8.

1 COMPLEX INHERITANCE

I. Epigenetics
9 Differences in traits that are not due to changes in DNA sequence.

A. Polygenic / Continuous Traits

 Don't just have two or even just four variations

 Example:
 Humans don't just come in two clear-cut "tall" and "short" varieties.
 Tall parents can have a short child
 Short parents can have a tall child
 Two parents of different heights may or may not have a child in the
middle.
 Siblings with the same two parents may have a range of heights,
ones that don't fall into distinct categories

 This trait follows a complex inheritance pattern

 Height and other similar features are controlled not just by one gene, but rather,
by multiple (often many) genes that each make a small contribution to the overall
outcome.

 Other polygenic traits: hair colour, eye colour, skin colour

B. Environmental Influences
 Human phenotypes—and phenotypes of other organisms—also vary because
they are affected by the environment.

 A person may have a genetic tendency to be underweight or obese, but

his or her actual weight will depend on diet and exercise—with these
factors often playing a greater role than genes.

 Non-human species example:

 Himalayan rabbits whose fur turns white when exposed to low
temperatures
 Hydrangea flowers that have blue flowers if soil is acidic, and pink
flowers if soil is alkaline
 Certain reptiles whose sex is determined by the temperature the
eggs are exposed to (higher temp = female).

C. Incomplete Dominance
 The phenotype - instead of always expressing either the dominant or recessive
trait - can exhibit a blend between the two alleles.

 Examples:
  In a species of snapdragon plant, if a homozygous white flower is crossed
with a homozygous red flower, the result will be an offspring with pink
flowers
 In humans, if one parent has curly hair and the other straight hair, their
child could have wavy hair—which is a blend of the two phenotypes.

D. Codominance
 Closely related to incomplete dominance
 Both alleles are simultaneously expressed in the heterozygote

 Example:
 In flowers, this could appear as a red flower being crossed with a white
flower to produce flowers that are red and white—signifying that the traits
are codominant.

 A human example of codominance is a person who has type AB blood.

 The "A" and "B" from this blood type represent two different
proteins that are expressed on the surface of red blood cells.
ê Instead of one being more dominant and overpowering the
other, if they are both inherited, they are both expressed,
which gives rise to this particular blood type.

II. X-Linked Inheritance and Multiple Alleles

A. X-linked Inheritance
 Occurs when traits are present in genes on the X chromosome

 Examples include:
 Colour-blindness
 Hemophilia: blood is not able to clot properly
 DMD: muscles waste away, and the individual dies by the age of 20
 Fragile X: common form of mental disability, mental cognition delay

 Most X-linked disorders are recessive.

 Which means that in a person with two X chromosomes (most females),
both copies of the gene must contain the mutated gene in order for it to be
expressed.
 Having one affected X chromosome makes the person a “carrier”.
 In a person with an X and Y chromosome (most males), only one copy of
the gene must have a mutation to be expressed.

 “Can the daughter of a hemophilic man also have hemophilia? If so, how
is it possible?”
 Yes, if the mother was also hemophilic, or if she was a carrier.

 “What are the chances that a woman who is a carrier of DMD and a
healthy man will have a child with the disease?”
  There is a 25% chance.

 ABO blood type is a good example of inheritance that follows a complex mode of
inheritance.

 Blood type in humans can be Type A, B, AB or O.

 This trait is more complex because three alleles exist instead of just
two (has "multiple alleles").

 The notation for writing blood type alleles/genotypes is slightly

different too.
ê These are the 3 alleles: IA, IB, and i.
4 Two of the alleles are codominant with each other (IA
and IB), and one is recessive (i). IA and IB are both
dominant over allele i.

 Example:
 If a man who is IA i has children with a woman who is IB i, what are
the genotypic and phenotypic ratios for their offspring?

1) Key:
Codominant allele = IA
Codominant allele= IB
Recessive allele = i

2) Parental Genotypes:
Male = IA i
Female = IB i

3) Punnett Square:

FEMALE

IB i
MALE

IA IA IB IA i

i IB i ii
 4) Calculate the Genotype and Phenotype Ratios:

ALLELE 1 ALLELE 2 PHENOTYPE GENOTYPE

IA IA IA IA Type A
IA IB I B ¼ x 100 I B B B
I I 25%
Type B
IA i I A ¼ x 100 i A
I i 25%
Type A
B B
IB i I ¼ x 100 i I i Type B
25%
A B A B
ii I ¼ x 100 I I I Type AB
25%
i i ii Type O
GENOTYPE RATIO
A B
I I IA i IB i ii
25% 25% 25% 25%
1 1 1 1

Type AB ¼ x 100 25%

Type A ¼ x 100 25%
Type B ¼ x 100 25%
Type O ¼ x 100 25%

PHENOTYPE RATIO
Type AB Type A Type B Type O
25% 25% 25% 25%
1 1 1 1
III. Evolution
9 the “change in the inherited traits in a population of organisms over time”

9 Ecology describes how organisms live in their environment.

 Ecology and evolution are related in that evolution is the consequence of
ecology over time.

Darwin's Theory & Natural Selection

A. Natural Selection
 the "process" by which populations evolve.
 This theory was first published by Charles Darwin in 1859 in his book:
On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection.

 "Survival of the Fittest"

 Every living cell has its own genetic material that can prove to be
beneficial or detrimental in a certain environment.
 Populations evolve by means of natural selection.
 Beneficial traits will be passed on to future generations through
their DNA.

 The fittest does not necessarily mean bigger or stronger.

E. Microevolution and Macroevolution

1) Microevolution
 The change in inherited traits in a population of organisms within a single
species over time.
 Small changes within a population over time.

 Examples:
 Antibiotic-resistant bacteria
 "Lamarck's giraffes."
ê Classic example given by Jean Baptiste Lamarck— a French
Zoologist from the 18th century.
ê Explains evolution through acquired inheritance.
4 A theory that argues life forms develop new traits
throughout their life and pass on those traits to their
offspring.

ê In the case of a giraffe, Lamarck believed that giraffes once

had short necks that got progressively longer as members of
each subsequent generation stretched their necks as long as
they could.

ê In doing so, Lamarck believed that each generation would

grow slightly longer necks and pass that trait onto their
offspring.

ê Darwin believed that the variation is not created by

experience, but already exists when selection acts on it.

ê Giraffes who were able to feed higher up on the trees had

more food, and so were able to survive and reproduce better
than their shorter-necked relatives.
2) Artificial Selection/Selective Breeding

 Examples:
 Humans determine which organisms should reproduce, rather than
leaving the species to evolve and change naturally.

 Dog breeders
ê Many varieties of dogs are bred based on traits that were
appealing.
ê Breeders determine which traits will be successful, rather than
nature.

 The wild mustard plant, for example, is where many of the brassica
vegetables (broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage, kale) evolved from due to
artificial selection by humans.

3) Macroevolution
 The production of new species via thousands-to-millions of years of
microevolution.
 Based on the theory that small changes in genes over time (microevolution)
cause great changes (new species) over long periods of time.
 Large-scale change that give rise to a new species.