Chemistry: Determination of Na Co and Naoh in A Mixture by Titration

15-10-2020
CHEMISTRY
10th & 11th class Date : 10-10-2020
Dr Dr. K. Ananthanarayanan
Associate Professor (Research)
Department of Chemistry
Room No 319, 3rd Floor, Research Building
Email : ananthak@srmist.edu.in
Phone : 9840154665
18CYB101J-Chemistry Dr K Ananthanarayanan Page 1
Determination of Na2CO3 and NaOH in

a mixture by titration
Expt. No. : 1
10/15/2020 2
1
15-10-2020
Experiment
 Aim :
To determine the amount of Na2CO3 and NaOH in a
mixture using hydrochloric acid.
 Apparatus required:
Conical flask,100mL standard flask, 20mL pipette
burette, funnel, glass rod.
 Chemicals required:
Hydrochloric acid, phenolphthalein indicator, methyl
orange indicator.
10/15/2020 3
Acid-base titration
 A quantitative analysis of acids and bases; through this

process, an acid or base of known concentration neutralizes
an acid or base of unknown concentration.
 The titration progress can be monitored by visual indicators
 The reaction’s equivalence point is the point at which the

titrant has exactly neutralized the acid or base in the
unknown analyte; if you know the volume and concentration
of the titrant at the equivalence point, you can calculate the
concentration of a base or acid in the unknown solution.
2
15-10-2020
Some terms (recap)
 Equivalence Point: When the number of equivalents of acid

(respectively base) added is equal to the number of
equivalents of base (respectively acid) taken initially.
 Acid-Base Indicators: Weak organic acids or bases having

different colours for their dissociated or undissociated forms
e.g., Methyl Orange - Red (acidic solution),
Orange – yellow (basic solution)
pH : 3.1 – 4.6
Acid-base indicators
 Acid - base indicators (also known as pH indicators) are
substances which change color with pH.
 They are usually weak acids or bases
 Consider an indicator which is a weak acid, with the formula

HI. At equilibrium, the following chemical equation is
established
 The acid, HI, and the conjugate base, I−, have different colors.
 Common examples include phenolphthalein and methyl

orange.
10/15/2020 6
3
15-10-2020
Phenolphthalein indicator
 Under acidic conditions, the equilibrium is to the left, and the

concentration of the anions is too low for the pink colour to
be observed.
 However, under alkaline conditions, the equilibrium is to the
right, and the concentration of the anion becomes sufficient
for the pink colour to be observed. pH range : 8 – 9.8
7
Phenolphthalein indicator contd..
 As an indicator of a solution’s pH, phenolphthalein is colorless below pH

8.5 and attains a pink to deep red hue above pH 9.0.
Increasing pH
10/15/2020 8
4
15-10-2020
Methyl orange indicator
 Methyl orange (C14H14N3NaO3S) is a water soluble azo dye that shows

color change in the pH range of 2 to 4.
 Because it changes color at the pKa of a mid strength acid, it is usually used
in titration for acids
 Methyl orange has a pKa of 3.47 in water at 25 °C
Methyl orange
10/15/2020 9
Methyl orange indicator contd..

 In a solution that decreases in acidity, methyl orange moves from the color
red to orange and finally to yellow with the opposite occurring for a solution
increasing in acidity.
Increasing pH
10/15/2020 10
5
15-10-2020
Principle
 The titration of a mixture of NaOH and Na2CO3 with a
standardized HCl solution has two equivalence points.
 The first equivalence point is due to the conversion of all the

carbonate to bicarbonate and sodium hydroxide to sodium
chloride as follows:
 The pH of the resulting solution is around 8 therefore

phenolphthalein could be used as an indicator.
 At the end point, all the hydroxide

- ions (OH-) and only half of
2-
the carbonate ions (CO3 ) are reacted with hydrochloric acid.
10/15/2020 11
10/15/2020 12
6
15-10-2020
10/15/2020 13
Principle contd..
 The second equivalence point is due to the reaction of the
resulting bicarbonate with an excess of HCl solution as follows:
 In this stage methyl orange is used to find the equivalence point

because the pH of the solution at this point will be around 3.8
 When the titration is continued

- with methyl orange indicator,
the remaining half of CO32- ions will be neutralized with HCl at
the end point
10/15/2020 14
7
15-10-2020
10/15/2020 15
Procedure
Titration I : Standardization of HCl
 Pipette out 20 ml of 0.1 N Na2CO3 solution into a clean conical

flask and add 2-3 drops of methyl orange indicator to the
solution.
 Then titrate the solution against hydrochloric acid taken in the

burette.
 Record end point (burette reading) when color changes from

yellow to orange.
 Repeat the titration till the concordant (two consecutive burette

readings exactly same) value is obtained.
10/15/2020 16
8
15-10-2020
Procedure
Titration II: Estimation of Na2CO3 and NaOH in a given

mixture
 Dilute the given unknown solution to 100 ml in a standard flask
using distilled water.
 Pipette out 20 ml of this made up solution into a clean conical

flask. Add 2-3 drops of phenolphthalein indicator to the solution
and titrate against standardized HCl.
 Record the burette reading as an end point (phenolphthalien

end point) of the titration when disappearance of pink color is
observed.
 Consider the burette reading at the end point be ‘A’ ml.

10/15/2020 17
Procedure
Titration II: Estimation of Na2CO3 and NaOH in a given

mixture
 To the same solution, add 2-3 drops of methyl orange
indicator and continue the titration till the color changes from
yellow to orange
 Note down the burette reading as methyl orange end point.

Consider it to be ‘B’ ml.
 Repeat the titration till the concordant (two consecutive

burette readings exactly same) value for A and B is obtained.
10/15/2020 18
9
15-10-2020
Procedure
A = all hydroxide ions + half of carbonate ions
B = half the carbonate ions after phenolphthalein end point
2B = all carbonate ions
A-B = all hydroxide ions
10/15/2020 19
Tabular column
Titration 1 : Standardization of HCl
10/15/2020 20
10
15-10-2020
Calculation
10/15/2020 21
Tabular column
Titration II: Estimation of Na2CO3 and NaOH in a given mixture.
10/15/2020 22
11
15-10-2020
Calculation
10/15/2020 23
Calculation
10/15/2020 24
12
15-10-2020
Result
 Amount of Na2CO3 present in the given solution = ----- g
 Amount of NaOH present in the given solution = ----- g
10/15/2020 25
13
17-10-2020
CHEMISTRY
16th and 17th class Date : 17-10-2020
Phone : 9840154665
Last class…
 Isomerism in organic compounds
1
17-10-2020
In this class…
Conductometric titration – Determination of

strength of HCl (strong acid vs. strong base)
Expt. No. : 2
10/17/2020 3
Experiment
 Aim :
To determine the strength of a given solution of HCl by
conductometric titration with a given NaOH solution.
 Materials required:
Conductivity meter, conductivity cell, standard flask,
pipette, burette, funnel, glass rod.
 Chemicals required :
Hydrochloric acid, NaOH, distilled water
10/17/2020 4
2
17-10-2020
Conductometric titration
 Electrolytic conductivity of the reaction mixture is continuously

monitored as one reactant is added.
 The equivalence point is the point at which the conductivity

undergoes a sudden change. Marked increase or decrease in
conductance are associated with the changing concentrations of
the two most highly conducting ions—the hydrogen and
hydroxyl ions.
 The electrical conductivity of an electrolytic solution is dependent

on the number of free ions in the solution and the charge
corresponding to each of these ions.
 The method can be used for titrating coloured solutions or

homogeneous suspension which cannot be used with normal
indicators.
Apparatus
10/17/2020 6
3
17-10-2020
 Conductivity may be measured by applying an alternating

electrical current (I) to two electrodes immersed in a solution
and measuring the resulting voltage (V).
 During this process, the cations migrate to the negative
electrode, the anions to the positive electrode and the
solution acts as an electrical conductor.
10/17/2020 7
10/17/2020 8
4
17-10-2020
Basic terms
 Electrical current is the movement of charged particles

(measured in Amps, A).
 Conductance is a measure of how easily those charge

particles move through a solution/material (measured in
Siemens, S).
 Conductivity is the conductance (S) measured across

a specified distance through a material/solution
(measured in Siemens per centimetre, S/cm)
10/17/2020 9
Ionic conductance
 Conductivity (or specific conductance) of an electrolytic
solution is a measure of its ability to conduct electricity with
the help of free ions in it.
 Conductance of an ion depends on its size and mobility in

an aqueous solution.
 The order of size of hydrated ionic radii of alkali metal cations

is as follows:
 Hence the ease of ionic conductance is :
10/17/2020 10
5
17-10-2020
 The main advantages to the conductometric titration are its

applicability to very dilute and coloured solutions and to
system that involve relative incomplete reactions.
 For example, which neither a potentiometric, nor indicator

method can be used for the neutralization titration of
phenol (Ka = 10–10) a conductometric endpoint can be
successfully applied.
10/17/2020 11
Principle
Neutralization between a strong acid (HCl) and a strong base

(NaOH) is represented by
As we add NaOH(aq) to the HCl(aq) in excess, some of the highly

mobile H+(aq) are removed because they react with the OH-(aq) to
produce water (H2O(l)) according to the following balanced chemical
equation:
H+(aq) + OH-(aq) ⇋ H2O(l)
The dissociation constant for water is small (Kw = 10-14 at 25°C) so

very few of the water molecules dissociate, a negligible number in
comparison to the contribution of ions due to the HCl(aq) and
NaOH(aq), so we will ignore it.
10/17/2020 12
6
17-10-2020
Principle
 Before NaOH is added, the conductance is high due to the

presence of highly mobile hydrogen ions.
 When the base is added, the conductance falls due to the

replacement of hydrogen ions by the added Na+ cation.
 This decrease in the conductance continues till the

equivalence point.
 At the equivalence point, the solution contains only NaCl.
 After the equivalence point, the conductance increases due to

-
the large conductivity of OH ions due to its high mobility.
10/17/2020 13
 At the equivalence point, all the highly mobile H+(aq) have

reacted with all the added OH-(aq), so, in solution we only
have the less mobile ions Na+(aq) and Cl-(aq), so the
conductance of the solution will be at its lowest which will be
the end point for this titration.
 With further additions of NaOH (aq) past the equivalence

point the conductance of the solution will increase.
 When the NaOH (aq) is in excess the solution contains highly

mobile OH-(aq), more OH- (aq) results in better conductance
of the solution.
10/17/2020 14
7
17-10-2020
10/17/2020 15
Conductometric titration contd..
 During the titration, electrolytic conductivity of the solution

is impacted by the replacement of one ion with another, owing
to the differences in the ionic conductivities.
 Upon the continuous addition of the titrant a sudden
change in the conductivity implies that the stoichiometric
point has been reached
 The equivalence point may be located graphically by
plotting the change in conductance as a function of the
volume of titrant added
10/17/2020 16
8
17-10-2020
Conductometric titration, contd.
 In order to reduce the influence of errors in the

conductometric titration to a minimum, the angle between
the two branches of the titration curve should be as
small as possible. If the angle is very obtuse, a small
error in the conductance data can cause a large deviation.
17
Procedure, pilot titration
 Make up the given HCl solution to 100mL in a standard flask.
 Pipette out 10mL of the made up HCl into a beaker.
 Dilute the solution with distilled water, so that the conductivity

cell can be immersed well in the solution (100mL).
 Stir the solution well with a glass rod and note down the
conductance of the solution from the meter.
 Fill the burette with standard NaOH solution and run down
into the beaker in small increments of 1mL with gentle stirring
of the contents of the beaker.
10/17/2020 18
9
17-10-2020
Procedure contd..
 After each addition, stir the contents of the beaker and
after an equilibrium time of 2-3 minutes, note the
conductance value and tabulate it.
 Continue the titration till at least 8-10 increments, after the

conductance reaches a minimum and starts increasing.
 After the completion of titration, wash the conductance cell

with distilled water and immerse it back in water.
 Plot a graph between conductivity against volume of NaOH

added. The intersection of two lines to the volume axis gives
the end point.
10/17/2020 19
Procedure, fair titration

 In order to get accurate results, perform a fair titration, by
adding NaOH in increments of 0.2 mL near and beyond the
end point.
 Volume of NaOH required for neutralization is taken from the

graph of fair titration intersection point which is
corresponding to the volume axis (X).
 Calculate the strength of the given strong acid from the given
value of NaOH volume.
10/17/2020 20
10
17-10-2020
Tabular column
Pilot titration
Standard NaOH Vs unknown HCl
S.No Volume of NaOH Conductance in
(mL) added ohm -1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10
10/17/2020 21
Tabular column
Fair titration
Standard NaOH Vs unknown HCl
S.No Volume of NaOH Conductance in
(mL) added ohm -1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10
10/17/2020 22
11
17-10-2020
10/17/2020 23
Calculation
10/17/2020 24
12
17-10-2020
Determination of strength of an acid by conductometry

(strong acid Vs strong base)
Table 1- Pilot Titration:
Standard NaOH versus Unknown HCl solution
Sl.No. Volume of NaOH added Conductance
(mL) (ohm-1)
1 0 3.53
2 1 3.278
3 2 3.032
4 3 2.797
5 4 2.523
6 5 2.278
7 6 2.054
8 7 1.817
9 8 1.562
10 9 1.348
11 10 1.124
12 11 1.00
13 12 1.066
14 13 1.137
15 14 1.189
16 15 1.21
Table 2: Accurate Titration: Standard NaOH versus Unknown HCl

Sl.No. Volume of NaOH added Conductance
(mL) (ohm-1)
1 8.0 1.189
2 8.2 1.164
3 8.4 1.092
4 8.6 1.057
5 8.8 1.022
6 9.0 0.981
7 9.2 0.92
8 9.4 0.936
9 9.6 0.968
10 9.8 0.996
11 10 1.019
12 10.2 1.038
13 10.4 1.054
14 10.6 1.063
15 10.8 1.098
13
17-10-2020
Result
 The strength of the given HCl solution is =
10/17/2020 27
Calculation:
Volume of NaOH solution V1 = 9.2 mL (Obtained from

graph)
Normality of NaOH solution N1 = 0.1 N (Given in the
bottle)
Volume of HCl solution V2 = 10 mL
Normality of HCl solution N2 = V1 × N1
V2
= 9.2 ×0.1
10
=0.092 N
The strength of the hydrochloric acid N2 = 0.092 N
Result:
The strength of the given hydrochloric acid solution N2 = 0.092 N
14
17-10-2020
Thank you all for your

attention
Information presented here were collected from various sources –

textbooks, articles, manuscripts, internet and newsletters. All the
researchers and authors of the above mentioned sources are greatly
acknowledged.
18CYB101J-Chemistry Page 29
15
27-10-2020
CHEMISTRY
22nd & 23rd class, Date : 27-10-2020
Phone : 9840154665
Last class..
 Isomerism in coordination compounds
1
27-10-2020
In this class..
Estimation of total hardness, permanent

and temporary hardness by EDTA
method
Expt. No. : 3
10/27/2020 3
Experiment
 Aim :
To estimate the amount of total hardness, permanent
hardness and temporary hardness of a given sample of water by
EDTA method using ammonia buffer (pH =10) and Eriochrome
black-T indicator.
Pipette, burette, conical flask, standard flask, funnel,
beaker.
Chemicals required :
EDTA solution, standard hard water, sample water,
Eriochrome black T indicator (EBT), NH3-NH4Cl buffer solution
(pH 10).
10/27/2020 4
2
27-10-2020
Hardness of water
 Hard water is water that contains cations with a charge of +2,

especially Ca2+ and Mg2+
 At a level over 100 mg/L measured as calcium carbonate, a

given water source is considered hard.
10/27/2020 5
Types of hardness
 Temporary hardness:
It is due to the presence of bicarbonates of calcium and
magnesium and can be removed by boiling.
 Permanent hardness:
It is due to the presence of sulphates, nitrates and chlorides of
calcium and magnesium.
 Hardness is usually reported as parts per million (ppm) of

calcium carbonate (by weight).
 A water supply with a hardness of 100 ppm contains the

equivalent of 100 g of CaCO3 in 1 million g of water or 0.1 g
in 1 L of water
10/27/2020 6
3
27-10-2020
Complexometric titration
 A titration based on the formation of coordination complexes

between a metal ion and complexing agent (or chelating
agent) to form soluble complexes. (Hardness in water)
 Complex-forming reactions involving many metal ions can

serve as a basis for accurate and convenient titrations for
such metal ions. High accuracies and offer the possibility of
determinations of metal ions at the millimole levels.
Principle
 The hardness causing metal ions form a wine–red coloured
weak complex with Eriochrome black T indicator in the
presence of buffer solution.
 When EDTA is added, the indicator is replaced by EDTA and

a stable complex is formed. Due to liberation of Eriochrome
black T indicator, wine red colour changes to steel blue
which marks the end point of titration.
10/27/2020 8
4
27-10-2020
Role of EDTA
 EDTA is a hexadentate complexing or chelating agent used
to capture the metal ions.
EDTA
 Capturing metal ions causes water to become softened, but

metal ions are not completely removed from water.
 EDTA simply binds the metal ions to it very tightly thus forming a
strong and stable metal complex.
10/27/2020 9
Complexometric titration
 The Y4- ion that forms a 1:1 complex with the metal ion is
the completely deprotonated anion of
ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (“H4Y”).
 At pH=10, the EDTA is present in solution primarily as its
monoprotonated form, HY3-
10/27/2020 10
5
27-10-2020
Formation constant and equilibrium
Formation constant is very large 2.9 x 1016,

its equilibrium position lies far to the right.
10/27/2020 11
Role of Eriochrome black T

 Eriochrome black T is an azo dye used as a complexometric
indicator.
 In its deprotonated form, Eriochrome black T is blue. It turns
red when it forms a complex with calcium, magnesium, or
other metal ions.
Eriochrome black -T
 The characteristic blue end-point is reached when sufficient
EDTA is added and the metal ions bound to the indicator are
chelated by EDTA, leaving the free indicator molecule.
10/27/2020 12
6
27-10-2020
Role of ammonia buffer
 The buffer solution is used to resist the change in pH as all

reactions between metal ions and EDTA are pH dependent.
 With increasing the pH, each hydrogen ion in the carboxyl

groups of EDTA will start to dissociate. Above pH 10, EDTA4- is
predominant. As we need EDTA4- to react with the metal ions
present in the titration solution, we use pH 10 buffer such as
ammonia/ammonium chloride.
EDTA 4- EDTA - metal complex

10/27/2020 13
 EDTA versus metal ion titration, if pM (= -log[Mn+], where Mn+

signifies the metal ion whose concentration is required) is
plotted against the volume of EDTA solution added
10/27/2020 14
7
27-10-2020
Equation, calculation
10/27/2020 15
Procedure
Standardisation of EDTA
 Pipette out 20mL of standard hard water into a clean conical
flask.
 Add 5mL of the buffer solution and 3 or 4 drops of

eriochrome black-T indicator. The solution turns wine red in
colour.
 Titrate the wine red coloured solution against EDTA taken in

the burette.
 The change from wine red to steel blue colour is the end
point. Repeat the titration for concordant values. Let the titer
value be V1 mL
10/27/2020 16
8
27-10-2020
Procedure
Determination of total hardness
 Pipette out 20mL of sample hard water into a clean conical
flask.
 Add 5mL of the buffer solution and 3 or 4 drops of eriochrome

black-T indicator.The solution turns wine red in colour.
 Titrate the wine red coloured solution against EDTA taken in the
burette.
 The change from wine red to steel blue colour is the end point.
 Repeat the titration for concordant values. Let V2 mL be the

volume of EDTA consumed.
10/27/2020 17
Procedure
Determination of permanent hardness

 Take 100mL of hard water sample in a 250mL beaker and boil
gently for about one hour. (boiled water will be given)
 Cool and filter into a 100mL standard flask and make the
volume up to the mark. Take 20mL of this solution and
proceed the titration in the same way.
 The volume of EDTA consumed corresponds to the permanent

hardness of the water sample. Let the titer value be V3 mL.
 Temporary hardness is calculated by subtracting permanent

hardness from total hardness.
10/27/2020 18
9
27-10-2020
Tabular column
Standardisation of EDTA
10/27/2020 19
Tabular column
Determination of total hardness
10/27/2020 20
10
27-10-2020
Tabular column
Determination of permanent hardness
10/27/2020 21
Calculation, standardisation
10/27/2020 22
11
27-10-2020
Determination of Total hardness:
Volume of EDTA consumed = X mL (V2 from Table-2)

1 mL of EDTA = 20/V1 mg CaCO3 = A mg CaCO3
V2 mL of EDTA = 20/V1 × V2 mg CaCO3
= B mg of CaCO3
If 20 mL of sample hard water taken for titration =

20/V1 × V2 mg CaCO3
Then, 1000 mL will contain
= (20/V1 × V2 × 1000 mg CaCO3) / 20
Total hardness = TH ppm

27/10/2020 23
Determination of Permanent hardness:
Volume of EDTA consumed = X mL (V3 from Table-3)

1 mL of EDTA = 20/V1 mg CaCO3 = A mg CaCO3
V3 mL of EDTA = 20/V1 × V3 mg CaCO3 = C mg of CaCO3
If 20 mL of sample hard water taken for titration =

20/V1 × V3 mg CaCO3
Then, 1000 mL will contain = (20/V1 × V3 × 1000 mg CaCO3) / 20
= PH ppm
Permanent hardness = PH ppm

27/10/2020 24
12
27-10-2020
Estimation of Temporary hardness
Temporary Hardness = Total hardness – Permanent hardness
27/10/2020 25
Calculation, total hardness
10/27/2020 26
13
27-10-2020
Calculation, permanent hardness
Estimation of temporary hardness :

The temporary hardness of given water sample =
total hardness – permanent hardness
10/27/2020 27
Result
 The total hardness of sample hard water is = ppm
 The permanent hardness of sample hard water is = ppm
 The temporary hardness of sample hard water is = ppm
10/27/2020 28
14
27-10-2020
Table-1 Standard Hard water vs EDTA Solution
Sl.No. Volume of Burette Volume of Indicator

Sample Reading EDTA
Hard water (mL) solution
(mL) Initial Final ( mL)
1 20 0 22.9 Eriochro
22.9 me Black-
2 20 0 22.9
T
Table-2 Sample Hard water vs EDTA Solution
Sl. Volume of Burette Volume of Indicator

No. Sample Reading (mL) EDTA
Hard water Initial Final solution
(mL) (mL)
1 20 0 10.8 Eriochrom
10.8 e Black-T
2 20 0 10.8
15
27-10-2020
Table-3 Boiled sample water vs EDTA Solution
Sl.No. Volume of Burette Volume of Indicator

Sample Reading (mL) EDTA
Hard water Initial Final solution
(mL) (mL)
1 20 0 7.1
7.1 Eriochrome
2 20 0 7.1 Black-T
16
04-11-2020
CHEMISTRY
28th & 29th Class, 03-11-2020
Phone : 9840154665
Last class..
 Problem solving, substitution and elimination reactions
1
04-11-2020
In this class..
Estimation of amount of chloride in a

water sample
Expt. No. : 4
11/4/2020 B.Tech practicals - expt.4 3
Argentometric titration (precipitation)
 A titration involving the silver(I) ion.
 Used to determine the amount of chloride present in a

sample. The sample solution is titrated against a solution of
silver nitrate of known concentration.
 The indicator (potassium chromate) is added to visualize

the endpoint, demonstrating presence of silver ions, solubility
product of silver chromate exceeded, and it forms a reddish-
brown precipitate. This stage is taken as evidence that all
chloride ions have been consumed and only excess silver
ions have reacted with chromate ions:
 Public drinking water standards require chloride level not to

exceed 250 mg/l.
4
2
04-11-2020
Experiment
 Aim :
To estimate the amount of chloride in a water sample by
Mohr’s method
Conical flask,100mL standard flask, pipette, burette,
funnel, glass rod.
Silver nitrate solution (AgNO3), standard NaCl
solution, K2CrO4 indicator, distilled water.
Precipitation reaction
 A precipitation reaction refers to the
formation of an insoluble salt when two
solutions containing soluble salts are
combined.
 The insoluble salt that falls out of solution

is known as the precipitate, hence the
reaction's name.
 Precipitation reactions can help determine

the presence of various ions in solution.
3
04-11-2020
Requirements
 The rate of reaction between the precipitant and the
substance to be precipitated must be fast.
 There should be no co-precipitation. The titration results

should not be affected by co-precipitation effects.
 The precipitate should be insoluble.
 A suitable indicator should be used to locate the end point

of the titration.
 The process of precipitation titration is completely based on

the concept of solubility product.
Mohr’s method
(1855 by Karl Friedrich Mohr)
 It is an example of precipitation reaction.
 The reaction between chloride and silver nitrate is direct and

simple. It proceeds as follows:
AgNO3 + NaCl → AgCl ↓ + NaNO3

-
Ag+ + Cl → AgCl ↓
 The completion of the reaction in this case is observed by
employing potassium chromate (K2CrO4) solution as an
indicator.
 K2CrO4 indicator will not be precipitated as Ag2CrO4, until all the

chlorides in the solution have been precipitated as AgCl
4
04-11-2020
Potassium chromate indicator

 Potassium chromate is the inorganic compound with the
formula (K2CrO4).
 It is the potassium salt of the chromate anion.
 Before the addition of any silver nitrate the chromate

indicator gives the clear solution a lemon–yellow color.
Principle contd..
 Before the titration endpoint, addition of Ag+ ions

leads to formation of silver chloride precipitate,
making the solution cloudy.
 At the end point all the Cl− ions have precipitated.

The slightest excess of Ag+ precipitates with the
chromate indicator giving a slight red-brown
coloration.
2AgNO3 + K2CrO4 → Ag2CrO4 + 2KNO3
 If addition of Ag+ is continued past the endpoint,

further silver chromate precipitate is formed and a
stronger red-brown color results.
10
5
04-11-2020
Principle
 Silver can form a precipitate by reaction with chloride (AgCl;
Ksp = 1.6 x 10-10) and with chromate (Ag2CrO4; Ksp = 1.9 x 10-12).
11
Key points
• It is important to rinse the burette with the titrant before

beginning the titration
• AgNO3 to be stored in brown bottle
12
6
04-11-2020
Procedure
Titration I : Standardization of silver nitrate solution

 10 ml of standard NaCl solution (0.02N) is pipetted out into a
clean conical flask.
 4-5 drops of 2% K2CrO4 indicator is added to it. The solution

turns lemon yellow in color.
 It is titrated against AgNO3 solution taken in the burette.
 During each addition of AgNO3, the content in the conical flask

is shaken well. At the end point, yellow color changes into
reddish brown (which does not disappear even after shaking).
 The titration is repeated till the concordant value is obtained

13
Procedure Titration II : Estimation of chloride
 The given chloride solution is diluted to 100 ml using distilled

water in a standard flask. Exactly 10 ml of this solution is
pipetted out into a clean conical flask.
 To this solution 4-5 drops of 2% K2CrO4 indicator is added and

is titrated against standardized AgNO3 solution from the burette.
 The addition of AgNO3 solution is continued until the solution

produced a permanent reddish-brown color. The titration is
repeated till the concordant value is obtained.
 From the volume of AgNO3 consumed, the strength of

chloride and hence its amount is calculated.
14
7
04-11-2020
Tabular column
Table I : Standardization of silver nitrate solution
15
Tabular column
Table II : Estimation of chloride
16
8
04-11-2020
Calculation
Titration I : Standardization of silver nitrate solution
17
Calculation
Titration II : Estimation of chloride
18
9
04-11-2020
Table 1
S No Volume of Burette reading Concordant Indicator

pipette Initial (mL) Final value (mL) used
solution (mL)
(mL)
1 10 0 13.4
2 10 0 13.4 13.4 K2CrO4
19
Table 2
S No Volume of Burette reading Concordant Indicator

pipette Initial (mL) Final value (mL) used
solution (mL)
(mL)
1 10 0 19.7
2 10 0 19.7 19.7 K2CrO4
20
10
04-11-2020
Result
 Amount of chloride present in the given solution is

= ……………….g /L
21
11
11-11-2020
CHEMISTRY
34th and 35th Class, 10-11-2020
Phone : 9840154665
Last class..
 Reduction reaction, reagents
1
11-11-2020
In this class..
Determination of the strength of a mixture of acetic

acid and hydrochloric acid by conductometry
Expt. No. : 5
11/11/2020 B.Tech Practicals 3
Experiment
 Aim :
To estimate the strength of the mixture of acetic acid
and hydrochloric acid present in a given mixture by
conductometry.
Conductivity meter, conductivity cell, standard flask,
pipette, burette, funnel, glass rod.
Chemicals required :
Hydrochloric acid, acetic acid, NaOH solution
2
11-11-2020
 Electrolytic conductivity of the reaction mixture is continuously

monitored as one reactant is added.
 The equivalence point is the point at which the conductivity

undergoes a sudden change. Marked increase or decrease in
conductance are associated with the changing concentrations of
the two most highly conducting ions—the hydrogen and
hydroxyl ions.
 The electrical conductivity of an electrolytic solution is dependent

on the number of free ions in the solution and the charge
corresponding to each of these ions.
 The method can be used for titrating coloured solutions or

homogeneous suspension which cannot be used with normal
indicators.
Apparatus
11/11/2020 6
3
11-11-2020
 Conductivity may be measured by applying an alternating

electrical current (I) to two electrodes immersed in a solution
and measuring the resulting voltage (V).
 During this process, the cations migrate to the negative
electrode, the anions to the positive electrode and the
solution acts as an electrical conductor.
11/11/2020 7
11/11/2020 8
4
11-11-2020
Ionic conductance
 Conductivity (or specific conductance) of an electrolytic
solution is a measure of its ability to conduct electricity
with the help of free ions in it.
 Conductance of an ion depends on its size and mobility in

an aqueous solution.
 The order of size of hydrated ionic radii of alkali metal cations

is as follows:
 Hence the ease of ionic conductance is :
11/11/2020 9
 When a mixture of acids like a strong acid (HCl) and a weak acid
(CH3COOH) is titrated against a strong base (NaOH), HCl reacts
first followed by CH3COOH.
 When the titration of strong acid and strong base is carried out, there
is a decrease in conductivity as highly mobile hydrogen ions (H+)
are replaced by sodium ions (Na+).
NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O
 When the whole strong acid is consumed, base reacts with weak
acid and conductivity increases slightly as unionized weak acid
becomes the ionized salt.
+ - - + + -
CH3COOH + Na + OH CH3COO + H + Na + OH
5
11-11-2020
Conductometric titration contd…
 After both the acids are consumed, there is a steep

increase in conductivity which gives the end point.
 This increase in conductivity is due to the fast moving

hydroxide ions from the burette solution.
 From this, amount of base consumed for an acid and in

turn, the amount of acids present is calculated
Conductometric titration contd…
6
11-11-2020
11/11/2020 13
Procedure
 The given mixture of acids is diluted to 100 ml using distilled
water in standard flask.
 20 ml of this made up solution is pipetted out into clean beaker and

100 ml of distilled water is added.
 The conductivity cell is dipped into the test solution and titrated
against NaOH with proper stirring. The conductance is measured
after each 0.5 ml addition of NaOH.
 After complete neutralization, the amount of acid present in the given

mixture is determined based on the volume of NaOH consumed.
 Plot a graph between conductance and volume of base added,

where first end point corresponds to strong acid and second end
point corresponds to weak acid.
7
11-11-2020
Tabular column
Table-1: Titration between mixture of acids and NaOH
Calculation
Strength of HCl
20 ml
20 ml
8
11-11-2020
Calculation
Strength of CH3COOH
20 ml
20 ml
Result
 The strength of HCl present in the whole of the solution =
 The strength of CH3COOH present in the whole of the given

solution =
9
11-11-2020
Table 1 Standard NaOH versus Unknown mixture of

acids
Sl.No Volume of NaOH Conductance
. added (ohm-1)
(mL)
1 0 7.8
2 0.5 7.3
3 1 6.7
4 1.5 6.2
5 2 5.5
6 2.5 5.1
7 3 4.6
8 3.5 4.1
9 4 3.6
10 4.5 3.2
11 5 2.8
12 5.5 2.3
13 6 2.2
14 6.5 2.3
15 7 2.4
16 7.5 2.5
17 8 2.6
18 8.5 2.7
19 9 2.8
20 9.5 2.9
21 10 3.1
22 10.5 3.2
23 11 3.6
24 11.5 3.8
25 12 4.1
26 12.5 4.3
27 13 4.6
28 13.5 4.9
29 14 5.2
30 14.5 5.5
31 15 5.8
32 15.5 6.3
33 16 6.7
34 16.5 7.1
34 17 7.5
10
11-11-2020
Thank you all for your

attention
Information presented here were collected from various sources –

textbooks, articles, manuscripts, internet and newsletters. All the
researchers and authors of the above mentioned sources are greatly
acknowledged.
18CYB101J-Chemistry Page 21
11
18-11-2020
CHEMISTRY
40th and 41st Class, 18-11-2020
Phone : 9840154665
Virtual lab.
To estimate the amount of ferrous ion in the

given sample by potentiometric titration
Expt. No.:6
11/18/2020 B.Tech practicals 2
1
18-11-2020
Potentiometric titration
 Volumetric method for the measurement of changes in the

e.m.f between two electrodes on the addition of titrant of
known concentration to a solution of unknown
concentration.
 In this potentiometric titration setup an indicator electrode (Pt

electrode) and reference electrode (calomel) is coupled to
form electrochemical cell.
 The overall cell potential is calculated as :
Ecell = Eind - Eref + Esol.

 Esol is the potential drop over the test solution between the
two electrodes which is recorded at intervals as the titrant is
added.
Redox titration
 Oxidation-reduction reaction between the titrand and the

tirant. Here the end point is detected using a potentiometer
 Potentiometric titrations involves the measurement of the

potential of a suitable indicator electrode with respect to
a reference electrode as a function of titrant volume.
 SCE is used as the reference electrode. Platinum metal foil,

dipped in Fe2+ solution is used as the indicator electrode.
2
18-11-2020
Apparatus required
 Digital Potentiometer
 Standard Calomel Electrode, SCE (Reference Electrode)
 Platinum electrode (Working/Indicator Electrode)
 Burette (25 mL)
 Pipette (10 mL)
 Beakers (250 mL )
 Standard volumetric flask
3
18-11-2020
Reagents
 Ferrous Ammonium Sulphate (FAS)

solution
 Std. K2Cr2O7 (0.1N) solution
 dil. H2SO4 solution
Potentiometer
Burette containing Cr(+VI)
(0.1 N K2Cr2O7)
SCE, Standard
Analyte solution: Calomel Electrode
given unknown iron (II) (reference
solution prepared in electrode)
distilled water
Pt electrode
(working/indicator
Fe(+II) in
Addition of H2SO4 prevents Electrode
hydrolysis reactions from dil. H2SO4
occurring Magnetic stirring
bar
4
18-11-2020
Experimental set up - picture
Principle
2+ 3+
 The cell set up : Hg|HgCl2(s),KCl (1N) || Fe | Fe , Pt
 The chemical reaction taking place :
 Fe2+ is oxidised to Fe3+ as K2Cr2O7 is progressively added.
 Pt electrode kept in contact with Fe2+ /Fe3+ mixture acts as

redox electrode
5
18-11-2020
Principle
E, Eo, [Oxd], [Red] and ‘n’ are the experimental electrode

potential at room temperature, standard reduction potential,
concentration of oxidised form, concentration of reduced form
and number of electrons involved in the redox process of the
system respectively.
Principle contd..
Cr6+ Cr3+
Cr6+
Buret containing Cr6+
Cr6+/Cr3+
Cr6+ + 3e- Cr3+ 1.33 V

Fe2+ in dil. H2SO4
6
18-11-2020
Principle contd..
 Considering the present titration, the two systems of
relevance, viz., Fe(III)/Fe(II) and Cr(VI)/Cr(III) have Eo
values of 0.76 V, 1.36 V respectively, with a large potential
difference of 0.6 V and hence, quantitative oxidation of
Fe(II) to Fe (III) by Cr (VI) should be possible.
Principle contd..
 The reduction potential of single electrode depends initially on

the ratio of Fe2+ / Fe3+
 During the titration of Fe2+ in H2SO4 medium, with K2Cr2O7

,this ratio varies to a little extent at the beginning
 Suddenly near the end point there occurs a sudden change in

the ratio of Fe3+ /Fe2+ as the equivalence point is reached.
 This results in the sudden increase in e.m.f of the cell at

equivalence point
7
18-11-2020
Procedure
 The given ferrous iron solution is made up to a known volume (say
100mL) in a standard measuring flask.
 Exactly 10 mL of the made up Fe2+ solution is pipetted out into a clean

250mL beaker. About 10mL of dil.H2SO4 and 100mL of distilled water are
added to it.
 A platinum electrode is dipped into this solution and coupled with the
standard calomel electrode. The resultant cell is then incorporated into the
potentiometric circuit.
 Standard K2Cr2O7 solution, taken in a burette, is added in instalments of

1mL into the beaker and the cell e.m.f is measured after each addition
with proper mixing.
 The process is continued till and also well beyond the neutralisation
point as indicated by an abrupt change in e.m.f
8
18-11-2020
Procedure contd..
 Note the volume of K2Cr2O7 solution required for complete oxidation of
Fe2+ solution from the plot of e.m.f Vs volume of standard K2Cr2O7
solution added.
 Calculate the normality of given Fe2+ solution using the formula N1V1 =
N2V2
 One more similar titration is performed by adding 0.1mL portions of

K2Cr2O7 solution close to the end point (1mL on either side of the
range) and tabulating the measured e.m.f corresponding to each addition.
 Graph is plotted (i) e.m.f Vs volume of K2Cr2O7 solution

(ii) ΔE / ΔV Vs volume of K2Cr2O7 solution
 The exact end point can be determined from the plot of ΔE / ΔV Vs

volume of K2Cr2O7 solution
Principle contd..
9
18-11-2020
Tabular column
Table-1 : FAS Vs K2Cr2O7 (pilot titration)
S.No. Volume of emf (volts)

K2Cr2O7 (mL)
13
Tabular column
Table- 2 : FAS Vs K2Cr2O7 (fair titration)
S.No. Volume of emf (volts) ΔE ΔV ΔE/ΔV

K2Cr2O7 (mL) (Volts) (mL) (volts/mL)
22
10
18-11-2020
Tabular column
Calculation
FAS Vs K2Cr2O7
N1V1 = N2V2
Volume of pipette solution (FAS) = V1 mL (10 mL)
Volume of K2Cr2O7 = V2 mL (from graph of fair titration)
Normality of K2Cr2O7 = N2 (0.1 N)

Normality of FAS (N1) =?
Strength of FAS =N1 =
Amount of Fe2+ (g/L) = Eq. wt. of Fe2+ x Normality of Fe2+

55.85 x Normality of Fe2+
Amount of Fe2+ in 100 mL =
11
18-11-2020
Result
 The amount of ferrous ion present in the given solution =

g
Table -1
Ferrous Ammonium Sulphate Solution vs Potassium
dichromate solution Sl.No. Volume of EMF
K2Cr2O7 solution ( mV)
(mL)
1 0 362
2 1 368
3 2 417
4 3 433
5 4 450
6 5 471
7 6 495 Sudden
8 7 691 increase in
EMF
9 8 721
10 9 729
11 10 752
12 11 757
13 12 763
12
18-11-2020
Table -2
Ferrous Ammonium Sulphate Solution Vs Potassium dichromate solution
Sl.No. Volume of K2Cr2O7 EMF ∆E ∆V ∆E/∆V

solution ( mV) (mV) (mL)
(mL)
1 4.8 448
2 5 456
3 5.2 460
4 5.4 464
5 5.6 469
6 5.8 472
7 6.0 477
8 6.2 480
9 6.4 488
10 6.6 493
11 6.8 501
12 7.0 514
13 7.2 525
14 7.4 564
15 7.6 668
16 7.8 689
17 8 699
18 8.2 708
19 8.4 715
20 8.6 721
21 8.8 724
22 9.0 728
13
08-12-2020
CHEMISTRY
49th and 50th Class, 02-12-2020
Phone : 9840154665
Virtual lab.
Determination of strength of an acid

using pH meter
Expt. No. : 7
12/8/2020 B.Tech practical -7 2
1
08-12-2020
 Volumetric method for the measurement of changes in the

e.m.f between two electrodes on the addition of titrant of
known concentration to a solution of unknown
concentration.
 In this potentiometric titration setup an indicator electrode (Pt

electrode) and reference electrode (calomel) is coupled to
form electrochemical cell.
 The overall cell potential is calculated as :
Ecell = Eind - Eref + Esol.

 Esol is the potential drop over the test solution between the
two electrodes which is recorded at intervals as the titrant is
added.
Experiment
 Aim :
To find out the strength of given hydrochloric acid
solution by titrating it against sodium hydroxide (0.1N) using pH
meter
pH meter, electrodes, beaker ,100mL standard flask,
pipette, burette, funnel, glass rod
Hydrochloric acid, NaOH solution, distilled water
2
08-12-2020
pH of a solution
 The pH of a solution is the negative logarithm of the hydrogen

ion concentration.
 pH may be represented mathematically as :
pH = - log10 [H+]
 If the [H+] concentration is greater than

1x10-7 M , pH is less than 7 and vice-versa.
 pH < 7 indicate acidic solution, pH > 7

indicate basic solution and pH =7 means
neutral solution.
pH meter
A pH meter consists of two electrodes: a glass electrode, which

is sensitive to the concentration of hydronium ions in solution,
and a calomel reference electrode.
The reference electrode supplies a constant potential (E° =

+0.24 V versus the SHE) as determined by the half-reaction :
 The pH meter measures the total potential across the two

electrodes and displays this measurement on a scale calibrated
in pH units
3
08-12-2020
pH meter
Principle
potential (EH) of the hydrogen
electrode is given by the Nernst
equation in the following form for 25 °C:
08-12-2020 8
4
08-12-2020
Principle
08-12-2020 9
Principle
The pH values of the solution at different stage of acid–base
neutralization are determined and plotted against the volume
of alkali added.
On adding a base to an acid, the pH rises slowly in the initial

stages as the concentration of H+ ion decreases gradually.
At the equivalence point, it increases rapidly as at the

equivalent point H+ ion concentration is very small and then it
flattens out after the end point.
The end point of the titration can be detected where the pH

value changes most rapidly.
5
08-12-2020
Procedure
Standardize the pH meter using different buffers of known pH,
wash the glass electrode and reference electrode with distilled
water and then with the acid solution.
The given acid is diluted to 100 ml using distilled water. 10 ml of

this made up solution is pipetted out into a 250 mL clean beaker.
100 ml of distilled water is added to it, so that the glass electrode

as well as the reference electrode are completely dipped. Note
the initial pH of the pure acid solution.
Fill the burette with standard NaOH solution and run down into
the beaker in small increments (1 mL). Stir the solution well using
glass rod.
Procedure contd..
 Note down the pH after every successive addition.
 Continue the titration till beyond the neutralization point as

indicated by an abrupt change in pH. (at least 15-20
increments).
 Plot a pilot graph of volume of NaOH versus pH. The midpoint

of the ‘S’ shaped curve of the graph gives the equivalence
point.
 In order to get an accurate end point, perform one more similar

titration in a small volume range (3.0 mL on either side of the
abrupt change in pH)
6
08-12-2020
Procedure contd..
 Measure the pH after addition of every 0.2 mL of standard NaOH solution.
 Plot a fair graph of volume of NaOH versus Δ pH / ΔV.
 Find out the exact end point from the fair graph. The peak point of the curve
from the fair graph gives the end point
Tabular column
Table-1 : Pilot titration (HCl Vs NaOH)
16
7
08-12-2020
Tabular column
Table-2 : Fair titration (HCl Vs NaOH)
Calculation
8
08-12-2020
Result
 The strength of the given HCl solution = N
Table 1 Determination of the strength of an acid using pH meter

Sl.No. Volume of NaOH (mL) pH
1 0 2.84
2 1 2.86
3 2 2.90
4 3 2.94
5 4 3.00
6 5 3.07
7 6 3.15
8 7 3.26
9 8 3.40
10 9 3.61
11 10 4.13
12 11 7.11
13 12 9.85
14 13 10.41
15 14 10.67
16 15 10.84
9
08-12-2020
Table 2 Determination of the strength of an acid using pH meter

Sl.No Volume of pH ∆pH ∆V ∆pH/∆
. NaOH (mL) (mL) V
1 9 3.69
2 9.2 3.73 0.04 0.2 0.2
3 9.4 3.83
4 9.6 3.91
5 9.8 4.07
6 10 4.31
7 10.2 4.86
8 10.4 5.83
9 10.6 6.29
10 10.8 6.80
11 11 7.20
12 11.2 8.70
13 11.4 9.26
14 11.6 9.47
15 11.8 9.72
16 12 9.87
17 12.2 10.05
18 12.4 10.17
19 12.6 10.25
20 12.8 10.33
21 13 10.42
22 13.2 10.54
10
09-12-2020
CHEMISTRY
55th and 56th class Date : 09-12-2020
Room No 319, 3rd Floor, Raman Research Park
Phone : +91-9840154665
In this class...
Determination of molecular weight of a polymer

by viscosity average method
Expt. No. : 8
12/9/2020 2
1
09-12-2020
Experiment
 Aim :
To determine the molecular weight of a polymer in
solution by using a Ostwald viscometer.
Ostwald viscometer, beaker, stop watch,
standard flasks, pipette, suction bulb
Given polymer, suitable solvents
12/9/2020 3
Polymer – polyvinyl alcohol
12/9/2020 4
2
09-12-2020
Molecular weight
 The molecular weight of a synthetic polymer does not have
a single value, since different chains will have different
lengths and different numbers of side branches.
 There will therefore be a distribution of molecular

weights, so it is common to calculate the average
molecular weight of the polymer.
 Several different ways to define the average molecular

weight - the two most common being the number average
molecular weight and the weight average molecular
weight.
 Other averages exist, such as the viscosity average

molecular weight.
12/9/2020 5
Number average molecular weight

The number average molecular weight is defined as the total
weight of polymer divided by the total number of molecules.
12/9/2020 6
3
09-12-2020
Weight average molecular weight

The weight average molecular weight depends not only on
the number of molecules present, but also on the weight of
each molecule. To calculate this, Ni is replaced with NiMi.
where wi is the weight fraction of polymer with molecular weight

Mi.
12/9/2020 7
Viscosity average molecular weight
12/9/2020 8
4
09-12-2020
Molecular weight
Consider a polymer sample comprising of 5 moles of polymer
molecules having molecular weight of 50.000 g/mol and 9
moles of polymer molecules having molecular weight of
30.000 g/mol.
(9 mol x 30,000 g/mol) + (5 mol x 50,000 g/mol)

Mn= = 37,000 g/mol
9 mol + 5 mol
9 mol(30,000 g/mol)2 + 5 mol(50,000 g/mol)2

Mw = = 40,000 g/mol
9 mol(30,000 g/mol) + 5 mol(50,000 g/mol)
Determination of molecular weight

a. Absolute method :
Mass spectrometry
Colligative property
End group analysis
Light scattering
Ultracentrifugation.
b. Relative method : Solution viscosity
c. Fractionation method : GPC (Gel Permeation

Chromatography)
5
09-12-2020
Viscosity
 Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's resistance to flow.

 It describes the internal friction of a moving fluid caused due to
intermolecular forces between particles within the fluid.
 A fluid with large viscosity resists motion because its molecular
makeup gives it a lot of internal friction.
Increasing viscosity
12/9/2020 11
Laminar flow
 Laminar flow occurs in layers without mixing. Notice that

viscosity causes drag between layers as well as with the fixed
surface.
 An obstruction in the vessel produces turbulence. Turbulent
flow mixes the fluid. There is more interaction, greater heating,
and more resistance than in laminar flow.
12/9/2020 12
6
09-12-2020
Poiseuille’s equation
 The precise definition of viscosity is

based on laminar, or non turbulent,
flow characterized by the smooth flow
of the fluid in layers that do not mix.
The flow rate Q of the laminar flow of an incompressible fluid

having viscosity ɳ through a horizontal tube of uniform radius
r and length l is given by the Poiseuille’s equation :
12/9/2020 13
Principle
 In a capillary viscometer, the viscosity of a liquid is
proportional to the time taken by a known volume of liquid
to flow through the capillary under a specified hydrostatic
pressure at a fixed temperature.
 Provided the flow is laminar, using the Poiseuille’s equation it

is possible to show that if t, ɳ and ƥ are the flow time,
viscosity and density of solution :
Relative viscosity ɳrel
The specific viscosity is defined as ɳsp. = ɳrel - 1
12/9/2020 14
7
09-12-2020
Ostwald Viscometer
Relative viscosity :  t
rel = o = to
 : solution viscosity
o: solvent viscosity
t : flow time of solution
t o: flow time of solvent
Specific viscosity :  - o t - to
sp = = = rel - 1
o to
sp  The ratio of a solution’s specific

rel = viscosity to the concentration of
Reduced viscosity : c
the solute, extrapolated to zero
concentration.
 Intrinsic viscosity reflects the
Intrinsic viscosity : capability of a polymer in
solution to enhance the
viscosity of the solution
8
09-12-2020
Principle contd..
 The Staudinger – Mark – Houwink’s equation which relates ɳint
with molecular weight
α
ɳint = K(M)
 Where ‘K’ is an empirical parameter

characteristic of a particular solute –
solvent pair and ‘α’ is a shape
parameter. (both are constants)
 Plot of ɳsp /C Vs C , extrapolated to

C= 0 gives ɳint
 From known values of K and α ,

molecular weight can be determined.
12/9/2020 17
Procedure
 1% solution of polymer (PVA) in water will be supplied. Prepare
at least 5 dilutions i.e 0.1%, 0.2% , 0.3% , 0.4% and 0.5%
polymer in water.
 Dilutions can be done by using the volumetric expression N1V1
= N2V2.
 Set up the Ostwald viscometer and measure the flow time (t0) of
a fixed volume of pure solvent (12.5 ml). Take the average
reading (at least three iterations).
 Rinse the viscometer thoroughly with the most dilute solution,
measure the flow time (t1) keeping the flow volume the same.
 Repeat the procedure for other solutions.
 Calculate ɳrel and ɳsp. Plot ɳsp /C Vs C , extrapolate to C= 0 to
obtain ɳint. From the given values of K and α , calculate the
molecular weight.
12/9/2020 18
9
09-12-2020
Tabular column
12/9/2020 19
Calculation
12/9/2020 20
10
09-12-2020
Result
Volume of polymer liquid to be used for each measurement =

mL
The molecular weight of the given polymer is =
12/9/2020 21
Tabular column, values

Sl.No Concentration of Time of flow Relative Specific Reduced
the polymer in sec viscosity viscosity viscosity
solution (average) n = t nsp= n - 1 nsp ×100
(c) (%) sec n0 t0 n0 c
1 Pure 38 (to) ------ ------- -------

solvent
2 0.1 43 1.13 0.13 130
3 0.2 46
4 0.3 50
5 0.4 55
6 0.5 62
11

Chemistry: Determination of Na Co and Naoh in A Mixture by Titration

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chemistry: Determination of Na Co and Naoh in A Mixture by Titration

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

15-10-2020

Determination of Na2CO3 and NaOH in

 A quantitative analysis of acids and bases; through this

 The titration progress can be monitored by visual indicators

 The reaction’s equivalence point is the point at which the

Some terms (recap)

 Equivalence Point: When the number of equivalents of acid

 Acid-Base Indicators: Weak organic acids or bases having

 They are usually weak acids or bases

 Consider an indicator which is a weak acid, with the formula

 Common examples include phenolphthalein and methyl

 Under acidic conditions, the equilibrium is to the left, and the

Phenolphthalein indicator contd..

 As an indicator of a solution’s pH, phenolphthalein is colorless below pH

Methyl orange indicator

 Methyl orange (C14H14N3NaO3S) is a water soluble azo dye that shows

 Methyl orange has a pKa of 3.47 in water at 25 °C

Methyl orange indicator contd..

 The first equivalence point is due to the conversion of all the

 The pH of the resulting solution is around 8 therefore

 At the end point, all the hydroxide

 In this stage methyl orange is used to find the equivalence point

 When the titration is continued

Titration I : Standardization of HCl

 Pipette out 20 ml of 0.1 N Na2CO3 solution into a clean conical

 Then titrate the solution against hydrochloric acid taken in the

 Record end point (burette reading) when color changes from

 Repeat the titration till the concordant (two consecutive burette

Titration II: Estimation of Na2CO3 and NaOH in a given

 Pipette out 20 ml of this made up solution into a clean conical

 Record the burette reading as an end point (phenolphthalien

 Consider the burette reading at the end point be ‘A’ ml.

Titration II: Estimation of Na2CO3 and NaOH in a given

 Note down the burette reading as methyl orange end point.

 Repeat the titration till the concordant (two consecutive

A = all hydroxide ions + half of carbonate ions

B = half the carbonate ions after phenolphthalein end point

2B = all carbonate ions

A-B = all hydroxide ions

Titration II: Estimation of Na2CO3 and NaOH in a given mixture.

 Amount of Na2CO3 present in the given solution = ----- g

 Amount of NaOH present in the given solution = ----- g

Conductometric titration – Determination of

 Electrolytic conductivity of the reaction mixture is continuously

 The equivalence point is the point at which the conductivity

 The electrical conductivity of an electrolytic solution is dependent

 The method can be used for titrating coloured solutions or

 Conductivity may be measured by applying an alternating

 Electrical current is the movement of charged particles

 Conductance is a measure of how easily those charge

 Conductivity is the conductance (S) measured across

 Conductance of an ion depends on its size and mobility in

 The order of size of hydrated ionic radii of alkali metal cations

 Hence the ease of ionic conductance is :

 The main advantages to the conductometric titration are its

 For example, which neither a potentiometric, nor indicator

Neutralization between a strong acid (HCl) and a strong base

As we add NaOH(aq) to the HCl(aq) in excess, some of the highly

H+(aq) + OH-(aq) ⇋ H2O(l)

The dissociation constant for water is small (Kw = 10-14 at 25°C) so

 Before NaOH is added, the conductance is high due to the

 When the base is added, the conductance falls due to the