well as recommendations and 75
restrictions to be applied in each one.
Figure 63b. Workspaces which indicate the biosecurity level to be applied when entering. Note the presence of 75
devices for hands and feet disinfection.
Figure 64a. Tire disinfection of a vehicle with a backpack system at a checkpoint, when entering a shrimp farm. 76
Figure 64b. Footbath with a quaternary ammonium solution used in the analytical laboratory entrance of a shrimp 76
farm as a biosecurity measure.
Figure 65a. Disposed shrimp burial in a cave made out of any area that be susceptible to contaminated in a 77
shrimp farm.
Figure 65b. Lime application and soil covering of disposed shrimp in a shrimp farm. 77
Figure 66. Cleaning and disinfection in acclimation facilities of a shrimp farm; note that the worker is wearing 78
boots, gloves, gas mask and cap for protection.
Figure 67. Device for pests control in a shrimp farm, installed and supervised by a certified company that has 81
been hired by the shrimp company.
Figure 68. Portable latrine located in an area of shrimp ponds (left). Sink and a paper towel dispenser (right). 84
Figure 69. Solar panels used in a shrimp farm as an alternative to reduce electricity consumption costs. 86
Figure 70a. Manual recording forms for different tasks in a shrimp farm (left) and vertical filing system to organize 87
and preserve the historical evolution of the data (right).
Figure 70b. Manual recording in the laboratory of a shrimp farm (left) and in the field (right), as part of the 87
production data collection.
Figure 70c. Computerized data recording in the warehouse of a shrimp farm which allows to have control on entry 88
and exit of operating materials and supplies.
Figure 71a. Computer screen showing an electronic form of an official software designed for data recording in a 89
shrimp farm as a plan for traceability.
Figure 71b. Data typing in an electronic form of an official software, performed by personnel of a shrimp farm for 89
traceability purposes.
10
FOREWORD
The "Manual of Best management practices for white shrimp Penaeus vannamei farming", aims to make available
voluntary tools to prevent, mitigate or compensate environmental negative impacts of the activities of shrimp farms, so that
farming operations be responsibly developed with the environment and with the society.
Similarly, this Manual is intended as a guide for voluntary programs designed to prevent, reduce and/or manage risks
related to food safety, life, animal health and human health. It involves environmental, social and food security elements
and proposes principles for the responsible and sustainable shrimp farming in Central America.
This Manual pretends also to support the formulation of national and regional rules in shrimp industry, addressed to seek
sustainability of this activity and pretending to supply base ideas for standards and certification systems development . The
principles and associated guidelines on the implementation of the suggested rules of this Manual can be used by public
and private sectors for: a) management protocols development for each shrimp farm in member countries of
OIRSA/OSPESCA, b) improving management practices and c) suggest additional administrative proposals for shrimp
farming.
11
12
1. Introduction help the achievement of these goals, members of FAO in

1995 adopted the Conduct Code for Responsible Fishing,
Worldwide, aquaculture has grown dramatically over the providing a framework for the responsible development for
last 60 years, from less than one million tonnes in the aquaculture and fisheries.
1950s, to 51.7 million tons in 2006 with a value of 78.800
million USD. Despite that fisheries catch production Globally, however, the production of the major species
stopped growing in the 1980s, the global aquaculture groups continues to be dominated by a small group of
sector has maintained an annual average growth rate of countries. China produces 77% of all carp (Cyprinidae) and
8.7% (excluding China, with 6.5%) since 1970 (FAO, 82% of world supply oysters (Ostreids). Asia-Pacific region
2009). produces 98% of the carp (Cyprinus carpius) and 95% of
total oysters; 88% of shrimps and prawns (Penaeid) also
According to FAO (2009), aquaculture represents 76% of come from this region and the five largest producers
world freshwater finfish production and 65% of the (China, Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia and India) supply
production of molluscs and diadromous fish. Its 81%. Norway and Chile are the two world's largest
contribution to the world's crustaceans supply has grown producers of farmed salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch and
rapidly in the last decade and has reached 42% of world Salmo salar - salmonids) and share 33% and 31%,
production in 2006 and, in that year, provided 70% of the respectively, of the world production. Other European
shrimp and prawns (penaeid) produced worldwide. producers supply additional 19% (FAO, 2009).
Regarding Latin America and the Caribbean, FAO reported Shrimp farming is one of the fastest growing aquaculture
that it has the highest average annual growth rate (22%), sectors in Asia and Latin America and recently in Africa.
followed by the Near East (20%) and the African region The sustainability of shrimp aquaculture should be reached
(12.7%). Production growth in Europe and North America, with the short and long term recognition and mitigation of
has slowed substantially 1% per year since 2000. France the effects on the environment and on the community. In
and Japan that used to be leaders in aquaculture order to get it, it`s necessary to maintain an economic and
development have reduced production in the past decade. biological viability along the time, and protect the coastal
Although aquaculture production will continue increasing, resources of which it depends.
the growth rate could be moderate in the near future.
In the Central America region, marine shrimp aquaculture
Due to demand increase, production and marketing corresponds to 12.8% and Tilapia to 5.7%, being the
increasing, there is a requirement increase for improving higher development of the aquaculture sector. Other
sustainability, social acceptance and security for human resources represent 22.6% of the production. In spite that
health. This not only affects international trade and pushes mariculture and Cobia farming (Rachycentron canadum)
producers to focus on production methods that lead them are not recorded in the statistics of the region until 2007,
to do that, but also challenges to producing countries to they have taken an interesting boom since 2008 in Belize
develop and implement appropriate policies and develop and Panama, with high prospects industrial development
standards that allow responsible production and trade. To (PAPCA-OSPESCA/AECID).
13
Instead shrimp catch that until early 2000s was strategic for Health Program of OIRSA`s Regional Coordination of
Central America, decreases every year due to fishing Animal Health. Objectives and activities of the Ad hoc
overexploitation and despite implemented regulations. Group, are involved in policy strategies of Fisheries and
Thus, production fell from 15.017 TM in 2000 (3.8% of Aquaculture Integration of the Central American Isthmus.
regional production) to 8.775 tonnes in 2007 (2% of the Regarding participation, countries that integrate OIRSA are:
regional total), while this same resource increased from Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras,
25.435 TM (6.5% of production) to 71.134 MT (16.4% of Nicaragua, Panama, Mexico and Republic Dominican.
the cumulative regional) during the same period OSPESCA member countries are the same but excepting
(OSPESCA, 2009). Mexico.
Many of the problems associated with aquaculture, result Both organizations (OIRSA/OSPESCA) have joined
from poor project planning and construction. In this regard, international efforts tending to improve and optimize of
FAO indicates that shrimp farms should be located shrimp sector activities in countries of the region. In order
according to the planning and the legal framework in to get it, they have developed a significant technical and
environmentally suitable locations, making efficient use of logistical deployment for the development of this "Best
water and soil resources; all of it additional to conservation management practices manual for white shrimp Penaeus
of biodiversity, ecologically sensitive habitats and vannamei farming", document that has been addressed to
ecosystem functions. This, recognizing other land uses, producers, technicians, students, academics, professionals
and other people and species that depend of these from related areas, private and official entities from member
ecosystems. countries of these organizations.
As an answer to the current demands of the Central There are different versions designed and implemented to
America region in aquatic health, it was created the Ad hoc improve management practices in shrimp farming
group of Aquatic Health Program of worldwide, but basically they all share the same principles
OIRSA/OSPESCA-PRIPESCA, which main objective is to and approaches, with differences due to the particular
have permanent availability of a specialized technical team characteristics of the countries or regions where they have
in the area of Aquatic Animal Health, led by Aquaculture been published.
Table 1. Production of farmed shrimp (TM) in Central American Countries - 2000-2007.

Year Belize Costa Rica El Salvador Guatemala Honduras Nicaragua Panama Totals
2000 3,637.3 1,300 196 1,492 12,041 5,422 1,347 24,148.3
2001 4,460.1 1,800 363 2,500 16,718 5,697.9 3,039 30,321
2002 4,354.1 4,097 372 5,400 18,149 6,102.2 4,778 37,906.3
2003 11,157.2 5,051 473 3,768 25,427 7,019.4 6,105 59,000.6
2004 11,064.9 5,076 435 3,900 27,748 7,849.5 6,535 58,747.4
2005 10,254.1 5,714 240 7,000 28,385 9,633.3 7,122 61,355.4
2006 7,234.7 5,726 336 13,428 35,811 10,860.5 8,314 81,710.2
2007 2,472.4 5,274 160.4 13,500 30,367 11,097.5 8,263 57,769.3
Fuente:OSPESCA 2009.
14
All shrimp farms must comply with national, regional and

international regulations, that are all applicable to the
shrimp industry, as it relates to the environmental, health,
food safety, social, labor and land tenure. Best
Management Practices (BMP) are not quantitative or static
procedures, they can`t be encoded as a permanent control.
They are intended to guide the shrimp industry to efficiency
maximizing, sustainability insurance and environmental
and social impact minimization, always considering
product safety.
2. Existing regulation compliance

Figure 2. School supplies donation by Seajoy Shrimp Group, Honduras.
2.1 Social aspects Photo courtesy of Eng. C. Girón
The social approach of shrimp companies should be 2.1.1 Relationship with neighboring
directed to developing and operating shrimp farms in a communities
responsible way, that benefits the same company, local
communities and the country, effectively contributing with Shrimp farms are located near coastal communities that
rural development (Figure 1) and particularly, to the traditionally have had access to coastal resources, like
poverty alleviation in coastal areas, without compromising fishing, mollusks gathering and wood extraction. Due to
environment. that, shrimp farms should not deny access rural
communities to these resources, that have used them
routinely for many years.
Shrimp farms should not prohibit coastal communities to

access public places as mangrove forests, fishing areas
and public resources, as long as these communities do not
endanger those resources. Farms should cooperate with
Competent Authorities, which are responsible for regulating
the use of coastal and aquatic resources of these areas
(Figure 3).
2.1.2 Labor and occupational health

Figure 1. Kindergarten "Froylán Turcios" rebuilt by the shrimp company LARVIPAC,
Seajoy Group, Honduras. Photo courtesy of Eng. C. Girón.
relationships
It is very important to avoid or minimize conflicts with local All worker performing honest work, should be rewarded at
communities that may result from the development or least with the minimum legal salary. Furthermore, he/she
operation of a shrimp farm. By the way, it must be ensured should be covered by social security and medical insur-
and promoted that aquaculture development be of mutual ance mandated by health legislation.
benefit to the parties (Figure 2).
15
Figure 3. Free access to other users (fishermen) to the water source near the shrimp farm. Coquira (left) and Aguadulce (right), Panama.
Photos courtesy of Eng. C. Lara and Mr. M. De León.
Personnel farm training should be a standing item, in order adequate signaling on the implements and rules to be
to improve their technical level looking for a better efficiency followed by workers in places where a risk is considered
in their daily performance and for a responsible behavior (Figure 5b). Likewise, there must be signaling for rapid
within their community (Figure 4). evacuation routes finding if emergencies occur, and must
have available fire extinguishers located in susceptible
The company must ensure the physical and mental health areas (Figure 5c).
of all their employees, by implementing an occupational
health care program, including visits from doctors, dentists This practice that will allow good health for employees, will
and social workers, giving all the staff the opportunity to be provide also labor benefits for a better performance on
treated at least once a year (Figure 5a). production. When applying, employees must obtain and
carry health cards issued by the Competent Authority.
As a measure to prevent accidents, the farm must have
Figure 4. Training for a shrimp farm staff on topics related to public health Figure 5a. Health care for the staff as part of occupational health farm plan.
and disease prevention. Photo courtesy of Mr. D. López.
Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.
16
meet the requirements of personnel retirement programs

according to the laws of each country.
All shrimp farms either offering or not accommodation to

workers, must have basic and dignified infrastructure, well
ventilated and having good showers and toilets. (Figures 6b
and 6c). Personnel meals must be balanced and nutritious.
There must be drinking water sources for all the personnel.
The farm must also have communication systems to the
outside, either through conventional telephone or
Figure 5b. Personal security measures signaling placed in work areas of a shrimp
farm, in order to prevent staff accidents at work and whose compliance must be radiotelephones; in this way, not only internal
mandatory. Photos courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel. communication between the farm technicians is optimized,
but also will have a communication line to neighboring
communities in case of an emergency (Figure 6d). Both,
storage and meals cooking must be adequate and food
waste must be handled the right way and environmentally
friendly.
Regarding mobilization, the company should provide all the

workers a free and safe transport system, from their homes
to the farm facilities and back at the end of the labor day.
This farm support reduces the possibility of accidents risks
for workers and they would be covered by an insurance
policy to be mobilized in a bus, according to the basic rules
of road and social safety (Figure 6e).
Figure 5c. Evacuation route signaling in a work area of a shrimp farm, and fire
extinguishing equipment for fire emergencies.
2.1.3 Existing labor regulations compliance
It is the responsibility of each company, the compliance of

national and international legislation. It should not existing
discriminatory, policies or exclusion practices for personnel
recruitment, and minors should not be hired.
Occupational safety must be implemented in order to

prevent accidents at work and have a healthy working
environment. Aquaculture workers must be trained about
their rights and duties, as well as aspects regarding Figure 6a. Technical and administrative offices of a shrimp farm, equipped with
air conditioning and tinted windows for a more comfortable and healthy work
occupational safety and first aid. Shrimp companies must environment. Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.
17
Figure 6e. Boarding a bus by staff of a shrimp farm at the end of a working day,
as part of the free service offered by the company. Note the guard near the door
Figure 6b. Bathroom facilities in a shrimp farm including showers (left) and checking bags and backpacks of workers before boarding.
urinals (right) for the farm workers. The showers help for washing salt water and Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.
irritating substances such as lime or some fertilizers.
Photos courtesy of Eng. C. Lara and Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.
2.1.4 Social responsibility

A farm BMP is the projection or reflection of their activities
directed towards the community, involving workers in
identifying such social, environmental, health, education
and communication problems among others, and make
them authors for solutions searching. Likewise, the
company should be involved in social activities that develop
communities and that contribute to the sociological welfare
of its employees, promoting an integration between the two
parties, regarding sociocultural aspects associated with day
by day of the workers (Figure 7).
Figure 6c. Complete bathroom elements including sink and toilet for employees of
Social responsibility includes company commitments with
a shrimp farm, equipped also with cleaning and disinfection supplies (left). Portable
latrine located near the resting areas for the field staff in a shrimp farm (right). the employees, which are not usually regulated or don´t
Photos courtesy of Mr. M. De León and Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.
obey laws compliance. Shrimp farming industry must be
developed and operated under a socially responsible
manner that benefits both companies and workers, local
communities and the country.
Best Management Practices (BMP) for social aspects
Avoid conflicts with local communities that may result

from the development of the shrimp farm and operation and
ensure that the development of the shrimp aquaculture be
beneficial for the producer and the community. In order to
Figure 6d. Source of drinking water for a shrimp farm workers (left); conventional get it, it´s recommended ensure jobs, perform social
telephone system and radio (right) used for communications in a shrimp farm. activities that benefit the community (schools, aqueducts,
Photos courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.
roads, playgrounds, recreation, health centers,
improvements in public services, etc.).
18
personnel retirement programs

Provide good field conditions to the workers, such as
adequate transportation, dining areas and rest areas, the
same as access to sanitation facilities (fixed or portable
toilets)
2.2 Environmental aspects
Sustainable shrimp farming should be focused on

development of farming systems in an integrated, orderly
and inclusive, articulating the economic, social and
environmental capabilities with technology, knowledge,
Figure 7. Integration activity of a shrimp farm with the near communities during
a religious celebration held in a reservoir channel (“Virgen del Carmen”), Anton, institutional efforts and the legal framework policy. Under
Panama. Photo courtesy of Engs. M. Lemieszek.
this guidance, shrimp farms have a responsibility in
environmental management implementation defined in the
Shrimp farms should not deny access the community to Environmental Impact Study, from the construction stage
natural resources, which for many years have been used and during its establishment and operation.
routinely
Regarding coastal and aquatic resources, farms should Each one of the infrastructure that make up the farm
be cooperating agencies with Competent Authorities that (ponds, offices, warehouses, pump stations, bridges,
are responsible for their use regulation sewers, drains, reservoir channels, roads, etc.), must
Ensure the welfare and improving working conditions of include in its design aspects to minimize or prevent impacts
those who work on shrimp farms on the environment during construction and operation.
Training of farm workers must be standing item, in order Similarly, it should be prevised its permanent maintenance
to improve their professional level, in order to improve for avoiding damage and accidents.
performance efficiency of their daily work and for a
responsible conduct within their community. This includes 2.2.1 Site selection for farm location
topics as duties and rights, within the labor relationship and
in the community, responsible practices for shrimp farming One of the most critical points in any shrimp aquaculture
and job security (e.g. first aid) operation is site selection, because doing it correctly, large
Minimize the risk of human error during shrimp farming amount of possible effects on the environment and
process, through training. Appropriate extension neighboring communities can be minimized. By the way, it
techniques and through excellence programs, bonuses and can be identified limitations that affect operation
awards sustainability.
Shrimp companies must provide their workers with
clothing and safety items appropriate for each of the tasks
they perform
Companies must also comply the requirements of
19
The site selected for the location of the farm, should be in original, such as topography, hydrography, hydrology and
an area where the operation thereof don´t induce other soil characteristics.
environmental or social conflicts, according to planning and
legal framework and making efficient use of water and soil Regarding food safety, the most important features are
resources. It should conserved biodiversity, ecologically again water and soil quality. This is the first prevention step
sensitive habitats and ecosystem functions, and recognizes for reducing danger of human food consumption risks. In
other possible uses of ground and that other people and fact, constructed farm on contaminated soil or using
species depend on these same ecosystems (Figure 8). polluted water, will not obtain a safe product. It must be
known the history of use of the selected land and by
Factors that must be considered when selecting a suitable laboratory analysis, must be confirmed the absence of
land for shrimp farming, include: hazardous products for shrimp and/or damaging the quality
of the final product (harvested shrimp), due to their
potential risk to human health.
Water quality is essential to meet physico-chemical and

biological requirements for farmed species. Likewise, the
use of high quality water for shrimp production, will have a
“plus” for producing a quality and safety shrimp for the final
consumer. Therefore, it must be ensured that the water is
not contaminated or that there is not possibility for water
contamination with industrial, mining, agricultural or
domestic waste (Figure 9).
Figure 8. Protected wildlife area adjacent to a shrimp farm (nesting area for local
and migratory birds), Honduras.
Photo courtesy of Eng. C. Girón.
•฀฀Cost-effective and environmental health

•฀฀Value of the site where it will be operated a shrimp farm,
related to the intrinsic value (cost-opportunity)
•฀฀Impact on the local and regional economy
•฀ Changes in the value of other sites within the same
ecosystem as a result of the farm operation
Each site has its own characteristics that determine the

biological, social, land tenure and local context,
environmental, operational and financial feasibility, the
same as the consequences of being used for shrimp
production. It is important to ponder the factors involved in Figure 9. "Palo Blanco" sea arm (Aguadulce, Panama) with well-preserved
mangrove forest, used as a water source for several shrimp farms.
transforming an area that will have a different role from the Photo courtesy of Mr. M. De León.
20
Site selection should include area development plans Many ponds are built in flood-prone lowlands, so
regarding agricultural, industrial and tourism growth, and knowledge about flood patterns becomes critical. Flooding,
others. This will ensure a project long life and will anticipate embankments erosion and sediment deposits (erosion from
adverse conditions that could affect investment in short to around areas of the shrimp farm), can damage pond walls
medium term. and edges, destroying roads and channels damage and
sedimentation.
Prevention is the best way to avoid microbial
contaminations. Contaminated water with Wastewater and Shrimp farm design should incorporate elements that
human waste, is the most common and important source of protect farm structures from strong floods, and that also
human pathogenic microorganisms. The farther away be avoid natural watercourses obstruction that maintain
the farms from human communities, the easier will be surrounding habitats. It´s recommended the building of
pathogen contamination control that may affect final ponds in areas with very low vegetation such as the albino
product safety. areas, because construction costs will be reduced and the
risk that the farm location be a sensitive zone, will be lower
2.2.1.1 Topography (Figures 11a and 11b).
Shrimp industry, thanks to the advancement of technology,

has extended possibilities of using not only albino areas,
but also sandy and inland areas for the location of shrimp
farms. These options for lands using, should consider
environmental impact as a result of farms construction and
operation (Figure 10).
Figure 11a. Virgin albino (salt land) area, characterized by humid zones due to
tidal influence, flat terrain, little vegetation and surrounded by mangrove
forest. Photo courtesy of Eng. C. Lara.
Figure 10. Map showing the location of shrimp farms built in albino (salt land)
areas and areas of possible ponds expansion (right of the ponds).
Photo courtesy of Mr. M. De León. Figure 11b. Assessment of a virgin albino area for the location of a shrimp farm.
Photo courtesy of Mr. M. De León.
21
2.2.1.2 Hydrology and hydrography influence must be isolated and controlled in drainage
channels.
The hydrographic and hydrological study on the site should
reveal annual flows and tides variations during rainy and 2.2.1.3 Soil characteristics
dry seasons.
Considering production and safety environmental aspects
Structures and water channels design regardless climate when shrimp farm site selection, soil characteristics are
seasonal variations and area hydrology, can result in costly relevant to the production sustainable success. Potentially
mistakes and severe environmental impacts. It´s critical to acid and sulfated soils must be excluded when site
determine the hydrology characteristics of the area, to selection for the location of a shrimp farm. However,
ensure operation needs and interferes as little as possible moderately acidic soils can be treated to improve its pH,
with natural water flows. through the process of liming with calcium carbonate.
Seasonal variations should be carefully studied and Another important feature for site selection is the soil
according to the results of this study, organic matter contents. When this is organic, should not
internal and external farm hydraulic structures must be be used for shrimp pond construction, due to problems
carefully dimensioned. Annual shrimp farm water with earthmoving, soil compaction and consequent
requirement, must be determined in the planning process problems during production process due to acid pH.
and must include both, production process requirements,
and the losses that may occur in the system. Soil texture must be of suitable composition and must be
found at a depth of at least 50 cm below the bottom of the
When farms are built in flood areas affected by temporary pond. Soil must have a high silt and clay content, to reduce
high tides, special engineering precautions must be water loss by infiltration and facilitate wall compaction for
considered, to avoid the effects of high tides and storms erosion reduction (Figure 13a).
(Figure 12). It is also advisable that when possible, tide
Figure 12. Shrimp farm flooding caused by a river overflow as consequence of a strong storm and simultaneous high tides.
Photos courtesy of Mr. C. Garrido.
22
Sandy soils can be selected if technology is used to prevent influence of agricultural drainage. Otherwise, such soils
water infiltration ("Liners") (Figure 13b). If design and could have chemicals and environmental pollutants
construction don´t consider appropriate technical aspects, accumulation, such as heavy metals and other harmful
it might be a mistake to place a shrimp farm on sandy soils materials.
or infiltrating soil areas, the same as on seawater discharge
areas (tide effect). Shrimp farms should not be built within mangrove forests,
wetlands or any other fragile ecosystem.
Within soil characteristics, it must be considered that it
does not contain contaminants that may affect production BMP for site selection for farm location
and final product safety. Shrimp farms must be built in
areas that have not ever been exposed to agribusiness The following are some general considerations for
activities or urban developments, or being affected by implementing best practices in a shrimp farm
establishment:
For site determination and project development, it must

be considered the technical and environmental viability
obtained in the economic, technical and environment
impact study. These are key requirements in the process
for project legalization
Obey national regulations for land using, planning laws
and coastal management plans
Determining water or soil contamination level at different
seasons of the year, based in national regulations
Select a site at which water and soil have not previously
Figure 13a. Pond building in a shrimp farm located in an albino area with high in been contaminated by previous use
clay and silt (adequate texture) allowing good dikes compaction.
Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel Ensure that selected site be free of potential water and
soil contamination risks. Soil should not contain
contaminants, areas exposed to other previous
agribusiness activities, urban development or subject to
agricultural drainage influence, because these soils may
have Agrochemicals accumulation and environmental
pollutants such as heavy metals or other harmful
materials
Water physicochemical properties assessment, avoiding
the use of water sources with risk of contamination due
to anthropogenic activities
Don´t locate shrimp farms in areas that have already have
Figure 13b. Ponds covered with liners in an intensive system for shrimp reached its carrying capacity for aquaculture
production, to avoid leakage due to sandy soil composition.
Photo courtesy of Eng. C. Lara.
23
Inland areas should be used for shrimp farm locations if Promotion of sustainable aquaculture enterprises
they have limited potential for agricultural use and having development, by obtaining environmental licenses
also a little vegetation, avoid soil and freshwater Watch population access to aquatic area resources
surrounding sources salinization Promote aquaculture infrastructure modernization by
All sites for aquaculture, should be designed for a supporting activities for environmental impact mitigation
consistent environment manner functioning and rehabilitating estuarine systems (reforestation)
Shrimp farm location must involve not affecting water Conduct hydrographic surveys of the site, to know annual
sources of other users by overloading, effluent variations during rainy, dry and transition seasons
contamination, etc. To consider climate seasonal variations and hydrology for
Buffer zones maintenance and corridors between farms the design of structures and water channels, to avoid
and other users and habitats costly mistakes and affect the environment
Regarding coastal areas, mangrove destruction must be The annual water requirements for the farm, must be
avoided and it must be buffer areas determined in the planning process
Well water intake and drainage planning, looking for least Potentially acidic and sulfated soils are be avoided for
environment impact way and avoiding the re-use of shrimp farm constructions. However, moderately acidic
already drained wastewater (effluents) soils can be mitigated with lime
Flooding risks must be considered when shrimp farm site Soil texture must have clay and silt suitable composition
selection for a better soil compaction, being present at least 50 cm
Farm design should incorporate elements for structure below the pond bottom
protection from hard flooding and also avoiding natural Organic soils must not be considered for pond construction
water flow obstructing that maintain surrounding habitats Farm construction must not impact site flora and fauna
Pond construction must be done in little vegetal layer Wetlands must not be affected due to they are areas rich
areas for cost reduction and reducing the risk for the site in wildlife
to be a sensitive area If necessary, fresh water can be used if mixed with
Farms built in temporary flood areas due to high tides, seawater to adjust salinity when it be too high, but it must
must consider special engineering precautions to avoid be considered protection regulations for the used fresh
high tide effects water source
Knowing flooding patterns, the waterlogging, Aquaculture management plans must be respected in
embankment erosion and sediment deposition order to balance the use of the environmental capacity in
(Erosion from around of the shrimp farm), because they accordance with other surrounding industries
may cause losses on pond walls and edges, roads Promoting of low trophic level species farming and/or
destruction and channel damage and sedimentation biotechnologies that use feed from vegetal origin as
Assessment of the soil physicochemical properties, replacement of animal origin feed
considering compactness, material texture (silty, sandy
or clay) and composition (there are mineral materials that
in high concentrations affect production negatively as
iron and copper)
24
Shrimp farms should not be within mangrove forest, construction characteristics may reduce costs and improve
wetland or other fragile ecosystem efficiency at all operation stages.
Shrimp farms must not be located on sandy soils or
unloading or infiltration seawater areas, unless During the planning, design and construction phase of the
appropriate technology be used farm, measurements must be considered to mitigate
Do not build shrimp farms in traditional areas of birds environmental problems; that is why environmental
migration, as there will be problems related to their evaluation is important (Figures 14, 15a and 15b).
invasion and disadvantages with environmental
protection authorities
2.2.2 Farm design and building
According to shrimp farming growth during recent years,

appropriate techniques for design and construction are
being used when new shrimp farms are going to be placed.
Improving shrimp farming techniques has advantages as
not only considering shrimp farm management, but also
farm is integrated in the local environment, causing the
least possible disruption to the surrounded ecosystem.
Figure 14.Design plan of a shrimp farm.

A good knowledge of the design principles, construction Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.
and farming technologies, can help with three objectives:
natural resource protection, operation efficiency and Shrimp farm pumping structures must be compact, have a
construction costs reduction. Code of Practices of the safe design to support and operate pumping equipment,
Global Aquaculture Alliance (GAA), states that "the facilities and they must provide operational and logistics
used in aquaculture should be designed and operated to maintenance conditions; they should also be designed
maintain water and protect underground fresh water under an environmentally friendly focus, avoiding oil and
sources, to minimize the effluent effects on surface and other contaminant materials leaking to estuarine waters.
groundwater sources quality and maintaining ecological Farm design must minimize risks of accident or injury to
diversity”. BMP play a key role in the reduction or operators (Figure 16). Fuel tanks storage should be
mitigation of potential impacts during and after shrimp designed and located according to established security
farm construction. In addition, attending thoroughly the standards in each country (Figure 17).
25
Figure 15a. Design plan of a shrimp farm (left) and cross sections of the dikes (right). Photo courtesy of Eng. C. Lara.
Pumping equipment selection must consider aspects Every coastal aquaculture operation performed near
related to efficiency, cost, durability (lifetime) and mangrove forests, wetlands and mudflats, must watch their
environmental risks associated with its use. Oil lubricated conservation to maintain industry sustainability itself
pumps are a potential risk for estuarine water (Figures 18a and 18b). For a proper shrimp farm design,
contamination, so it is preferable to use water lubricated standards and proceedings must be considered that involve
pumps. Pump motor selection should considered aspects soil properties, slope, water flow and the best hydraulic
as efficiency and type of required energy. At present there
section, among others.
are many options for economic and environmentally friendly
motor energy sources, which must be considered for
shrimp farming.
Figure 15b. Strategic section in a dike of a pond during building of a shrimp Figure 16. Pumping station of a shrimp farm with axial pumps.
farm, which is being built a water income structure. Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.
26
In the shrimp farm planning, water canals should not create

barriers to natural water flows, because altering natural
water courses can impact sensitive areas. Flooding or
erosion resulting from this process, will damage the canals,
farm infrastructure, nearby activities and the company
production system itself. That is why area topographic
studies and studying its hydrological before the
construction, will let detect where natural water courses in
risk are located.
In order to prevent natural water flows disturbance, it´s

recommended to adjust the farm layout, providing
Figure 17. Pumping station of a shrimp farm with axial pumps.
Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel. adequately big culverts under roads or limiting deviation of
Figure 18a. Natural regeneration of mangrove trees in a drainage channels of a shrimp farm. Photos courtesy of Eng. C. Lara.
Figure 18b. Buffer zone adjacent to a shrimp farm, with natural proliferation of Figure 19. Buffer zone adjacent to a shrimp farm, with natural proliferation of
different types of mangroves that serve as shelter for wildlife. different types of mangroves that serve as shelter for wildlife.
Photo courtesy of Eng. C. Girón. Photo courtesy of Eng. C. Girón.
27
waterways around structures, loading then on the original

waterway (Figure 19).
Roadways must have installed adequate sized structures

to prevent fresh water stagnation and brackish water flow
alteration. Sometimes it´s necessary to have roads built on
high areas where shrimp ponds are built. One path can act
as a dam and cause flooding unless that its drainage be
ensured by using adequate sized structures. During
extreme conditions, roads may be swept away by water
flows. Figure 20. Administrative, technical and logistical-support facilities for
production activities of a shrimp farm, with adequate service roads for vehicles
and heavy equipment traffic. Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.
Design and construction of supplier water canals, play an
important role in the flexibility of
pond management, and will have also an effect on some
operation potential environmental impact reduction. These
should be designed according with the results of the
estimation of the farm maximum daily water demand,
including losses by evaporation, water infiltration and
leakage.
Incoming water sediment load estimations, and required

dimensions for a sedimentation area or sediment trap,
must be calculated and incorporated into the design by an
experienced engineer. Testing may be required to Figure 21. Main feed warehouse of a shrimp farm receiving shrimp feed
transported in a covered truck (see right on the picture).
determine necessary time for water residence in these Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.
sedimentation areas, to remove a significant amount of
sediment. It should also be considered the use of two
different sedimentation areas within one canal, because
one area can be cleaned while the other continues
operating.
Regarding drainage canals, they must include in its design

and construction, a hydraulic section allowing the efficient
management of farm effluents and natural water inflows.
Considering the possibility of control water gates for
drainage and isolation of tide influence, is a biosafety Figure 22. Concrete stalls used as small warehouse for feed storage; they are
strategically located in the pond production area of a shrimp farm and facilitate
option that may also reduce operating costs (Figure 19). the distribution of daily rations. They should be designed to preserve feed quality
and to avoid either rodents and other pests contamination or theft.
28
The shrimp farm must have an adequate infrastructure that When there is a logistic need for personnel hosted at
promotes an adequate production activities development production areas, shrimp farm must build adequate
(Figure 20). Warehouses must be built and located accord infrastructures that provide personnel comfort and healthy
to the stored products. That is why feed require an conditions. There must be drinking water supply (Figure
adequate management during storage and distribution in 23a), dining areas (Figure 23b) and sanitation systems or
the field, where must be protected from moisture, direct latrines. The latter must be located strategically in the field
sunlight and pest attack (Figures 21 and 22). and for its design and construction it must be considered
23a. Raised drinking water system supply (left) and comfortable housing for a shrimp farm workers who live in it (right).
Photos courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel and Mr. M. De León.
23b. Dining for a shrimp farm staff. Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.
29
environmental impacts, remaining important the use of regulations to minimize environmental impacts; it should
ecological latrines (Figures 6b and 6c). avoid locating them near estuarine sources, lagoons,
Mangroves, office areas or workplaces.
It is important that all the actors in the shrimp farms
capitalize and implement environmental management and, In order to reduce the risk of introducing diseases and for
as part of it, there must be a focus on the reduction of waste traceability ease, there must be an efficient control of
in the construction process and during the shrimp personnel and equipment entry and exit (Figure 24), the
production phase. The practice of reducing, reusing and same as considering a disinfection system for them,
recycling, must be a rule in the farm depending on the designed so that may not be avoided under any
environment and costs. circumstance.
Waste disposal based on classification and recycling It should be considered in the shrimp farm design and
options, must be considered during farm construction and construction, to have the adequate infrastructure and
after during production phase, so in each waste production signaling required for permanent implementation of
area there were properly located containers. Although there security, hygiene and biosecurity measures.
is not and international classification color for waste
containers according to their characteristics, we propose BMP for farm design and building
the following: green for glass, yellow for recyclable oils,
white for other recyclable material, red for dangerous During construction phase, fuels, lubricants and all waste
chemical and biological waste, blue for paper and board must be responsibly managed to prevent environmental
materials, and gray for organic matter (biodegradable). contamination, building containment dikes around
places were fuel be stored, for protecting adjacent areas
Waste disposal sites, must be strategically located within in the event of a spill
the farm, if the waste cannot be disposed of in municipal Conserving biodiversity and promote natural habitats
landfills. Its design must include all national established restoration; maintaining riverside vegetation and a buffer
zone. If it´s kept intact as much vegetation as possible
between ponds and adjacent water bodies, it´s
maintained the ecological water values and there are
protected the embankments from erosion caused by
wind and tides effect
Avoid discharges to stagnant or sensitive environments
where damage can occur, will minimize effluent impacts.
When many farms discharge within a same water body,
coordination between operators can help preventing
problems
Minimize degraded areas (unused) and implement for
them reforestation plans or ecological use
Have vegetation buffer zones among the mangroves,
Figure 24. Security shelter and electric gate to control personnel and vehicles
entry and exit in a shrimp farm. Photo courtesy of Eng. C. Lara. rivers and estuaries, and enable natural corridors among
them
30
Shrimp farm design should include supply canals with Pump station area must have all security structures to
adequate dimensions for farm water needs avoid accidents such as mesh cover on belts and pulleys,
Farm design (or a new extension of the operation), must metal mesh fence around of the pumps area, adequate
include an area for a sedimentation pond with an illumination and others, complying environmental and
adequate size, or another structure as sediment traps, job security regulations
which minimizes the discharge of suspended solids in Pump engines must be in good mechanical conditions
effluent water and also have a tray for lubricants leaking retention
The farm size should be proportional to the water Fuel and lubricants provision and storage must be
availability and based on the estimated capacity of the consistent with national regulations (fire department and
receiving water body to dilute, transport and assimilate environmental authority)
effluent water Complete waste must be removed from the site and
Shrimp farms built on low coastal areas are susceptible to responsibly discarded once construction
natural disasters such as floods and hurricanes. Thus, has completed
they should be designed and efficiently constructed to Ponds must drain completely by using culverts or other
avoid water excessive requirements, low water quality drainage systems
and increased suspended solids in effluent Whenever possible, water input and output from ponds
Farm design and construction must consider control and canals should be separated so incoming and effluent
water gates that allow drainage and isolating from tide water never get mixed. Its design should include erosion
effect as a biosafety measure controls
Farm pumps lubrication must be better by water than by Dike and internal roads construction should neither alter
oil because the latter have leaking risk that may cause natural flow of water bodies nor causing salinization of
water and soil contamination surrounding lands
Pumping stations should be located where water quality Supply canals and drainage canals must be designed to
is acceptable and avoiding areas where environmental avoid water high speed and their erosion, as to allow
damage may occur water flow to the ponds by using gravity
Proper design, location and operation of pump stations, Prevailing wind direction should be considered to reduce
may reduce operating cost and potential environmental the presence of waves that may erosion ponds and
damage caused by its operation canals dikes
Large pumps should be used more than small pumps, Effluent water discharge points must be located in places
because they are more efficient than smaller ones; but where transport and effluent dispersion be maximized,
more than one pump must be installed on large farms to and where tide hydraulic impact on environment and
provide flexibility and water reserve capacity. Small farms vegetation be minimized
may need a backup pump in the event of mechanical
failure of the main pump
Pumping structure must have a surface that facilitates
cleaning and should not allow fuel drops leaking that
contaminate soil or estuarine water
31
Depending on the effluent water quality, it´s preparation after harvest (time after harvest in which pond
recommended to design the shrimp farm so as to allow bottom is sanitized by sunlight effect), pond bottom
water effluent treatment to reduce the physic-chemical preparation, proper disposal of predators and competitors,
disturbance of estuaries or rivers reduction of stressors and natural productivity
Drainage canals should have control water gates, which management.
allow pond isolation from tide influence; it will make
easier drying process, will help for cost reduction by not 3.1 Pond preparation
using wood and meshes and will reduce harvest time
When a supply canal is common for several farms, water Pond depopulation after harvest implemented in part or the
use must be coordinated in mutual accordance between whole shrimp farm, will allows to have enough time for good
user companies, and it should not affect area ecology bottom drying and pond preparation. This contributes to
Access to land or water routes, docks and parking areas, healthy shrimp growth as it encourages a good chemical,
must be located where it´s possible to mitigate physical and biological balance in the pond. Drainage,
environmental impacts drying, sediment management, cleanness, bottom
In order to reduce the impact on marine wildlife, it is condition assessment and liming, are activities that
convenient that water sources don´t be located on contribute to reduce the risks of diseases in shrimp ponds.
estuaries margins; supply canals must be built and also
when possible, infrastructure Pond disinfection includes cleanness, pond structure and
that allow placing meshes or nets in order to reduce bottom treatment after each harvest, for which it must be
organisms suction by pumps operation combined solar radiation during drying and lime or other
There must be adequate signaling for potential accident chemicals application (e.g. chlorine). Chlorine and other
risks and clear indications of procedures if they become chemicals must be used responsibly, because if they are
necessary thrown to the environment, they could cause mortality of
During construction, it must consider the strategic flora and wildlife.
location of fixed or portable sanitary facilities with storage
tanks for later transfer 3.1.1 Complete pond drainage
3. Farm operation Once harvest is finished, pond must be completely drained

(Figure 25). Areas that can´t be completely drained, must
Planning, adjusted farm conditions protocol be disinfected with sodium or calcium hypochlorite or
implementation and proper farm management will allow to calcium oxide (burnt lime).
reach expected economic results at the end of production
process. It´s important for the farm management, to Once drainage is finished, pond intake and outtake water
establish and maintain from the beginning optimal gates must be sealed to prevent entry of seawater during
environmental conditions in the ponds, so postlarvae and high tides, allowing the sun and wind to perform complete
juveniles have a normal development. This includes pond drying process.
32
has as one of its objectives to break reinfection cycle by

eliminating disease sources from ponds and supply canals
(reservoirs). Depopulation performed during dry season,
allow also to make improvements and important repairs in
farm infrastructure, the same as to restore pond bottoms in
order to get a healthy environment for shrimp stocked
during next production cycle. In order to promote a health
status improvement of marine shrimp production systems,
Competent Authority responsible for aquatic animal health
in each country, must encourage producers to run
depopulations as a routine strategy for disease control,
pondering to producers its beneficial effects relative to the
Figure 25. Recently harvested pond under total draining process for a posterior
sunshine and wind exposure to soil dry. Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel. cost.
Within the depopulation whose use is suggested as a BMP

Drainage canals that have control structures (gates), must measurement, production units (ponds) and water supply
be hermetically sealed after ponds harvest to prevent entry sources/structures, must be submitted to an adequate
of seawater during high tides and to allow a better pond drying period by sun and wind effect during dry season,
drying. until pond bottom develops “cracks”. This will allow
reduction of oxidized substances (inorganic sulfides
BMP for complete pond drainage present in pond soil), accelerates organic matter
decomposition and disinfection of pond bottom (Figure 26).
Incorporate in the farm protocol, properly defined tasks
for complete pond drainage activity
Hermetically sealing of pond intake and outtake water
gates just after harvest be completed
When drainage canals have control structures (gates),
they must be hermetically sealed after ponds harvest to
avoid seawater entry and to facilitate pond drying
3.1.2 Pond drying
It´s necessary let environment to rest and restore in shrimp

farms, by temporary production stopping; during dry
season (summer) it´s possible to obtain a complete pond
Figure 26. Pond bottom drying and disinfecting through the sunlight and wind
drying and during wet season a partial drying, due to proper
effect; note the deep soil cracks. Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.
weather conditions. This strategy called “depopulation”,
33
BMP for pond drying etc.), can affect the proper development of production
activities, the same as physical integrity of workers. As an
Incorporate depopulation within the farm protocol as example, during biometric samplings, it can be affected net
priority activity casts effectiveness, it can also
Routine sun and wind drying of pond bottoms and water cause accidents to workers, or can be used by other pond
supply canal structures during adequate time, in order to organisms as shelters which may affect shrimp production
develop deep cracks of 5 to 10 cm deep results. Then it must be cleaned and disinfected water
In order to make easer soil preparation (plowing or intake and outtake gates, pipes, clapboards and racks.
flipping), it must be defined how dry we want to have the
bottom; very dry soils become too compacted and don´t Garbage and all remaining plastic, wood, metal or glass that
allow a good plowing were used during production cycle, must be collected and
Pond bottom drying can be done after each harvest or at adequately disposed on previously established sites, or
longer intervals if desired, but long and frequent dryings classified for recycling, as appropriate.
are not always necessary. Bottom drying increases soil
aeration, which stimulates organic matter decomposition It must be considered during waste management, that
there are materials which due to its nature or physicochem-
3.1.3 Trash removing from pond bottom ical composition, are easily degraded by the environment
and therefore they only need a proper disposal place. Incin-
Pond cleaning must become a routine practice before eration should be avoided due to pollutant release that
starting a new production cycle and during it. Foreign affect the environment.
matter (trash) into the ponds (wires, logs, rocks, sticks,
Figure 27. Physical pond soil examination (left) and soil sampling for laboratory analysis (right) in a shrimp farm. Photos courtesy of Eng. C. Lara and Dr. D. Díaz.
34
BMP for trash removing from pond bottom sulfates, iron, calcium carbonate, magnesium and
potassium.
Establishment of actions to proceed for a good pond or
farm cleaning and including it in the Sanitation Main parameters that determine pond bottom conditions,
Operational Procedures Manual (SOPM) are organic matter (%) and bottom pH. If pond soil has
Perform cleaning of water intake and outtake gates, acidic conditions (pH <7), it should be applied agricultural
pipes, clapboards and racks, and remove any foreign lime (calcium carbonate) to correct acidity (raise pH).
material from the pond bottom Lime requirement of calcium carbonate (agricultural lime)
Avoid as much as possible, the use of chemical for a shrimp pond bottom treatment (Boyd, 1992)
substances for pond disinfection
pH Calcium carbonate (agricultural lime) (kg/ha)
To implement and appropriate management for waste
<5 < 3,000
and garbage collected from ponds and around them
5-6 < 2,000
To implement security measurements when chemicals
6-7 < 1,000
be used for pond preparation
Another important assessment of the pond and supply

3.1.4 Evaluation of the pond bottom conditions
canals bottom status, is contamination degree
determination by the presence of invasive plants
Routine programs must be performed for soil sampling and
(seaweeds) and crustaceans such as ghost shrimp
laboratory analysis and based on results, it must be applied
(Lepidophthalmus spp.) (Figure 28) and Tanaidacea
corrective products amount as needed (lime or fertilizers)
(Figure 29). If they are present, it must be considered
for each pond (Figure 27).
implementing management practices looking to reduce or
Soil analysis should include basic information about organic eliminate them, because they could affect shrimp
material composition (%), pH, nitrogen, phosphorus, production.
Figure 28. Two adult organisms of “ghost shrimp” - "Callianassa" (Lepidophthalmus bocourti) (left) whose size is comparable to a coin equivalent to U.S. $0.10. On the right
the picture shows the bottom of a shrimp pond with holes built by these organisms. Photos courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.
35
Figure 29. Two adult organisms of Tanaidacea (left) whose size is comparable to a coin equivalent to U.S. $0.25. To the right is presented a lump removed from the
bottom of a shrimp pond with holes built by these organisms.
Photos courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.
The use of pesticides or chemicals to eradicate or control It must be avoided samples contamination when using
these organisms, must be the last inadequate sampling implements, or due to inadequate
resource. If it´s necessary to use them, they must be sample management during or after sampling
handled by farm trained personnel and it will be used only Inputs amount (lime or fertilizer) to be used on the
products allowed by national and international regulations. bottom, should be according to laboratory results
Use of these products must be done responsibly and strictly interpretation for each evaluated place
following manufacturer's directions, under approval and Exclusion measures should be taken to avoid pond
watch of Competent Authorities. contamination by pests, but if treatment is necessary, it
should be prescribed by a professional and applied by
BMP for the evaluation of the pond bottom conditions trained personnel, in compliance with safety and
environmental measures
Take representative soil samples from the assessed Used products must be properly registered and
place, to which must be established sectors (mapping) authorized by the Competent Authorities
according to the bottom characteristics (amount of
organic matter, color or texture). If there is soil uniformity, 3.1.5 Sediment management
it can be taken only one sample (pool from 3 to 5
Shrimp spends most of its time in the pond bottom, so
subsamples), keeping depth when taking all of them keeping soil in permanent good condition, is essential for
Soil sampling must be done always in the same place, so shrimp good health status. An important problem is
it can be tracked along time according to laboratory test sediment accumulation either from external sources or
results from the same farm.
36
Figure 30a. Sediment removal and harvest channel restoration on a shrimp pond bottom (left) and dikes restructuring (right). Photos courtesy of Mr. M. De León.
Shrimp farms must store or dispose removed sediment BMP for sediment management
from ponds, canals and settling ponds, without causing
environmental impact or land and neighboring water Ponds, canals and settling ponds, should be designed to
salinization. It´s a common practice in shrimp farms to reduce erosion caused by raining and streams
remove pond bottom sediment layers which has been Sediment must be enough dried before be removed from
accumulated during several production cycles. It´s also pond bottom, to prevent odor that may affect neighbors
common to use this sediment to restore cross sections of or neighboring communities
the dikes, improving their slope, height and crown. This If sediments are stored outside production area, the site
procedure needs a good soil compaction to prevent that this should be designed to minimize
material contaminates ponds due to erosion or landslides nutrients infiltration and pollution of underground water
(Figures 30a and 30b). Sediment should be removed from the ponds only when
absolutely necessary
To avoid sediment accumulation in shrimp ponds, it´s
recommended to have a sedimentation area prior the
supply channel, in order to retain suspended solids. In
order to reduce sediment accumulation on the pond
bottom, a proper feed and fertilizer management must be
performed
Good leveled and slightly inclined bottoms, drain faster
and prevent puddles where predators and disease
causing organisms can survive
Pond bottom don´t need to be compacted, unless
Figure 30b. Manual sediment removal from the bottom of a shrimp pond after a aeration will be used so compacting would become
harvest, when it coincides with the rainy season and it becomes difficult tractors
entering to the ponds. Photo courtesy of Eng. H. Pérez.
essential
37
Soil compaction helps to reduce erosion caused by

mechanical procedures during production cycle
If pond bottoms using mechanical aeration are plowed
between two cycles, they must be compacted before
filling them again with seawater
3.1.6 Liming (lime application on pond bottom)
Liming is performed to raise pH in acidic soil and to improve

water alkalinity. Many soils are acidic due to its nature, 31A. Manual liming of a shrimp pond as part of its stocking preparation. Note the
having low basic ion concentrations or high amounts of consistency with which lime is being spread on the bottom.
organic matter. Potential acid sulphated soils, become
highly acidic when dried because containing ferrous pyrite
is oxidized to sulfuric acid. In shrimp farming, liming is
highly effective to neutralizing soil acids and it constitutes a
useful management activity economically viable (Figures
31a, 31b and 31c).
BMP for liming (lime application on pond bottom)
Liming should be performed based on soil analysis results

Before and after pond liming, it must be taken at least 10
soil subsamples in equidistant points along an “S” route
(from the least to the most deep site of the pond), which Figure 31b. Reservoir channel manually limed as a best management practice in
a small shrimp farm. Photo courtesy of Eng. C. Lara.
must be mixed to form a unique sample to be submitted
for laboratory analysis
Use only good quality lime with fine particle size in order
to obtain better efficiency when reacting on pond bottom
Burnt lime (calcium oxide) and hydrated lime (calcium
hydroxide) are more reactive and caustic than
agricultural lime (calcium carbonate), so they should be
used to disinfect pond bottoms, especially in poor
drainage areas and high organic matter levels where it is
necessary to break pathogens cycle
Liming materials must be applied uniformly on the
surface of the pond bottom; soil plowing 5 to 10 cm depth
after liming, will accelerate limestone material reaction Figure 31c. Mechanical liming of a shrimp pond during preparation for stocking.
Using specialized equipment allows evenly lime application on the soil, in less
time and safer for workers. Photo courtesy of Eng. C. Lara.
38
To avoid loss of calcareous material and to avoid workers because they are more efficient for this operation. It should
exposition to the irritant lime effect, liming process must be taken advantage of pond ploughing, to incorporate lime
be done when there are not fast and strong winds or other inputs for soil features improvement. It is
Water with total alkalinity values over 80 mg/L, don´t need recommended that if large clods are produced after
to be limed, because it is ineffective since lime will not plowing, a rotary tiller must be used to a better soil breaking
dissolve in water; it´s usually required soil liming between in small soil pieces which allows better land management
crops (Figure 32). This new soil condition helps inputs
incorporation and action on soil when they are applied
3.1.7 Pond bottom ploughing during pond preparation; by the same way, it will ensure a
high quality bottom that will help some physiological shrimp
It´s recommend pond bottom ploughing (tilling and activities (e.g. molting).
plowing) every one or two years, depending on conditions of
each pond or farm. It will achieve better soil conditions to 3.1.8 Pond filling
ensure an appropriate environment for shrimp farming
(aeration, mineralization, disinfection and oxidation). The filling process should be slow and under strict
supervision, to ensure a good incoming water filtering
In order to achieve efficient results when soil ploughing, (mesh and bags cleaning); it must be also implemented a
bottom must have an adequate moisture because daily review of them, to ensure their good conditions (Figure
extremely wet or excessively dry soils, will not get adequate 33). Mesh filters should not be removed from the water
performance of the equipment or the ploughing process intake and outtake gates during at least the first 30 days of
itself. culture, in order to avoid accidental postlarvae escape
(Figure 34).
For and adequate soil tillage, it should be used appropriate
agricultural equipment such as a tiller, rake or rotary tiller,
Figure 33. Early shrimp pond filling process using wooden fine mesh filter bags in
Figure 32. Tractor pulling a Rotavator during pond preparation for stocking. order to retain undesirable biological material.
Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel. Photo courtesy of Engs. M. Lemieszek.
39
ppm and P = 0.07 ppm), Ca:Mg:K = 1:3:1 (e.g. Ca = 400

ppm, Mg = 1.200 ppm and K = 400 ppm), silica should be
maintained at 1.0 ppm and alkalinity > 80.0 mg/L.
Before postlarvae stocking, it should be done a

microbiological analysis of pond water, in order to
determine whether to apply molasses, probiotic or other
inputs aimed to microorganisms growth which may be
related to correct postlarvae performance and growth. Thus,
promoting microbial balance in the pond water and soil.
Figure 34. Late shrimp pond filling process in a shrimp farm still remaining BMP for pond filling
wooden filters and fine mesh filter bags to prevent entry of debris and
undesirable biological material. Photo courtesy of Eng. C. Lara.
Don´t fill shrimp ponds or supply canals using direct tidal
It should be established a plan for filter and bags action
management, including entry reduction of non- desirable Perform a proper mesh filter installation in water intake
organisms to the production units, which could affect yields and outtake gates, in order to ensure an adequate
due to they could be predators, competitors and pathogen filtering for minimizing particles and undesirable
contaminators. Management plan must involve when and organisms entry and to avoid postlarvae escape
how much is used each type of filter, daily inspection and To establish water maturation periods for waters supply
storage and maintenance process. Good filters canal (when applicable) and for shrimp ponds (at least 7
management will avoid frequent changing need, which days)
means savings on materials (mainly wood) and labor, the To establish a sampling plan for primary productivity and
same as risk reduction of wild organisms income to the microbial load in pond water,
pond or shrimp losses by escape. In order to ensure good conditions for postlarvae stocking
When necessary, pond water must be fertilized during
During pond filling, it´s necessary to do an analysis of the filling process, to obtain a good water maturation before
pond water physicochemical conditions, based on which postlarvae stocking (Secchi disk: 30 to 50 cm)
it´s designed a fertilization program. This will promote Implementation of using beneficial microorganisms for
phytoplankton development (mainly diatoms algae), which pond preparation (probiotics and prebiotics), instead of
will serve as the initial stocked postlarvae feed. using commercial routine chemicals
Pond water fertilization should be done looking for a ionic 3.2 Pond stocking
and biochemical balance, that favors growth of natural Postlarvae stocking in shrimp ponds is a very important
productivity (phytoplankton, phytobenthos, zooplankton process for crop success, and therefore it must be
and zoobenthos) and shrimp growth as well. It´s considered all recommendations related to postlarvae
recommended a relationship of N:P = 8:1 (e.g. N = 0.56 source and quality, acclimation and stocking in the ponds.
40
Physico-chemical and biological pond water parameters for postlarvae stocking
Bacteria
Parameter Alkalinity pH (a.m.) Ammonia O.D. (a.m.) Diatoms UFC/mL
TCBS TSA Lumi.
>15,000 cel/
Range > 80.0 mg/L 7.0 a 8.0 <0.10 mg/L > 4.0 mg/L ≤102 ≤103 Zero
mL
Shrimp farm must promptly coordinate with the Larval disease and can contaminate natural shrimp (and other
Production Center (LPC), details related to postlarvae crustacean) populations.
transportation from the hatchery as shipping date, time,
number, age and general conditions. When pond waters Postlarvae stocked by shrimp farm ponds, must be
has been treated (e.g. fertilization, molasses application, produced at LPS (Figures 35 and 36), preventing fishing of
use of probiotics, etc.) or when intake water gate has been wild postlarvae and other organisms different than shrimp,
closed due to operation level has been reached, it must be that usually die during catching in estuary waters, affecting
waited three days before postlarvae stocking in order to ecosystems production and biodiversity. Furthermore, LPC
allow pond water to get stabilized. Similarly, it should be are currently producing postlarvae that are viral disease
confirmed with enough time by periodic monitoring of resistant, with which it´s achieved production improvement.
physico-chemical and biological parameters, that pond
water conditions are acceptable for postlarvae stocking. The As a biosafety and environmental management measure,
following table presents suggested parameter levels for it´s not recommend the use of wild postlarvae. Importing
water shrimp ponds when postlarvae is going to be stocked: nauplii and postlarvae should be in accordance with
national regulations. If there is not a national regulation law,
3.2.1 Postlarvae sources international regulations and guidance must be adopted
and followed as suggested by World Organisation for Animal
Shrimp farm success and regional shrimp industry Health (OIE) (Aquatic Animal Health Code). It must be
feasibility, are conditioned to a reliable postlarvae source. avoided diseases introduction through live, dead or frozen
Mass high quality and good viability postlarvae production is products or sub-products.
the key to modern shrimp aquaculture. Ensuring availability
of healthy and vigorous postlarvae, is a prerequisite for a
good starting of a shrimp farming cycle. Farm must have
records about source and purchase process of each batch
of postlarvae, the same as how many and where they were
stocked. That is, to keep traceability records for each
postlarvae shipping.
Low quality and dubious postlatvae source purchase,

means a high economic and environmental risk, due to
introduction of sick shrimp or pathogen carrier shrimp into
the farm, will promote transmission and spread of infectious
Figure 35. Shrimp postlarvae production tanks in larval production center.
41
have a good general health status. They should also have

good gill development and have a morphological
development according to their age (stage vs. length
in mm).
Local or foreign postlarvae supplier hatchery, must have

strict and well-defined biosecurity procedures and it must
ensure their real implementation. Similarly, this hatchery
must be certified by the CA, which will ensure buyer shrimp
farms the acquisition of high quality postlarvae,
disease-free and exotic pathogen-free. In general terms,
postlarvae supply hatcheries must comply with the
relevant BMP.
Figure 36. Postlarvae harvest and shipment process in larval production center,
in order to send them to a shrimp farm for ponds stocking.
3.2.2 Postlarvae quality verification
Postlarvae must be carefully examined before stocking in Shrimp farmers must know about the health history of each
ponds, in order to find clinical signs of disease, for quality postlarvae batch they are going to buy. In order to achieve
assessment, and to establish its strength during stress it, it is suggested to seek the support of technician in charge
tests. This activity must be performed by qualified of larval rearing. Postlarvae buyer must be in touch with
personnel. If quality results don´t fit routine farm hatchery suppliers at least 7 days before the purchase
parameters, postlarvae must be rejected and not acquired is made.
by the shrimp farm.
Farms must buy postlarvae just from hatcheries submitted

to health surveillance by the CA. When postlarvae are going
to be imported, they must have a health certificate from
their origin country, which includes at least the major
pathogens such as: White Spot Syndrome Virus (WSSV),
Infectious Hypodermic and Hematopoietic Necrosis Virus
(IHHNV), Yellow Head Virus (YHV), Taura Syndrome Virus
(TSV), Penaeus vannamei Nodavirus (Pv NV), Baculovirus
penaei (BP) and Infectious Mionecrosis Virus (IMNV), and
bacteria such as the alpha Proteobacteria causing of NHP
disease (Hepatobacter penaei) and Vibrio penaeicida.
Figure 37a. Late shrimp pond filling process in a shrimp farm still remaining
High quality postlarvae, must be infectious organisms free wooden filters and fine mesh filter bags to prevent entry of debris and
undesirable biological material. Photo courtesy of Eng. C. Lara.
(WSSV, IHHNV, YHV, TSV, Pv NV, BP, IMNV and NHP) and
42
In order to ensure postlarvae quality, it must be performed The most important variables to monitor during shrimp
a microscopical and molecular evaluation and a postlarvae acclimation, are salinity, temperature and
macroscopic review to determine size, deformities, size dissolved oxygen. Avoid stress and rapid environmental
uniformity, activity, gut contents and natural (peristaltic) changes are essential during acclimation (Annex 2).
movements, fouling (epibionts), muscle opacity, gill
development, color changes and melanization on 3.2.2.2 Postlarvae stocking
appendages (Figure 37a). Similarly, it must be performed a
stress test (Appendix 1) and it´s recommended to check Before postlarvae stocking, it should be ensured that the
postlarvae in the dark, in order to detect possible pond meets several basic conditions that favor a good crop
bioluminescence (possible pathogenic luminescent development. These are framed in a suitable pond water
bacterial infection). level, good phytoplankton concentration (mainly diatoms),
and normal physicochemical parameters. This doesn´t
3.2.2.1 Postlarvae acclimation exclude monitoring these parameters during acclimation
and stocking. It is important that when possible, farm
Shrimp postlarvae are one of more expensive inputs in develops its own bacteriological history for each pond
shrimp farming. Handling and management of postlarvae (mainly species from genus Vibrio, Pseudomonas,
that includes harvest, packaging, shipping, reception at Aeromonas, Plesiomonas, Streptococcus and
farm, acclimation and pond stocking, are extremely critical Flavobacterium), with which farm has established the
to their survival. During acclimation, all efforts of the range of bacteria populations (forming colony units - FCU)
technical staff must focused on minimizing postlarvae that are prevalent during each season of the year (dry and
stress and mortality, while they adjust gradually to new rainy) (Figure 55). Based on this, it should be monitored
water quality conditions in the ponds. A successful bacterial load of a pond before stocking, to ensure good
acclimation, helps ensuring economic success of the crop water microbiological quality that don´t be a risk for
cycle (Figure 37b). postlarvae viability.
Figure 37b. Shrimp postlarvae production tanks in larval production center. Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.
43
When possible, it´s preferable to stock during the coolest Use stocking densities that don´t exceed pond capacity to
part of the day (6:00 a.m. to 8:00 a.m., or overnight). This support a certain biomass (carrying capacity), avoiding
is because temperature is lower, and thus reduces postlar- shrimp stress and damage of water quality, as well as
vae stress and could become shorter acclimation time. It´s economic losses and environmental effects that can´t be
recommended to release postlarvae in the pond as soon as mitigated
possible. Stocking density used by a shrimp farm, must be
planned to optimize productivity and minimize costs
Determining an appropriate stocking density, depends on It must be required the hatchery to provide batch number
the size and age (weight) projected to be harvested, water for purchased postlarvae, which is used for traceability
quality, pond design, water exchange rates, possibility of records at the larval production center
mechanical aeration, staff experience, and farm technical Postlarvae used for pond stocking must be certified as
resources and capacity. Each shrimp company should free of pathogens and they have good health status
establish sustainable biomass carrying capacity for each Strictly check of each postlarvae batch to be purchased,
pond, according to the proper and individual conditions in order to ensure high quality and good health
and to the pond production history. Based on that and conditions
taking into account the economic breakeven point of each Adequate pond water operation level before postlarvae
farm and market conditions, it can be defined the optimal stocking
stocking density for each production system, without affect- Perform monitoring for physico-chemical and biological
ing projected economic benefits. pond water parameters before postlarvae stocking, in
order to ensure suitable growth conditions for shrimp
Once stocking densities be defined according to the estab- population
lished farming system, and having finished acclimation, Performing of good postlarvae handling and
postlarvae must be released in the downwind pond side. management techniques, focused on stress and
Thus, waves will help postlarvae to be dispersed along the mortality reduction
pond after stocking avoiding overcrowding in the pond Locate sentinel cages with postlarvae in well-defined
corners. It´s recommended to monitor postlarvae survival places of the stocked ponds as a "Control", in order to
24 and 48 hours after stocking. determine stocking success after 24 or 48 hours
BMP for postlarvae stocking 3.3 Fed management
Avoid postlarvae import and if it would be needed, do so Shrimp nutrition is based on artificial feed supplied by the
in accordance with local and international regulations, farmer, and also on several important pond organisms
prioritizing the discretion of the CA (algae, small benthic invertebrates, etc.) and organic debris
Use only postlarvae from certified hatcheries submitted that are part of the natural productivity and the marine
by CA to health surveillance environment.
44
Artificial feed nutrients unused by shrimp to be converted from certified fisheries. Alternatively, it´s proposed for
in “shrimp meat” (biomass) as happens due to overfeed- fishmeal and fish oil production, the use of discards and
ing, powdered pellet supply (disintegration of pellets for fish waste from processing plants and from bycatch in trawl
handling and transport movements) and nutrients discard- fisheries. Another source for fishmeal and fish oil, could be
ed in feces, come into the water and are spread fertilizing the discard product from aquaculture industry itself.
the pond water (Figure 38a).
Shrimp feed must not be stored over 3 months and if
On the other hand, it must be taken into account the origin happens, it must be not used for shrimp feeding, due to
of flour and fish oil used in the artificial feed within the farm. lack of nutritional quality and inherent microbiological risks.
Fishmeal and fish oil used in farmed shrimp feed, must Thus, feed stores must meet basic conditions to ensure
come from natural shoals from ocean zones with an keeping feed its nutritional quality, and must have also an
adequate and sustainable fishery management, if possible inventory system for controlling and recording dates and
numbers of incoming and outcoming feed batches. The
first batch that comes in, must be the first batch that goes
out (“FIFO” principle = first in, first out) (Figures
38a and 38b).
Shrimp feed must have optimal conditions; feed bags

contaminated with fungi (moldy) detected in the feed store
on the farm, must be removed and destroyed. If contamina-
tion is found in feed that is being downloaded from the
truck into the farm, this task should be stopped and whole
of the just-arrived feed must be immediately sent back to
the factory.
Figure 38a. Shrimp feed unloading and stowage for temporary storage in a
shrimp farm warehouse. Photo courtesy of Mrs. M. Flores.
Figure 38b. Shrimp feed temporarily stored on pallets in a warehouse of a shrimp Figure 39. Hydrostability test performed with a feed sample lot on arrival at the
farm. Note the warehouse ventilation, lighting and cleaning conditions, the same shrimp farm, in order to assess its physical quality. Pellets were immersed in sea
as the use of wooden pallets and order and space in the stowage system. water in a volumetric flask (beaker), without agitation. Note the pellets consistency
Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel. and hydration after 2 hours of testing. Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.
45
Shrimp feed supply must be rational, measured and under distribution to the ponds involves a well-planned logistics
good on-pond distribution, in order to avoid damage of (personnel and vehicles) and road deterioration mainly
physico-chemical and microbiological pond water and during rainy season.
bottom conditions. These water and soil damages could
lead to financial losses and major environmental impact. It´s recommended that farms have small feed stores
Feed quality is important to ensure shrimp health and besides ponds in order to keep feed bags for up to 3 days.
growth; feed pellets must keep their shape and consistency Thus, it can be released labor and vehicles decreasing road
(hydrostability) for at least a couple of hours from the deterioration and optimizing manpower (Figure 22). Bulk
contact with the pond water (Figure 39). shrimp feed handling from the feed mill directly to the
ponds, could be an economic profitable practice and
However, it has been reported that pond environment environmentally friendly procedure, because of the
bacteria (water and soil) affect feed palatability after 60 to elimination of feed plastic bags.
120 minutes post-feeding the pond, making pellets hardly
consumed by shrimp. Furthermore, pellets that rapidly Daily feed calculation must be done considering the
become disintegrated into the ponds, are not consumed by proportion of shrimp population in each pond that is in
shrimp becoming a significant organic matter source and pre-molt, molt and post-molt, due to under these molting
an expensive pond fertilizer. stages feed consumption decreases markedly. Therefore,
daily feed dose per pond should be subjected to the
Shrimp feed must be periodically checked by technical staff population that is in inter-molt, in order to avoid feed
on the farm, to ensure quality and avoid risks by physical or wasting (Annex 3).
microbiological deterioration. It should be take random
samples from of all feed batches shipped to the farm and In semi-intensive shrimp farming systems, feeding rates are
conduct inspections to determine the presence of moisture usually low and fertilization by this way shouldn´t be a real
or fungi. Feed samples must be periodically sent to problem. Problems can occur when farmers decide to
independent laboratories, retaining a counter-sample for intensify shrimp farming. Overfeeding can lead to abundant
determining of their nutritional composition and physical levels of phytoplankton, zooplankton and non-beneficial
characteristics, in order to compare with values supplied by microorganisms and to high DO demand during the night.
the feed manufacturer. From each feed batch received at This occurs as a result of respiration or biological processes
the farm, it must be kept refrigerated a 1 kg sample until the of these organisms as well as the oxidation of organic
whole batch be used, in order to be used for claims or matter. Pond bottom can be also contaminated with
laboratory analysis required for quality assessment. decomposed feed and it may produce water and bottom
quality deterioration.
Improper feed management besides the pond before
feeding, highly commit feed quality when it´s exposed to the Feed charts have been widely used as a method for
elements and subjected to rains and high temperatures. controlling the pond feed supply, based on weekly shrimp
Likewise, it will be feed leakage and contamination by sampling for growth and survival determination in order to
animals (domestic or wild). In addition, daily feed estimate the current biomass of the pond.
46
be used as control tools (partial pond feeding with feed

trays) or they can be used at 100% (pond feeding with feed
trays only) for shrimp feeding in the farms. This last practice
(100% trays) requires a big logistics and enough
well-trained personnel, which could be offset by the savings
in daily feed optimization (pro-environmental feed
management) and eventual production profits having pond
water with less organic load.
Feeding should be done when temperature don´t be low

(min. 26°C) and when DO concentrations be appropriate
(min. 4.5 mg/L). Feed supply at low temperatures (reduced
Figure 40. Plastic trays distribution in a shrimp enclosure system in a pond,
which will be used for shrimp feeding with 100% of the daily ration. shrimp metabolism) and/or with low DO concentrations,
could be feed waste because shrimp under these condi-
tions, reduce feed consumption. In addition, pellets
In this manner, it´s determined the feed amount needed to biochemical processes in the pond water consume oxygen;
provide for each pond, considering shrimp individual therefore, feeding during low DO episodes (hypoxia) could
weight and percentage of biomass established in the chart increase the problems for shrimp population.
used as a guide (Annex 4). Feed trays are a good tool for the
estimation of how much are shrimp eating daily (Figures 40 If DO concentration is low for period of time (days or
and 41). In order to achieve this tool benefits, results weeks), daily feed rations can be likely excessive for the
"reading" and interpretation must be done by responsible shrimp assimilative ability in that pond, so it´s recommend-
and well-trained personnel. Proper use of feed trays, will ed to reduce or suspend feeding until normalizing water DO
help preventing underfeeding and overfeeding. They can levels.
Figure 41. Feed tray review by shrimp farm workers at a pond (left); circular mesh-made feed tray showing feed and shrimp eating during a routine checkup on a shrimp
farm. Photos courtesy of Eng. C. Lara and Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.
47
Shrimp feed nutritional contents must be according to

species and stage requirements; it will avoid feed waste
into the pond
Feed quality must be ensured by storing in dry and fresh
places during short periods of time
Feed storage warehouses should have a pest control
program, which be designed, installed and monitored by
a specialist from a certified company
Feed warehouse floor must be concrete coated and allow
an easy washing and cleaning; it´s suggested to place on
the concrete floor wooden shelves down feed bags to
Figure 42. Shrimp feed distributed from a rowboat; this is a good feeding ensure keeping them dry. Feed warehouse must have
practice management to the environmental in a shrimp farm, as long as staff
effort be considered. Photo courtesy of Eng. H. Perez. adequate air circulation to avoid excessive heat and may
cause feed spoilage
Feed pallets within warehouses, must have a safe
As a priority measure of shrimp farms, all personnel
distance between bags and floor, walls and roof or other
involved in grading, weighing, distribution and feed
neighboring pallet (at least 20 cm between thereof), to
shipping, should be supervised by responsible
allow adequate ventilation
technicians for ensuring that daily rations be properly
Feed bags must be properly sorted and stowed with their
supplied and applied. Similarly, the amount of people
respective identification by food type and lot and should
assigned to these works must be sufficient in order to an
never be mixed in the same hold with other inputs (e.g.
effective feed carry every day (Figure 42). It is desirable
fertilizers, lime, fuel, tools, disinfectants, etc.)
to have the highest feed supply frequency possible,
Feed warehouse must have a strict record system for
which depends on the economic and social aspects
inherent in each farm. feed bags incoming and outcoming control, which must
be part of the basic internal control of the farm and also
BMP for feed management for traceability of each batch

Care must be taken with feed bags handling and
Do not use fresh diet to feed shrimp in growout ponds transport, to avoid disintegration of the pellets and the
(excepting broodstock), because it causes worst water production of "feed powder”, which will become uneaten
quality problems than caused by artificial feed and could feed by shrimp and an organic load for the pond water
transmit diseases as well Shrimp diets should be designed so that shrimp
Use artificial feed only from a certified feed mill, which consume most of supplied feed, avoiding a feed excess
has implemented program for quality assurance and that contributes to the water quality reduction, organic
safety (e.g. GAP, GMP and HACCP) matter accumulation and pond bottom deterioration
Feed ingredients must be top quality (including binders)
and from well-known and reliable origin
48
Feeding rate must be calculated based on theoretical Feed can be find easier by shrimp in the pond if it has
feeding curves and being adjusted depending on: a) been uniformly distributed. This will also prevent uneaten
daily consumption monitoring, b) pond water feed accumulation in certain pond bottom areas
physicochemical characteristics and c) pond biomass. Shrimp feed must not contain more nitrogen and
The use of feed trays allows monitoring daily feed phosphorus than necessary based on shrimp
consumption and prevents overfeeding requirements
Feed ration should be supplied only when DO
concentrations in pond water be suitable 3.4 Water quality management
Feed bags amounts daily supplied to shrimp ponds must
be recorded and daily ration must be calculate to Pond water quality is a critical point in production process
determine feed conversion ratio (FCR), with which feed and must be controlled within the physical, chemical and
management will be more efficient and it will be reduced biological parameters. These should be suitable and
the organic matter load into the ponds maintained within acceptable ranges for shrimp
The use of medicated feed must be authorized by development. Otherwise, farming shrimp population could
national authorities, have adequate detailed records, be have low growth, pathogen proliferation with disease
properly labeled (information on pharmacologically outbreaks, eventual mortality and low quality of harvested
active substances) and be directed for the control of a shrimp.
specific disease diagnosed by qualified personnel; it
must be respected manufacturer protocols for use and It is important to remember that shrimp farming ponds are
withdrawal time dynamic water bodies with close interaction of
Shrimp feed must be periodically evaluated by technical physico-chemical factors such as pH, salinity, temperature
personnel to ensure quality. Random samples should be and DO. Organic and inorganic nutrients also participate in
taken from all batches sent to the farm and conduct that dynamics, affecting pond microbial populations. These
inspections to determine moisture or fungi are susceptible to change of these factors affecting
contamination. Feed samples must be sent periodically bacterial number and composition. Some aquatic
to independent laboratories to determine its nutritional environment variables as pH, temperature and salinity,
composition and compare with the values given by the have specific ranges for certain bacteria species. Changes
manufacturer in these factors favor proliferation of certain species,
Shrimp must not be fed with moldy feed or with feed altering the environmental balance with consequent
stored for up to 3 months pathogens dominance.
Contaminated feed detected in the farm warehouse,
must be destroyed under safe manipulation and Knowledge of each pond characteristics as behavior of
equipment to avoid personnel mycotoxin contamination. water conditions, will lead to better production results
If fungi is detected in feed when receiving at the farm, because during shrimp crop, it arises peculiarities that
download must be stopped and immediately returned to determine actions to be carried out during cycle
the feed mill management.
49
Knowledge of each pond characteristics as behavior of calcium carbonate), filtration, fertilization (and other
water conditions, will lead to better production results chemical treatments), use of probiotics, prebiotics,
because during shrimp crop, it arises peculiarities that molasses, proper feed management, aeration and water
determine actions to be carried out during cycle exchange.
management.
Correct pond bottom preparation between crops, is the first
In addition to inadequate levels of physical, chemical and action addressed to ensure that pond maintains acceptable
biological parameters in the pond, there are water water and soil quality for a successful shrimp farming. A
contaminants that could compromise the shrimp pond with poor physicochemical parameters and bad
production. These may include hydrocarbons, pesticides, health conditions, compromises the water quality and
industrial toxic wastes, wastewater from close human shrimp health and development, therefore, not high
communities and heavy metals, among others. Detection of production results can be expected.
these in shrimp farming water, should be done in a timely
manner if there is water bodies pollution, in order to avoid 3.4.1 Water quality monitoring
shrimp mortalities and/or to avoid loss of quality in
harvested shrimp. This requires that monitoring be carried Water quality management is the basis for good production
out not only in production units (tanks or ponds), but also in results and for environmental quality protection. The farm
reservoir channels, pumping stations and water supply must have a plan for monitoring pond physical, chemical
sources (sea loch or estuaries). and biological parameters, in which procedures with each
one must be defined (Annex 5). Some water quality
There are several actions that maintain or improve pond parameters can be measured in the farm laboratory
water quality, including liming (oxide, hydroxide and (Figures 43 and 44).
Figure 43. Routine analysis of pond water in a shrimp farm, where pH (left) and salinity (right) is monitored.
Photos courtesy of Mr. C. Coronado.
50
It´s technically impossible to try to manage a farm

production without appropriate equipment for parameter
monitoring. These include at least Secchi disk (Figure 45a),
dissolved oxygen meter (Oxymeter), pH meter,
thermometers, microscopes and salinity meter
(refractometer) (Figure 45b).
There should be a routine calibration of the equipment used

for parameter measuring in order to ensure accuracy and
reliability of the data obtained. Thus, it´s important to have a
good technical support to ensure the proper functioning
Figure 44. Routine operation of a laboratory in a shrimp farm, which includes
algae counting (left), water chemical analysis (right) and data recording
thereof. Water quality monitoring must involve:
(center). Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel. a) measurement of physico-chemical parameters, b) careful
filling and maintenance of parameter records with reliable
values daily obtained, c) frequent analysis and interpretation
of the data, and d) application of findings tending to
improved farming practices.
Specific points must be established for the measurement of

parameters in each pond, in order to maintain similar
conditions along time and to avoid survey data become
affected. Samples that will be submitted to laboratory tests,
must be handled adequately until analysis are performed.
Figure 45a. Secchi disk design (left) and how to use it for turbidity Pond water deterioration can severely affect shrimp health
measurement in a shrimp pond (right).
Photos courtesy of Eng. C. Lara and Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel. and endanger the entire pond population. That´s why it´s
needed to implement a daily monitoring plan for physical
and chemical water parameters, which allows to anticipate
and correct adverse water quality conditions, in order to
restore the optimal farming conditions (Appendix 5).
Breadth and complexity of a monitoring program within or
outside the farm thereof, must be determined by farmers or
by the industry thereof, bearing in mind that the monitoring
is frequently restricted by money and resources limitations,
including the ability to organize and process collected data.
Figure 45b. Secchi disk design (left) and how to use it for turbidity
measurement in a shrimp pond (right).
51
Besides pond monitoring and their input and output water It must be designed and updated water parameter and
gates, it´s useful for the farms to have and ecosystem quality records to be used in making decisions regarding
monitoring plan to track environmental parameters in time practices tending to maintain pond water quality
and in a wider geographical range. This is particularly It is important to maintain an equipment calibration
useful in areas where the environment and shrimp farming program in order to obtain reliable results
can be vulnerable to other influences such as other
industries, agriculture, climate change, etc. 3.4.2 Aeration
Data recording is a fundamental aspect in the process of In semi-intensive farming systems, aerators should be used
pond monitoring, which duly sorted and analyzed will allow only if they are strictly necessary for ensure shrimp survival;
statistical testing which results support a correct otherwise, there will be energy waste and an increase in
decisionmaking (Figure 45). production costs. The decision to use them, must be made
based on DO concentration in the pond, which is
One important measure for a farm best management dependent on the stocking/farming density (biomass),
practices, is the implementation of a monitoring plan for the phytoplankton concentration and pond depth.
physicochemical water pond parameters, effluent or
estuarine and coastal waters, designed to show whether Intensive shrimp farming systems require aerators that
there is compliance with the government regulations must be turned on almost permanently to keep stable
regarding the contribution of pollutants the environment. bacterial systems (flocs or "bioflocs") and physicochemical
conditions required by shrimp (Figure 46). In these cases,
BMP for water quality monitoring schedule for on-off aerators must be based on the
metabolic requirements of the bacterial strains used, in
There should be a parameter monitoring protocol where order to maintain optimal pond conditions, although
procedures must be well-defined about each parameter heterotrophic systems usually require continuous aeration.
measurement, as well as actions to take in case of
deviations from the normal ranges
Water quality measurements should be made often in all
ponds
Pond water quality monitoring must be done at the water
incoming and water outcoming pond gates, which will
provide a comparison basis for data analysis along time
Ideal times for parameter measures are early in the
morning and in the afternoon, except for DO in the night
when necessary, and Secchi disk at noon to reduce
sunlight reflecting
Potential effluent impact (water used and discharged Figure 46. Paddlewheel aerators in a shrimp farm ponds with an intensive shrimp
farming system. Location must be strategic looking to form a continuous water
from ponds), needs to be evaluated with reference to the flow to prevent stratification. Photo courtesy of Eng. H. Perez
quality of receiving water body (stream, river or sea)
52
BMP for aeration benefit shrimp production, because incoming water

conditions could be worse than pond water conditions. It´s
For a better oxygen diffusion in the pond water during recommended to do water exchange only when pond water
aeration, it´s more efficient to throw water to the air physicochemical variables are below the minimum
(paddle systems) than to throw air into the water (air acceptable levels.
injection systems)
Aeration system design must promote water circulation
Pond water exchange reduction will help reducing fuel
and stratification breakdown
costs, pumping equipment maintenance and nutrients
High-efficiency aerators must be used in order to get
input in farm effluents.
optimal pond water oxygenation with a minimum energy
consumption
Some of the new management practices include water
Number and power of aerators used in ponds, must be
recycling through pond systems that allow water to be
proportional to the projected biomass expected during
the crop purified and reused. Besides reducing organic loads in the
Using of aerators powered by combustion engines, must farm effluents, this practice is advantageous because it
include a good engine management plan and also a reduces farm inputs from an external ecosystem, helps
preventive pollution plan to avoid pond water decreasing the risk of predators and disease spread from
contamination with hydrocarbons other farms or wild shrimp, and loss of natural productivity
Proper disposal and location of aerators in the pond is within the farm ecosystem.
important to prevent dike erosion and bottom damage
When pond conditions need it, aeration must be used to It must be avoided the unnecessary use of freshwater as
achieve an aerobic environment in the bottom alternative to lower salinity in the pond water because
Turning-on aerators should not be due to DO drop freshwater has become a scarce resource for humans
because it could be too late; in contrast, they must be
around the world. During dry season (summer), water lost
working timely and preventively to avoid DO
by evaporation must be replaced to avoid high salinity
concentration drop to critical levels
increase and drastically fall of pond operating water level.
Intensive shrimp farming will need aerators based on
When extreme high salinity, it is necessary to make pond
bacterial-used metabolic requirements and on
deep water exchange, decreasing pond water levels and
physical-chemical shrimp requirements
retrieving with water from the reservoir channel if its salinity
3.4.3 Pond water exchange is lower (Figure 9). When diseases be present in a pond, no
water exchange must be done and water level will be kept
It is advisable to minimize water exchange without affecting by replacing when losses by evaporation.
shrimp production and maintaining acceptable levels of
physicochemical parameters during the crop. Water
exchange must be done just when be clear that it will
53
During adverse weather conditions (excessive rainfalls or be monitored before introducing water into the ponds to
prolonged drought), it is important to measure avoid negative effect on shrimp during stocking and/or
physico-chemical parameters of farm water sources before crop
introducing water into the ponds (filling, water exchange or
replacement) since they can be altered and produce a 3.4.4 Fertilization and natural productivity management
negative effect on shrimp during stocking and/or crop. If it
happens, farms must avoid or reduce water pumping into Fertilization is an important way to maintain nutrient levels
the reservoir or pond filling (Figure 47). in the pond water. It must be used under technical
principles for each product and with knowledge of the type
of nutrient and dosage required for each situation. It is
important that the type and dosage of the fertilizer be
according to an analysis of pond water nutrient levels and
seeking to maintain relations between them (e.g. N:P:Si,
Ca:Mg:K, C:N). This is to obtain good primary production,
proper microbial balance, acceptable ion balance and good
shrimp growth.
Fertilizers contain nutrients that promote phytoplankton

growth, which is the first level in the pond food chain and
which culminates with shrimp production. Fertilization
Figure 47. Shrimp farm pumping station that supplies water to the ponds through should be directed to promote pond beneficial algae growth
the reservoir channel; it can be observed behind pumps a well-preserved
mangrove with abundant vegetation, which follows the path of the estuary. such as diatoms (Figure 48).
A good natural productivity allows savings in artificial feed

BPM for pond water exchange (pellets). Algae concentration and type (phytoplankton) in
the water column has a direct effect on water quality. They
Efforts should be made to reduce water exchange without produce oxygen during daylight due to the photosynthesis
affecting shrimp production, anticipating acceptable process produces higher oxygen rate than requested by
maintenance of physicochemical parameters and their respiratory processes. Algae also help controlling
levels/types of algae and favorable microbial populations ammonia concentrations by absorbing it from water.
Water recirculation through pond systems will allow
cleaning and reuse of the same water, promotes When phytoplankton populations are excessive, algae
biosafety, and improves pond water quality and respiratory processes consume more oxygen and it may
environmental aspects cause low DO concentrations overnight. Also, due to
Fresh water can be mixed with sea water to reduce limnological complex processes, dense algae populations
salinity if it doesn´t affect fresh water availability for other may die quickly ("Crash"), causing a high oxygen
users (low fresh water source flow during prolonged dry consumption due to its rapid decomposition. This process
season) reduces oxygen available for shrimp and can cause mass
Physico-chemical parameters of farm water sources must mortalities due to prolonged hypoxia.
54
Figure 48. Microalgae belonging to diatoms: Navicula (left) and Chaetoceros (right). This group is the main feed source of zooplankton consumed by shrimp in
farming ponds. Photos courtesy of Dr. E.Wright.
Several blue-green algae species can be toxic for shrimp Corn (“Choclo”) smell and taste of harvested shrimp is
farming and produce compounds that give shrimp generated by excess of cyanobacteria and actinobacteria
unpleasant odor and flavor, making harvested shrimp in pond water, which also produce shrimp quality
unacceptable to consumers. This is generally produced by problems (smooth muscle) and poor appearance when
secondary metabolites (2-methylisoborneol (MIB) and cooking as in dark or broken hepatopancreas.
geosmin (GSM)), which are synthesized by different
microorganisms in the pond water and soil as cyanobacteria Excessive application of fertilizers increases cost
(Oscillatoria, Anabaena and Microcystis sp.), actinobacterias production, and can produce imbalances in the chemical
(Actinomycetes, Streptomyces and Nocardia sp.), and biological conditions in the pond water and in
Bacillariophytas, chlorophytes, chrysophytes, dinoflagellates effluents during water exchange
and other microorganisms like fungi (Figure 49).
Figure 49. Metabolites-producing microorganisms which affect shrimp health or quality: on the left dinoflagellates (Peridinium) and on the right cyanophytes
(Oscillatoria). Photos courtesy of Dr. E. Wright.
55
It must be avoid excessive applications of fertilizer based on organic fertilizers in shrimp ponds is less desirable than
urea and ammonium, as urea is hydrolyzed to ammonia. inorganic fertilizers because its nutrient content is highly
Ammonia can be toxic to shrimp and other aquatic variable and its decomposition can affect water quality. If
organisms from water sources that receive farm effluents. It the farmer wants to use organic fertilizers, it´s preferable
also demands oxygen and produces acidity when is that use cheap food and vegetables waste instead of animal
converted to nitrate by nitrifying bacteria. manure.
Before pond fertilizing it must be verified that the pond is Vegetal products are not easy to be contaminated with
closed, it means without water exchange at that time. This heavy metals and antibiotics compared to manures. If
will prevent loss of the fertilizers, discharges to the manures are used, they must be first converted into organic
environment and it will get good effectiveness in the pond processed fertilizer because this product may have better
water. It´s important to let the fertilizer acting for at least 24 quality than the original manure. Getting manure from
hours without water exchange. well-known sources gives farmers confidence that they are
contaminant free.
In order to get a faster effect, liquid fertilizers must be used.
When using granular fertilizers, it´s important to ensure its The fertilizer should be stored in clean and dry places,
complete dilution prior to the application in the pond water away from electrical sparks and spills should be avoided.
and don´t apply it directly in granular presentation. If Some fertilizers such as ammonium nitrate and sodium
granulated phosphorous fertilizers are used, they rush to the nitrate are highly explosive and should not be in contact
bottom where they dissolve very slowly and lost large with oil or electrical sparks. Moisture tends fertilizers to
amount of phosphorus as is rapidly absorbed into the form lumps so they must be stored in secure, clean and dry
bottom sediment. That´s why passes very little fertilizer to farm areas. When using granular fertilizer bags, these must
the water column as a nutrient, and it´s almost not used by be stowed in wooden racks and separated one from the
the algae. Waters with high calcium concentrations and other. This warehouse must be properly labeled and if
high pH, phosphorus is precipitated as calcium phosphate possible have a shower for any danger of poisoning.
accumulating in the bottom without being used by the
algae. Fertilizers spillage must be avoided because they can
contaminate local water bodies with nutrients. Farm staff
Due to phosphorus dilution is difficult, it is recommended responsible for fertilizer apply in the ponds, should be
to apply it for several days for a better use by trained and wear safety equipment for that purpose (gloves,
phytoplankton. Granulated fertilizer can be applied through mask, boots and clothing like "overalls") (Figure 50). Not
underwater platforms, dissolved in barrels or casks and the properly protected personnel are allowed for fertilizer
mixture must be applied to the surface of the pond water; application, in order to avoid unnecessary skin lesions or
fertilizer can be also placed in a porous bag hung on the respiratory conditions.
water incoming gate.
If using organic fertilizers is required, manures must be

avoided, unless its quality can be confirmed. The use of
56
Avoid using fertilizers containing urea and ammonium

Urea in contact with water changes to ammonia which is
toxic to shrimp if reaches high concentrations.
Ammonium also implies oxygen demand and produces
water acidification (low pH)
Farmers must not use fertilizers if they are not sure that
it´s really necessary; farm technical staff must rely on
farm laboratory and field data
Pond must be “closed” (without water exchange) during
fertilization and at least for 24 more hours
Inorganic fertilizers supplier must give to the farm a
certification of “free” for the presence of heavy metals
Figure 50. Agricultural inputs application (fertilizers) in a shrimp pond. Worker is
protected with gloves and masks to avoid contact with the product. (Cadmium, chromium, arsenic, mercury and lead) and
Photo courtesy of Eng. M. Lemieszek. for zinc sulphate certify presence or absence of dioxins
(processing of a mineral resource), both expressed in
BMP for fertilization and natural productivity management ppm
Keep a permanent training plan for involved farm staff
Maintaining favorable conditions for shrimp production about storage, application and safety measures for using
requires adequate levels of phytoplankton to support fertilizer
shrimp growth and to decrease artificial feed use Keep updated records for use and application of
Frequent monitoring of phytoplankton quality and fertilizers in the farm
quantity in pond water as the concentration of the major
nutrients that are used by algae 3.4.5 Predators and competitors management/exclusion
Use fertilizers only when necessary to increase algae
populations Predators usually bring productivity problems in shrimp
Avoid excessive and unnecessary use of fertilizers to farms, as they can reduce the shrimp population,
reduce production costs and to low harmful substances propagate and spread diseases, compete for feed and
discharged to the environment through pond water when they are alligators or crocodiles, humans can be
exchange endangered.
It´s not recommend the use of animal organic fertilizers
(manure), as they may contain residues of drugs Exclusion must be the first choice to reduce predators and
(antibiotics), pesticides, heavy metals and high bacteria competitors on the farm. These measures include the use
loads. If it´s decided to use organic fertilizers, it is of filtering meshes, perimeter fences, collection and
preferable choosing vegetable meals as rice polishings disposal of dead organisms inside and around the farm,
(semolina) or soy meal don´t leave feed in the open or sprinkled on dikes, and
It is preferable to use liquid fertilizers. When used avoid trash or organic waste exposure, among others.
granular fertilizers, it´s recommended to dissolve them
before being applied and application must be as if were
liquid fertilizers
57
Predating birds should be reduced by nonlethal methods. presence (e.g. small water bodies (puddles) on the pond
To control predators in the farm, environmentally friendly bottom that remain after harvest containing fish and
mechanisms should be used that be effective at the same crabs)
time. These include nets, pyrotechnic elements (fireworks), Drainage channels gates must be closed when possible
noise producing devices or farm workers to scare away the to prevent entry of unwanted organisms and shrimp
birds. escape during high tides
Use only approved pesticides by CA and in accordance
The pond water incoming and outcoming gates the same as with manufacturers established protocols
sedimentation ponds and reservoir channels, must have a Water inputs and outputs of the farm should not be built
mesh-based filtration (Figure 51). This can prevent wild near mangrove because crabs and other organisms will
organisms (small fish or crustaceans) enter into the ponds enter in the ponds
and also avoid shrimp escape. When possible use nonlethal methods for predators
exclusion such as repellent noises or lights
It´s advisable using farm workers to scare away predator
birds
3.4.6 Shrimp escape prevention
Shrimp producers must take all possible reasonable and

practical measures to ensure avoiding shrimp escape from
the ponds to the external environment via effluents,
because it has economic and environmental impact.
Mesh filters must be in good condition and be appropriate

to shrimp size in each pond water incoming and outcoming
Figure 51. Structure for sedimentation control and filtration in a reservoir
channel of a shrimp farm, which are using bag filters. gates and in drainage channels gates (Figs. 52a and 52b).
During harvest, farmers must prevent shrimp escape to the

BMP for predators and competitors management /exclusion farm external environment by using nets or mesh filters in
harvest gates, harvest mesh bags and weighing mesh
Keep the farm clean and free of organic debris that cones in good condition. Farmers must also be aware of
attract predators and competitors their timely cleaning, maintenance and repair during and
Use mesh filters in water incoming and outcoming gates after each harvest. Farms must also have replacement
(minimum 50 to 200 microns) elements for these harvest implements (tools) for
Make and adequate pond bottom preparation by drying, immediate replacement in case of being necessary during a
disinfecting and treating areas susceptible to predators harvesting process.
58
Figure 52a. Water input gate (left) and water output gate (right) in a shrimp pond of a shrimp farm which have mesh filters, bag and wooden seal to prevent the either
foreign organisms entry or shrimp escape during farming cycle.
Photos courtesy of Eng. C. Lara.
Placement of nets or mesh filters in harvest gates and

use crop-capture bags and weighing cones with new or
good-condition nets and watch for their review and
repair during and after each harvest
Have available harvest replacement tools for timely
repair when necessary during harvest events
3.4.7 Effluent management
Pond water drainage is one of the biggest potential

environmental impacts of a shrimp farm, due to possible
high nutrient concentration discharge to the effluent
Figure 52b. Wooden frames with black mesh filter installed in a water output
gate of a pond in a shrimp farm. The purpose is to prevent shrimp escape causing eutrophication of receiving water body. Discharged
during pond water exchange. Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.
shrimp pond water quality, reflect feed, fertilizers and other
farming inputs management practices.
BMP for shrimp escape prevention

Some of the latest management techniques include pond
Monitoring placement and change of mesh filters and water recycling or recirculation through a ponds system
bags, the same as its effectiveness in order to prevent that allows water to be debugged and reused. This reduces
shrimp escape or entry of non-desirable organisms to ponds discharge to effluents, water decrease from the
the pond estuary (risk for the introduction of predator, wild shrimp
Establish a daily review plan for mesh filters, bags, water and diseases), lower fuel costs and prevents loss of pond
leaks and wooden pieces conditions in ponds water natural productivity.
incoming and outcoming gates
59
If possible, water must be added only to replace operational there will be many choices to maintaining ponds closed for
level lost by evaporation, percolation or leakage. longer farming time and significantly lower water exchanges
with consequent decrease in pond effluent volume. It will
Water quality deterioration in shrimp ponds can be due to also decrease pumping oil consumption due to less water
improper pond and reservoir channel preparation, very high exchange and will reduce environmental impacts as well.
stocking densities, excessive feed rates, elevated use of
fertilizers, pumping of poor water quality, among other BMP for effluent management
factors. Improving management practices in these areas

will have a positive impact on the pond water quality and Implement water recirculation systems, which allow the
will reduce pollutants discharged into the estuary. farm to optimize the use of water, minimize their
consumption and reduce effluents
Farm production protocol must define an effective pond In order to improve water quality for the crop, it is
preparation plan, including reservoir channels and recommended that sedimentation ponds and reservoir
sedimentation areas (when they exist). During shrimp channels store 120% of farm anticipated water volume
production, pond management must include daily (daily used water volume). This will allow sufficient water
monitoring of physical, chemical and biological parameters, recovery and biological maturation time
in order to have the pond under control and take timely Using sedimentation ponds or sediment traps can
actions addressed to have acceptable ranges of each water improve the inlet water and effluent water quality; flow
quality parameter for production and for effluents reduction for increasing hydraulic retention time
discharged to estuaries. The decision of making water increases precipitation of suspended material; 6 hours
exchange must be based on the current pond situation for retention time is enough to largely improve effluent
analysis and should be done only when there is no other quality
option. Sediment load reduction to acceptable discharge limits

into receiving water bodies, can be achieved by:
Inputs aimed for improving and maintaining pond water a) discharge speed, b) sedimentation areas design and
quality, should be allowed and used with responsible implementation, c) effluent chemistry composition and
attitude according to technical needs and following the d) other additional factors
manufacturers recommendations. These actions benefit Discharge water should not be mixed with freshwater
the crop and effluents won´t present environmental risks. sources or emptied on farmland
Farm wastewater must be treated under environmentally
Responsible shrimp farmer procedures during disease responsible manner before discharged to the receiving
outbreaks in shrimp ponds must prohibit pond effluent water bodies
discharge when disease be detected and immediately after Water-containing chemicals such as chlorine, has to
inputs application for the disease control. By the way, water remain in the pond and adequately treated long enough
exchange must not be done when it has just been applied for the chemical biodegradation before discharging in the
inputs tending to improve pond water quality. Technical estuary mangrove areas or in effluent receiving water
management implementation based on a defined protocol, bodies
60
Farm water that is discharged through mangrove forests higher in discharged water than in the farm pumped
or to brackish lands, should be treated trough physical incoming water
and biological processes (sedimentation, filtration and
biodegradation). Although mangroves can be efficiently 3.5 Shrimp disease management
used for effluents treatment, care must be taken in order
not to change the salinity of mangrove areas to the extent One of the most important aspects in shrimp farming is
of affecting its growth health care. Absence of a frequent shrimp health
If feasible from an engineering perspective the effluent assessment plan can facilitate shrimp spread between
discharge through mangrove forest or other flooded ponds and farms. Shrimp population loss until almost the
lands, it is advisable to seek the experts’ advice to avoid whole biomass due to infectious diseases, could pass
any interruption of natural functions of these areas unnoticed if shrimp health assessments are not meticulous
Pond discharge schedule must phased in order to under a weekly basis.
minimize the water flow in drain channels and thus
reduce erosion or any potential effluent impact because
Shrimp emerging diseases introduced in farming areas
lower water volumes are easier to dilute
have played an important role in epidemics that have swept
Water must be slowly discharged from sediment trap as
complete shrimp farming areas worldwide. Many diseases
will have less suspended solids than deeper water. This
occur after stress periods. A general dogma in aquaculture
will minimize the sediment re-suspension
is that epidemic diseases outbreaks are caused by poor
Strengthen the dikes or discharge adjacent edges to
management practices, which weak farmed shrimp
prevent erosion and increasing of potentially settleable
immune response.
suspended particles
Pond, channels or sedimentation ponds´ sediments,
must be reused within the farm. If it´s not possible,
sediments must be discarded under environmentally
responsible ways
Mangrove trees can be planted on the discharge
channels dikes in order to use them as natural filters.
Using biofilters such as bacteria, algae or bivalves is
recommended
Use efficient pond water fertilization and shrimp feeding
systems in order to have a better primary productivity
and reduced nutrients input into the pond water
Figure 53. Meeting between shrimp farms managers and technical staff with
Effluent critical parameters should not increase receiving representatives of the Competent Authority to discuss a shrimp health crisis and
water parameters above established standards for that to establish an emergency plan. Photo courtesy of Eng. C. Lara.
shrimp farming area. These parameters must not be
61
Figure 54a. Diseased shrimp (left) and healthy shrimp (right) captured during a routinely health monitoring in a shrimp pond.
Photos courtesy. Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel and Eng. M. Lemieszek.
Disease prevention includes avoiding of stress conditions

for farming shrimp, avoiding the introducing of emerging
diseases and implementing BMP, among others.
Diseases are usually introduced through imported shrimp

(larvae, postlarvae and adults), both life and frozen,
reprocessing frozen shrimp, fresh diets (broodstock in
farms), insects, marine organisms, birds and other animals,
water, vehicles and human, among others. Pond stress
conditions can arise from chronic water quality problems
such as frequent low DO levels, high concentrations of
non-ionized ammonia, high stocking densities, extreme
temperatures during transport or handling, or poor diet.
Shrimp health monitoring allows early disease detection

(Figures 53 and 54). By the way, other procedures that help
controlling shrimp disease spread must be designed and
implemented. The following table suggests a guide to the
Figure 54b. Clinical examination carried out during a routine health shrimp interpretation of bacterial load in farmed shrimp
sampling in a shrimp farm. Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.
hemolymph and hepatopancreas from samples inoculation
in TCBS agar (Figure 55):
62
Figure 55. TCBS petri agar dishes (left) and TSA agar (right) showing colonies growth from sick shrimp hemolymph. Photos courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.
Bacterial growth interpretation from juvenile and adult outgoing in the farm, and d) minimizing water exchange
shrimp samples inoculated in TCBS agar and consequent effluents discharge into the environment.
(Adapted from Gómez-Gil, 2006).
Hemolymph Hepatopancreas Shrimp farms must have protocols for disease

Colony types (UFC/mL) (UFC/g)
management, including emergency plans for emerging
> 103 < 103 > 105 < 105
diseases (Annex 7). These protocols should be designed so
Green
Very that in the case of the occurrence of a new disease, its
100% Serious Serious Serious
serious
luminescent spread be minimal. Disease management protocols must
Green > 50% Serious Severe Severe Severe be designed and implemented based on the guidelines of
Severe – Severe – Animal Health Authority of each country and with
Green < 50% Severe Normal Severe Normal
participation of managers and technicians of all shrimp
Yellow Severe Normal Normal Normal
farms (Figure 53).
3.5.1 Action plan for a new shrimp disease occurrence A preventive disease plan must be implemented, including
frequent pond surveys to assess shrimp populations health
Shrimp disease outbreaks caused by viruses, bacteria, status (Figures 54a and 54b), reduction of stressors,
fungi, parasites or other pathogens, farm emergency plan careful handling, stocking densities according to the farm
for infectious diseases must be activated and applied for carrying capacity, water quality management, proper feed
each particular disease (Appendix 6). This will help finding management, hygiene, pests and birds control, and
outbreak cause. In addition, immediate biosecurity actions exclusion of any other organism potentially capable for
must be implemented and they must include: a) notify the shrimp diseases transmitting. In case of suspicion of an
case to the CA, b) adequately information to neighboring exotic, emerging or OIE listed disease, it must be notified to
farms, c) controlling shrimp and people entering and the country CA.
63
3.5.2 Disease diagnosis and confirmation imperative to confirm the pathology etiological agent, in
order to define a management strategy and an action plan.
Disease cause or pathogen agent must be known, the same It will give farm technicians tools to decide on the best
as the pathogen ecology and extent. Disease research must alternative or solution to the problem. Shrimp disease
be performed by responsible well-trained people who diagnosis must be done in local aquatic pathology
should be when possible qualified professionals. It´s laboratories, or if necessary in reference laboratories
(Figures 56a, 56b and 56c). CA in shrimp farming
countries as well as shrimp farms, must have trained
professionals for recognition of shrimp diseases and for
sampling, packaging and shipping samples to specialized
laboratories (Figures 57a and 57b).
Figure 56a. Temperature-controlled incubator (left) and laminar flow chamber

Class II used for studies of bacteriology in the laboratory of a shrimp farm.
Figure 56c. PCR machine (thermocycler), used for the genomic amplification
(DNA or RNA) of shrimp pathogens from tissue samples.
Figure 56b. Tissue processing equipment used in the preparation of histological

slides to study shrimp organs and tissues suspected to have a disease. Photo
courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.
64
Figure 57a. Competent Authority personnel from the Aquaculture Health Authority of a country, performing shrimp sampling for PCR analysis as part of the routine
health surveillance in a shrimp farm. Photos courtesy of Eng. C. Lara.
Figure 57b. Shrimp farms personnel in aquatic health making microscopy observations and recording findings, from sick shrimp samples.
According to OIE, methods for shrimp disease confirmation 3.5.3 Restriction of shrimp mobilizations
with higher sensitivity and specificity include polymerase
chain reaction (PCR). At present, there are commercial If an outbreak is detected, the specific emergency plan
PCR kits for detection of major infectious shrimp diseases. must be implemented by the CA and it must be
immediately imposed restrictions for people and shrimp
mobilizations into and out of the affected area while the
infection persists.
65
BMP for shrimp disease management Water from ponds with high mortality due to disease
outbreaks, must be left into the pond until disease patho-
Shrimp industry must formulate and implement existing gen agents be destroyed or eliminated by chlorination or
regulations in association with national health authorities biodegradable chemicals, giving an adequate degrada-
of each country tion time before pond water be discharged or reused
Cooperation and close communication with neighbor Tools and materials for quarantined shrimp ponds, must
farmers in order to discuss common problems to be restricted to that particular ponds
minimize disease spread; BMP adopted by neighboring Dead and sick shrimp must be adequately and environ-
farmers will help preventing disease introduction mentally friendly handled; they can be submitted to
Under suspicion of an emerging disease, it must be quicklime treatments and then buried
immediately notified to the CA and at the same time the Bottom treatment using quicklime, helps with control of
farms must activate their own emergency plan for emerg- pathogens and their hosts so lime should be uniformly
ing diseases applied on the entire pond bottom
Farm must have well-established procedures for shrimp Once a disease outbreak has been controlled, it must be
diseases diagnosis. Protocols, procedures and results performed a general farm disinfection including instru-
must be documented and recorded on site by the farm ments, tools, operating materials, equipment, vehicles
New postlarvae batches must be tested for diseases and other relevant elements
before ponds stocking
Do not stock shrimp ponds with wild captured postlarvae 3.6 Use of veterinary drugs, chemical and biological
Farms must consider buying disease-free postlarvae from products
certified hatcheries
Shrimp must be routinely examined for early disease Many chemicals are used in aquaculture but only few have
diagnosis. Accurate diagnosis must be done after each beneficial effects. Viral shrimp diseases with high morbidity
health problem, with which can be identified the causes and mortality must not be treated with antibiotics because
of mortality by farm laboratory analysis or by certified they have no effect on viruses. If a secondary bacterial
shrimp pathology laboratories infection is confirmed, antimicrobials can be used for its
If shrimp infections are detected in any growout pond, control once antibiotic susceptibility tests have been
protocol indicated actions from the farm disease performed and the selected antibacterial is approved for
management plan must be taken this purpose by CA and international regulations.
Sick or dead shrimp must be handled so as to avoid
disease spread to other ponds or farms Some chemicals can cause adverse effects to biota from
When disease conditions be present, pond water must receiving waterbodies, such as toxicity or bio-accumulation.
not be exchanged, especially when an emerging Careful use of chemicals will lower costs and prevent
disease/pathogen is suspected. In order to reduce harmful side effects.
shrimp diseases spread risks, water exchange must be
limited and pond water must be recycled during disease
episodes
66
The CA must publish the lists of approved and authorized For each chemical or biological product to be used, farm
veterinary drugs, the same as their species specific use. must have a contingency plan and provide workers the
protections recommended for each case to avoid accidents
The use of veterinary drugs and chemicals such as (Annex 8). This must be always accompanied by a training
fertilizers, pesticides, etc., should be done for specific use period prior product use.
as accurately diagnosed disease control or for the pond
water quality management. Furthermore, used BMP for the use of veterinary drugs, chemical and
concentrations must not produce environmental damage biological products
(Appendix 8).
Shrimp farms should focus their animal health plans by
Shrimp production systems should be designed and preventing disease through an adequate feeding, best
managed to ensure that exposure to veterinary drugs of pond management practices and stress reduction
animals intended for food production, does not pose a risk Protocols must be established for the use veterinary
to human health. In the case of veterinary drugs, constant drugs, pesticides and other chemicals; their use should
use (as "prophylactic") can cause human health problems be well documented in the farm records and be done
by inducing resistance from bacteria that are trying to be based on manufacturers recommendations or in national
controlled. Furthermore, release of these products into the regulations
environment may affect negatively other aquatic organisms. The use of veterinary drugs or chemicals for the
That´s why it should be emphasized that antimicrobials treatment of shrimp diseases, should be done based on
should only be used as a curative therapy after confirmation the referred BMP of this Manual and using established
of a bacterial disease, never be used with the idea of protocols according to applicable national and/or
prevention. international regulations
The use of veterinary drugs or chemicals, should follow
It should be asked to distributors of chemicals and the manufacturer's specifications regarding dosage,
biological products used on farms, the respective data expiration time, storage, disposal, handling and
sheets, safety data sheets and certificates of health withdrawal, according to established regulations of the
registration for each country. Likewise, producers must national CA regarding safety aspects
follow recommendations regarding dosage and handling Use as an ethical principle in shrimp farms, only
supply by manufacturer for each product presentation. veterinary drugs that have been approved
They must be used only under prescription of a professional for use in farmed shrimp
in animal health. Antimicrobials must be used only for curative treatments
when shrimp be sick due to a susceptible bacterial
It is very important to know the expiry date of the product, disease. Antibiotics must not be used for preventive
the required storage conditions and plans, since it will not benefit shrimp health and could
the lot number that the manufacturer assigns. These lead to pathogen bacterial resistance development
aspects have to be duly recorded in the traceability system,
together with all information collected at the time of their
application (Annexes 9 and 10).
67
It´s not allowed the use of antimicrobials that have not time before shrimp harvest for human consumption, in
been approved for aquaculture, either by national order to ensure that the withdrawal time has been
authorities of international organizations (e.g. respected
chloramphenicol). If there is not a national list of Medicated feed bags must be clearly and visibly labeled
veterinary drugs and chemicals that are appropriate for and coded by lot number lot (for traceability), to ensure
aquaculture, shrimp industry and involved government proper storage and use of them at the farm
agencies must prepare such list or proceed based on Shrimp populations must be examined to determine
international recognized lists pesticides concentrations, PCBs and heavy metals, among
The use of permitted antibiotics should be subject to others, strictly fulfilling the monitoring plans for toxic
Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs) set byshrimp importing residues in each country as established by the CA and in
countries. The MRL may be reduced applying best accordance with USFDA (USA) and DG-Sanco (EU)
management practices for veterinary drugs The use of agricultural lime, limestone agricultural or
Extra-label veterinary drugs using, should by done only calcium carbonate (CaCO3), for application acid pond
as direct and written prescription of a Aquatic bottoms (pH <7). Use of quicklime or calcium oxide
Veterinarian or another approved competent (CaO) and/or hydrated lime or Calcium hydroxide
professional. Such advice and prescription must be (Ca(OH)2), is mainly directed to the elimination of
consistent with the guidance documents and national pathogens on the pond bottom
and/or international technical literature on this topic Farms should have adequate clothing and needed
Pesticides must be properly used, as infrequently as equipment to ensure workers safety
possible and as the last option because they are toxic Feed and postlarvae suppliers (if they are from another
products both inside and outside the shrimp ponds. company), must certify that there were not used
These compounds can cause adverse environmental unapproved veterinary drugs and/or chemicals during
effects when are discharged in farm effluents their production process
All veterinary drug or chemical that is not in use or that is
expired, must be removed under a not environmental 3.7 Household waste management
contaminating way
The composition of household waste produced in a shrimp
Pond waters in which an antimicrobial or chemical
farm is variable and depends on the amount of people living
treatment has been performed, should not be used or
and working there and their habits. Waste may include
discharged to the environment until these compounds batteries and other electrical components (that may contain
have had enough biodegradation time mercury), discarded oil containers, paints, caustics,
All treated shrimp ponds with veterinary drugs must be sanitizers, bleach, medicines, diapers, animals feces and
carefully and individually identified associated waste, the same as discarded food products
Records of all pond treatment details and withdrawal with rapid degradation and emission of unpleasant odor.
68
Figure 58a. Identified containers with colors and signs, which can be used in shrimp farms for garbage collection according to their recycling classification, or
for a proper disposal of certain kind of materials that require special handling such as used batteries. Photo courtesy of Eng. C. Lara.
An important principle for waste management is the source vehicles, shipping them to indicated places approved by
reduction, producing a minimum waste amount and the CA (Figure 58b).
lowering associated potential hazards. Waste compounds
must be separated as combustible materials (paper, The presence of biodegradable materials in domestic
cardboard, dry leaves and branches, among others), waste, forces to take precautions during its recovery,
reusable material (bottles, cans, plastic bags and tanks), treatment and disposal. Until waste pathogen organisms be
recyclables (paper, plastic, glass and metal pieces), organic destroyed or killed, there will be a possibility that these be a
matter (fruits peeling, vegetables and other food waste), risk for human health, animal health and for the
among others (Figure 58a). environment.
Collection, transport and disposal of household waste, may

have adverse environmental effects such as air pollution
and unpleasant odors; possible health hazards due to
accumulation of polluted water that offers conditions for
mosquito reproduction and attracts flies and vermin, and
other pests; loss of productive land due to the presence of
slow degradation products, soil and groundwater or
superficial water contamination by pollutants leaching with
consequent environmental effects or human health risks,
and pollution of the marine environment due to direct or
indirect waste discharge. That´s why it´s necessary to
Figure 58b. Domestic waste collection by a specialized vehicle contracted for
collect and discard shrimp farm waste in specialized this particular service in a shrimp farm. Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.
69
It must not be used organic waste, untreated animal Promoting recovery operations and prevent domestic
manure or uncooked feed in shrimp farming ponds. wastes to pollute the environment or affect human
Wastewater must be treated to avoid polluting the health, for which it´s important to segregate waste at
surrounding areas, because they contain microorganisms source based on recoverable and hazardous
that can be harmful to human health, pets and wild They should not be used organic waste, untreated animal
organisms. or uncooked feed in shrimp farming ponds
Water from toilets, kitchens and other farm staff facilities
The use of untreated organic fertilizers and feed without must be treated in septic tanks designed not to leak and
good cooking conditions (as shrimp feed) to lift to prevent causing environmental or public health
phytoplankton populations, could cause public health conditions
problems due to the presence of Escherichia coli, Wastewater should be treated properly to avoid
Salmonella spp. and other pathogens for humans. contaminating surrounding areas
Toilets should not be close to ponds, reservoir channels,
Water from bathrooms, kitchens and other farm staff drains or estuarine areas
facilities, should be treated in septic tanks designed not to Toilets of the farms located in rest areas, should allow
leak and causing environmental or public health staff grooming and reduce the risk of personnel, farmed
conditions. Additionally, toilets must not be close to ponds, shrimp and harvested shrimp contamination
reservoir channels, drains or estuarine areas. Portable
toilets location is not as critical as the conventional ones, 3.8 Harvest management
since they don´t drain to the farm environment.
Before starting the harvest, it should be a plan that
Toilets and restrooms located in the farm rest areas, should describes step by step who, when, how and where must be
allow staff grooming and must reduce personnel, farmed met harvest operating activities, staff, materials and
shrimp and harvested product contamination risks. These equipment. It will also ensure pond preparation and
bathroom facilities must have biosecure systems for withdrawal time compliance for medicated feed. In order to
wastewater management, which prevent their infiltration proceed with the harvest, shrimp must satisfy certain
into water bodies used for shrimp production, or worse, for conditions such as appropriate size, good health status (no
human consumption. diseases at that time), appropriate organoleptic features
and acceptable general conditions based on the market
BMP for household waste management requirements. Based on above, it will decrease
loss of product and lower of its commercial value. In order
Household waste management practices vary from to achieve these conditions, it´s recommended that 15 days
country to country, but it´s necessary to ensure the before harvest, surveys be conducted to determine these
compliance of national standards that regulate them features, taking early actions if required (Figure 59).
70
Figure 59. Shrimp sampling to determine its quality before deciding pond harvesting. Photos courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel and Eng C. Lara.
There is known that shrimp quality is affected by high Ice quality during harvest and processing must fit
concentrations of bacteria and algae, mainly cyanobacteria international standards for water drinking established by
(Oscillatoria, Anabaena, Microcystis, among others) and FAO and WHO. Harvested shrimp must be immediately
actinobacteria (Actinomycetes, Streptomyces and iced and insofar as they leave the pond, so they die by heat
Nocardia). These agents produce odor and corn-like flavor shock (Figure 61). This process will start the cold chain,
("choclo" corn flavor) and also cooking problems as dark or which should not be interrupted under any circumstances
exploded hepatopancreas and unfirmed or lost heads. It´s until the product reach be consumed.
also recommended to stop shrimp feeding 24 and 48 hours
prior to harvest to avoid feed decomposition into shrimp gut
after harvest cause hepatopancreas problems during
processing.
During harvesting process, it´s of great importance to have

experienced and trained personnel to direct fishing actions,
without health conditions (injuries, respiratory or digestive
infections or other infectious diseases) and maintain Figure 5
ing. Pho
adequate records for each harvest container (bin) about
amount of ice, amount of shrimp, filling time, capture time Figure
a bette
per bin and amount of sodium metabisulphite (or other
preservative that be used). These records are part of
traceability and will allow timely corrections in case of loss Figure 60. Using of a harvest machine in a pond of a shrimp farm which provides
of shrimp quality (Figure 60). a better product quality. Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.
71
Figure 61. Quick icing process during a harvest in a shrimp farm, causing shrimp death by heat shock and thus initiating the cold chain.
Doses of sodium metabisulfite should be based on market Sodium metabisulfite solutions that have been used in
requirements. shrimp bins and processing the same as unused
metabisulfite solutions, must be neutralized before
When using metabisulphite or other preservative during disposal. Sodium carbonate can be a god neutralizer
harvest, they must be properly and liable handled in order according to doses previously established by the
to meet requirements requested by importing countries. In manufacturer. It can also be neutralized by using 0.34 kg
order to reach this, it must be usied the amounts indicated calcium carbonate (CaCO3) per kg of metabisulphite
by the process plant for the product in use. present in solution. On the other hand, solution can be
lowered to values down 25% of sodium metabisulfite before
Methods for determining metabisulfite biodegradability in discarding, by diluting with water in the container with the
the environment are not applicable to inorganic product.
substances. However, according to the specifications of the
product, it is not expected to bioaccumulate in the Harvest personnel must meet minimum health
environment, although can have a detrimental effect on requirements and anyone presenting disease symptoms
aquatic organisms. As for disposal, no established must be excluded from the harvest activity until recovery.
homogeneous guidelines on how to proceed with the Compliance of the occupational safety measures, will
product; it must not be reused neither packing bags used reduce the risk that the operators have an accident. It´s
for transportation. Such containers should be placed ready important that harvest staff carry clean clothes and avoid
for disposal off-farm and away from water sources. The the use of tools that can contaminate harvested shrimp.
sodium metabisulfite is considered by the European Union
as a "hazardous substance to human health and the
environment" according with Directive 67/548/EEC, at
concentrations above 25%.
72
The equipment that is used in shrimp harvest must be BMP for harvest management
clean and disinfected to ensure product safety.
A HACCP program at the farm is considered as important
Shrimp quality on arrival to the processing plant, depends to ensure safety of harvested shrimp in each pond
on the care and precautions taken in harvest previous days It must be a well-defined harvest plan step by step about
as well as during harvest process. An improper handling of who, when, how and where to met operational activities,
the product during the harvest can result in loss of quality involved personnel, materials and equipment, and also to
and safety, and thus economic losses and risks to human ensure pond preparation and compliance withdrawal
health. times for medicated feed
Specific farm protocols must be considered for using
Harvested shrimp should be handled quickly and efficiently metabisulfite during harvest. Metabisulfite solutions must
and die by heat shock not to affect its final quality. In not be discharged directly into the environment, because
addition, under no circumstances it should be broken the reductions almost totally dissolved oxygen
cold chain during transport to the processing plants or concentrations in receiving water bodies
markets. All actions during a pond harvest and post-harvest Have adequate records for each harvest container about
time, must be properly registered the same as shrimp the amount of ice, amount of shrimp, capture time, time
weighing in a traceability program. of container filling and amount of metabisulphite

Harvesting, transport and process equipment the same
as shrimp containers, must be clean and disinfected to
Developing a Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points
prevent product contamination. Farm must have enough
system (HACCP) in the farm, is important to ensure
material and equipment to perform a proper harvest
harvested shrimp safety in each pond. A HACCP system
(nets, seines, containers, buckets, hoses, etc.)
has scientific basis and is also systematic, allowing identi-
It must be ensured enough ice supply of ice made with
fies specific hazards and measures for their control and is
drinking water
based on the application of technical and scientific basis for
Close to the harvest area, there must not be materials
food production processes. It has important benefits such
that may contaminate such as diesel, oil, gasoil, lime,
as: a) it´s more economical to control process than final
garbage, etc.
product, b) it implies preventive measures to avoid loss of
Avoid the presence of pets or wild animals on the farm
whole batches and personnel time, c) the process controls
during the growing time and the shrimp harvest
allow fast answers when necessary and timely adoption of
During shrimp harvest and transport temperature must
corrective measures in cases of deviation, and d) foods
be controlled, shrimp must be covered with ice
have a higher safety level that means reduction of
immediately after been harvested alternating layers of ice
complaints, returns, rework and refusals for producers,
and shrimp to avoid high temperature spaces or
manufactures, markets or transporters.
temperature fluctuations
73
It should be minimized physical damage and materials, equipment and personnel. When possible, it
contamination; shrimp treated with metabisulfite or other must be a person exclusively for perform each one of these
preservatives must be labeled indicating harvest date, tasks, although in some cases good training and
harvested pounds, amount and/or use of metabisulfite, organization will allow that one person be responsible for
processing plant name and buyer various activities.
From the harvest until shrimp freezing in the process
plant, it must not be broken the cold chain at any time, Biosecurity measures do not work without a continuous
as this will affect the product quality and safety training program to the farm personnel at all levels of
responsibility. If for example the training is only taken by
3.9 Biosafety technical staff responsible for the production, management
does not understand their support applications and
Biosecurity measures should be strictly enforced by all farm moreover field operatives will not do the job they deserve
staff as well as by foreign people that must enter or go due to lack of knowledge (Figure 62). Best biosecurity
through within the farm. Each farm must have training practice concepts in shrimp farming, must be in the mind
plans and define the responsible staff for compliance of of each people who participates in the process of shrimp
these measures who through protocols and records, ensure farming. Each person must understand the importance of
their permanent and systematic application. their role in the implementation of these measures.
There should be a basic farm organization that includes In order to properly implement biosecurity measures, it´s
specific staff responsible for the farm management, required a financial investment so that such measures must
production, water and soil quality, shrimp health, feeding, be feasible from this point of view. Shrimp farmers must
chemicals and veterinary drugs application and handling, evaluate the cost of such measures, looking at the losses
pond and farm hygiene and disinfection of facilities, that diseases may cause.
Figure 62. Technical training courses for the shrimp farm staff about diagnostic methods for recognizing shrimp diseases. Photos courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.
74
These measures can be implemented slowly and to ease Farm income and outcome gate must remain closed and
investment it can be requested financial resources to the control guard must open it only when fully registered
different funders. vehicles or people, either visitors or farm technical staff.
Visitors must be equipped with safety gear such as rubber
3.9.1 Farm control for incoming people and vehicles boots, cap and gown (preferably disposable gear) as a
visitor card that must be visibly carried and permanently
To reduce the risk of introducing diseases and in order to inside the farm.
facilitate traceability of a safety problem, farms must have
an efficient control system for incoming and outcoming of Foreign people (visitors) must receive printed instructions
personnel and vehicles, as well as a disinfection system about how to proceed in the farm and actions to avoid or
designed so that may not be skipped under any minimize accident or contamination risks. Likewise, there
circumstances. should be signs in critical working areas of the farm,
showing clearly and understandable to workers and visitors
In and out farm control system must have a single gateway their purposes, based on the biosafety level of each area
with a stand (Checkpoint) control where trained personnel (Figures 63a and 63b).
remains to be responsible for: a) entry control only for
authorized personnel, b) recording of information about Finally and as a requirement for anyone entering the farm,
people and vehicles that enters the farm, c) people and wheel baths must be available for the disinfection of vehicle
vehicles disinfection before entering to the farm, d) tires and footbaths for people footwear, the same as
respectful and agile review of vehicles and people leaving dispensers with disinfectant or sinks to ensure disinfection
the farm (to avoid theft of materials, equipment or shrimp) (Figures 64a and 64b).
and e) manual review when leaving the farm (Figure 24).
NIVELES DE BIOSEGURIDAD
Figure 63a. Sign on the wall of a shrimp farm explaining biosecurity levels as well Figure 63b. Workspaces which indicate the biosecurity level to be applied when
as recommendations and restrictions to be applied in each one. entering. Note the presence of devices for hands and feet disinfection.
Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel. Photos courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.
75
Figure 64a. Tire disinfection of a vehicle with a backpack system at a Figure 64b. Footbath with a quaternary ammonium solution used in the analytical
checkpoint, when entering a shrimp farm. Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel. laboratory entrance of a shrimp farm as a biosecurity measure.
Photo courtesy of Dr. D. Diaz.
3.9.2 Cleaning and disinfection of farm facilities 3.9.2.1 Plan coordination for the total facilities
disinfection
This task must be well defined in a sanitation operating
procedures manual (SOP) and must be known and Once a total disinfection is decided, managers must ensure
practiced by all of the farm staff. that this be carried out completely, as partial disinfections
give few benefits. If removal of the disease causing
Cleaning and sanitation involves the elimination of all live or pathogen is not achieved, this will probably reappear to
chilled shrimp and then total disinfection of the entire cause new infections. Bear in mind that significant amounts
facility. Prior to the farm total disinfection, it must be of water can contain pathogens so equipment, vehicles and
considered the following aspects: even clothing can be disease mechanical vectors.
In order to perform a successful total disinfection process in

a farm, it must be a high staff commitment clearly
understanding the objective of the disinfection, and thus
training is highly necessary.
76
3.9.2.2 Harvest schedule optimizing
Harvest plan is needed in order to allow farmed shrimp to

reach commercial and reasonable size/weight and to define
new postlarvae stockings. Time between harvest and
stocking will allow a sanitation process in the pond for
cleaning and disinfection.
3.9.2.3 Adequate management for discarded shrimp
Live shrimp that remain buried or in puddles after ponds

harvests, can be used for local sale if they receive an
adequate washing and cold handling. Dead shrimp Figure 65b. Lime application and soil covering of disposed shrimp in a shrimp
farm. Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.
remaining on the pond bottom after harvest, must be
completely collected and buried applying layers of calcium
hydroxide (“lime”) or calcium oxide (“quicklime”) (Figures 3.9.2.4 Facilities and equipment disinfection
65a and 65b).
Disinfection is a necessary tool for managing disease in
shrimp farms. It can used as a routine practice in
biosecurity programs designed to exclude specific
diseases, or as a health measure to reduce the rigor
incidence of shrimp pathogens in ponds. It can also be part
of programs aimed to disease eradication. The specific
reason why disinfection is performed, will determine the
strategy to be used and how it is applied.
The use of chemicals for disinfection, obliges to implement
measures to protect personnel and farmed shrimp and to
mitigate the effects on environment. First, it is necessary to
protect the skin and eyes from contact with hazardous
substances using waterproof clothing, boots, eye protection
Figure 65a. Disposed shrimp burial in a cave made out of any area that be
susceptible to contaminated in a shrimp farm. and a hat. The respiratory system should be protected with
a mask and the worker must not touch any food without
have washed hands thoroughly (Figure 66). Finally,
products must be stored so as not to be any direct or
indirect danger to human life, farmed shrimp or to the
environment.
77
Once all the shrimp have been removed from ponds, entire It is also possible to prepare a solution of thiosulphate 1%
facility must be disinfected. During this phase, any object by weight, which volumes are as follows (mL):
that suspected to be a carrier of pathogens, must be 1. For chlorine:
removed from the farm or completely disinfected. All areas 28.5 × [number of liters of disinfectant concentration ×
that have been exposed to shrimp must be cleaned and mg/liter] / 100
disinfected. In general, it should be assumed that the entire 2. For iodine:
farm is contaminated. The following disinfectants are The same as for Chlorine but multiply by 7.8 rather than
commonly used in shrimp farms cleaning: by 28.5
• Chlorine (as calcium hypochlorite or sodium hypochlorite).
This compound is highly toxic to aquatic organisms; Each section of the farm should be disinfected according
lethal median concentration (LC50) at 96 hours varies to a logical order to avoid re-infection of previously
depending species from 0.04 to 0.5 mg/L-1. Chlorine disinfected areas. The sections of the farm that are
release to the environment without prior neutralization furthest from the center of the installation must be
with sodium thiosulfate, can affect the aquatic disinfected first and most active areas should be last
organisms disinfected (Figure 66).
• Lodine used under its stable presentation, to disinfect
equipment
• Lime (calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide)
• UV (ultraviolet)
• Drying (sunlight)
• Detergents
• Organic Compounds
Chlorine and iodine are highly toxic to aquatic animals and

in order to avoid serious accidents due to a bad
manipulation, it´s recommended to neutralize these
products with sodium thiosulfate (5 moles of thiosulfate
neutralize 4 moles of chlorine). The molecular proportions Figure 66. Cleaning and disinfection in acclimation facilities of a shrimp farm;
are the same for iodine. Thus, in order to inactivate note that the worker is wearing boots, gloves, gas mask and cap for protection.
chlorine, the amount of thiosulfate used must be 2.85 times
the amount of chlorine (expressed in grams):
3.9.2.4.1 Earthen ponds disinfection
Number of grams of thiosulfate = 2.85 × number of grams
of Chlorine As mentioned in section 3.1.2 (pond drying), pond farm
sanitation after harvest is a measure that allows by natural
For iodine, the amount of thiosulfate should be 0.78 times
conditions (sun and wind) and using lime, decreasing
the amount of iodine in grams:
pathogenic organisms in the pond bottom. This is an
efficient and economic disinfection practice for shrimp
Number of grams of thiosulfate = 0.78 × number of grams
of Iodine farms.
78
There must be a complete pond drainage and then, while 1.000 liters of water and has a weight of 1.000 kg (one ton).
the bottom is still wet, it must be covered the entire soil Since in a cubic meter of water has one thousand liters of
surface with lime at the rate of 1.000 kg/ha (if using calcium water, then a cubic meter of water will weigh approximately
oxide) or 1.500 kg/ha (if using calcium hydroxide). Care one million of grams equivalent to one million of milliliters, or
must be taken to distribute the lime evenly over the entire one million of cubic centimeters (cc) of water (Appendix
pond bottom. The pond should be left in stand by for several 11). Therefore:
weeks or at least until the bottom get dried and has cracks 1 mL = 1 g = 1 cc = One part in a million parts in a
of at least 10 cm deep. The pond should remain dry until ton = 1 ppm
the entire facility has been completely disinfected (Figures 1000 L = 1000 kg = 1 m3 = 1,000,000 g
30a, 30b, 31a, 31b and 31c). Thus, 1 ppm = 1 g per ton = 1 mL per ton per ton = 1
cc per ton
During rainy season, it´s also important the pond
disinfection process, although moisture conditions becomes Example: if a chlorine solution 200 ppm must be prepared,
it difficult and it´s only possible some partial draining and it should be added 200 g of pure chlorine (1 pound contains
subsequent Chlorine application in poodles and calcium 454 grams) to a cubic meter of fresh water (1.000 L). If
hydroxide or oxide on the entire bottom. The latter process commercial hypochlorite is used, remember that its
usually requires manual labor by farm workers because it´s concentration is around 70% (700,000 ppm), so apply the
difficult for a tractor to enter to the ponds due to soil following formula to prepare 10 L (10.000 mL) solution with
moisture and instability. 200 ppm:
3.9.2.4.2 Tank disinfection Vii x Cii = Vff x Cff
All plastic, concrete or fiber glass tanks must be drained Where:

and dried. Then, all inner and outer surfaces must be
sprayed with a chlorine solution and left so for several hours. Vi: initial volume of commercial product that we need to
prepare the solution
These surfaces should be brushed until they are clean from Ci: initial concentration of commercial product
any residue attached to the walls. Tanks must be completely Vf: final volume of solution we want to prepare
filled with clean water adding then calcium hypochlorite to Cf: final concentration at which we want to prepare the
reach a concentration of at least 200 ppm of residual free solution
chlorine overnight. Water should be then completely
drained and tanks should be rinsed and dried. Substituting the values presented above, initial volume is
equal to: final volume multiplied by the final concentration
When preparing a chemical solution with a concentration in and product divided by the initial concentration as
parts per million (ppm), it must be remembered that one expressed by the following formula:
liter of pure water weights 1.000 grams (one kg) and is
equivalent to the volume of 1.000 cc or 1.000 mL. It must Vi = (Vf x Cf) ÷ Ci
be remembered also that one cubic meter of water contains
79
Substituting values, we have: commercial solutions. Debris such as shrimp feed, mud,
grease, etc., must be first removed from its surfaces. Then
Vi = (10,000 mL x 200 ppm) ÷ 700,000 ppm they must be sprayed with a iodine solution 200 ppm. Small
Vi = 2,000,000 mL ÷ 700,000 equipment such as scales, measurement tools and small

power tools must be cleaned with a sponge soaked with
Vi = 2.86 mL
iodine. Electronic high precision equipment should not be
Interpretation: to prepare 10 L of hypochlorite solution with exposed to chlorine as corrosion can damage them.
a concentration of 200 ppm, it must be 2.86 mL of 70%
hypochlorite and add it to distilled water (or clan tap water) 3.9.2.4.4 Office disinfection
to a total volume of 10 L.
Office contamination usually occurs via of humans moving
However, it must be considered that most chemical from contaminated areas to administrative areas. That´s
substances are rarely marketed as pure products. So, why office buildings disinfection should be focused on
before preparing a solution at a desired concentration, it floors which should be cleaned with common detergents
must be known its concentration or purity level (active and then rinsed with a iodine solution of 200 ppm. All
ingredient) and so compensates calculations of the disposable objects must be removed. Similarly, walls,
amounts to be used. desks, bathrooms, electrical, refrigerators and freezers,
must be cleaned using commercial disinfectant solutions.
3.9.2.4.3 Equipment disinfection
3.9.2.4.5 Other buildings disinfection
Farm equipment can be grouped into two categories:
disposable and not disposable. Disposable equipment It´s a well-known fact that buildings in contact with shrimp
include relatively inexpensive and readily available must be contaminated. To start building disinfection it must
elements as meshes, nets and aeration hoses. All these be first swept to remove any organic and inorganic material.
equipment must be discarded when considering relevant, Next step is chlorination. Workers applying chlorine as gas,
depending on conditions and the fact that they can´t be must use a wet suit, gas mask and goggles for chlorine.
disinfected for later use. They must also seal all building walls and roof sections that
could allow leakage chlorine gas during application.
Elements that can be soaked such removable pipes, plastic
plumbing parts, transfer cages, harvest bins, harvest Surfaces that can´t be cleaned with chlorine, should be
tables, Secchi disks, laboratory glassware, etc., should be disinfected with a 200 ppm iodine soaked sponge. Before
soaked in a residual chlorine solution 200 ppm for 24-48 chlorine gas application, they must be protected with
hours. The equipment used in open sky farming activities plastic or chlorine resistant materials to prevent
should also be soaked in a residual chlorine solution 200 deterioration by contact. During chlorination, vertical
ppm and then sunlight dried. surfaces and ceilings should be sprayed first with a
disinfectant chlorine solution.
Electrical and motorized equipment such as tractors, trucks
and power tools must be disinfected with common
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Then, floors can be flooded up to 5 cm with a solution of It´s responsibility of the farm to define a pest control plan
free residual chlorine 200 ppm. This solution on floors must which must include procedures, scope, security measures
remain at least 48 hours and then be rinsed with clean and control parameters, the same as an adequate
fresh water. recording and verification system. In order to achieve it, the
farm must hire a pest control company legally certified and
BMP for cleaning and disinfection of farm facilities duly registered with the CA (Figure 67).
Each farm must develop and implement their own

sanitation operating procedures manual (SOP)
All farm personnel should clearly understand the
purpose of cleaning and disinfection processes, for
which it´s necessary to implement ongoing training
Staff should be trained to implement basic safety
measures, required for handling and application of
chemicals
Disinfection should be comprehensive and not partial,
including all farm susceptible surfaces (ponds, buildings,
equipment, operational tools, among others), using the
right products for each situation and the indicated
Figure 67. Device for pests control in a shrimp farm, installed and supervised by
concentrations and times for optimal results a certified company that has been hired by the shrimp company.
It must be a well-known schedule for pond stocking and
harvesting, that allows farm sanitation processes focused
on cleaning and disinfection tasks The most relevant part of the pest control and eradication
Chemicals must be used according to the prescribed plan is the application of preventive measures such as daily
dose by manufacturers and in accordance with nationally waste collection and placing organic waste in an
and internationally regulations in order to represent low appropriate location (or be buried covered with lime). Farm
risk for humans and environment facilities should be kept free of weeds because it will serve
for trash accumulation and as refuge for rodents and other
3.9.3 Pests control and eradication systems pests.
For proper pest control and eradication in a shrimp farm, Solid waste must be permanently collected and located in a
it´s important to consider its environment hygiene and proper dump.
cleaning permanent conditions. If the environment is
conducive to pests to develop their habitat, they will be an
unhealthy environment in which it could be compromised
health, physical integrity and working environment of the
farm staff and neighboring communities.
81
Rodents are sources of infection for humans and Therefore, it should be forms designed for data recording
contamination for the farm final product because they are based on the farm needs and on monitored variables as a
usually in waste and contaminated water. That´s why it´s part of the biosecurity plan.
necessary to have a rodents control plan by cleaning and
traps with special baits in order to minimize contamination Verification should be performed by record analysis to
of water, shrimp, feed stores and farm inhabited areas. diagnose the implementation, monitoring and adjustments
of biosecurity measures. As a result, corrective actions must
The biological, chemical and physical agents used for pest be established in order to meet the measures objectives.
control should be applied by qualified personnel. The
person who is responsible for application of any substance The verification of the implementation of biosecurity
used for pest control or elimination, must meet the measures, allows assessment of the production process
specifications of the country pesticides official catalog. and aims to ensure that the management performed
Farms must have map indicating traps location and it must method reduces the risk for pathogen introduction and
be signaling indicating its location and toxicity level for spread, and remains optimal shrimp farming conditions.
humans.
Similarly, it can demonstrate shrimp are free of chemical
BMP for pests control and eradication and biological hazards to the final consumer and that
production process has been performed with
To establish a pest control and eradication plan including environmentally friendly practices.
procedures, scope, safety measures and control
parameters, the same as a strict recording and Verification must determine that performed production
verification system activities have been according to biosecurity measures,
Training, awareness and involve farm staff in the benefits following a preset schedule that must be shown to
of maintaining a pest free environment inside and around evaluators and timely evaluated. Verification should be
the farm based on a document defining the best practices; it should
Use of adequate facilities for storage, well ventilated with be available to all farm staff for consultation and
mesh windows and safe doors implementation (e.g. the present Manual).
Ensure that the chemicals used for this program, have
the records and governmental approvals appropriate The farm manager must ensure that verifications be
such use performed by trained and qualified personnel, under
suitable conditions and with the focus on improving and
3.9.4 Data recording and verification
feedback for best practices. Farm staff must participate in
both internal checking and in the process of corrective and
All biosecurity activities performed in a shrimp farm must
preventive actions additional to verifications.
be documented by complete and current records.
82
BMP for biosecurity measures Having a reliable postlarvae, juveniles or broodstock

source, to ensure their high quality, pathogen-free
Maintain strict control and recording of everything that condition and showing a specific status and development
enter or leave the farm according to their age
Have adequate facilities that ease the control for farm Avoid introduction of tidal water to farming ponds and
entrance and exit never use wild shrimp for production
Have enough inputs for vehicles and people disinfection As far as possible, every pond must have individual
at the entry security gate of the farm elements and tools for shrimp
Inform visitors about farm restrictions, security measures Removal of liquid and solid wastes must be done so that
and biosecurity that must be adopted in each one of the don´t contaminate with pathogens
farm areas The farm must have a rest area and dining room for
Supply visitors with security clothes required for their employees, in order to prevent food consumption in
admission to the farm facilities as rubber boots, cap and production areas
gown (preferably disposable), and a visitor card that Establish measures environmentally friendly that prevent
must be visible entry of wild animals to the farm
Use exclusion measures for potentially pathogens
carrying organisms 4. Waste disposal based on classiﬁcation
To establish written procedures for the farm and maintain and recyclability
records of all activities carried out
Have written protocols for cleaning and disinfecting for Farms must implement an environmental management
the equipment used in each pond plan for the benefit of the natural environment and for
Maintain strict control on the personnel entrance and themselves. This management should be implemented
exit, organisms, materials and farm vehicles during farm construction and it must continue during
Have preset procedures in order to dispose organic waste production. Farm environmental management must be
if a disease outbreak occurs based on reducing, reusing and recycling principles.
Have a visitor protocol that involves all foreign people that Reduction in using materials or inputs and their reuse, are
enter farm facilities; it should include disinfection practices which prevent or decrease the production of solid
procedures, biosecurity clothing and logistics waste, allowing resources conservation, reducing
Limit the number of farm visitors and control their contact contamination, decreasing disposal costs and solid waste
with shrimp; ask about the last contact with other aquatic management. This means that farms must avoid trash
farms and the health status of the last aquatic visited production by buying more consciously and using materials
facility and supplies under the more efficient way.
The farm staff should avoid visiting other aquaculture

establishments and must respect biosecurity conditions
established in each facility; visitors may not have visited
another farm in at least 72 hours
83
Each waste producing area there must be trash cans same as risk for the environment as appliance or
according to their classification and recycling possibility. laboratory equipment batteries, microbiological culturng
Although there is not yet unique international color code media, animal waste and chemical waste, among others
standardization for waste disposal or recycling, it is
suggested the following example gathered from several •฀฀ White cans (recyclable material): this is the remaining
authors, for waste separation using colored cans: deposit for recyclable waste that has not fit into the above
groups
•฀฀ Yellow cans (containers): must be used for disposal of
light packaging as plastics (bottles, jars, bags, trays, etc.) y •฀฀ Gray cans (biodegradable material): this is the remaining
metal (beverage cans, canned, etc.) deposit for waste that has not fit into the above groups but
are biodegradable material such as food and vegetal
•฀฀ Blue cans (paper and cardboard): must be used for material
disposal of cardboard containers (boxes, trays, etc.), as
well as newspapers, magazines, wrapping papers, •฀฀ Orange cans (recyclable oils): this is for disposal of engine
brochures, etc. It´s advisable to fold cardboard boxes so oil, cooking oil, cooking fats and other residues of the
that they occupy as minimum space within container as same type that can be treated and recycled.
possible
Daily operation of shrimp farms produces waste and
•฀฀ Green cans (glass): in this container it must be disposed garbage, which must be disposed under responsible and
glass bottles and glass materials environmentally friendly way. Waste sources include plastic
containers where lubricants and engine oils are stored and
•฀฀ Red cans (chemical or biological hazardous material): water pumps. Likewise, those produced by cooking
this container must be used for disposal of containers and activities (kitchens) and workers food, wastewater and
materials that pose risks for human and animal health, the soapy waters, food packaging and postlarvae packing bags.
Figure 68. Portable latrine located in an area of shrimp ponds (left). Sink and a paper towel dispenser (right). Photos courtesy of Eng. C. Lara.
84
Trash, garbage, human waste and any otherwise produced not be discharged into ponds, channels or natural
in the farm, should not be discarded in the mangrove areas waterbodies without fully and properly treated
and wetlands, or elsewhere which affect the environment. When possible, it´s preferable to buy chemical suppliers
On the opposite, they must be discarded fulfilling national that reuse or recycle their product containers
regulations by using portable toilets, landfill sites or places Feed bags can be reused in other activities as long as
clearly defined for this purpose, where no odor problems they are not used for packing and marketing products
occur or presence of wild animals (Figure 68). breaking national rules for packaging and labeling
Plastic bags for postlarvae transport should be reused as
The environmental culture needs a training process to often as possible. When they become no longer useful,
create conscience in farm workers, so it´s important to keep they must be adequately discarded
training programs on farms in this area and it must be waste Oil containers, engine lubricants and other chemicals
management containers properly located and clearly must be reused or properly disposed in well-designated
identified as well as a protocol for their management. places indicated by the CA for such use, so they don´t
produce environmental contamination
BMP for waste disposal based on classification and In order to reduce waste in the farm, large volume
recyclability containers must be used (e.g. 55-gallon tank for liquid
presentation instead of 55 plastic containers of 1 gal
Waste disposal sites must be strategically located within presentation)
the farm limits, if waste can´t be disposed in municipal Organic waste (food waste, paper, etc.) should be taken
landfills. Its design must include all established into a landfill where properly treatment be performed
regulations to minimize environmental impacts, The farm must have portable toilets strategically located
preventing its location near estuarine sources, lagoons, which should be subjected to a maintenance plan by a
mangroves, office areas or workplaces specialized company
Every place where garbage is produced, must have
colored containers and indications for proper use
It must promoted in the farm, a reduction, reuse and
recycling culture, primarily focused to oils, feed bags and
daily operation materials
When several shrimp farms are closed each other, they
must subscribe an agreement with their suppliers the
same as a plan for non- organic waste management as oil
containers among others, for a proper management and
eventual recycling
Wastewater and soapy water must be managed
separately from farm pond effluents and must be
discharged in a septic tank. These wastewaters should
85
5. Energy use BMP for energy use
The use of electricity in shrimp farms is still essential to its Shrimp farms should seek energy savings by austerity
operation and productivity. Depending on the economy and policies
the environment protection, it must be avoided energy Promote and encourage farm workers to reduced power
wasting. The use of hydrocarbon fuels (gasoline or diesel) consumption by making monthly records for electricity
should be done rationally, as in production activities this is consumption
one of the items which more affect shrimp farm costs. Minimize the use of vehicles and motorized boats
Use aerators only when low or dropping dissolved oxygen
It is therefore important that shrimp farming companies concentrations
consider alternative energy sources such as solar, wind, Maintain electronic equipment in optimal conditions
geothermal and biomass. Many places dedicated to shrimp Promote the use of fluorescent bulbs (saving bulbs)
farming have enough land and space and weather instead of regular incandescent bulbs
conditions suitable for capturing sunlight, which can be Plan logistic activities involving vehicles in order to
used for electricity production by solar panels (Figure 69). minimize travels and to maximize staff movements and
use of farm supplies
Other options include the use of biomass energy produced Install gas systems in farm heavy duty engines (pumps,
by the decomposition of organic waste and thereby it´s electrical generators, trucks, buses, etc.); these produce
obtained fuel gas (methane). Open areas with strong winds, lower gas emission to the atmosphere and have a
would have the chance for installing and connecting wind significantly low cost that increases performance and
turbines for using these natural forces, achieving electrical improve efficiency of these items
energy generation at a low cost. It is very important to When possible, buy hybrid vehicles for executive staff
consider that these alternative energy sources have the mobilization whose performance in km/gal is much
ability to not contaminate the environment and therefore better than a traditional vehicle (diesel or gasoline)
don´t affect either neighboring communities.
Figure 69. Solar panels used in a shrimp farm as an alternative to reduce electricity consumption costs. Photo courtesy of Eng. C. Lara.
86
6. Contingency plans It must also be well-established farm positions, which are

responsible for implementing each phase of the
The farm contingency plan should be strict but without contingency plan. A good plan should be exhaustive but not
much details, easy to read and to upgrade. It must be too detailed, well structured, easily reading and
operational and clearly express what to do, by whom and comprehension and easy to update.
when. The contingency plans mainly cover situations in the
operational and environmental field, are necessary to
minimize injury caused to personnel, environment and
infrastructure by accidents or emergencies occurring within
the shrimp farm. These plans are the result of an advanced
planning process face an uncertain in which scenarios and
objectives are decided, managerial and technical actions
are defined, and the possible response structure systems
are established to better prevent or respond face an
emergency (Annex 7).
When accidents occur such as oil or fuel spill in ponds,

channels or sedimentation ponds, there must be mitigation
measures to ensure specific procedures to perform until the
problem is solved and farm back to normal activities.
Contingency plan must specify timely reporting Figure 70a. Manual recording forms for different tasks in a shrimp farm (left)
and vertical filing system to organize and preserve the historical evolution of the
mechanisms for farm problems to the environmental
data (right). Photos courtesy of Dr. J.Cuéllar-Anjel.
authorities.
Figure 70b. Manual recording in the laboratory of a shrimp farm (left) and in the field (right), as part of the production data collection.
Photos courtesy of Eng. C. Lara.
87
7. Data recording in a shrimp farm
A shrimp farm must have an efficient and accurate record

system. All administrative and production activities must be
documented, recording system registration must fit the nature
and magnitude of these activities. Production process
recording from stocking to harvest, will allow standardizing
and tracking operational procedures (traceability) in each step
of the process and maintain control for inputs and monitoring
physical, chemical and biological variables of production
system during the farming cycle.
Records of a shrimp farm include all those associated with

biosecurity (see point “3.9”), production (weekly weight and
survival sampling, health monitoring, feed consumption,
medications, inputs application, pond harvests, etc.),
warehouses (materials, supplies, feed, parts, wood, etc.), fuel
tanks, workshops, equipment purchase and maintenance
(vehicles, pumps, harvesters, oximeters, microscopes, etc.),
meetings, technical visits, training, medical missions, staff
issues (disabilities, permissions, holidays, promotions,
evaluations, bonuses, reprimands, etc.) and all activities that
allow to do a retrospective analysis in the company (Figures Figure 70c. Computerized data recording in the warehouse of a shrimp farm
70a, 70b and 70c). which allows to have control on entry and exit of operating materials and
supplies. Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.
Conclusion analysis and projection based on recorded data

tabulation, will allow to take management preventive
•฀฀฀฀฀฀ Keeping records means order, control, efficiency, safety
measures in order to get good production and to minimize
operating costs maximizing the use of farm resources. Some and best management
•฀฀฀฀฀฀ A good record system allows evaluation of processes and
important advantages of handling a recording plan are:
•฀฀฀฀฀฀ The farm owner ensures that procedures are being met correct timely decisions addressed to a more efficient
•฀ The technical manager can demonstrate that the process
procedures are properly developed
•฀฀ The farm can demonstrate to the authorities that the
operational procedures are under execution in
compliance with national regulations
•฀฀฀฀฀ Records will allow to identify deviations in procedures and
consequently to implement corrective or preventive
actions
88
8. Traceability functional records according to the needs of each unit. A

good traceability system in the food chain not only plays an
Included in horizontal rules, Regulation No. 178/2002, important role in protecting of consumer interests, but also
Article 18 of the Council of the European Parliament, has provides great benefits for companies (Figures 71a and 71b).
laid the foundations for the implementation of traceability
methods to be performed by all food chain workers. This The requirement for having a traceability system has
decree took effect on February, 2002 and the article was multiple benefits: for producers it allows a more quickly
applicable from January 1, 2005. products withdrawal, identify the cause of the problem and
decide affected products destiny, decreasing dramatically
Traceability must be based on a reliable process of data the economic damage and brand image, and also provides
collection and management originated in all activities the possibility of selling the products in more profitable
related to the product safety harvested on the farm. This markets; for the consumers it generates greater confidence
process can be based on printed or computerized records. due to exists informative transparency throughout
Its application presents large advantages for the producer, production chain, and to the CA it lets act more effectively
consumers and CA. against health alerts.
Traceability as a tool to trace the origin of a product and In recent years, traceability of aquaculture products has
inputs within the supply chain food, lets identify and record become very important, having proposed the use of DNA
each product from its origin to the end of the markers as a tool for traceability
commercialization chain. From the point of view of
production, traceability systems improve the management One current important element to ensure aquaculture
of the production unit (hatcheries, farms, processing products safety is TRACEABILITY which is a fundamental
plants, transport and distribution), having systematic and component of BMP in shrimp farming (Annex 10).
Figure 71a. Computer screen showing an electronic form of an official Figure 71b. Data typing in an electronic form of an official software,
software designed for data recording in a shrimp farm as a plan for performed by personnel of a shrimp farm for traceability purposes.
traceability. Photo courtesy of Eng. C. Lara. Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.
89
Nowadays, aquaculture represents almost 50% of aquatic Act" from 2002, came into force in December, 2003 and
resources production worldwide; however, trends indicate requires the registration of all producers´ facilities prior to
that in the future this activity will become the main sources import food to this country.
of seafood. Moreover, the global trade of marine-origin
products continues increasing and with it the interest in Traceability according to ISO 8402 is the "attitude to find
regulating the food production in order to ensure its health the history, use or location of an item, an activity or of
and safety. similar items or activities, through a registered
identification".
In this regard, in recent years new regulations have been
promoted in order to guide producers. These regulations The Codex Alimentarius describes it as the ability to follow
include the Codex Alimentarius and ISO standards, among a food movement through specific production, processing
others, besides the respective rules of each country. and distribution steps.
Traceability is an information system to the consumers and
to safety CA that is being promoted and adopted by leading In addition, Regulation (EC) No. 178/2002 of the European
world markets. Community defines traceability as the ability to find and
track through all production, processing and distribution
The two most important legislative efforts to establish food stages for food, feed, animals for food production or a
traceability are from European Union and from United substance intended to be incorporated into food or feed, or
States of America. In Europe, Directive 178/2002 came expected to be.
into force since 2005 and requires obligatory traceability for
all food and food products sold within of the European Annex 5 defines concepts related to backward traceability,
Union countries. In the United States, the "Public Health internal or in processes, and forward traceability. Also, its
Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response application in aquaculture, processing and marketing.
90
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Farming. Part II: Using feeding tables and feeding trays]. Boletín
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de la lista de la OIE. Paris, Francia. pp. 292.
92
ANNEX 1
Postlarvae quality evaluation and stress tests
Microscopic and molecular postlarvae assessment that฀ are฀ thought฀ to฀ be฀ acquired฀ by฀ the฀ farm;฀ batch฀
quality฀ results฀ don´t฀ apply฀ necessarily฀ to฀ other฀ batch฀
•฀฀ Hatcheries฀must฀have฀biosecurity฀procedures,฀applied฀ because฀they฀are฀different฀postlarvae฀populations฀
during฀postlarvae฀batches฀reviews฀by฀farm฀technicians
•฀฀ The฀ hatchery฀ director฀ must฀ inform฀ to฀ the฀ farm฀ about฀ Macroscopic and microscopic assessment of postlarvae
the฀packing฀water฀quality฀characteristics฀for฀postlarvae฀ quality
shipping฀ (salinity,฀ temperature,฀ pH,฀ etc.),฀ in฀ order฀ to฀ ฀
set-up฀acclimation฀units฀on฀the฀farm It฀should฀be฀taken฀a฀random฀sample฀of฀20฀postlarvae฀and฀
•฀฀ Few฀ days฀ before฀ the฀ purchase,฀ the฀ farm฀ technician฀ evaluate฀individually฀the฀following฀features:
must฀ go฀ to฀ the฀ hatchery฀ and฀ monitor฀ postlarvae฀
sampling฀ for฀ further฀ evaluation฀ in฀ the฀ diagnosis฀ •฀฀ Activity:฀at฀least฀95%฀of฀the฀postlarvae฀must฀be฀active.฀
laboratory Healthy฀postlarvae฀swim฀actively฀against฀the฀water฀flow฀
•฀฀ In฀order฀to฀accept฀or฀reject฀the฀postlarvae฀shipment,฀it฀ produced฀ by฀ aeration฀ in฀ the฀ acclimation฀ tank฀ or฀
must฀ be฀ assessed฀ mainly฀ postlarvae฀ activity,฀ produced฀manually
phototropism,฀ fecal฀ cord,฀ presence/absence฀ of฀ •฀฀ Presence฀ of฀ deformities:฀ don´t฀ accept฀ postlarvae฀ with฀
bioluminescence,฀ size฀ uniformity฀ and฀ intestinal฀ deformed฀ or฀ bent฀ rostrum,฀ damage฀ in฀ appendages฀
contents caused฀by฀bacteria,฀molting฀problems฀and฀appendages฀
•฀฀ Then฀ technicians฀ must฀ continue฀ with฀ a฀ microscopic฀ loss,฀etc.฀The฀presence฀of฀twisted฀bodies฀is฀evidence฀of฀
evaluation฀ to฀ determine฀ the฀ presence฀ or฀ absence฀ of฀ the฀ use฀ of฀ various฀ medications.฀ The฀ rostrum฀ and฀
lipid฀ vacuoles฀ in฀ the฀ hepatopancreas,฀ intestinal฀ appendices฀ must฀ have฀ a฀ normal฀ shape,฀ without฀
contents,฀ deformities,฀ appendages฀ or฀ gills฀ erosions฀ or฀ deformities.฀ It฀ must฀ not฀ be฀ accepted฀
melanization,฀ presence฀ of฀ epicommensal฀ organisms฀ postlarvae฀showing฀more฀than฀5%฀of฀deformities
(epibionts),฀ white฀ balls฀ syndrome,฀ BP฀ (Baculovirus •฀฀ Homogeneous฀ size:฀ more฀ developed฀ postlarvae฀ have฀
penaei)฀and฀gill฀development better฀ disease฀ resistance,฀ full฀ gill฀ development,฀ and฀
•฀฀ The฀ molecular฀ detection฀ (by฀ Chain฀ Reaction฀ ability฀ to฀ tolerate฀ abrupt฀ salinity฀ and฀ temperature฀
Polymerase฀ -฀ PCR)฀ of฀ important฀ pathogens,฀ is฀ a฀ changes.฀ Stocking฀ size฀ for L. vannamei and L.
mandatory฀ step฀ to฀ complete฀ a฀ comprehensive฀ stylirostris฀ are฀ usually฀ PL-9฀ to฀ PL-11฀ (postlarvae฀ from฀
assessment฀of฀the฀quality฀of฀a฀postlarvae฀batch nine฀ to฀ eleven฀ days).฀ It´s฀ not฀ advisable฀ to฀ receive฀ for฀
•฀฀ Before฀ buying฀ postlarvae,฀ the฀ farm฀ technician฀ stocking฀postlarvae฀older฀than฀PL-11฀as฀this฀will฀require฀
responsible฀ for฀ their฀ acquisition,฀ should฀ know฀ the฀ considerably฀ lower฀ packaging฀ densities฀ (#฀ postlarvae฀
results฀of฀previous฀examinations฀and฀be฀fully฀satisfied฀ per฀ liter฀ in฀ each฀ bag),฀ increasing฀ shipping฀ costs.฀
with฀them Otherwise,฀ there฀ is฀ an฀ important฀ risks฀ of฀ high฀
•฀฀ Not฀all฀postlarvae฀batches฀are฀equal,฀so฀it´s฀necessary฀ mortalities฀during฀the฀shipping.
to฀perform฀the฀analysis฀above฀to฀each฀group฀of฀animals฀
93
•฀฀ Intestinal฀ contents:฀ healthy฀ postlarvae฀ usually฀ feed฀ Stress tests

continuously฀and฀aggressively฀and฀they฀should฀display฀
a฀full฀gut.฀Postlarvae฀under฀stress฀usually฀stop฀eating. Postlarvae฀quality฀can฀be฀assessed฀by฀a฀stress฀test,฀which฀
•฀฀ Gut฀movements฀(peristalsis):฀rhythmic฀gut฀movements฀ measures฀the฀tolerance฀of฀animals฀to฀well-known฀extreme฀
indicate฀ good฀ performance฀ of฀ postlarvae฀ digestive฀ parameter.฀To฀perform฀this฀test,฀100฀-฀200฀postlarvae฀are฀
system.฀Similarly,฀dark฀color฀of฀the฀hepatopancreas฀is฀a฀ exposed฀to฀a฀thermal,฀osmotic฀and/or฀chemical฀shock฀and฀
good฀sign฀that฀postlarvae฀have฀been฀feeding฀properly then฀ surviving฀ postlarvae฀ are฀ determined.฀ A฀ widely฀ used฀
•฀฀ Presence฀ of฀ epibionts:฀ healthy฀ postlarvae฀ when฀ are฀
test฀is฀to฀expose฀postlatvae฀to฀a฀temperature฀reduction฀of฀10฀
observed฀ under฀ the฀ microscopy,฀ don´t฀ display฀
-฀12°C฀for฀1฀-฀2฀hours,฀or฀salinity฀of฀0฀-฀5฀parts฀per฀thousand฀
organisms฀attached฀to฀the฀exoskeleton.฀Postlarvae฀with฀
for฀ 30฀ minutes.฀ The฀ following฀ are฀ procedures฀ for฀ the฀
abundant฀ attached฀ epibionts,฀ are฀ indication฀ of฀ the฀
performance฀of฀one฀of฀these฀tests.
existence฀ of฀ poor฀ water฀ quality.฀ Under฀ these฀
conditions,฀postlarvae฀usually฀don´t฀molt฀regularly฀and฀
Stress฀test฀at฀low฀salinity:
exhibit฀a฀poor฀general฀health฀status.฀It฀is฀advised฀not฀to฀
accept฀ postlarvae฀ shipments฀ greater฀ than฀ 5%฀ of฀
epibionts •฀฀ Prepare฀ water฀ (500฀ mL)฀ at฀ salinity฀ of฀ 5฀ parts฀ per฀
•฀฀ Muscle฀ opacity:฀ the฀ presence฀ of฀ shrimp฀ with฀ muscle฀ thousand฀(ppt)
opacity฀ is฀ indicative฀ of฀ stress฀ caused฀ by฀ poor฀ •฀฀ Take฀100฀random฀postlarvae฀from฀the฀farming฀tank฀and฀
environmental฀ conditions.฀ Postlarvae฀ shipments฀ with฀ put฀in฀the฀container฀with฀water฀with฀salinity฀of฀5฀ppt
over฀ 10%฀ of฀ animals฀ presenting฀ this฀ condition฀ are฀ •฀฀ Wait฀for฀30฀minutes
unacceptable •฀฀ Take฀postlarvae฀back฀to฀original฀salinity
•฀฀ Gill฀ development:฀ a฀ well฀ gill-development฀ is฀ observed฀ •฀฀ Leave฀them฀for฀another฀30฀minutes
when฀the฀postlarvae฀gill฀lamellae฀look฀like฀a฀branched฀ •฀฀ Counting฀ live฀ and฀ dead฀ postlarvae,฀ the฀ result฀ is฀
Christmas฀ tree.฀ Postlarvae฀ usually฀ reach฀ this฀ gill฀ expressed฀in฀percentage
development฀ on฀ day฀ 9฀ and฀ 10฀ (PL-9,฀ PL-10);฀ a฀ well฀
gill-developed฀allows฀postlarvae฀to฀tolerate฀more฀easily฀
For฀the฀evaluation฀of฀the฀stress฀test,฀it฀must฀be฀considered฀
rapid฀changes฀in฀salinity฀and฀other฀parameters฀during฀
the฀following฀survival฀percentage฀values:
acclimation
•฀฀ Color฀ changes฀ and฀ melanization:฀ reddish฀ color฀ of฀
•฀฀ 90฀-฀100%:฀excellent
postlarvae฀can฀be฀caused฀by฀poor฀nutrition,฀improper฀
•฀฀ 85%:฀acceptable
handling,฀infections฀and฀stress.฀The฀melanization฀(dark฀
spots)฀ indicates฀ infections฀ bacterial.฀ In฀ unhealthy฀
•฀฀ 80%:฀regular
postlarvae,฀ pigment฀ cells฀ (chromatophores)฀ expand฀ •฀฀ <80%:฀no฀acceptable

displaying฀ continue฀ pigment฀ bands.฀ Chromatophores฀
status฀inspection฀should฀be฀done฀immediately฀after฀the฀ It฀ is฀ important฀ to฀ ensure฀ a฀ shipping฀ density฀ (#฀ PL/Liter)฀
samples฀ have฀ been฀ taken฀ out฀ of฀ the฀ water,฀ due฀ to฀ appropriate฀ to฀ the฀ size฀ or฀ age฀ of฀ postlarvae฀ in฀ order฀ to฀
chromatophores฀ tend฀ to฀ expand฀ still฀ in฀ healthy฀ ensure฀high฀survival฀at฀the฀time฀of฀their฀arrival฀to฀the฀farm.
postlarvae฀ when฀ stress฀ is฀ produced฀ by฀ excessive฀
handling
94
ANNEX 2
Postlarvae acclimation: technical details to proceed
The following tips will help to get better results during Shipping water must be smelled and it must be
postlarvae acclimatization: observed postlarvae activity and percentage of
mortality. If dead postlarvae are seen in the bags,
•฀฀ Acclimation facilities: they should provide shade, air, annotate the approximate percentage. If oxygen is
filtered water and hygienic conditions. Densities of 500 below saturation level (>15 mg/L), inject pure oxygen
postlarvae per liter are suitable during acclimation. If immediately in shipping water until reaching a
the plan is to keep postlarvae for more than 24 hours, minimum of 12 mg\L.
this density should be reduced. Similarly, PL-8 to •฀฀ Postlarvae transfer to acclimation tanks: once
PL-12 must be acclimated to lower densities even if postlarvae have been transferred to acclimation tanks,
they will not be kept up to 24 hours oxygen must be gently pumped to the water column to
•฀฀ Preparation of acclimation tanks: whole acclimation reduce ammonia levels. Spread on water surface
facility must be washed and disinfected several days approximately 50 g of activated charcoal pellets in each
before postlarvae arrival. Tanks, surfaces and pipes tank setting the quantity depending on tank size. Using
must be washed and disinfected with chlorine. Then a glass vessel of 500 - 1000 mL to assess at a glance
they must be rinsed with abundant top water and allow the status of postlarvae. Observe and record gut
to dry ensuring removal of any remaining chlorine. fullness, molt signs, cannibalism signs, presence of
dead shrimp and tail opacity. Hatchery personnel
The reservoir tank must be filled with pond water from should perform volumetric counts to estimate mortality
source that will be stocked. occurred during transport, which in turn will help to
determine the alive postlarvae amounts at the
Filter the water to be used in the acclimation through a beginning of acclimation. This count should be done
filter of 500 microns (0.5 mm). Place about 200 L of before adding pond water to acclimation tanks.
seawater from reservoir tank in the acclimation tank, •฀฀ Oxygen management during acclimation: during first
and use ice in plastic bags to chill until 26-27°C. hours of acclimation, ammonia levels are high, so
Acclimation water tank should be adjusted to the oxygen levels should be kept above the saturation level
salinity and temperature of the water used for (12 mg/L – 15 mg/L). During acclimation it must be
postlarvae shipping. held optimal oxygen levels from 8 - 12 mg/L.
Throughout acclimation, oxygen levels should not
•฀฀ Postlarvae shipping-bags opening: when postlarvae decrease below 6 mg/L. The oxygen level must be
arrive to the farm, temperature and dissolved oxygen raised to 10 mg/L in acclimation tanks just before
concentration must be measured and recorded. postlarvae stocking to offset the loss during transport.
95
•฀฀ Acclimation฀procedure฀and฀program฀for฀postlarvae฀5฀to฀ then฀adjusting฀the฀temperature฀slowly฀towards฀the฀end฀

11฀ (PL-5฀ to฀ PL-11):฀ immediately฀ after฀ Finishing฀ of฀ the฀ acclimation฀ period.฀ Acclimation฀ speed฀ must฀
postlarvae฀transfer,฀it฀must฀be฀slowly฀added฀water฀from฀ decrease฀if฀postlarvae฀show฀signs฀of฀molting฀or฀stress.฀
reservoir฀ tanks฀ through฀ a฀ continuous฀ flow฀ system฀ so฀ The฀opaque฀or฀whitish฀color,฀erratic฀swimming,฀empty฀
that฀the฀postlarvae฀water฀tank฀volume฀doesn´t฀change.฀ gut฀ or฀ increasing฀ cannibalism,฀ are฀ all฀ indicators฀ of฀
Salinity฀change฀must฀be฀carefully฀monitored.฀It฀must฀be฀ stress.
measured฀ temperature,฀ oxygen฀ and฀ salinity฀ every฀ 30฀
minutes฀and฀pH฀each฀hour.฀Record฀the฀results฀in฀the฀ •฀฀ Feeding฀ during฀ acclimation:฀ providing฀ feed฀ during฀
acclimation฀form฀sheet.฀ acclimation฀will฀help฀postlarvae฀to฀have฀more฀energy฀to฀
withstand฀the฀stress฀caused฀by฀acclimation.฀In฀order฀to฀
฀ In฀ order฀ to฀ acclimate฀ the฀ temperature,฀ it´s฀ get฀it,฀it´s฀recommend฀the฀use฀of฀live฀Artemia฀nauplii,฀
recommended฀a฀change฀rate฀of฀1°C/h.฀A฀good฀strategy฀ egg฀ yolk฀ (cooked)฀ finely฀ sifted,฀ commercial฀ flakes฀ or฀
is฀to฀keep฀the฀temperature฀constant฀at฀25°C฀for฀the฀first฀ frozen฀Artemia.
75%฀of฀acclimation฀time฀(while฀adjusting฀salinity)฀and฀
96
ANNEX 3
Feeding management based on molting cycle
A proven fact is that in a shrimp pond there will be always Techniques have been developed that allow calculation of
shrimp in different molting stage. Therefore a significant the feed amount to be added in the pond based on shrimp
proportion of these shrimp will be in pre-molt, molt and populations molt stages of farmed Penaeus schmitti as
post-molt stages, some in which they don´t eat feed. Tables follows:
for rations adjustments don´t consider molt stage within
their calculations and certainly a part of the feed added into 1) Sampling of 100 animals every 2 days in five pond
the ponds is not consumed by shrimp. points (four at each end and one in the
center)
The cost of this overfeeding can be very expensive. As an 2) Determine the shrimp count in early post-molt and late
example, let´s consider that in a pond shrimp farming pre-molt, using as reference phenotypic patterns of the
system 30% of the population is in late pre-molt, molt and distal portion of the uropods under the stereoscope.
early post-molt stages (unable to eat); then 30% of the daily When farm technician become familiar with this
feed is being supplied with no reason; this feed amount procedure, observations could be done at a glance
multiplied by feeding days and number of ponds, will 3) Determine the actual biomass to be fed (in kg).
represent a big amount of money that is being applied with Example: total biomass= 4.504 kg, molting= 15%
no-need. Moreover, the environmental cost both internal (stage B0, B1, D3, D4), actual biomass to be fed=
and external adding this organic matter into the ponds, 3.828 kg
must be considered. To the extent that not usable organic 4) Refer to the reference tables for shrimp feeding
matter within the production system increases, oxygen 5) Feeding according to actual biomass (following the
(chemical) demand increases and it will increases the example above). For actual biomass 3.282 kg (15%
chance for these nutrients to be used as a broth for growth molting), 4.5%, weight= 10.5 g, then there will be
of bacteria and parasites, which will increase the oxygen needed 172.26 kg of feed (regardless molt
(biochemical) demand, favor shrimp diseases, reduce the determining it would be needed 202.68 kg)
yield, and in extreme cases lead to shrimp death. 6) Feeding according to established schedules for the
species; for L. schmitti circadian rhythms of digestive
The objective of this topic is to know the molt cycle and use enzymatic activity are: 10 a.m., 6 p.m. and 2 a.m.
it to optimize the feed management in the shrimp farming. 7) Determination of the FCR each week
It has been reported a reduction in FCR from 2.1:1 using
feeding table versus 1.2:1 obtained by supplying the
amount of feed based on shrimp molt stage. In order to
achieve such results, it was required to perform the
identification of molt stage in each week of the study.
97
8) Because shrimp behavior during molting is cyclical, it week. It´s important to remember that day-night patterns
can be followed two complete molting cycles (about 10 are crucial to trigger molting and are constant and stable
days depending on the weight) and then continue during different seasons of the year. Therefore in large farm
giving the same feed ratio per day until weight change. it´s suggested sampling just few representative ponds and
Operational strategies for the daily feed management then extrapolate the results to the entire farm. For example:
based on molting cycle for a population of L. vannamei on a farm with 20 ponds (> 5 ha), initial sampling is done in
in ponds, suggest that management should be as all of them to determine shrimp molt stages. If most of the
follows: ponds have shrimp with similar percentages for the
• Conduct shrimp surveys twice a week. When different molt stages, then there will be selected just 5
feeding be carried out by using feeding trays, shrimp ponds to adjust feeding rate.
should never be collected from these trays because
their physiological status does not necessarily It has been said that feed has an important role in shrimp
correspond to the pond population farming, especially ration, frequency and feeding schedule.
฀ • Determine the molting stage in not less than 100 There have been evaluated several frequencies and feeding
shrimp per pond, based on identifying inter-molt, schedules on shrimp growing. The results of these studies
pre-molt and post-molt patterns in uropods of indicate a considerable variation in this regard and suggest
sampled shrimp the importance of considering biotic factors (enzymatic
• Calculate the percentage of animals that are not activity) and abiotic (photoperiod) as effectors in shrimp
eating (physiological fasting) feeding behavior.
• Adjust feed ration based on the percentage of
biomass that it is conditions to be fed Recent studies show that feeding schedules can be
฀ • Feeding under shrimp feeding schedule based on adjusted considering the shrimp circadian activity. It was
circadian peaks of digestive enzymatic activity (10 already mentioned the cyclical effect of photoperiod on
a.m. - 12 p.m. and 6 p.m. - 8 p.m.) feed intake. In particular, the variation of digestive enzymes
has been recognized as important part of shrimp physiology
In order to implement these ration adjustment strategies, and feeding behavior. For this reason, the determination of
it´s required trained personnel. Variations in pond circadian variation of digestive enzymes and induction time
dimensions and total area of the farm require particular of enzymatic activity is important in setting frequencies and
sampling strategies. feeding times. The application of the technology of setting
feeding times in white shrimp farming, has demonstrated a
It must also be considered human resources spending positive effect on increasing growth rate up to 35%. This
estimating the cost-benefit of this strategy particularly on section allows knowing techniques to establish the
farms with large farming areas. Given the shrimp circadian variation of the digestive proteases and
physiological synchronization in farming ponds, sampling determining schedules for shrimp nutrition in
can be reduced by grouping ponds depending on stocking semi-intensive farming systems.
date, sampling one pond per group rotating each pond per
98
ANNEX 4
POPULATION SAMPLING IN A SHRIMP FARM:

USE OF FEEDING CHARTS AND TRAYS
(Adapted from Nicovita Bulletin - Camarón de Mar [Marine shrimp], Vol 3-issue 04, April, 1998)
Feed trays are one of the main tools for feeding Data must be confirmed with the pond crop results,
management in shrimp farms, among other reasons due to determining an adjustment factor in %. Using this method,
its usefulness for the evaluation of shrimp biomass present population sampling data must should be analyzed
into the ponds. To determine shrimp population into the frequently as feed consumption can vary seasonally (higher
pond requires knowing the average weight, amount of feed in summer than in winter), and the contribution of natural
supplied with feed trays during highest shrimp activity (not productivity of the pond, the feed quality and consumption
under molting and after rotation) and percentage of control in feed trays by responsible personnel.
bodyweight represented by feed. For this it´s required to
have a guide chart. Feeding chart for Penaeus (Litopenaeus) vannamei in
percent of biomass, fed daily under semi-intensive
Weekly shrimp growth can be known from caught animals conditions.
from feed trays and/or taking samples through cast nets
once a week. In order to estimate shrimp population in the
Shrimp weight (g) % of body weight
pond, it may be used the following example: in a 4 Ha
shrimp pond, the weekly shrimp weight average is 12 g, 1 10.0
percentage of biomass in feed corresponding to that weight 2 6.0
is approximately 1.8% based on the Table below; 3 4.5
maximum total feed supply and consumption per day by 4 3.5
controlling feed trays is 120 kg. These data is enough to 5 3.0
obtain shrimp biomass from the result of dividing feed 6 2.5
consumed by percent of biomass and then the result
7 2.3
multiplied by 100%, so:
8 2.0
9 2.0
(120 kg ÷ 1.8%) x 100%
10 2.0
= 6,666.66 Kg of shrimp biomass
11 1.8
Then, to obtain the number of individuals in the pond 12 1.8

population, obtained biomass is converted from kg to grams 13 1.8
and then is divided by the average weekly weight, as follows: 14 1.8
15 1.7
6,666.66 Kg x 1000 gr.Kg.-1 ÷ 12 gr.shrimp-1 16 1.7
= 555,555 shrimp 17 1.7
18 1.5
Shrimp density per hectare is obtained dividing number of
19 1.5
shrimp in the pond by the pond area as follows:
20 1.5
21 1.3
555,555 shrimp ÷ 4 has
22 1.3
= 138,888 shrimp per hectare
99
ANNEX 5
Parameters monitoring in shrimp ponds
•฀฀ Dissolved oxygen •฀฀ pH measurement in ponds
It´s recommended to measure oxygen levels in the pond Since pH measurements change rapidly, this parameter
water in the morning at sunrise (6 a.m.) and afternoon must be measured directly in the field. To avoid damage to
between 2 and 4 p.m. It´s important to measure DO in the the pH meter probe, once measurements be completed
evening, in case probe must be flushed with distilled water. Inside the probe
that afternoon concentrations are below 6 mg/L; in this way, protective cover it´s recommended to put a piece of cotton
it can be implemented corrective actions to avoid episodes or sponge impregnated with calibration solution pH 4. This
of hypoxia, such as deep water exchange and application of solution prevents the growth of bacteria on the surface of
oxygenating inputs (ammonium or calcium nitrate and the probe and will keep it wet while not in use.
potassium permanganate). In order to maintain
consistency in oxygen monitoring, it´s recommended to •฀฀ Temperature
measure in each pond always in the same order and at the
same time and deep (1 foot from the bottom) every day. Water temperature is measured directly in the pond water
using a common thermometer or through probes
Each time the OD is determined in a water body, incorporated in oxygen meters, pH and other similar
measurement equipment must be calibrated according to equipment.
manufacturer's instructions. The oxymeter must be
calibrated before and after performing a series of The thermometer is placed in the pond such the end be
measurements. submerged few inches into the water or, it must be take a
water sample in a container and measure the temperature
OD Concentration Efect therein. It must wait for a moment the thermometer to
Less than 1 - 2 mg/L Mortal if exposure occurs stabilize before recording the measurement.
within hours
2 - 4 mg/L
Slow growth if low dissolved In addition to the obtained value, it must be recorded also
oxygen continues
measurement time. Be sure to use the same thermometer
4 - 12 mg/L Best condition for optimal in order to get consistent measurements.
growth
•฀฀ Secchi disk

Supersaturation: risk of "
> 12 mg/L gas-bubble disease", may
suggest high microalgae
concentration Secchi disk measurement consists in the depth in
centimeters at which the disc is no longer visible when
submerged in the pond water.
100
Usually there is an inverse relationship between disk disk and the sunshine don´t affect the observer visibility.
visibility and phytoplankton abundance. As the plankton Additional weight must be added to the disk in order to a
increases, visibility decreases. Management decisions quickly immersion during measurement.
based on Secchi disk data, require to be sure that turbidity Secchi disk readings are subjective as they vary based on
is actually produced by phytoplankton rather than the observer visual acuity and weather conditions. For this
suspended materials in the water column such as clay, reason, these measurements must be performed by the
sludge or organic debris. same person every day.
Strong waves, strong winds or sunlight can affect Secchi

Depth (cm) Phytoplankton concentration
disk measurements. It´s advisable to take measurements
If turbidity is by phytoplankton, there
on calmed days, and on sunny to partially-cloudy days. If
will be low dissolved oxygen
Secchi disk measurements are going to be taken from a concentration problems in the
< 25 cm evening or before sunrise. When
boat, it must be anchored to a solid structure to prevent the (Pond too shady) turbidity is by suspended particles,
wind moves the boat when making the measurement. Farm productivity will be low
personnel must evaluate if the site has the right conditions
Turbidity is high and it´s advisable to
for this measurement. 25-30 cm low Phytoplankton concentration
If turbidity is by phytoplankton, the
30-45 cm pond is in good condition
Usually the most suitable time for this measurement is
between 9 and 11 a.m. 45-60 cm Phytoplankton is scarce
> 60 cm The water is too clear.

Secchi disk must be immersed in the shadowed side of the > 60 cm Productivity is inadequate and can
grow aquatic plants on the pond
boat, so the person who will perform the measurement be bottom
partially back to the sun, the boat shadow doesn´t cover the
101
ANNEX 6
Samples ﬁxation for laboratory analysis
Adequate shrimp samples fixation for histopathology, obtained by mixing the following reagents to make 1 liter of
allows technicians from pathology laboratories to identify solution: absolute ethanol (99%): 330 mL, formaldehyde
the kind of injury in shrimp tissues and the causative (37%): 220 mL, glacial acetic acid: 115 mL and distilled
pathogens, and early diagnosis as well. Early disease water (or clean tap water): 335 mL.
causes confirmation will help to take immediate corrective
actions to avoid diseases to disperse to other ponds and to After injecting the fixative solution, shrimp must be
other farms. Some of these procedures are summarized as immersed in fixative solution in plastic clean containers
follows: with anti-leak cap and properly labeled.
Selection and collection of samples for tissue analysis After 24 to 72 hours depending on the shrimp size (12 - 24
(histopathology) h for larvae, postlarvae and juveniles, 48 h for pre-adults
and 72 h for adults/broodstock), shrimp must be changed
Shrimp caught must be careful in order not to expose them to a 70% ethanol solution which can stay for 15 days before
to excessive handling. Ideal sample preparation should be histological processing. At this time and if they have not
done on caught site to avoid transport stress. If this is not been processed yet, 70% ethanol solution must be
possible, shrimp must be shipped alive in a portable changed with a new so shrimp could remain for a
container provided with aeration until the site where they prolonged time until histological processing.
will be prepared. These should not be transported dry to the
fixation site. Container labeling must be done with a regular graphite
pencil and a piece of paper, mentioning date of samples
Dead specimens must not be collected or fixed for collection, a brief description of the external shrimp
histopathology. It must be selected only moribund shrimp, condition or abnormal sign indicative of disease, species,
with discoloration and abnormal behavior, or displaying any age, weight, source (hatchery or wild), pond or tank
external sign different than a normal condition. number or identification and any other useful information
for laboratory.
Shrimp fixation for histopathology
If samples are going to be sent to a laboratory in other
Specimens should be fixed alive and immediately they have country, it must be obtained a sanitary permission
been taken out of the water; if possible, at the same site of authorizing shrimp samples output. This permission is
capture. Adequate fixation is achieved by using 10 times usually issued by a government agency in charge of
the volume of fixative solution for 1 animal fixed volume regulating animal and biological samples mobilization. At
(ratio 10:1) during 24 to 72 hours. For shrimp fixation it´s the same time, laboratory must be contacted for
preferred Davidson-AFA solution (classic) which is instructions on how to send samples safely, so they don´t be
102
the same time, laboratory must be contacted for Samples preparation for microbiological (bacterial)
instructions on how to send samples safely, so they don´t be analysis
confiscated and disposed of by the customs authorities of
the destiny country Collect a sample of 10 to 15 live animals displaying a sick
condition and then place them in a aerated container or in
Samples fixation for Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) plastic bags with oxygen. Samples must be taken to the
test laboratory immediately after shrimp have been collected,
trying to keep them alive until the time of their analysis.
Several kinds of shrimp samples have been successfully
used for PCR tests. These include hemolymph, fresh If samples are transported in bags, it´s undesirable to place
homogenized tissue, frozen or fixed in 95% ethanol. When ice around bags. If this is done, place only a little ice. No
ethanol is used, the ratio postlarvae:ethanol must be 1:9, dead animals must be collected for microbiological
volume to volume. Hemolymph samples must be fixed in analysis. Samples must have attached a label with the
95% ethanol in a ratio of 1:1 hemolymph:ethanol. following information: species, pond/tank
identification/number, particular observations (e.g.
It´s important to be careful wearing rubber gloves and bioluminescence), duration of pathological event and use
disinfecting hands with alcohol each time that a new of antibiotics or other products as treatment (yes or no,
sample is going to be fixed, especially with large animals, to which of them, way and how long).
avoid accidental cross-contamination between samples.
103
ANNEX 7
OIE model for preparing an Emergency Plan (Aquatic Code)
A number of diseases are regarded as posing a potential given disease situation under control by contacting the
threat to aquaculture as well as to wild stocks of aquatic personnel, organizations, aquaculture establishments, etc.,
animals world-wide. The introduction of such diseases into that are involved directly or indirectly in managing an
countries recognized to be free from these diseases or into outbreak of a disease.
countries with an established control system and eradica-
tion programme for such diseases, may result in significant •฀ ฀Personnel
losses. In order to diminish such losses, the Competent
Authority responsible for aquatic animal health may need to The contingency plan(s) should provide information on the
act quickly and should develop contingency plan(s) before staff required to undertake the control measures, their
such events occur. responsibilities, and instructions on the chain of command.
•฀฀ Legal฀powers •฀฀ Instructions
Countries must establish the necessary legal provisions that Countries establishing contingency plan(s) should provide a
are needed for the implementation of contingency plan(s). detailed set of instructions on actions to be taken when a
Such legal powers must include provisions for establishing specified aquatic animal disease is suspected or confirmed.
a list of diseases for which action is needed, definitions of These could include:
how such diseases should be managed if detected, provi- 1. diagnostic procedures in national reference
sions for access to infected/suspected sites, and other legal laboratories;
provisions, as needed. 2. confirmation of diagnosis, if necessary, at an OIE
Reference Laboratory;
•฀฀ Crises฀centre(s) 3. standing instructions to aquatic animal health
personnel in the field;
Countries must establish specified crises centre(s) (disease 4. instructions for handling/disposal of dead aquatic
control centre[s]) that shall have the responsibility for the animals at an aquaculture establishment;
co-ordination of all control measures to be carried out. Such 5. instructions for sanitary slaughtering;
centres could either be located centrally or locally, depend- 6. instructions for disease control at the local level;
ing on the infrastructure in a given country. A list of the 7. instructions for the establishment of quarantine areas
crises centre(s) that has(have) the necessary facilities to and observation (surveillance) zones;
carry out disease control measures should be made widely 8. provisions for controlling movements of aquatic animals
available. in established zones;
9. disinfection procedures;
The contingency plan(s) should also state that the crises
centre(s) has(have) the authority to act rapidly to bring a
104
10. fallowing procedures; can be carried out rapidly. The national laboratory(ies) must
11. surveillance methods for establishing successful also have established a set of instructions as regards rapid
eradication; transportation of samples, and established protocols for
12. re-stocking procedures; quality assurance and diagnostic procedures to be used.
13. compensation issues;
14. reporting procedures; •฀ ฀Training฀programmes
15. provisions for raising public awareness of aquatic
animal disease. Countries establishing contingency plan(s) must establish
necessary training programmes to ensure that skills in field,
•฀฀ Diagnostic฀Laboratories administrative and diagnostic procedures are maintained.
Announced and unannounced field exercises for
Countries establishing contingency plan(s) should establish administrators and aquatic animal personnel should be
national reference laboratories having the necessary carried out to maintain the state of readiness.
facilities for diagnostic work on aquatic animal diseases that
105
ANNEX 8
International regulations for veterinary drugs
FDA (Food and Drug Administration) and EMEA (European Table 1 shows that the amount of approved drugs for use in
Agency for the Evaluation of Medicinal Products) list of aquaculture is limited, this is because the financial
approved drugs for use in aquaculture within U.S. and investment and the time required to complete the
Europe, provide a guide to producing countries that depend requirements and get NADA is very high for the drug
on these markets to sell their products. trading companies. It has tried to be overcome by the FDA
calling to drugs used in aquatic species, as "minor use
While the legal prohibition that may exist for some antibiotic drugs". Under these regulations, the information (and not
in U.S. or Europe doesn´t extend to the industry of another application) of an approved drug in "main use" industries as
country legislation, this significantly influences the cattle or poultry, can extend to aquaculture, thus reducing
management that the drug must have by producers and the need to develop new data for corresponding approval.
exporters. As an example, those antibiotics prohibited by
FDA and EMEA for use in any manufacturing industry of FDA also recognizes that there are conditions for which there
food animals such as chloramphenicol, nitrofurans and are no approved treatments. For these cases, legislation was
quinolones, should not be used by aquaculture companies stipulated (Compliance Policy Guide, 7125.06), which allows
aware of the dire consequences that it could be the finding the application of an authorized drug under a different way
of residues of these drugs in shrimp, fish or shellfish for our than indicated in their respective NADA. This exception may
aquaculture industry. be used only by a registered veterinarian and when animals
have a high probability of dying.
FDA regulations
Until January 2000, FDA had approved 46 different
FDA sets illegal to use an unauthorized drug, unless it be compounds whose active ingredient was oxytetracycline
defined as "investigational new animal drug" (INAD). This (FDA, 2001), of which only one, Terramycin® - for fish
exception applies only during the time spent to generate the (NADA # 038-439, Pfizer, Inc.), was incorporated for use in
necessary information and get the drug approval under the the several aquatic species farming (Table 1). At present
supervision of the FDA. Once requirements are completed, there is not any antibiotic approved for use in hatcheries or
the drug gets the level of "new animal drug application" shrimp farms in the U.S.
(NADA).
However, cases are found wherein the oxytetracycline has
Currently six drugs are approved NADA for use in received federal approval, surely protected by one of the
aquaculture and five of them are commercially available. exceptions to empower the application of a drug in
Four of the approved products are antibiotics: florfenicol, aquaculture (Compliance Policy Guide, 7125.06). As an
oxytetracycline-HCL, sulfamerazine (not available) and a example, Frelier et al. (1992 and 1994) point out that the
combination sulfadimethoxine and ormetoprim. Not all are only effective antibiotic treatment against intracellular
approved for all purposes and/or species. Table 1 shows bacteria causing necrotizing hepatopancreatitis (NHP), is
the approval specifications for mentioned drugs. the application of oxytetracycline (OTC).
106
According to the author, supply for 10 days of a medicated Community as permissible in food), as is under Regulation
feed with 1.5 g OTC/kg and withdrawal at least 15 days EEC 2377/90 of June 26, 1990.
before harvest, is the FDA approved protocol to prevent
high mortality originated by rickettsia in P. vannamei. This Regulation determines the inclusion of Veterinary
Subsequently, the same author points that therapeutic Drugs in four annexes:
doses of 3 g OTC/kg of shrimp feed for 14 days, seems to
List of pharmacologically active substances for
be effective against NHP in shrimp pools stocked with Annex I: which maximum residue levels have been fixed
12-50 animals/m2, although the FDA suggested a longer List of substances not subject to maximum
Annex II: residue levels
treatment withdrawal, 3 weeks.
List of pharmacologically active substances
Annex III: used in veterinary medicinal products for which
EMEA Regulations
maximum residue levels have been fixed
Lists of pharmacologically active substances for
Criteria, on which veterinary drugs are evaluated in the Annex IV: which no maximum levels can be fixed
(provisional MRL)
European Economic Community (EEC), are quality, efficacy
and safety. This author qualifies European and U.S.
regulation as very similar, noting that probably the only With effect from 1 January 1997, the administration to
difference is in rigidity in establishing the maximum residue food-producing animals of veterinary medicinal products
levels (MRLs) by the EEC, contrasting approach to tolerable containing pharmacologically active substances which are
levels that are given in U.S. not mentioned in Annexes I, II or III, shall be prohibited for
use in food-producing species. These same regulations
The EMEA states that it may not be authorized to place in apply to aquaculture products.
market a veterinary drug, except the immune ones, to be

administered to animals whose meat or products are Thus, the situation of the active principles for which has
intended for human consumption if not has the established an MRL in salmonids and other fish remains as
corresponding MRL (MRL: maximum residue contents shown in the following tables (Source: EMEA web site,
resulting from the use of a veterinary drug authorized in the www.emea.eu.int/ December 2002; last web review: April 2003).
Annex I. Pharmacological substances for which there is an established MRL
Pharmacologically active
Animal Species Maximum residue limits (MRL)
Substance
Amoxicillin All food producing species 50 µg/kg: muscle, liver, kidney, fat 4 mg/kg fat
Amoxicillin All food producing species 50 µg/kg: muscle, liver, kidney, fat 4 mg/kg fat
600 g/kg kidney

Clortetraciclina All food producing species 300 µg/kg liver
100 µg/kg muscle, milk
200 mg/kg eggs
107
Substance
100 µg/kg muscle

Danofloxacin All food producing species 50 g/kg fat
200 mg/kg liver, kidney
300 µg/kg muscle

Difloxacin All food producing species 100 mg/kg fat
800 µg/kg liver
600 g/kg kidney
100 µg/kg muscle, fat

Enrofloxacin All food producing species
200 mg/kg liver, kidney
200 µg/kg muscle, fat, liver, kidney

Erythromycin All food producing species 40 µg/kg milk
150 mg/kg eggs
100 µg/kg muscle

Florfenicol All food producing species 200 g/kg fat
2000 mcg/kg liver
Fish 300 µg/kg kidney

1000 mcg/kg muscle + skin
Flumequine Salmonids 150 mg/kg muscle + skin
600 g/kg kidney

Oxytetracycline All food producing species 300 µg/kg liver
100 µg/kg muscle, milk
200 mg/kg eggs
Sarafloxacin Salmonids 30 µg/kg muscle + skin

100 µg/kg muscle, liver, kidney, fat
Sulfonamides All food producing species The combined total residues of all substances
within the sulfonamide group should not exceed
110 mg/kg
Thiamphenicol Fish 50 µg/kg muscle + skin
50 µg/kg muscle, fat,
Trimethoprim All food producing species
liver, kidney, milk
108
Annex II. Substances for which there is no need to establish an MRL.

Some of the substances listed in this Annex are of interest in aquaculture:
Substance
Formaldehyde All food producing species No MRL required
Glutaraldehyde All food producing species “
Hydrogen peroxide All food producing species “
Iodine and iodine compounds All food producing species “
Magnesium sulphate All food producing species “
Sodium chloride All food producing species “
For use as an excipient, to a
Benzalkonium chloride All food producing species concentration of 0.05%
Annex III. Pharmacological active substances with provisional MRL
Substance
Provisional: 10 ug/kg muscle, liver,
Levamisole All food producing species kidney, fat, milk
Provisional: 600 ug/kg kidney, 300 liver,

Tetracyclines All food producing species 200 eggs, 100 muscle, 100 milk (whole
original drug and its epimer 4).
Oxolinic acid Under study
Annex IV. Prohibited substances
Maximum residue limits (MRL)
Substance
Aristolochia spp. and preparations thereof MRL cannot be established
Chloramphenicol MRL cannot be established
Chloroform MRL cannot be established
Chlorpromazine MRL cannot be established
Colchicine MRL cannot be established
Dapsone MRL cannot be established
Dimetridazole MRL cannot be established
Metronidazole MRL cannot be established
Nitrofurans (including furazolidone) MRL cannot be established
Ronidazole MRL cannot be established
109
Table 1. USFDA approved drugs for use in aquaculture (Source: FDA web site,
www.fda.gov/cvm, January, 2001; last web review on April, 2003).
Product name Species Indication Dosing

(& withdrawal time)
Control of Ulcer disease (Hemophilus
piscium), furunculosis (Aeromonas
salmonicida), bacterial hemorrhagic 2.5 – 3.7 g per 100 lbs fish
Salmonids per day for 10 days (21
septicemia (A. liquefaciens) and
pseudomonas disease (Pseudomonas days)
spp.)
Terramycin® 10
Control of bacterial hemorrhagic 2.5 – 3.7 g per 100 lbs fish
Catfish septicemia (A. liquefaciens) and per day for 10 days (21
pseudomonas disease (Pseudomonas days)
spp.)
Lobster Control of gaffkemia 1 g per lb medicated feed
(Aerococcus viridans) for 5 days (30 days)
Sulfamerazine Control of furunculosis due to 10 g per 100 lb fish per day

in Fish Grade Trout
Aeromonas salmonicida for 10 days (21 days)
Control of furunculosis due to 50 mg per kg fish per day

Salmonids Aeromonas salmonicida for 5 days (42 days)
Romet® -30
Catfish Control of enteric septicemia due to 50 mg per kg fish per day
Edwardsiella ictaluri for 5 days (42 days)
Salmon and trout eggs Control external protozoa 1-2 mL/L
Catfish, largemouth 0.015-0.250 mL/L (based on

bass and bluegill Control external protozoa temperature, species y
Formalin-F
pond/tank type
0.015-0.250 mL/L (based on

Salmonids Control external protozoa temperature, species y
pond/tank type)
Salmon and trout eggs Control fungi of the family 1-2 mL/L
Saprolegniaceae
Catfish, largemouth 0.015-0.250 mL/L (based on

Paraside-F bass and bluegill Control external protozoa temperature, species y
pond/tank type)
0.015-0.250 mL/L (based on

Salmonids Control external protozoa temperature, species y
pond/tank type)
Salmon and trout eggs Control external protozoa 1-2 mL/L
0.015-0.250 mL/L (based on

Other fish species Control external protozoa temperature, species y
Parasite-S®
pond/tank type)
Shrimp Control protozoan parasites 0.025-0.100 mL/L

(Bodo, Epistylis and Zoothamnium)
Fish, aquatic
Finquel amphibians and other Temporary immobilization 0.015-0.330 g/L (21 days)
aquatic poikilotherms
Fish, aquatic
Tricaine-S amphibians and other Temporary immobilization 0.015-0.330 g/L (21 days)
aquatic poikilotherms
110
Table 2. FDA Prohibited Drugs from Extra-label Use

in Any Food-Producing Species •฀ ฀FDA฀Regulations
o Chloramphenicol
The FDA makes it illegal to use an unauthorized drug in
o Clenbuterol
veterinary medicine, unless it be qualified as a
o Crystal (gentian) violet
"investigational new animal drug" (INAD). This exception
o Diethylstilbesterol or DES
applies only during the time taken to generate the needed
o Dipyrone
information and getting the drug approval under FDA
o Nitroimidazoles – all agents, including Dimetridazole,
Ipronidazole, Metronidazole and others supervision. Upon completion of the requirements, it´s
o Nitrofurans – all agents, including Furazolidine, obtained the "new animal drug application” (NADA).
Nitrofurazone and others Currently only nine veterinary drugs for use in aquaculture
o Sulfonamides (except sulfadimethoxine) and that are commercially available, have been certified
o Fluoroquinolones (Enrofloxacin, Sarafloxacin) NADA. Four of the approved products are antibiotics:
o Glycopeptides - all agents, including Vancomycin Oxytetracycline-HCL, Florfenicol, Sulfamerazine (not
available) and a combination of Sulfadimethoxine and
•฀ ฀Artificial฀feed Ormetoprim. It should be noted that these drugs are not
approved for all purposes and/or for all aquatic species.
This regulation is effective from January 12, 2010 and Currently there are not approved antibiotics for use in
introduces information about the substances therapeutic hatcheries and shrimp farms at the U.S. Table 16 shows
classification and possible conditions or restrictions on its the approval specifications for mentioned drugs.
use. Pharmacologically active substances are alphabetical
ordered based on allowed and prohibited for use in
food-producing animals (Veterinary drugs). This same
legislation applies to drugs for use in aquaculture.
Table 3. List of pharmacologically active ingredients with

no maximum levels established to be safe for the
consumer, so their use in food-producing animals is
prohibited.
o Aristolochia spp. and preparations thereof
o Chloramphenicol
o Chloroform
o Chlorpromazine
o Colchicine
o Dapsone
o Dimetridazole
o Metronidazole
o Nitrofurans (including Furazolidone)
o Ronidazole
111
112
ANNEX 9
COMMISSION REGULATION (EU) No 37/2010 of 22 December 2009
Some pharmacologically active substances and their classification regarding maximum residue limits in
foodstuffs of animal origin
Sustancias farmacológicamente activas y su clasificación por lo que se refiere a los límites máximos de residuos (LMR)
Cuadro 1. Allowed substances
Other provisions (according to

Pharmacologically Therapeutic
Marker residue Animal Species LMR Target Tissues Article 14(7) of Regulation (EC)
active Substance Classification
No 470/2009)
50 µg/kg Muscle For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to
All food 50 µg/kg Fat ‘muscle and skin in natural proportions’. Anti-infectious
Amoxicillin Amoxicillin producing species 50 µg/kg Liver
50 µg/kg Kidney MRLs for fat, liver and kidney do not apply agents/Antibiotics
4 µg/kg Milk to fin fish.
50 µg/kg Fat Anti-infectious
All food ‘muscle and skin in natural proportions’.
Ampicillin Ampicillin 50 µg/kg Liver agents/Antibiotics
producing species MRLs for fat, liver and kidney do not apply
50 µg/kg Kidney to fin fish.
4 µg/kg Milk
50 µg/kg Muscle
For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to
All food producing 50 µg/kg Fat
‘muscle and skin in natural proportions’. Anti-infectious
Benzylpenicillin Benzylpeni- species 50 µg/kg Liver
MRLs for fat, liver and kidney do not apply agents/Antibiotics
cillin 50 µg/kg Kidney
to fin fish.
4 µg/kg Milk
100 µg/kg Muscle
Sum of parent All food producing 300 µg/kg Liver
600 µg/kg ‘muscle and skin in natural proportions’. Anti-infectious
Chlortetracycline drug and its 4- species Kidney
100 µg/kg MRLs for liver and kidney do not apply to agents/Antibiotics
epimer Milk
200 µg/kg fin fish.
Eggs
300 µg/kg Fat ‘muscle and skin in natural proportions’.
Cloxacillin Cloxacillin All food producing 300 µg/kg Liver Anti-infectious
species 300 µg/kg MRLs for liver and kidney do not apply to agents/Antibiotics
Kidney fin fish.
30 µg/kg Milk
150 µg/kg Fat ‘muscle and skin in natural proportions’.
All food MRLs for fat, liver and kidney do not apply Anti-infectious
150 µg/kg Liver
Colistin Colistin producing 200 µg/kg to fin fish For porcine and poultry species
Kidney agents/Antibiotics
species 50 µg/kg Milk the fat MRL relates to‘skin and fat in
300 µg/kg Eggs natural proportions’.
No 470/2009)
Antiparasitic
Muscle and
Cypermethrin agents/ Agents
Cypermethrin Salmonidae 50 µg/kg skin in natural
(sum of isomers) against
proportions.
ectoparasites
100 µg/kg Muscle For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to ‘muscle
50 µg/kg Fat and skin in natural proportions’. MRLs for fat, Anti-infectious
Danofloxacin Danofloxacin 200 µg/kg Liver liver and kidney do not apply to fin fish. For agents/Antibiotics
200 µg/kg Kidney porcine species the fat MRL relates to ‘skin
and fat in natural proportions’.
Antiparasitic
Muscle and agents/Agents
Deltamethrin Deltamethrin Fin fish 10 µg/kg skin in natural NO ENTRY
against
proportions. ectoparasites
150 µg/kg Muscle For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to ‘muscle
150 µg/kg Fat and skin in natural proportions’. MRLs for fat,
150 µg/kg Anti-infectious
Dicloxacillin Dicloxacillin All food producing Liver liver and kidney do not apply to fin fish For
200 µg/kg agents/Antibiotics
species Kidney porcine and poultry species the fat MRL
50 µg/kg Milk relates to‘skin and fat in natural proportions’.
For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to ‘muscle

and skin in natural proportions’. MRLs for fat,
All food producing 300 µg/kg Muscle liver and kidney do not apply to fin fish. Not
species other than Anti-infectious
Difloxacin Difloxacin 100 µg/kg Fat for use in animals from which milk is
bovine, ovine, agents /
800 µg/kg Liver produced for human consumption. Not for
caprine, porcine and Antibiotics
600 µg/kg Kidney use in animals from which eggs are produced
poultry for human con sumption.
Antiparasitic
Diflubenzuron Diflubenzuron Salmonidae 1000 µg/kg Muscle and NO ENTRY agents /Agents
skin in natural against
proportions ectoparasites
Antiparasitic
Emamectin Emamectin Fin fish 100 µg/kg Muscle and NO ENTRY agents/
B1a skin in natural Agents acting
proportions against endo-and
ectoparasites
113
114
No 470/2009)
All food
Sum of enro producing 100 µg/kg Muscle For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to
Enrofloxacin floxacin and Species other than 100 µg/kg Fat ‘muscle and skin in natural proportions’. Anti-infectious
ciprofloxacin bovine, ovine, 200 µg/kg Liver MRLs for fat, liver and kidney do not apply to agents/Antibiotics
caprine, porcine, 200 µg/kg Kidney fin fish.
rabbit and poultry
All food 200 µg/kg Muscle
Erythromycin Erythromycin For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to ‘muscle Anti-infectious
producing 200 µg/kg Fat
A and skin in natural proportions’. MRLs for fat, agents/Antibiotics
species 200 µg/kg Liver liver and kidney do not apply to fin fish.
200 µg/kg Kidney
40 µg/kg Milk
150 µg/kg Eggs
Sum of flor fenicol Fin fish Muscle and Anti-infectious
and its metabolites 1000 µg/kg
Florfenicol measured as skin in natural agents/Antibiotics
florfenicol-amine proportions
Muscle and
Flumequine Flumequine 600 µg/kg skin in natural Anti-infectious
Fin Fish
proportion. agents/Antibiotics
100 µg/kg Muscle

All food- 50 µg/kg Fat For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to ‘muscle Anti-infectious
Lincomycin Lincomycin producing 500 µg/kg Liver and skin in natural propor¬tions’. MRLs for fat, agents/Antibiotics
species 1 500 µg/kg Kidney liver and kidney do not apply to fin fish.
150 µg/kg Milk
50 µg/kg Egg
500 µg/kg Muscle

500 µg/kg Fat For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to
Neomycin
500 µg/kg Liver ‘muscle and skin in natural proportions’. Anti-infectious
(including Neomycin B All food producing
5 000 µg/kg Kidney MRLs for fat, liver and kidney do not agents /Antibiotics
framycetin) species
1 500 µg/kg Milk apply to fin fish.
500 µg/kg Eggs
No 470/2009)
300 µg/kg Fat ‘muscle and skin in natural proportions’. Anti-infectious
All food producing
Oxacillin Oxacillin 300 µg/kg Liver MRLs for fat, liver and kidney do not agents/Antibiotics
species
300 µg/kg Kidney apply to fin fish.
30 µg/kg Milk
All food producing 50 µg/kg Fat ‘muscle and skinin natural proportions’. Anti-infectious
Oxolinic acid Oxolinic acid species agents/Antibiotics
150 µg/kg Liver MRLs for fat, liver and kidney do not
150 µg/kg Kidney apply to fin fish.
Sum of parent All food 300 µg/kg Liver ‘muscle and skin in natural proportions’. Anti-infectious
Oxytetracycline drug and its 4 producing 600 µg/kg Kidney MRLs for fat, liver and kidney do not agents/Antibiotics
epimer species 100 µg/kg Milk apply to fin fish.
200 µg/kg Eggs
All food 500 µg/kg Muscle For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to
Paromomycin Paromomycin producing 1500 µg/kg Liver ‘muscle and skin in natural proportions’. Anti-infectious
1500 µg/kg Kidney MRLs for fat, liver and kidney do not agents/Antibiotics
species
apply to fin fish.
Muscle and skin
Sarafloxacin Sarafloxacin Salmonidae 30 µg/kg in natural Anti-infectious
proportions agents/Antibiotics
300 µg/kg Muscle

All food producing 500 µg/kg Fat Anti-infectious
‘muscle and skin in natural proportions’.
Spectinomycin Spectinomycin species other 1000 µg/kg Liver agents/Antibiotics
MRLs for fat, liver and kidney do not
than ovine 5000 µg/kg Kidney
apply to fin fish.
200 µg/kg Milk
115
116
No 470/2009)
Sulfonamides 100 µg/kg Muscle The combined total residues of all substances
(all substances All food producing 100 µg/kg Fat within the sulfonamide group should not Anti infectious
belonging to the Parent drug species Bovine, 100 µg/kg Liver exceed 100 µg/kg. For fin fish the muscle agents / Chemo
sulfonamide ovine, caprine 100 µg/kg Kidney MRL relates to ‘muscle and skin in natural therapeutics
group) 100 µg/kg Milk proportions’. MRLs for fat, liver and kidney do
not apply to fin fish.
Antiparasitic
Muscle and skin agents /
Teflubenzuron Teflubenzuron Salmonidae 500 µg/kg in natural NO ENTRY Agents against
proportions ectoparasites
100 µg/kg Muscle

Sum of parent All food 300 µg/kg Liver For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to ‘muscle Anti-infectious
Tetracycline drug and its 4 producing 600 µg/kg Kidney and skin in natural propor tions’. MRLs for fat, agents /
100 µg/kg Milk liver and kidney do not apply to fin fish. Antibiotics
epimer species
200 µg/kg Eggs
50 µg/kg Muscle
All food 50 µg/kg Fat For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to ‘muscle Anti-infectious
Thiamphenicol Thiamphenicol producing 50 µg/kg Liver and skin in natural propor¬tions’. MRLs for agents /
species 50 µg/kg Kidney fat, liver and kidney do not apply to fin fish. Antibiotics
50 µg/kg Milk
50 µg/kg Muscle
All food 50 µg/kg Fat For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to Anti-infectious
producing 1000 µg/kg Liver ‘muscle and skin in natural proportions’.
Tilmicosin Tilmicosin agents /
species other than 1000 µg/kg Kidney MRLs for fat, liver and kidney do not apply to Antibiotics
poultry 50 µg/kg Milk fin fish.
All food 50 µg/kg Muscle Anti-infectious

50 µg/kg Fat For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to
producing agents /
Trimethoprim Trimethoprim 50 µg/kg Liver
‘muscle and skin in natural proportions’.
Species other than Chemotheurapeutics
MRLs for fat, liver and kidney do not apply to
equidae 50 µg/kg Kidney
fin fish.
50 µg/kg Milk
100 µg/kg Muscle
All food 100 µg/kg Fat For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to Anti-infectious
Tylosin Tylosin producing 100 µg/kg Liver ‘muscle and skin in natural proportions’. agents /
species 100 µg/kg Kidney MRLs for fat, liver and kidney do not apply to Antibiotics
50 µg/kg Milk fin fish.
200 µg/kg Eggs
ANNEX 10
Traceability
Back traceability or "tracing": ability to know, from a product, Traceability in the culture: on farming centers they should be
the various ingredients and other elements that have able to identify from the “seed” origin where appropriate, to
influenced its development and suppliers thereof. Also, this organisms transportation (fish, crustaceans or mollusks) to
type of traceability let identify the origin of a particular product process plant and they must provide at least the following
unit located in the supply chain by reference to the updated information:
records. Products are traced usually for investigation
purposes, customer complaints and for withdrawal from the • Farmed species, places and farming units within them
market.
with correspondent dates and logs (time the group of
fish/shrimp/mollusks remains in each farming unit:
Internal traceability or process: information that allows to
entry and outcome date)
relate products that have been received in the enterprise (raw
• Medications for farming organisms (group): accurate
materials, additives, packaging, etc.), operations or processes
information of the responsible specialist that prescribed
that products have had in the company, the leaving finished
products including the results of the internal own-checks. and from staff that performed the treatments each time
(registered name and date)
Forward traceability or "tracking": means to know the • Feedings per group including personnel responsible for
destination of a product (what and to whom is given) and all feed supply. Register for each supplied feed (feed mill,
information relating to its marketing. It´s also defined as the deliver date, feed changes according to the nutritional
ability to follow the path of a product through the supply chain. requirements, etc.)
Products are generally tracked for reasons of obsolescence, • When farming center need to apply breakdown,
inventory management and logistical purposes. mixtures, selection, etc., this should be stated in the
traceability system
As attributes of traceability systems for aquaculture, it can be • Biomass at each production center or farming phase
included improvement in quality control, improvement in • Transport recording between production centers or
product quality, minimizing loss of product, transparency,
from them to hatcheries or process plants, identifying
storage information and business efficiency.
transportation used, dates, groups, breakdown, etc.
• Short stay in floating hatcheries when appropriate
Traceability implementation in aquaculture: the following
parameters must be set in aquaculture: aquaculture
Traceability in the processing plant: traceability applies both in
production source with different factors that are part of its
development, the history of aquaculture production process plants and in process storage sites, which must
procedures, and distribution and product placement. Within develop a traceability system which consider at least the
the chain of production, traceability occurs in the farming area following items:
(farm), in the processing and during marketing.
117
• Procedure: each farm shall define a coding system for • About production, factory date must be clear the same
produced lots (involving information from raw material as batch or code number, expiration date and
to the final product), which must be clear and properly minimum product identification (commercial name,
recorded and incorporated in the label of the final scientific name, presentation, etc.).
product, in order to make a correct identification after • For the storage of the final product, it must be recorded
processing the warehouse or storage room identification,
• Responsible personnel for traceability (full name, product amount and product movement (inputs and
email, phone) outputs)
• Scope: complexity and coding system for establishment • On the output product recording form, it must be noted
of an adequate traceability, depends on species customer information (name, address, country),
associated hazards and type of process which were departure date and transportation
submitted, and must consider the following basic
information: Distribution traceability: it considers from the output of the
• Raw materials reception: name, phone and address of final product from storage place either for marketing,
the supplier further processing or storage, and must contain at least the
• following information: producer information (name,
About raw materials: business name, scientific name,
address, contact person and telephone, street, email, etc.)
catch or extraction zone, obtaining method, delivered
and product information (labeled with complete data
quantity, delivery date, transportation used and
according to applying regulations).
transport time and tax documentation
• When storing raw materials, there must be clearly
recorded their movements (income and outputs)
118
ANNEX 11
International Metrology
Basic units
Unit of amount of The mole is the amount of substance
Magnitude Name Symbol substance of a system which contains as many
elementary entities as there are
Length meter m atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon
Mass kilogram kg 12; its symbol is "mol."
Time Second s When the mole is used, the

Electric current ampere A elementary entities must be specified
and may be atoms, molecules, ions,
Thermodynamic temperature kelvin K electrons, other particles, or specified
Amount of substance mole mol groups of such particles.
Luminous intensity candela candela cd Unit of luminous The candela is the luminous
intensity intensity, in a given direction, of a
source that emits monochromatic
radiation of frequency 540 x 1012
Unit of length: The meter is the length of the path hertz and that has a radiant intensity
travelled by light in vacuum during a in that direction of 1/683 watt per
time interval of 1/299 792 458 of a steradian.
second.
Unit of mass The kilogram is the unit of mass; it

is equal to the mass of the Special names and symbols of decimal
international prototype of the multiples and submultiples units of the
kilogram. authorized International Metrology System (SI)
Unit of time The second is the duration of 9 192 Derived quantity Name Symbol Relationship
631 770 periods of the radiation
corresponding to the transition Volume liter loL 1 dm3=10-3 m3
between the two hyperfine levels of Mass ton t 103 kg
the ground state of the cesium 133
atom.
Unit of electric current The ampere is that constant current SI defined units but not being decimal
which, if maintained in two straight multiples or submultiples of them
parallel conductors of infinite length,
of negligible circular cross-section, Derived quantity Name Symbol Relationship
and placed 1 meter apart in Time minute min 60 s
vacuum, would produce between
these conductors a force equal to 2 hour h 3,600 s
x 10-7 newton per meter of length. day d 86,400 s
Unit of thermodynamic The kelvin, unit of thermodynamic
temperature, is the fraction
1/273.16 of the thermodynamic
temperature of the triple point of
water.
119
Decimal multiples and submultiples The product of symbols two or more units is indicated
Factor Name Symbol Factor Name Symbol preferably by a period as a multiplication symbol. For
1024 yotta Y 10-1 deci d example, newton-meters can be written as N · m or Nm,
1021 zeta Z 10-2 centi c never mN, which means millinewton.
1018 exa E 10-3 mili m
10 15
peta P 10 -6
micro µ When a derived unit be the quotient of other two, it can be
1012 tera T 10-9 nano n used the slash (/), the horizontal or negative powers to avoid
109 giga G 10-12 pico p the denominator.
106 mega M 10-15 femto f m
3 -18 m/s m·s-1
10 kilo k 10 atto a s
102 hecto h 10-21 zepto z
10 1
deca da 10-24
yocto y Do not enter on a line more than one slash unless
parentheses be added in order to avoid ambiguity. In
complex cases it can be used parentheses or negative
Writing symbols powers.
The SI unit symbols, with rare exceptions as the case of the
ohm (Ω), are expressed in Roman, generally with lower m/s2 or m · s-2 but neither m/s/s. (Pa · s)/(kg/m3) nor Pa
case, but if such symbols correspond to names derived · s/kg/m2
units, their initial letter is capitalized.
Unit names due to names of eminent scientists should be
Example, A ampere, J joule. written with the same spelling of their names, but with initial
lowercase. However, their names will be equally acceptable
The symbols are not followed by point, or to take the s when hispanicized commonly used, if are recognized by the
plural. For example, 5 kg, no 5 kgs. Spanish Language Royal Academy. Example: ampere, volt,
farad, coulomb, july, ohm, watt, weberio.
When the symbol of a unit multiple or submultiple has an
exponent, it affects not only the part of the symbol that Unit names take an s in plural (Example: 10 newtons)
designates the unit, but also to all symbol. For example, except those that end in s, x or z.
2 2
km means (km) , area of a square that has one km per
side, or 106 square meters and never k (m2), corresponding When writing numbers, the comma is used to separate only
to 1000 square meters. the integer part of the decimal. For ease of reading, the
numbers can be divided into groups of three digits (from
The symbol of the unit follows the prefix symbol without the coma, if any); these groups are not separated by
space. For example, cm, mm, etc. periods or commas. The separation into groups is not used
for four-digit numbers that designate a year.
120
ABBREVIATIONS
DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid N: Nitrogen
HACCP: Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points NADA: New Animal Drug Application
RNA: Ribonucleic Acid NHP: Necrotizing hepatopancreatitis
BP: Baculovirus penaei DO: Dissolved oxygen
BPM: Manual of Best Management Practices OIE: World Organisation for Animal Health
cc: Cubic centimeter International Regional Organization for

OIRSA: Agricultural Health
CE: European Community
CPLs: Larval production centers (hatcheries) Organization of the Fisheries and

OSPESCA: Aquaculture Isthmus
EMEA: European Medicines Agency
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United P: Phosphorus

FAO:
Nations
PCBs: Polychlorinated biphenyls
FCR: Feed conversion ratio
PCR: Polymerase Chain Reaction
FDA: U.S. Food and Drug Administration
PL: Postlarvae
GAA: Global Aquaculture Alliance
ppm: parts per million (uL/L, mg/kg or g/Ton)
IHHNV: Infectious hypodermal and haematopoietic
necrosis virus PvNV: Penaeus vannamei nodavirus
SANCO (DG Directorate General for Health & Consumers -

IMNV: Infectious myonecrosis virus SANCO): European Commission
INAD: Investigational New Animal Drug

POES: Sanitary standardized operating procedures
ISO: International Organization for Standardization

TSV: Taura Syndrome Virus
LC50: Median lethal dose or lethal concentration 50 FCU: Forming colony units
MRL: Maximum Residue Limits WSSV: White Spot Syndrome Virus
OM: Organic matter

YHV: Yellow Head Virus
mL: Milliliter
121
GLOSSARY
Active ingredient: is the ingredient from which a product Breeding also involves ownership of fish stocks that are
with therapeutic, pharmacolXor chemical action is made; being farming.
it´s also known as "generic" of any product and can be
extracted from living organisms or artificially synthesized. Benthic: oganisms’ communities living on the bottom of
aquatic ecosystems, and differ from plankton and nekton
Albina: naturally devoid area or little trees and vegetation, which are communities formed by organisms living in the
near brackish water sources which water column.
Algae crash: also known as algae breakdown of Best aquaculture practices: routine procedures of
phytoplankton breakdown and consists in massive and voluntary implementation, applied on shrimp farms and
sudden microalgae death in a waterbody (e.g. pond). As a whose objective is to reach acceptable production in terms
consequence, the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) of safety, price and quality, without compromising
increases by the action of dead-algae bacteria degrading, and negatively environment.
decreases oxygen production in this waterbody by lack of
microalgae (photosynthetic). This could produce a dangerous Biodegradable: product or substance that can be
breakdown of a farming population, due to the rapid fall in the decomposed into natural chemicals by the action of
dissolved oxygen concentration and sudden pH changes. biological agents such as sun, water, bacteria, plants or
animals. Accordingly, all the substances are biodegradable
Anthropogenic: effects, processes or materials as result of and its difference is in the time that biological agents take in
human activities unlike of those natural causes without decomposing in chemical elements.
human influence. Usually used to describe environmental
pollution by chemical or biological waste as a result of Biofilter: also called biological filters, are devices that
economic activities, such as the carbon dioxide production eliminate a wide range of contaminant compounds from a
due to the use of fossil fuels. fluid stream (air or water) through a biological process.
Antimicrobial: chemical or natural compounds (antibiotics) Biofloc: involves 70-80% of organic matter including
obtained from microorganisms, plants or via synthetic, used heterotrophic bacteria, algae (dinoflagellates and diatoms),
to kill (bactericidal) or inhibit growth (bacteriostatic) of fungi, ciliates, flagellates, rotifers, nematodes, metazoans
microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi and protozoa. Its and organic detritus. Its composition changes rapidly and
use in aquaculture should be subject to the treated agent's very often during production cycle. "Floc" particles are
susceptibility and to approval for use in curative therapies. agglutinated by bacterial material rich in enzymes and
polysaccharides; their average diameter is 0.2 mm and
Aquaculture: farming of aquatic organisms including fish, increases to 2 mm towards the end of the shrimp farming
mollusks, crustaceans and plants. The breeding involves cycle. Flocs are usually made of 25% to 56% protein, 25%
human intervention to increase production; e.g. to stock to 29% organic carbon and they have also high levels of
fish populations, feeding or protecting them from predators. amino acids.
122
Biomass: total material of living organisms in a determined Cannibalism: conduct based on the practice of feeding
place, expressed in weight per unit area or volume. members of their own species.
Biosecurity plan: means a plan that identifies the most Carrying capacity: is the population level that a given
likely ways of introduction and spread of diseases in a zone environment can support without suffering a negative
or compartment and also describes the measures currently significant impact (maximum number of individuals that
applied or that will be applied to reduce the risks of their can keep a land surface). It´s established when farming
introducing and propagation. organisms growth stops due to an increase in the density of
individuals per area, and feed is available only to maintain
Biosecurity: according to FAO and OIE, it’s the optimum a limited population.
state in which there are established measures to prevent
the introduction and the spread of disease, or the approach Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries: set of
or the principles used to achieve this circumstance. principles and international standards for fisheries and
Biosecurity measures must be implemented to minimize aquaculture. The purpose of this voluntary code is to
the risk of disease entry to individual production units ensure the effective conservation, management and living
(bioexclusion), and to prevent transmission risks out aquatic resource development. The Code was developed by
(biocontainment) and forwards through the chain market. FAO in collaboration with over 170 of the governments of
their member countries, intergovernmental organizations,
Biota: all species of plants, animals and other organisms
fisheries representatives and non-government
that occupy a given area; it can be designated the
organizations. The Code implementation involves the
repertoire of species in an ecosystem compartment, as soil,
country governments, in cooperation with their fisheries
rhizosphere or background in an aquatic ecosystem.
industry and fishing communities; the role of FAO is to
provide support for these activities.
Bleach (lye): sodium or potassium hydroxide solution,
great disinfectant and bleaching power. It consists of an
Cold chain: the continuity of the resources used
aqueous solution of alkali metals hypochlorite (lithium,
successively to maintain the low storage temperature of
sodium, potassium, etc.); early twentieth century was used
shrimp from harvest to the consumer.
commonly with the name of Dakin liquor or Labarraque
water; its use in diluted solutions is recommended for
Competent authority: regarding shrimp farming, it´s the
drinking water and to prevent infections.
government entity (official) of any country responsible for
the regulation, management and control of all activities
Brownian motion: rapid, random and oscillating motion of
related to the whole aspects that involve the shrimp
very small particles suspended in a liquid, without changing
industry. For example, health in aquaculture, activity
their respective position. Molecular motion. It was named in
legalization, quarantine, food safety, imports, exports and
honor of Robert Brown who described it in 1827.
related environmental aspects. According to OIE, the
Competent Authority designates Veterinary Services or other
Calcium carbonate: product obtained by fine grinding or Authority of a Country Member, that have the responsibility
micronization of calcareous rocks extremely pure, typically of applying or supervising the implementation of zoosanitary
with more than 98.5% of CaCO3 contents. measures and other standards recommended in the OIE
Aquatic Code and the competence to do so.
123
Compost or "composting": is the aerobic biological process Potamodromous are freshwater migratory fish (e.g. Trout)
(high oxygen) for the organic matter decomposition by and oceanodromous are sea migratory fishes (e.g. Tuna).
microorganisms which act quickly degrading crop residues, Dike slope: corresponds to the slope of the dike cross
dung of animals and rural or urban waste, allowing to get section. It´s generally recommended a ratio from 2.5:1 to
"Compost" is an excellent fertilizer for agriculture. 3.5:1, to prevent the dike be eroded by waves or rainfall
runoff.
Contingency plan: advanced planning process during an
uncertain situation, in which scenarios and objectives are Dike top: top surface of the cross section the dike of a
decided, managerial and technical actions are defined and shrimp farm that enables passing vehicles and, on
potential response systems are structured, in order to occasion, is coated with selected material (coarse, rough
prevent or better respond to an emergency. ground) to facilitate permanent transit of light and heavy
equipment.
Control structure: structure generally made of concrete
(gate or culvert), which allows the control of water entry Disinfection: reduction by chemical agents and/or physical
through mesh filters, the same as water output through methods the number of microorganisms in the environment
regulatory planks during pond water exchange or harvest. at a level that does not compromise the food safety. The
goal of the disinfection is to reduce the amount of living
Corn (“choclo”): name that indicates corn (“choclo”) smell microorganisms. To be effective, disinfection must be
and taste acquired by farmed shrimp when a significant preceded for a thorough cleaning.
increase of cyanophytes algae, bacteria and fungi
populations in farming pond water. This bad taste is Dry season: summer; period of the year in which occurs
produced by metabolic waste of cyanophytes Anabaena sp. little or no rainfall, the sky is commonly clear (no clouds),
And Oscillatoria sp. that release organic toxins as geosmin relative humidity is often low and the weather is under the
(“earth” taste) and methylisoborneol (MIB) (“musty” taste). influence of trade (“Alisios”) winds (North winds).
It can be used copper sulfate and diuron (derived from
urea) to decrease the concentration of these algae. Emergency plan: means a documented work plan aimed to
ensure the implementation of actions, compliance of the
Depopulation (sanitation): shrimp production interruption requirements and resources availability needed for the
after each farming cycle to let stand the pond environment eradication or control of certain diseases outbreaks in
and to get a pond soil drying (total or partial), to break aquatic animals.
disease cycle and have enough time to make improve-
ments or repairs on production shrimp farm infrastructure. Emerging disease: designates a serious newly identified
Diadromous: migratory fish that move between sea and disease with specific known or even unknown cause, which can
freshwater waterbodies. They can be of three types: be spread to and between populations, through trade of aquatic
anadromous (mostly stay at the sea but entering fresh water animals and/or their products. OIE Aquatic Code, 2009.
for reproduction, e.g. Salmon), catadromous (mostly stay in
freshwater but go to sea for reproduction; e.g.: Eel) and Endemic: epidemiologically, endemic (from Greek Evounía
amphidromous (move between the sea and freshwater and ”in a population”) is a pathological process that remains
vice versa, but not for reproductive causes; e.g.: Mullet). over time in a population or geographical region. It´s
124
related to infectious pathologies. The disease remains over poor and primary productivity and/or the food chain of the
time at a stable level including seasonal variations. pond are the feed source.
Therefore, it´s a disease localized in a particular place and
with a high number of affected individuals. Feed trays: accessory where shrimp feed is placed into the
pond, to prevent feed contact with bottom sediment and to
Epibiont: non-parasite living organism that lives at least one better estimate feed intake.
phase of its life cycle over another bigger organism, to
which usually doesn´t cause any problem. Fertilizer: chemical that supply nutrients to the plants; may
be organic or inorganic, natural or synthetic and is applied
Eradicate: zoosanitary measures implementing to eliminate to soil, to plants´ foliage or in the water of aquatic animals
a plague of a production area within a shrimp farm. farming. It´s also called compost.
Estuarine waters: waters from an estuarine system as a
product of the mixture of freshwater from the earth with Filtering: using of cloth or mesh bags to retain organisms
seawater. In estuarine waters are very special conditions: and particles during the filling phase of a reservoir channel
when tide is high, it penetrates salt water and when the tide or a shrimp pond. It´s also the use of mesh in output water
is low, freshwater goes to the sea. When mixed waters gates to prevent shrimp escape and entry of foreign
ecological conditions change dramatically. organisms during high tides.
Estuary: this word comes from Latin aestuarium which Fine (feed): pelleted feed micro-particles produced by feed
means an area under tidal influences. It´s defined as a rubbing during packaging, storage and transportation of the
coastal area where freshwater from the land mixes with feed bags filled with pellets. High quality feed and
seawater causing wide salinity variations according to tide submitted to good handling must reach the shrimp farm
changes. The mangrove is the predominant vegetation with nothing or very little fines (maximum 5%).
species, and a variety of marine and terrestrial species
perfectly adapted to these changes. Fishing: FAO designates this term to the action of obtaining
three types of aquatic species including fishes, crustaceans
Eutrophication: nutrient enrichment of an ecosystem. The and mollusks. This can be achieved by catching through
most widespread use is specific to more or less massive traditional or industrial methods.
contribution of inorganic nutrients an aquatic ecosystem.
Increased nutrients in freshwater from lakes and reservoirs, Flocs: in aquaculture systems flocs can be defined as
which causes an excessive phytoplankton bloom. suspended agglomerations of organic particles highly rich
in heterotrophic bacteria and incorporated as an important
Extensive shrimp farming system: low density aquaculture source of natural feed for shrimp. Its shape and floatage is
practiced in pools or ponds for aquaculture farmers’ highly related to the permanent-functioning aeration
subsistence; it´s an artisanal production system system installed in ponds.
characterized by large waterbodies with very limited control
by the producer. Infrastructure is deficient to an adequate Flood-tide: high tide, time when the sea water level reaches
water supply, water exchange and harvest, and for its highest point in the tidal cycle. The approximate time
implementing biosecurity measures or best management between high and low tide is 6 hours and 12 minutes,
practices. It depends largely on nature and in most cases completing a cycle of 24 hours and 50 minutes.
wild organisms are used. Production results are relatively
125
Food chain: (Greek throphe: feeding), it´s feeding energy Hydrography: study of all waterbodies on Earth and, strictly
transfer process through several organisms in which each speaking, to the extent, collection and representation of the
feed from preceding and is eaten by the next one. Food chain data relating to the ocean bottom, the coast, tides and
is also the flow of energy and nutrients established between currents, so that can capture on a hydrographic chart.
the different species of an ecosystem based on its nutrition.
Hydrology: geographic science dedicated to the study of
Food safety: considerations and production processes spatial and temporal distribution and water properties in the
seeking to ensure that food consumption don´t harm atmosphere and on the Earth. This including rainfall,
consumers’ health. runoff, soil moisture, evapotranspiration and glacier mass
balance.
Food security: FAO defines food security as the physical and
economic access for all members of the public at all times, to Hydrostability: is the physical property that the pellets have
sufficient safe and nutritious food to meet their food needs to remain intact in the water without losing its shape or
and to have a healthy and active life. structure. It is usually measured in hours and evaluated in
vitro using a beaker with seawater and without agitation. It
Footbath: devise used for feet bath with disinfection should be at least 2 hours.
purposes. It consists of a tray, bowl or pit filled with a
disinfectant solution placed at the entry gate of the shrimp Hygiene: knowledge and skills set that Individuals must
farm, for visitors to disinfect their shoes before entering. applied to control factors that can have adverse health
effects. Personal hygiene is the basic concept of cleaning,
Frame: wood or metal structure that supports other grooming and body care.
elements.
Hypoxia: condition of a living organism or part of this, in
Gage: add solvent (e.g. water) to a container with a mark that which there is not adequate oxygen supply.
indicates a known and precisely measured volume to fit in
the container until that mark. Infiltration: in hydrology refers to water penetration into the
soil, and in shrimp farms it corresponds to the index of
Hazard: biological, chemical or physical agent that can dikes compaction and soil porosity.
compromise food safety and/or shrimp health.
Innocuous: something that does not cause damage or
Hydraulic section: dimensions that should have any negative activity to human, animal or plant.
reservoir channel, drainage or other structure used for water
conveyance in a shrimp farm, based on a calculation of water Intensive shrimp farming system: shrimp farming systems
volume required. Hydraulics is the branch of physics and using high shrimp stocking densities (more than 25 shrimp
engineering that study of the mechanical fluid properties. per m2). It requires a special infrastructure design (pond
The optimal hydraulic section is that which for a section, size and permanent aeration, among others), and complete
roughness coefficient and slope, conveyances a maximum biosecurity measures and highly technical management
water flow; the optimal section is less wetted perimeter, (bottom management, feeding, microbial flora, water
although hydraulically "optimal" does not mean that it is quality and disease control). Shrimp feeding depends
necessarily the best in economic terms (excavation, drafts, largely on artificial diet supplied by producer and
etc.). supplemented by natural feed (flocs).
126
Inundate: to flood with water or with any other liquid one Metabolism: all physical and chemical reactions of
object or place; immerse or cover with water. nutrients/substrates absorbed by organisms, which occur
in the cells with the goal of obtaining necessary
Iron pyrite: is the iron sulfide (FeS2) that appear relatively components for life maintenance.
frequently in nature alone or mixed with other minerals.
Metabolite: substance produced by a living organism as a
Labeling: any recording, legend or direction printed, result of their metabolism. May be harmful to other
attached or recorded to a product or its packaging, organisms and in shrimp may affect its health or product
wrapping or shipping-box and that identifies the product quality when harvest as occurs with certain
according to national and international standards. microalgae-produced metabolites (e.g. Anabaena).
Lime: calcareous product for use in aquaculture, such as Microalgae: unicellular aquatic algae as phytoplankton.
Calcium hydroxide, Calcium Carbonate and Calcium Oxide.
Liming: process by which lime is applied on a pond bottom, Molasses: product derived from sugarcane processing,
but eventually is applied on pond water (previously diluting dark colored, thick and rich in various sugars. It is used in
lime in water). Lime application includes products based on aquaculture as a Carbon source for bacteria and algae from
Calcium and according to the purpose, such as carbonate the water column, promoting growth of microorganisms
(pH increasing), hydroxide (drop bacteria populations) and
that use sugar as an energy source.
oxide (drop bacteria populations and organic matter
concentrations). Their common names are agricultural
Necton: all marine and freshwater organisms that actively
lime, slaked lime and quicklime, respectively).
swim in aquatic areas under direct sunlight influence. The
concept contrasts with other alternatives such as plankton
Limnology: is the branch of ecology that studies inland
(living organisms in suspension and are passively moved);
aquatic ecosystems (lakes, ponds, rivers, wells, marshes
benthos (organisms that live on the bottom, whether mobile
and estuaries), the interactions between aquatic organisms
or stationary), or pneuston (organisms that live at the
and their environment, which determine their distribution
interface water-air).
and abundance in these ecosystems.
Operational level: proper depth of a pond to ensure proper

Liner: refers to a plastic membrane of variable thickness,
farming operation. In ponds with plateau, the level of less
used in aquaculture for matching aquaculture ponds soils
deep zones should be 1.0 m to 1.2 m.
and internal dikes sides. The aim of the liners is to prevent
water infiltration and/or isolation of farmed organisms from
Organic debris: dead plants and animals under
the pond bottom sediment.
decomposition. Layer which is composed of
Low tide: opposite to high tide, time in which the sea

reaches its lowest height. Organic soils: are those that contain more than 10% of
organic matter. Dikes are not stable when made of organic
Mechanical vector: any movable element as people, material because the organic materials decompose when
animals, vehicles or equipment, where a pathogen can join exposed to air. Due to bacterial decomposition of organic
and be transported from one place to another, matter, organic lands also lead to low dissolved oxygen
contaminating facilities that were free of that infection. concentrations in the soil-water interface.
127
Palatability: feed organoleptic feature set, regardless of its farming, ponds are comprised of a dike, a plateau, harvest
nutritional value, that makes a given organism to be more or channels, and input, output and harvesting gates.
less pleasant to eat.
Prebiotics: unlike probiotics (living organisms), are generally
Pathogen: microorganism capable of producing disease in non-digestible carbohydrates, which stimulate the growth
humans, animals or plants. Includes mainly viruses, and activity of beneficial bacteria.
bacteria, fungi and protozoa.
Predator: organism that maintains a consistent interspecific
Pathogenic agent: see "Pathogen" relationship in hunting and death suffered by some species
(prey) by generally larger species (predators). In the case of
Pellet: is a generic name used to refer to small portions of shrimp farms, predators would be the birds, some
pelleted or tableted material. The term is used in aquaculture crustaceans, fish and alligators, among others; shrimp would
to mean processed feed ready to fed farming aquatic be its prey.
organisms (finished product).
Probiotics: living microorganisms added to animal/human
Pelletizing: process by which raw materials are finely-divided food, which remain active in the gut and produce important
- sometimes becoming powder, impalpable and unwieldy-, physiological host effects.
transforming them into larger and more stable particles by
the application of heat, moisture and mechanical pressure, Prophylactic: process or product that helps preventing and
resulting in the formation of pellets. protecting an individual or a population from the onslaught of
a disease.
Pest: any species, breed, animal biotype or pathogens,
which are harmful to humans, farm inputs, drinking or Quarantine: means maintaining a group of aquatic animals
production water and farmed shrimp (e.g. rodents, birds, in isolation with no direct or indirect contact with other
insects and aquatic species [fishes and crustaceans]). aquatic animals, in order to undergo observation for a
specified length of time and, if appropriate, testing and
Phytoplankton: in marine biology and limnology, this is the treatment, including proper treatment of the effluent waters.
name of autotrophs aquatic organisms from plankton, which Aquatic Code, OIE 2009.
are photosynthetic and living dispersed in water. The name
comes from the Greek terms φύτον (phyton, "plant") and Rainy season: winter, period of the year in which rainfall is
πλαγκτος ("Planktos" "Vagrant" or "stumbling"). frequent, days are commonly cloudy, humidity is high and
there is little wind.
Plowing: action of tilling the soil surface with a depth not
exceeding 30 centimeters. This task accomplishes soil Records: documents that present achieved results or
oxygenation and allows incorporation of added elements to evidence of performed activities.
the soil by human or natural ways.
Recycle: activity performed by many companies and
Pond: is one of the units that comprise an aquaculture farm, individuals, based on taking back trash from the garbage and
designed and built under technical specifications which reprocessing it to be used again.
enable the efficient aquatic organisms farming. In shrimp
128
Reuse: action of using trash one more time before throwing Stratification: separation of the water contained into a pond
it away; for example, lining boxes, bottles or cans and use or reservoir channel, in strata or layers. There are two types of
them to hold items. gradients that cause stratification: physical which are caused
by temperature, and chemicals produced by different
Risk: likelihood of an adverse health effect and of its severity, chemical composition of the surface and deep waters.
as a result of a potential danger that can reveal itself.
Stress test: physical examination for obtaining a measure
Rotavator: agricultural implement for tilling the soil, which of one postlarvae batch quality (tank, shipping) and
consists of a shaft with a rotary plow blade with variable consists in submitting the animals to drastic changes of
shapes that when turning up they remove and shred earth temperature and/or salinity, then measuring their survival
lumps. and physical conditions (swimming, activity, reflexes).
Sea loch: verge of a river mouth forming a submerged Super- intensive shrimp farming: aquatic organisms
coastal valley or estuary that has been flooded by the sea farming system with extremely high densities and many
and by its elevated level. Consequently, it will become a sea control measures with entirely artificial feed and often with
canal that penetrates on the coast, coinciding with a river aerators to maintain better control of the dissolved oxygen
mouth, which flow is also affected by high and low tides. This concentration; they must be designed to support the
word in Spanish (“ría”) is used in Europe. system oxygen demand. Unlike intensive systems,
production units bottoms are covered by a plastic liner.
Secchi disk: is a standard aquaculture instrument used to
measure the relative visibility or depth of sunlight penetration Sustainability: refers to the use of technologies and
into the pond water in centimeters. In a reservoir channel or adequate services to the environmental conditions and to
in a shrimp pond, it allows knowing the water turbidity given prevention of negative impacts being social, economic or
by suspended solids concentration, mainly phytoplankton environmental, looking for efficiency in food production and
(microalgae). also natural resources conservation. It may be feasible to
obtain high levels of productivity, becoming necessary to
Secchi: see "Secchi disk" develop and incorporate more technology.
Semi-intensive shrimp farming: shrimp aquaculture Sustainable development: according to FAO, it is the
considered between extensive and intensive systems. It´s management and conservation of the natural resource base
characterized by an integrated infrastructure which allows the and the orientation of technological and institutional
implementation of specific technological processes that change in such a way as to ensure the continued
facilitate production operation. This system requires satisfaction of human needs for present and future
moderate loads of farming organisms into waterbodies that generations. Such sustainable development (in agriculture,
are partially controlled. Feed is partially natural obtained by forestry and fishery sectors), conserves land, water and
water fertilization and partly artificially supplemented which is plant and animal genetic resources, does not degrade the
provided by the farmer. environment and is technically appropriate, economically
viable and socially acceptable.
Semolina (bran): name that comes from bran that is thick
flour (slightly milled), that is made from wheat and other
cereals.
129
TCBS: selective agar primarily (but not exclusively) for wastewater converge to a sewage collection system, which
bacterial species of the genus Vibrio, constituted by should finish in a treatment plant.
thiosulfate, citrate, bile (bile salts) and sucrose.
Water maturation: period of time used to leave a waterbody
Terrine: small container (tub) with lid used to keep food (reservoir channel or pond) before shrimp stocking
cold. (postlarvae or juveniles), during which it´s promote growth
of phytoplankton and zooplankton by chemical fertilization
Texture: refers to the granulometric soil composition, environmentally acceptable.
depending on the proportion (%) of sand, silt and clay that
soil contains. Water quality: is the sum of the physical, chemical and
biological characteristics, the same as biotic and abiotic
Traceability: is a food safety tool used to trace the origin of factors influencing the use of a waterbody, based on the
products and their inputs in the food supply chain, helping performance of the site living species.
to identify and record each product from its origin to the
end of the marketing chain. Waterbody (water body): is a water mass or water extension
as a lake, sea or ocean that covers part of the Earth or other
Transboundary diseases: are those of trade and economic planet. Some waterbodies are artificial such as ponds, but
importance for food security in many countries; they can most are natural. They may contain salt water, fresh or
easily spread to other countries and reach epidemic brackish.
proportions and require cooperation among nations for its
management and control, including exclusion. They were Wheel bath: vehicle tires bath used to disinfect exposed
previously called "exotic diseases". rolling surfaces. It consists of a pit (ford, groove, hits)
usually located in incoming gates of a shrimp farm and
Transition period: months of the year in which weather containing a disinfectant solution for cleaning and
changes from dry to rainy season or vice versa, without disinfecting the wheels of incoming vehicles.
having defined and stable weather patterns.
Withdrawal time: holding days between a medicated
Trophic level: in ecology refers to each of the sets of therapy finishing used in animals for human consumption,
species or organisms in an ecosystem, which coincide in and their slaughter (harvest). Respect the withdrawal time
position in the energy and nutrient circulation, it means will allow that slaughtered (harvested) animals don´t carry
those holding an equivalent place in the food chain. drug residues and that they maintain the standards for food
safety.
Wastewater: wastewater or sewage wastes are liquids from
domestic, commercial and industrial use. They have Zoosanitary measures: any legislation, regulation or official
dissolved or in suspension several organic and inorganic procedure having the purpose to prevent the introduction
matters. They come from discharges of drains, sinks, and/or pests dispersion in a shrimp farm or in a particular
toilets, kitchens, laundry (detergents), industrial waste (oils, area thereof, or to limit the economic impact of the pests in
greases, tanneries, etc.). Where sewers are available, all of the production process.
130
131
AGREEMENT BETWEEN
FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE ORGANIZATION OF CENTRAL AMERICAN ISTHMUS
(OSPESCA)
AND
REGIONAL INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION OF AGRICULTURAL HEALTH
(OIRSA)
SICA Office Oficina en OIRSA
Blvd. Orden de Malta No. 470, Urb. Santa Elena Calle Ramón Belloso, final pasaje Isolde, Col.
Antiguo Cuscatlán, El Salvador, C.A. Escalón, San Salvador, El Salvador, C.A.
Phone: (503) 2248-8800 Phone: (503) 2209-9200
Fax: (503) 2248-8899 Fax: (503) 2263-1128
E-mail: info.ospesca@sica.int E-mail: oirsa@oirsa.org
Web site: www.sica.int/ospesca Web site: www.oirsa.org
132

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MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING

MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

REGIONAL INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION OF

FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE ORGANIZATION OF

Oscar García Suárez

Panama, July, 2010

Guillermo E. Alvarado Downing Mario González Recinos

3.5 Shrimp disease management 61

Annex 1. Postlarvae quality evaluation and stress tests 93

1. Introduction help the achievement of these goals, members of FAO in

Table 1. Production of farmed shrimp (TM) in Central American Countries - 2000-2007.

All shrimp farms must comply with national, regional and

2. Existing regulation compliance

Shrimp farms should not prohibit coastal communities to

2.1.2 Labor and occupational health

meet the requirements of personnel retirement programs

All shrimp farms either offering or not accommodation to

Regarding mobilization, the company should provide all the

2.1.3 Existing labor regulations compliance

It is the responsibility of each company, the compliance of

Occupational safety must be implemented in order to

2.1.4 Social responsibility

Best Management Practices (BMP) for social aspects

Avoid conflicts with local communities that may result

personnel retirement programs

2.2 Environmental aspects

Sustainable shrimp farming should be focused on

Water quality is essential to meet physico-chemical and

•฀฀Cost-effective and environmental health

Each site has its own characteristics that determine the

Shrimp industry, thanks to the advancement of technology,

For site determination and project development, it must

2.2.2 Farm design and building

According to shrimp farming growth during recent years,

Figure 14.Design plan of a shrimp farm.

In the shrimp farm planning, water canals should not create

In order to prevent natural water flows disturbance, it´s

waterways around structures, loading then on the original

Roadways must have installed adequate sized structures

Incoming water sediment load estimations, and required

Regarding drainage canals, they must include in its design

3. Farm operation Once harvest is finished, pond must be completely drained

has as one of its objectives to break reinfection cycle by

Within the depopulation whose use is suggested as a BMP

3.1.2 Pond drying

It´s necessary let environment to rest and restore in shrimp

Another important assessment of the pond and supply

Soil compaction helps to reduce erosion caused by

3.1.6 Liming (lime application on pond bottom)

Liming is performed to raise pH in acidic soil and to improve

BMP for liming (lime application on pond bottom)

Liming should be performed based on soil analysis results

ppm and P = 0.07 ppm), Ca:Mg:K = 1:3:1 (e.g. Ca = 400

Before postlarvae stocking, it should be done a

Physico-chemical and biological pond water parameters for postlarvae stocking

Low quality and dubious postlatvae source purchase,

have a good general health status. They should also have

Local or foreign postlarvae supplier hatchery, must have

Farms must buy postlarvae just from hatcheries submitted

BMP for postlarvae stocking 3.3 Fed management

Shrimp feed must have optimal conditions; feed bags

be used as control tools (partial pond feeding with feed

Feeding should be done when temperature don´t be low

Shrimp feed nutritional contents must be according to