A2) Vocabulary Synonyms

Velocity – f) speed

Criterion – d) Standard

Ratio – a) Relation

Viscosity – h) Viscidness

Friction – b) Rubbing

Perpendicular – c) Vertical

Starboard – e) Right hand

Swing – g) Swipe

B1) Discussion Questions

1) The four forces acting on an aircraft in straight and level, unaccelerated flight
are thrust, drag, lift and weight. They are defined as follows:
Thrust – The forward force produced by the propeller or rotor. It acts parallel
to the longitudinal axis.
Drag – Drag opposes thrust and acts rearward parallel to the relative wind.
Lift – It is a force that is produced by the dynamic effect of the air acting on
the airfoil and acts perpendicular to the flight path through the center of lift.
Weight – It’s a force that pulls the aircraft downward because of the force of
gravity.
2) When thrust and drag are equal and working in opposite directions, an
airplane will continue to move forward at the same uniform speed. If thrust is
greater than drag, the aircraft will accelerate.
3) Engineers apply the principles of aerodynamics to the designs of many
different things, including buildings, bridges and even soccer balls.
Furthermore, automobiles started using aerodynamic body shapes in the early
part of their history. As engines became more powerful and cars became
faster, automobile engineers realized that wind resistance significantly
hindered their speed.
4) Shock waves: They are formed when a pressure front moves at supersonic
speeds and pushes on the surrounding air.
Vortex: Wingtip vortices are circular patterns of rotating air left behind a
wing as it generates lift. One wingtip vortex trails from the tip of each wing.
Atmosphere: The atmosphere is the space around the Earth which is filled
by a mixture of gasses held against the Earth by the force of gravity. This
mixture of gasses we call air.
Hypersonic Speed: For aircraft speeds which are much greater than the
speed of sound, the aircraft is said to be hypersonic. Typical speeds for
hypersonic aircraft are greater than 3000 mph and Mach number M greater
than five, M > 5.
Compressible flow: Compressible flow (or gas dynamics) is the branch of
fluid mechanics that deals with flows having significant changes in fluid
density.
Boundary layer: The boundary layer is a very thin layer of air lying over the
surface of the wing and, for that matter, all other surfaces of the airplane.
Turbulence: Turbulence is caused when an airplane flies through waves of
air that are irregular or violent, which cause the aircraft to bounce around
yawing, pitching, or rolling.
Airfoil: An airplane's wing has a special shape called an airfoil. The airfoil is
shaped so that the air traveling over the top of the wing travels farther and
faster than the air traveling below the wing.
Finite Element Theory: Finite Element Analysis (FEA) is a simulation tool
that is used to analyze and test components and systems strengths and
behavior under environmental conditions. In aerospace manufacturing, FEA
software is used to predict how aerospace parts will react to structural and
thermal loads.
Aspect ratio: The aspect ratio of an aerofoil is the ratio between the length
and the average width of the surface. For a wing, the aspect ratio is the ratio
of wing length to average chord.
B2) Scanning

1- First line.
2- Fourth line.
3-
4- From 14th to 17th lines.
5- 24th and 25th lines.
6- Aerodynamic force and moment, 2nd and 3rd lines.
7- Aerodynamic force and moment, 4th and 5th lines.
8- Pitching moment, 1st line.
9- Yawning moment, 1st line.
10- Last paragraph.

D1) Choosing

1) C- Control volume.
2) D- When problems encounter only very small viscous effects on the solution.
3) D- It is useful to separate the aerodynamic force and moment into three
components each.
4) A- Cross-wind force is the component of force in a spanwise direction.
5) B- Having knowledge in aerodynamics is necessary in all physical sciences and
technologies.
6) A- Aerospace engineers.
7) C- Paragraph 7.
8) A- General definitions and classifications are provided.

D2) True or False – Scanning

1) True – 9th line.

2) True – 3rd paragraph.
3) False – 4th paragraph.
4) True – 5th paragraph, last two lines.
5) False – Lift, last two lines.
6) Non mentioned.
7) False – Rolling moment, 2nd line.
D3) Matching

Bank – 4
Angle of attack – 5
Dive – 6
Gust – 1
Spin – 3
Stall - 2
D4) Vocabulary

1) Flow field
2) Pipe
3) Diflection
4) stream
5) roll
D5) Check Your Comprehension

1) Aerodynamics is a branch of dynamics concerned with studying the motion

of air, particularly when it interacts with a moving object. Aerodynamics is a
subfield of fluid dynamics and gas dynamics, with much theory shared
between them. Aerodynamics is often used synonymously with gas dynamics,
with the difference being that gas dynamics applies to all gases.
Understanding the motion of air (often called a flow field) around an object
enables the calculation of forces and moments acting on the object.
2) Aerodynamic problems can be identified in a number of ways. The flow
environment defines the first classification criterion.
The ratio of the problem's characteristic flow speed to the speed of sound
comprises a second classification of aerodynamic problems.
The influence of viscosity in the flow dictates a third classification. Some
problems may encounter only very small viscous effects on the solution, in
which case viscosity can be considered to be negligible.
3) The viscosity of the air leads to the existence of frictional forces tending to
resist its flow. As a result of these processes, the airplane experiences a
resultant aerodynamic force and moment.
4) This is the component of force acting upwards, perpendicular to the
direction of flight or of the undisturbed stream. The word ‘upwards’ is used in
the same sense that the pilot’s head is above his feet.
5) Drag is the force that acts opposite to the direction of motion. It tends to
slow an object. There is also weight that the force caused by gravity.

D6) Bring to Order

IADFBCGEH

D7) Picture Practice

Cuban Eight: 5/8s of a loop to the 45 degree line, 1/2 roll, 6/8s of a loop to the
45 degree line, 1/2 roll, 1/8s of a loop to level flight (the figure can be flown
backwards, known as a "Reverse Cuban Eight").

Half Cuban Eight: From level flight, 5/8s loop to the inverted 45° line, 1/2 roll
to erect down 45° line, pull to level flight. The move is like an Immelmann
turn with the difference being in the location in the loop at which the roll is
performed. The roll in an Immelmann turn is at the top of the loop.

Reverse Half Cuban Eight: From level flight pull to the 45° up line, 1/2 roll to
inverted 45° up line, then 5/8s of a loop to level flight.

Hammerhead: a maneuver in which an airplane pulls up in a vertical climb until

it almost stalls and then drops the nose in a wingover so that direction of flight is
reversed.

Immelmann: an Immelmann turn (also known as a roll-off-the-top, or simply an

Immelmann) is an aerobatic maneuver that results in level flight in the opposite
direction at a higher altitude.

Split S: To execute a Split S, the pilot half-rolls their aircraft inverted and
executes a descending half-loop, resulting in level flight in the opposite direction
at a lower altitude. The Immelmann and Split S are very similar, both
accomplishing the same reversal in course, but the Split S exchanges altitude to
gain speed, while the Immelmann turn exchanges speed to gain altitude.
Vertical Up: Fly the aircraft so that the fuselage is perpendicular to the ground
(along the wings' zero lift axis). The attitude of the aircraft is judged, not the
flightpath, therefore the aircraft may drift downwind during a vertical maneuver.

45ºC Up Lines: Fly the vertical attitude plus or minus 45°. As for vertical lines
the attitude of the aircraft is judged, not the flightpath as viewed by a ground
observer, which may differ depending on whether the figure is flown into or with
the wind, and the wind strength.

Inside Loop: A vertical circle entered from straight and erect level flight. A
positive pitching movement is used at all points in the loop to draw the circle, so
that the aeroplane canopy is pointing inwards. Both the inside and outside loop
are sometimes casually referred to as a 'loop the loop'.

Outside Loop: A vertical circle entered from straight and erect level flight,
canopy pointing out of the loop. Loop can be above or below the straight and
level entry altitude, from erect or inverted attitude. (Draws extreme negative G).

English Bunt: Half an outside loop starting from upright, straight and erect level
flight. (The pilot pushes the stick forward and draws a half circle in the sky from
the top down).

Spin: A family of auto-rotational maneuvers, consisting of normal or "flat" spins,

either upright or inverted. Two components must exist to spin an aircraft: 1)
critical angle of attack (COA), which means that the aircraft is stalled, and 2) yaw.

Snap Roll: A family of rapid autorotational or "horizontal spins," not unlike spins.
Rotation is induced by a rapid pitch input followed by rapid yaw input, thus
stalling one wing further than the other. This imbalance in lift causes the high
speed roll.

Tailslide: 1/4 looping up, straight vertical (full power) until the aircraft loses
momentum. The aircraft falls backwards, tail first, until the nose drops through
the horizon to a vertical down position. 1/4 loop (push or pull) to recover to level
flight.
Part 2)

1) From 1974 to 2006. It’s replaced by the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet.

2) The F-14 first developed in 1974 with the U.S. Navy abord USS Enterprise.
3) The radar on the Mig 29 had an aerial detection range of around 90 miles
(140km), while the AWG-9 on the F-14 could detect air targets out to 230
miles (370km). Combine this with the fact that the longest ranged air to air
missile of the Mig 29 had an effective kill range out to about 30 miles (45km)
while the F-14 carried air to air missiles that could kill targets out to 120 miles
(190km). Though being fair those generally had reliability issues in actual
combat, and more than likely the F-14 would close to use shorter ranged
missiles with comparable ranges to the Mig 29’s.
4) It’s written with an objective tone which includes facts and reasonable
explanations. Because it is a text written to give information.
5)