Bulk Forming Processes (I)

Prof. Dr. Melik DÖLEN

Middle East Technical University

Department of Mechanical Engineering

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 1

 Content
 Classification
 Steady-state Processes
 Non-steady State Processes
 Bulk Workability
 Forces in Bulk Forming
 Friction in Metal Forming
 Mean Flow Stress
 Forging
 Upsetting
 Plane Strain Indentation
 Flat Rolling
Photos from Sakamura Press Company and
Satimaco Industries’ web pages.
3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 2
 Classification of Forming Processes

Metal
MetalForming
FormingProcesses
Processes

Bulk Forming Processes Sheet Forming Processes

Bulk Forming Processes Sheet Forming Processes

• Spatial workpieces • Planar workpieces (sheets, plates)

• Large changes in cross-section
& large changes in thicknesses
• Material flows in all directions
• Generally multi-axial compressive
stress states
• Larger relative forces
• Hollow pieces with almost constant
thickness
• Generally two-axial stress states:
tensile-tensile/tensile-compressive

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 3

 Bulk Forming Processes
Bulk
BulkForming
FormingProcesses
Processes

Steady-state Processes Non-steady-state Processes

Steady-state Processes Non-steady-state Processes

Deformation patterns are Deformation patterns are

independent of time. dependent on time.
Example: Example:
Extrusion, rolling, drawing Upsetting, forging, extrusion

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 4

 Steady-State Processes
 All parts of the workpiece are subjected
to same mode of deformation.
 Once the deformation zone is analyzed,
the analysis remains valid throughout
the process.
 Rolling (Flat, Ring, Tube, Shape)
 Drawing (Wire, Bar, Tube)

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 5

 Non-Steady-State Processes

 Geometry of the part changes

continually.
 The analysis must be repeated at
instances (in time).
 Upsetting
 Forging

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 6

 Transitional Processes
 Some processes do have transitional
character.
 In extrusion, the deformation is non-
steady state at the beginning and the
end of the process.
 It acquires steady state characteristics
when the greater part of the billet is
extruded.

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 7

 Processes (Cont’d)

(Schey, 1983)

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 8

 Metal Forming Processes
Metal
MetalForming
FormingProcesses
Processes

Cold Forming Warm Forming Hot Forming

Cold Forming Warm Forming Hot Forming

Forming at room temp. Forming above room Forming above room

(everyday sense) temp. (everyday sense) temp. (everyday sense)

Forming below the Forming below or around Forming above the recry-
recrystallization temp. the recrystallization temp. stallization temperature

Steel @ Room Temp. Steel @ 750-950oC Steel @ 1150-1250oC

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 9

 Bulk Workability
Ductility is the ability to deform without fracture in uni-axial tension.

Bulk workability is the generalization of the term ductility to multi-

axial stress states. Hence, the ability to deform without fracture under
general stress states is termed as bulk workability.

Good bulk workability requires good ductility. But the amount of

deformation a material can sustain depends also on the stress state of
the forming process.

As a general rule, the more compressive the hydrostatic stress the

higher is the bulk workability.

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 10

 Bulk Workability Criteria
The most practical bulk workability criterion is based on the ideal
equivalent strain of a forming process. For each process there
exists a limiting ideal equivalent strain until fracture.

Other Criteria:
Cockroft & Latham Criterion: For fracture, the work done by the
highest local tensile stress must reach a critical value.
Datko’s Criterion: For fracture, a natural tensile strain must be
equal to the natural strain at fracture in a simple tension
specimen.

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 11

 Forces in Bulk Forming
Relevance of Forming Forces:
1. To design the tools (tool pressures, stresses)
2. To select the appropriate forming press
3. To evaluate the elastic deformations in the forming system

Methods
MethodsofofForce
ForceComputation
Computation

Empirical Experimental Analytical Numerical

Empirical Experimental Analytical Numerical

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 12

 Friction in Metal Forming
Maximum possible frictional shear stress is:  max
friction   yield  k

Note that k = 0.5·Y (Tresca) or k = 0.577·Y (von Mises)

Coulomb Model: Shear Model:

Ffriction = m ·Fnormal
friction = m·k
friction = m ·normal
Friction coefficient m is Friction factor m is
0  m  0.5 (0.577) 0m 1
Best suited for cold forming. Best suited for hot forming.

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 13

 Friction in Metal Forming
1.2k 0.7
m = 1.0 frictionmax= k = Y/2 (Tresca)

mmax
1.0k 0.6
 friction

m = 0.5

Maximum Friction Coefficient

m = 0.2 0.5
0.8k
Frictional Shear Stress

m = 0.1 0.4
0.6k
0.3
0.4k
0.2

0.2k
0.1
plastic elast. plastic
elast.
0.0k 0.0
0
0*Y Y
1*Y 2Y
2*Y 3Y
3*Y 4Y
4*Y 0
0*Y Y
1*Y 2Y
2*Y 3Y
3*Y 4Y
4*Y 5Y
5*Y 6Y
6*Y
Normal Stress Normal Stress

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 14

 Friction in Metal Forming
Metal working lubricants are used:
 To prevent die/workpiece adhesion
 To control surface finish
 To cool system during cold working
 To help prevent heat loss in hot working

Metal working lubricants must be:

 Non-toxic
 Easy to use & remove
 Inactive (non-reactive)

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 15

 Mean Flow Stress
 Flow stress (f) is defined as the stress needed to
maintain plastic deformation at the temperature, strain,
and strain-rates prevailing in the process.
 For non-steady state processes (like forging),
instantaneous flow stress at the end of deformation is
utilized in the computations.
 For steady-state processes (such as rolling and
extrusion), mean flow stress is often-times employed.

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 16

 Mean Flow Stress (Cont’d)
Average value of the flow stress in cold-forming can be expressed as
 eq
1
 fmean   fm 
 eq  0   f ( )d
n
0
f
 eq  eq
1 K   n 1
 mean

 K d   eq  n  1  
n
 f

 eq 0 0

K eq
n

 fm  where 0+  0. 0+
n 1
eq

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 17

 Mean Flow Stress (Cont’d)
For convenience, manufacturing engineers frequently employ the tensile-
strength (UTS) of a material as the mean flow stress:
 fm  UTS
Recall that the true stress corresponding
to the UTS (an engineering quantity) is  UTS  K ( u )n  K (n )n

Since    eng e   UTS  UTS  e n
n For n = 0.1  0.5, the
n difference between the
Hence  fm  UTS  K   integrated expression and
e the UTS is less than 10%.

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 18

 Forging

Forging Processes
Forging Processes

Open Die Impression Closed Die

Open Die Impression Closed Die
Forging Forging Forging
Forging Forging Forging

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 19

 Open-die Forging

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 20

 Closed-die Forging

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 21

 Plain Strain Upsetting
Assumptions:

 Width of the workpiece does

not change (plane strain).
 x is uniform over the plane
normal to the x-direction.
 x and y= -p are principal
stresses, although friction is
present.
 Plane sections remain plane
although friction is included.
 Assume no hardening.

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 22

 Plane Strain Upsetting (2)
F x 0   x  h 1   x  d x   h 1  2    dx 1  0
p h  d x  2    dx  0

Tresca:  x   p   2  k
x x+d x
h  d x  dp
 h  dp  2    dx  0

p 2 
dp   dx  0
h
dx
3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 23
 Plane Strain Upsetting (3)
2m  p
Assuming Coulomb friction:   m  p dp   dx  0
h
dp 2m 2m  x
Integrating: p  
h
  dx ln p  
h
 C*

2m  x
Hence: where C = ln C*
p( x )  C  e h

Boundary condition:  x  0 at x  a p  2k

2m a 2m
p( x ) p( x ) a  x 
Therefore: C  2k  e h  e h
2k Y

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 24

 Plane Strain Upsetting (4)
The average interface pressure can
be found as:
a
pav 1 p( x )
   dx
2k a 0 2k

pav pav
2k

Y

h
2m a

e 2m a h  1 
Taylor series expansion including
the quadratic term yields

pav pav a
 1 m 
2k Y h
3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 25
 Plain Strain Upsetting (5)
2k
Assuming sticking friction:  k dp   dx  0
h
2k 2k
p  x  C **
Integrating:  dp  
h
  dx
h

p( x ) x
Hence:    C **
2k h

Boundary condition:  x  0 at x  a p  2k

a p( x ) p( x ) ax
Therefore: C  1
**  1
h 2k Y h
3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 26
 Plain Strain Upsetting (6)
The average interface pressure can
be found as:
(1+a/h)Y

a
pav 1 p( x )
   dx
2k a 0 2k

pav pav a
  1  0 .5 
2k Y h

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 27

 Plain Strain Upsetting (7)
Assume that we have in the core sticking friction up to x = x1 and
outside sliding:
at x  x1 ,   k  m  p( x1 )
Since the general solution for the sliding friction case is still valid, we get:
2m
 2 m
a  x1    a  x1 
k  m  px1   m   2k  e
 h 
 1 m 2e h

 
Taking the logarithm of both sides:
h  1 
2m x1  a  ln 
0  ln 2  m   a  x1  2m  2m 
h
0  x  x1 sticking friction
x1  x  a Coulomb friction
3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 28
 Plane Strain Upsetting (8)
2 m 2 m  h  1   1 
Pressure at x1: p( x1 )  p( x1 )  e
a  x1   a  a  ln  
2 m  2 m  
ln  
h   2m
h
e e 
2k Y
p( x1 ) p( x1 ) 1
 
2k Y 2 m

Pressure at 0  x  x1: p( x1 )   x1  C **  1 C ** 
x1

1
2k h 2 m h 2m

p( x ) p( x ) a  x 1   1 
   1  ln 
2k Y h 2m   2m 

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 29

 Plane Strain Upsetting (9)
Condition for total surface slide:

h  1 
x1  0  a  ln   0
2m  2m 

2a 1  1 
 ln 
h m  2m 

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 30

 Example
An aluminium slab of 750 mm x 80 mm x 36 mm is forged to the
thickness of 25 mm. Find the upsetting force if the flow curve of
aluminium is f=1400.25 MPa and the coefficient of friction is
assumed to be 0.2.

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 31

 Solution
From volume constancy, we can determine the unknown dimension 2a:

750  80  36 mm 3  750  2a  25 mm 2 2a  115.2 mm

Ideal equivalent strain:

 h0   36 mm 
 eq  ln    ln    eq  0.36
 h1   25 mm 
Effective flow stress:

 ffinal  K   eqn  140 MPa  0.36 0.25  ffinal  108.4 MPa

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 32

 Solution (Cont’d)
Check sticking or sliding friction:
h  1  115.2 mm 25 mm  1 
x1  a  ln  x1   ln  
2m  2m  2 2  0 .2  2  0 .2 

x1  0.33 mm Negligible! Therefore, we have only sliding friction.

a

The upsetting force is given by: F   px  dA  2 px   w dx

A 0

2m 2m a
h  
a
 a  x  a  x 
F  2  w Y  e h
dx  2  w  Y   e h

0
2m  0
3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 33
 Solution (Cont’d)
2m a 2m a
h  h  h  h 
F  2  w Y    e  1  w  Y    e  1
2m   m  

N 25 mm   20.2115.2 / 2 mm

F  750 mm 108.4   e 25 mm
 1 
mm 2 0.2  


F  15,378,996 N  15.4 MN

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 34

 Axisymmetric Upsetting
Force equilibrium in radial direction:

 r  h  r  d  2  m  p  r  d  dr
2   h  dr  d

2
 ( r  d r )  h  d  ( r  dr )  0

Neglecting higher order product of

differentials:
2  m  p  r  dr  h    dr
 h   r  dr  h  r  d r  0

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 35

 Axisymmetric Upsetting (Cont’d)
To derive strain-relationships, let us assume that a circle with radius r was
initially drawn on the surface of this disk and that it was divided into N
equal segments. The length of each segment then becomes

2  r An incremental change in the 2

l radius of this circle yields dl  dr
N N
dl 2
dr dr dl dr
Hence  N
 . By definition, d  ˆ d r ˆ
l 2
N r r l r

Consequently, d   d r

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 36

 Axisymmetric Upsetting (Cont’d)
Similary, the application of Levy-Mises flow rule (see Chapter 1) in
the principal directions gives
d  d r where the hydrostatic stress is

   h  r   h  h  13 (    r   z )

Since d   d r     r
On the other hand, the Tresca yield criterion reads

 r  p  2k  Y  d r  dp
2m r
Hence 2  m  p  r  dr   h  r  dp  ln p   C
h
3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 37
 Axisymmetric Upsetting (Cont’d)
From the Tresca yield criterion and the boundary condition:
 r  0 at r  R
It can be shown that at r = R: p  2k  Y

2m
So that p(r ) p(r ) ( R r )
 e h
2k Y
2
pave pave 1
R
p(r ) 1 h   2mhR 2  m  R 
2k

Y

  R2 
0
Y
2    r  dr   
2m R
  e


h
 1 

pave R
For purely sticking friction: 1
2k 3h
3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 38
 Plane Strain Indentation
Assumptions:
p  Indenter is narrow
(local deformation).
 w >> L, so that plane
strain condition can be
assumed.
 Pressure at the
L indenter-workpiece
height h

interface, p, can be
assumed constant over
the contact area.

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 39

 Plane Strain Indentation (2)
Case I: Case II Case III
Semi-Infinite Workpiece Thick Workpiece Thin Workpiece
h L8 1 h L  8 1 h L
p p
L p
L L

h h

h  p
p

p  3   f  3  UTS p  Qi   f p  1.15   f
3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 40
 Plain Strain Indentation (3)
Pressure multiplying
factor due to
inhomogeneous
deformation:

Or, approximately: Hill (1950)

h
Qi  0.3   0.7
L
3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 41
 Rolling
Kinematic
KinematicClassification
Classification

Longitudinal Rolling Transverse Rolling Oblique Rolling

Longitudinal Rolling Transverse Rolling Oblique Rolling

Classification by Die (Roll) Geometry

Classification by Die (Roll) Geometry

Flat Rolling Shape Rolling

Flat Rolling Shape Rolling

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 42

 Shape Rolling

Transverse Rolling: Oblique Rolling:

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 43

 Flat Rolling
The process of reducing the
Upper
Radial force thickness of a slab to produce a
Roll Radial force
thinner and longer but only
slightly wider product is referred
Friction force
+ to as flat rolling.
Direction of travel

 Primary forming process.

 Hot rolling (not tight tolerances)
a
 Cold rolling (tight tolerances)
+
Lower  Normal anisotropy is induced in
Roll Angle of contact the sheet or band.

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 44

 Deformation Zone

Deformation Zone and Nomenclature in Flat Rolling

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 45

 Kinematics of Flat Rolling
Volume constancy requires:
v0  h0  w0  v  h  w  v1  h1  w1
w0
For  20
L
so that w0  w1  w

h0
Resulting v  v0 
h
Horizontal roll velocity at any :
v roll
v roll
cos 
Neutral point: v xroll  v
x

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 46

 Initial Grasp
To have initial grasp:
Fn  sin a  m  Fn  cos a
Fn tan a  m

Or, for small a: am

 h0  h1 
where a  cos 1 
1

 2R 
a  23 (in most cases)

a  4o to 6o (for thin sheet)

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 47

 Roll Forces
Roll Forces: Pr  1.15  L  w  Q   fm

Case I - Partial Plastification: hmean/L>1

hmean
Q  0.3   0.7 (Hill, 1950)
L
Case II - Full Plastification: hmean/L  1

h mean  hmL 
Length of region: L  Rh0  h1  Q e mean
 1 (Slab Method)
h h mL  
Mean thickness: hmean  0 1  
2
3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 48
 Mean Flow Stress
Cold Rolling:

K ( eq ) n
 fm  where  eq  lnh0 h1 
n 1

Hot Rolling:

ln h0 h1 
 eq
 fm  C (eq ) m
where eq  
t sheet
L vmean
Note that the mean flow stress in hot rolling depends on many
different parameters including temperature, reduction ratio, and
strain-rate (least significant!) (Sims, 1954).
3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 49
 Torque and Power Requirements
Torque per roll: Remark: The torque is
obtained from the normal
L forces alone, since frictional
T  Pr  forces can be considered to
2
cancel each other.

Total Power Requirement:

 L  vroll
Power  2  T   roll   2   Pr   
 2 R
v
Power  Pr  L  roll
R

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 50

 Elastic Flattening of Rolls
Precautions to Reduce
Elastic Flattening:

 Application of front and back tension

 Reducing friction by good lubrication
 Reducing the flow stress by annealing
 Using smaller diameter rolls backed up by
a cluster of rolls
 Using rolls with high elastic modulus (such
as sintered carbide)
 Placing the material between layers of soft
material, artificially increasing the
thickness

3/23/2020 ME 303 - Section 03a 51

 Roll Deflection Model
q = PR/w

y EI

x w

Using Euler beam model (simply supported beam with uniform load),
the elastic deflection of the roll becomes

y ( x)   qx
24 EI

w3  2 wx 2  x 3

5qw 4
ymax  y x  w / 2 
384 EI
R 4
I
4
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 Back and Front Tension

When a front tension (ft)

or a back tension (bt) is applied,
the compressive stress in effect
will be lowered:

Pr  1.15  L  w  Q   fm   t 
bt

ft

where t 
 ft   bt 
2

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 Support by Cluster of Rolls
Housing

Using cluster of rolls to

reduce elastic flattening
of working rolls.

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 Effect of Cambered Rolls

Use of cambered rolls Thickness variation of

to compensate for the sheet due to roll
roll bending. bending (uncambered)

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 Defects in Flat Rolling*
Here are some some common defects
when roll camber is insufficient:

Residual Stresses:
Edge – Compressive
Center – Tensile

Centerline Cracking

Warping

Edge Wrinkling [*] After Hosford & Caddell (1983)

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 Defects* (Cont’d)
Here are some some common defects
when roll camber is excessive:

Residual Stresses:
Edge – Tensile
Center – Compressive

Edge Cracking

Splitting

Centreline Wrinkling [*] After Hosford & Caddell (1983)

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