1.

Abstract

The experiment is conducted to determine the mechanical properties of materials and elastic or
plastic deformation of materials. The mechanical properties of materials can be tested by pulling it
to failure using Universal Testing Machine(UTM). When a material bar is clamped onto UTM, the bar
is pulled vertically. Since the force acting on the bar is vertical force, shear stress is absent. Next, the
mechanical properties of material can be determined by plotting graph of stress against strain.

2. Title

Tensile test

3. Introduction

Tensile test is performed for several reasons. The results of tensile test are used in selecting material
for engineering application. Tensile properties frequently are included in material specifications to
ensure quality. Tensile properties often are measured during development of new materials and
processes, so that different materials and processes can be compared. Next, tensile properties often
are used to predict the behaviour of a material under forms of loading other than uniaxial tension.
Several mechanical properties can be determined by conducting tensile test.

3.1 Young’s modulus

Young's modulus describes the relative stiffness of a material, which is measured by the slope of
elastic of a stress and strain graph. It is calculated by the ratio of stress value to its corresponding
strain value. A constant of proportionality will result, which is known as the modulus of elasticity,
or Young's modulus (E).

3.2 Yield strength

Yield strength refers to an indication of maximum stress that can be developed in a material without
causing plastic deformation. Yield point is usually plotted at plastic deformation = 0.2% , thus it is
also called 0.2% offset yield strength.

3.3 Tensile strength

Tensile strength is the resistance of steel to break under tensile tension. Tensile strength of material
will show us how much tensile stress the material can withstand until it leads to failure in two ways
which is ductile or brittle failure. When tensile strength is reached, necking will start to occur.

3.4 Ductility

Ductility is the ability of a material to be drawn or plastically deformed without fracture. It is

therefore an indication of how ‘soft’ or malleable the material is. Ductility can be measured by
percentage elongation or percentage of area reduction.
3.5 Elastic and plastic deformation

When a solid material is subjected to small stresses, the bonds between the atoms are stretched.
When the stress is removed, the bonds relax and the material returns to its original shape. This
reversible deformation is called elastic deformation. At higher stresses, interatomic bond will break.
This deformation, which is not recovered when the stress is removed, is termed plastic deformation.

4. Objectives

 To determine the mechanical properties of materials

 To determine elastic and plastic deformation of materials

5. Theoretical Background
6. Procedure

1. Total length of aluminium rod is measured using calliper.

2. Gauge length of aluminium rod is measured using calliper.
3. Diameter of gauge is measured using micrometer tool.
4. Universal Testing Machine is setup for tensile testing in the following steps
a. Aluminium rod is placed in UTM as instructed on machine
b. Total length and diameter of gauge are plugged into computer
c. Load, extension, and time value are reset to zero
d. Tensile test is started
5. After breaking of aluminium rod, breaking and graph on computer are recorded and
observed.
6. Length of the two parts of the rod is measured and combined.
7. Gauge diameter of one of the two pieces of the rod is measured.
8. Steps 1-7 are repeated for both aluminium rods and both mild steel rods.
 7. Result

Table 1: Initial and final dimensional data for 4 specimens

No. Material Inner Total Total final Initial Final Initial cross- Final cross-
length, initial length, diameter, diameter, sectional sectional
Li (mm) length, L(mm) Do (mm) D(mm) area, Ao ( area,
Lo (mm) mm )
2 A(mm¿¿ 2)¿
1 Aluminium 29.84 90.22 95.78 6.012 5.021 28.39 19.80
1
2 Aluminium 29.17 89.49 94.47 5.545 3.507 24.15 9.66
2
3 Mild steel 29.87 89.25 99.39 5.535 3.545 24.06 9.87
1
4 Mild steel 29.90 89.52 96.97 5.538 3.534 24.09 9.81
2

At maximum point:

Table 2: Tensile stress and tensile strain for 4 specimens at maximum point

No. Specimen Maximum Tensile stress at Tensile strain at Tensile extension

load (kN) maximum load maximum load at maximum load
(MPa) (mm/mm) (mm)
1 Aluminium 1 8 297.54 0.04 3.48
2 Aluminium 2 8 316.12 0.03 3.04
3 Mild steel 1 14 565.64 0.08 7.53
4 Mils steel 2 13 546.19 0.07 6.14

At break point:

Table 3: Tensile stress and tensile strain for 4 specimens at break point

No. Specimen Load at break Tensile stress at Tensile strain at Tensile extension
(Standard) break break (Standard) at break
 (kN) (Standard) (mm/mm) (Standard) (mm)
(MPa)
1 Aluminium 1 3.47 122.28 0.07 5.96
2 Aluminium 2 1.70 70.59 0.06 5.64
3 Mild steel 1 5.60 232.80 0.13 12.01
4 Mild steel 2 5.37 222.89 0.10 9.07

Figure 1: Graph of load against tensile strain for 4 specimens

Graph of tensile stress against tensile strain for aluminium 1

350

300

250 297.53778
Tensile stress (MPa)

265.2876 (Tensile strength)

200 (Yield strength)

150
122.27789

100 (Fracture point)

Plastic deformation
Elastic
50
deformation
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
Tensile strain
 Figure 2: Stress strain curve for aluminium 1

Graph of tensile stress against tensile strain for aluminium 2

350

300
Ten sile stress (M Pa)

250 316.12177
(Tensile strength)
280.42462
200

150 (Yield strength)

100
70.59151
Elastic
Plastic deformation
50 deformation

0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
(Fracture point)0.06 0.07
Tensile strain

Figure 3: Stress strain curve for aluminium 2

Graph of tensile stress against tensile strain for mild steel 1

600

500
Tensile stress (M Pa)

565.64069
(Tensile strength)
400
424.89563
(Yield
300 232.80301
strength) (Fracture
point)
200

Elastic Plastic deformation

100 deformation

0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16
Tensile strain
 Figure 4: Stress strain curve for mild steel 1

Graph of tensile stress against tensile strain for mild steel 2

600
(Upper yield point)
500
414.29337
546.18817
Tensile stress (MPa)

(Tensile strength)
400
393.60406
300 (Lower yield point) 222.89323
(Fracture
point)
200
Plastic deformation
100
Elastic
deformation
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
Tensile strain

Figure 5 : Stress strain curve for mild steel 2

Calculation for ductility:

Table 4: Calculation of ductility for 4 specimens

No Material Percentage elongation Percentage area reduction

L−Lo A o− A
= × 100 % (%) = ×100 % (%)
Lo Ao
1 Aluminium 1 6.16 30.26
2 Aluminium 2 5.56 60.00
3 Mild steel 1 11.36 58.98
4 Mild steel 2 8.32 59.28

Discussion:

The information collected from the universal testing device demonstrates the variations in rates of
extension in samples of mild steel and aluminium. The strains and stresses for both sample
specimens were calculated using data on cross-sectional area, length, extension, and axial loads.
When subjected to the same amount of load, aluminium extended considerably more than mild
steel did. This is explained by the different micro-crystalline structures of the two sample materials.
While two aluminium attained yield strength at 265.2876 Mpa and 280.42462 MPa, two mild steel
hit its yield point at 424.89563 Mpa and 393.60406 MPa. As a result, it is clear that mild steel has
higher tensile strength than aluminium. Mild steel has a higher gradient than aluminium when the
gradients of both materials were calculated. The Young's Modulus, which affects the deflection of
material under various loads, is given by the gradients of stress-strain curves. Mild steel reached
fracture at 232.8 MPa and 222.89MPa whereas aluminium reached fracture at 122.28 MPa and
70.59MPa after stressing both specimens past their yield points. While aluminium has a Centered
(FCC) structure, mild steel has a Body Centered Cubic (BCC) structure. The ductility of the material
under load is indicated by changes in length. In comparison to aluminium, mild steel showed
significantly more necking. The elongation of the specimen is hampered by precipitation hardening
done to aluminium and its alloys.

Engineering stress-strain relationships are unable to affect changes in cross-sectional area; only real
stress-strain curves may cause these changes. True strains typically have greater values than
engineered strains. The fact that true strains occur in the transverse directions of the gage length
can be used to explain this. Strain hardening is responsible for the high stress and strain values of
mild steel. In comparison to aluminium, mild steel experiences strain hardening or work hardening
at higher stress levels. As observed in the graph, after necking has taken place, engineering stress-
strain curves exhibit a downward slope. However, this phenomena is not seen in conventional true
stress-strain curves since the curves would approach the maximum region of fracture.

After the extensometers on the Instron machine assessed the strain that was applied to each
sample specimen, engineering stress and strains were calculated. The cross head strain data was
collected after necking had taken place. The applied load was then divided by the initial cross-
sectional area to determine the engineering stress. Engineering strains were calculated by dividing
the length changes (extensions) by the initial length. The applied load could be divided by the
instantaneous area to determine the value of true stress. By dividing the length change by the
instantaneous final length, true strain is calculated.

Ankur Vaidya, Kamla Pathak, in Applications of Nanocomposite

Materials in Dentistry, 2019
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/youngs-modulus

Raghvendra Gopal  | Last updated: April 22, 2021

https://www.corrosionpedia.com/definition/1193/yield-strength

Steven E. Hughes, in A Quick Guide to Welding and Weld

Inspection, 2009
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/ductility