Answers

Q1
1. Drilling program
2. Casing setting depths
3. Casing program
4. Mud program
5. Pressure & Hydraulic Plan
6. Cementing program
7. Logging program
8. Completion program
Q2
Pressure:
Pressure is defined as the force acting on a unit area. In the oil field,
pressure is commonly measured in pounds per square inch (psi).

Formula:

P= F/A Where P is the pressure

F is the magnitude of the normal force
A is the Area of the surface in Contact

Pressure Gradient:
The pressure gradient reflects the rate at which pressure varies with
depth).

Can be expressed:

Pressure Gradient = 0.052 X Mt

Where

Mt= fluid density( mud weight ) lb/gal.

The pore pressure gradient is the density of the fluid in the pore space
is often expressed in units of (psi / ft).

Density:

(the volumetric mass density also known as specific mass), of a

substance is its mass per unit volume.

And also referred to as the mud weight, density may be expressed as

pounds per gallon (lb/gal), pounds per cubic foot (lb/ft3).
The density is measured by instrument called The mud balance.

Normal formation pressure:

Normal Pressure Gradient 0.465 Psi/Ft
Is in any geologic setting will equal the hydrostatic head (Phy) (i.e.
hydrostatic pressure) of water from the surface to the subsurface.

Where

The Hydrostatic Pressure is the pressure executed by a column of fluid.

 Hydrostatic pressure = Hydrostatic Pressure gradient X density of

fluid X Vertical Depth
 Expressed Mathematically as HP(psi) = 0.052 X Mt X TVD

Where: HP = hydrostatic pressure ,Psi. MT= fluid density(mud

weight ) Lb/gal. TVD = True Vertical Fluid Column (i.e. depth) ft.

Subnormal pressure:
Sub-normal Pressure Gradient < 0.465 Psi/Ft
is weak or low pressure zones, in drilling require low mud
weight and setting additional casing strings for hole stability.

Abnormal pressure:
Abnormal Pressure Gradient > 0.465 Psi/Ft
High pressure zone, effect the well plan including the
following :
Type and Mud weight selection.
Cement planning.
Casing setting depth selection.
Casing and tubing design
 Problems Considered as a result of high formation
pressure:
Differential pressure pipe sticking.
Kicks and blow out
Lost circulation resulting from high mud weight.
Caving shale

The overburden formation gradient:

The overburden formation gradient (psi/ft) is not constant with depth

due to variations in formation density.

its increases uniformly by depth with a gradient of 1.0 psi/ft . maximum

overburden gradient in calstic rocks may be as high as 1.35 psi/ft

OR
FORMATION FRACTURE GRADIENT:

Pressure above which injection of fluids will cause

the rock formation to fracture hydraulically.

If the pressure in the borehole exceeds the fracture pressure then the
formations will fracture and losses of drilling fluid will occur.

fracture pressure gradient

The pressure required to induce fractures in rock at a given depth.

Or
obtained by dividing the true vertical depth into the fracture
pressure. 
Fresh water gradient:
Hydrostatic pressure gradient equal 0.433 psi/ft

Sea water gradient:

Hydrostatic pressure gradient equal 0.447 – 0.460 psi/ft

Geostatic pressure:
the geostatic pressure : at a given depth is the vertical pressure due to the
.weight of a column of rock and the fluids contained in the rock above that depth
ECD:
Q3:
Kick is:
An unscheduled entry of formation fluids into the wellbore of sufficient quantity to
require shutting in the well .

Causes of kick:
Once the hydrostatic pressure is less than the formation pore pressure.

This can happen when one or a combination of the following occurs;

 Abnormal Formation Pressure, Gas Cut Mud

 Kicks Occur When Under Balance
 Under Balance Is Caused by:
 Mud Hydrostatic Reduction
 Increase in Formation Pressure

indications of kick:

 Pit gain
 Increase drilling rate (ROP)
 Increase in hook load
 Shows of gas, oil, or salt water
 Well flows after mud pump has been shut down

Well Control Methods:

1. Primary Well Control

Maintains a hydrostatic pressure in the wellbore greater than the
pressure of the fluids in the formation being drilled

2. Secondary Well Control

Secondary well control is done after the Primary oil well control has
failed ,a blowout preventer (BOP) is a large valve used to seal, control
and monitor oil and gas wells to prevent blowout .

Kick Warning Signs:

 ROP Changes
 Overbalance Less
 Softer Rock
 Hole condition
 Squeezing Rock
 Torque / Drag / Fill
 Data from Mud
 Gas ,Cutting ,Temperature , Chloride , Shale Property, Trip Monitor
major Warning Signs:

 Improper Fill up or Displacement During Trips

 Connection Gas
 Increased Background Gas
 Increased Drilling Rate
 Flow line Mud Temperature Increase
 Increased Chloride Content of Mud
 Increased Drill String Torque
 Increased Drill String Drag
 Increased Number and Size of Cuttings

Q4:
Q7:
Q8:
Power Law Model(time-independent):

The power-law model is defined by the following mathematical model:

= K(n

Where n= flow behavior index which varies between 0 and 1

shear stress

shear rate
K= consistency index
The Equation Shear Stress to Shear Rate Relationship for Power Law
Fluids

the power-law model can be used to represent a pseudo plastic fluid

(n < 1), a Newtonian fluid (n = 1), or a dilatant fluid (n > 1). The above is
only valid for laminar flow.

Pipe Flow

 Determine n and k.
θ600
n = 3.32 log ( θ )
300

θ300
k = (511)n

Figure shear stress vs. shear rate relationship for power law fluids.
Q9:
Factors Affecting Well Costs:

Well costs for a single well depend on:

1. Geographical location

2. Type of well

3. Drill ability

4. Hole depth

5. Well target(s)

6. Profile

7. Subsurface problems

8. Rig costs

9. Completion type

10. Knowledge of the area

The total well costs for a development drilling

:program comprising several wells depend on
• Rig rate

• Well numbers and well type

• Total hole depth

• Well layout and spacing

• Specifications of equipment ,

• Water depth for offshore wells

Q10

 Tectonically Stressed Formations

 High in-situ stresses
 Mobile formations
 Unconsolidated formations
 Naturally Over-Pressured Shale Collapse
 Induced Over-Pressured Shale Collapse

Controllable factors:

 Bottom hole pressure (mud density).

 Well Inclination and Azimuth
 Transient wellbore pressures
 Physical/chemical fluid-rock interaction
 Drill string vibrations (during drilling)
 Drilling fluid temperature

Some Indicator of Wellbore Instability during

drilling operation:

 Excessive drill string vibrations

 Excessive volume of caving, Excessive volume of cuttings
 Excess cement volume required, increased circulating pressures

There are four different types of borehole

instabilities:

 Hole closure
 Hole enlargement
 Fracturing

 Collapse

Drilling problems can be very costly. The most

prevalent drilling problems include:
 Pipe sticking
 Loss of circulation
 Hole deviation
 Pipe failures
 Borehole instability
 Mud contamination
 Formation damage
 Hole cleaning
 H2S-bearing zones
 Shallow gas zones
 Equipment and personnel-related problems

Types and associated Problems:

There are four different types of borehole instabilities:

 Hole closure or narrowing

 Hole enlargement or washouts
 Fracturing
 Collapse

Hole closure:
Hole closure is a narrowing time-dependent process of borehole
instability. It sometimes is referred to as creep under the overburden
pressure, and it generally occurs in plastic-flowing shale and salt
sections. Problems associated with hole closure are:

 Increase in torque and drag

 Increase in potential pipe sticking
 Increase in the difficulty of casings landing

Hole enlargement:
Hole enlargements are commonly called washouts because the hole
becomes undesirably larger than intended. Hole enlargements are
generally caused by:

 Hydraulic erosion
 Mechanical abrasion caused by drillstring
 Inherently sloughing shale
The problems associated with hole enlargement are:

 Increase in cementing difficulty

 Increase in potential hole deviation
 Increase in hydraulic requirements for effective hole cleaning
 Increase in potential problems during logging operations

Fracturing:
Fracturing occurs when the wellbore drilling-fluid pressure exceeds the
formation-fracture pressure. The associated problems are lost
circulation and possible kick occurrence.

Collapse:
Borehole collapse occurs when the drilling-fluid pressure is too low to
maintain the structural integrity of the drilled hole. The associated
problems are pipe sticking and possible loss of well.