Settlement - Linear Load-Settlement Curve (Poulos)

The "Settlement" frame serves to display the pile load-settlement curve. More
computations can be performed in the frame.
Next, it is necessary to enter the value of limit settlement. The program constructs
the load-settlement curve of pile always such that this limit settlement should be
reached.
The analysis is carried out according to the selected theory of settlement analysis
(linear). The analysis theory is selected in the "Piles" tab. The table in the left bottom
part of the frame directly allows us to specify values of the secant modulus of soil for
the relevant layers of soil.
The analysis results are displayed in the right part of the desktop. The "In detail"
button opens the dialog window containing detailed listing of the verification results.
The analysis results (load-settlement curve of pile) are displayed in the right part of
the desktop.
Visualization of results can be adjusted in the frame "Drawing Settings".

Frame "Settlement" - linear load-settlement curve of pile (Poulos)

Linear Theory (Poulos)

Analysis of the load-settlement curve of a single pile or pile group is based on the
solution described in the book Pile Foundations Analysis and Design (H. G.
Poulos et. E. H. Davis, 1980) and is based on the theory of elasticity and
modifications attributed to in-situ measurements. Foundation soil is therefore
characterized by the modulus of elasticity E and by the Poisson's ratio ν. This
method allows the construction of the load-settlement curve for pile
foundations (single pile, pile group).
The basic input parameters of the analysis are pile base bearing capacity Rbu and
pile skin bearing capacity Rsu. Ultimate bearing capacity of pile foundation,
respectively ultimate load is given by equation Pu = Rsu + Rbu. These values are
obtained by the program from the analysis of the vertical bearing capacity of a single
pile or pile group and it depends on the selected method of analysis. All partial
factors of the analysis are assumed equal to 1.0 so that the resulting resistance is
greater than the one obtained from the actual bearing capacity analysis.

Constructing
of the load-settlement curve of pile foundation according to Poulos method
Literature:
Poulos, H. G. et. Davis, E. H.: Pile Foundations Analysis and Design. New York:
John Wiley and Sons, 1980, chapter 5, pp. 71 - 108.

Settlement of Piles According to Poulos

The basic assumption of the analysis is the determination of the load at the shaft
resistance activation Rsy. At this point the shaft resistance no longer increases, the
further load is taken by the pile base only. This force is given by the equation:

where: Rs - pile shaft resistance [N]

β - proportion of applied load transferred to the pile base [-]

The proportion of applied load transferred to pile base β is provided by:

where: β0 - base-load proportion for incompressible pile

Ck - correction factor for pile compressibility

Cν - correction factor for Poisson's ratio of soil

Cb - correction factor for the stiffness of bearing stratum

The corresponding value of settlement sy at shaft resistance activation Rsy is given

by:

where: I - settlement-influence factor [-]

Es - average value of secant modulus of soil along the pile shaft [MPa]

d - pile diameter [m]

Rsy - load at the shaft resistance activation [N]

The settlement-influence factor I is given by:

where: I0 - basic settlement-influence factor

Rk - correction factor for pile compressibility

Rb - correction factor for the stiffness of bearing stratum

Rv - correction factor for Poisson's ratio of soil

The overall limit settlement slim is provided by:

where: I - settlement-influence factor [-]

Rbu - ultimate pile base bearing capacity [N]

β - proportion of applied load transferred to the pile base [-]

d - pile diameter [m]

Es average value of secant modulus of soil along the pile shaft [MPa]

Literature:
Poulos, H. G. et. Davis, E. H.: Pile Foundations Analysis and Design. New York:
John Wiley and Sons, 1980, chapters 5.3 and 5.4, pp. 84 - 100.

Secant Modulus of Soil Es

In the literature, it appears double marking of soil modulus Es. According to Poulos
et. Davis (1980) this parameter is referred to as the modulus elasticity of
 soil (Young's modulus), while Briaud (2001) and Gopal Ranjan (2000) named this
parameter as the secant modulus of soil. Both titles of this modulus Es has the
same meaning. However, the soil behaves elastically only in the field of small strains
(generally it is a heterogeneous material), and thus is more appropriate to speak
rather about the secant modulus of soil Es.
Modulus of elasticity of soil E is obtained from the deviator stress-axial strain
curve. The undrained modulus, Eu is obtained from the undrained triaxial test data
while the drained modulus Ed is obtained from the drained test conditions.
At the initial stage of the stress-strain curve is nearly linear dependence, but the
elastic strain of soils is very small, due to the overall value of the strain. There are
defined several types of modules - tangent modulus of soil, secant modulus of
soil, and initial tangent modulus. The introduction of this simplifying assumption is
possible to use the theory of elasticity for detecting of stress-strain state in soils.

Distribution of idealized stress-strain curve and determination of individual types of

soil modules
Secant modulus of soil Es is defined as the ratio of the difference in deviator of
normal stress to the corresponding axial strain of soil according to the following
equation:

Lambe et. Whitman (1969) says that the elastic modulus for soil is usually the secant
modulus from zero deviators of normal stress to a deviator stress equal to one-half
or one-third of the peak deviator stress.
The secant modulus Es decreases as the strain level increases because the stress-
strain curve has a downward curvature. There are three means of obtaining this
parameter:

 laboratory triaxial tests (from a calculation based on the tangent modulus of soil)

 pile-load test

 empirical correlations based on previous experience

The typical range of values for the static stress-strain (secant) modulus Es for
selected soils - field values depend on stress history, water content, density (Gopal
Ranjan et. Rao, 2000):
Type of Consistency or Modulus
soil Density of soil Es [MPa]
Silt Very soft 0.2 - 2
Clay Very soft 2 - 15
Soft 5 - 25
Firm, medium 15 - 50
Hard 50 - 100
Sandy 25 - 250
Loess
Silty 7 - 21
sand
Loose 10 - 24
Dense 48 - 80
Sand and
Loose 50 - 145
gravel
Dense 100 - 190
Literature:
Briaud, J.-L.: Introduction to Soil Moduli. Geotechnical News, June 2001, BiTech
Publishers Ltd, Richmond, B.C., Canada.
Gopal Ranjan et. A. S. R. Rao: Basic and Applied Soil Mechanics. New Age
International, 2000, chapter 10.11, pp. 328 - 330. ISBN: 8122412238,
9788122412239.
Lambe, T. W. et. Whitman, V. R.: Soil Mechanics. New York: John Wiley and Sons,
1969, 576 p. ISBN: 978-0-471-51192-2.
Poulos, H. G. et. Davis, E. H.: Pile Foundations Analysis and Design. New York:
John Wiley and Sons, 1980, chapter 5.5, pp. 101 - 104.

Correction Factor for Soil Poisson's Ratio Rv

The correction factor for the influence of Poisson's ratio Rν accounts for the influence
of reduction of Poisson’s ratio ν of soils surrounding the pile on the values of pile
settlement for constant modulus of elasticity of these soils. These values are
generally presented as a function of Poisson’s ratio of the surrounding soil νs for
various pile-stiffness factor K. These graphs are implemented in the program in a
digital format.
 Poisson’s ratio correction
factor for settlement Rν
Literature:
Poulos, H. G. et. Davis, E. H.: Pile Foundations Analysis and Design. New York:
John Wiley and Sons, 1980, chapter 5.3.3, pp. 89 (figure 5.21).

Correction Factor for Stiffness of Bearing Stratum

Rb
The values of the correction factor Rb are generally presented as a function of the
ratio of modulus of elasticity of the soil at the pile base and secant modulus of the
surrounding soil (Eb /Es) for various pile-stiffness factor K and various pile length to
pile diameter ratios (l/d). These graphs are implemented in the program in a digital
format.

Base modulus correction factor

for settlement Rb (L/d = 10)
 Base modulus correction factor
for settlement Rb (L/d = 5)
Literature:
Poulos, H. G. et. Davis, E. H.: Pile Foundations Analysis and Design. New York:
John Wiley and Sons, 1980, chapter 5.3.3, pp. 90 (figure 5.22).

Base-Load Proportion for Incompressible Pile

BETAo
The base-load proportion for incompressible pile β0 represents the influence of
compression of elastic half-space, which adopts the load transferred by the pile from
incompressible soil. The values of this coefficient are generally presented as a
function of the pile length to pile diameter ratio (l/d) for various pile base diameter to
pile diameter ratios (db/d). These graphs are implemented in the program in a digital
format.
 Proportion of baseload β0
Literature:
Poulos, H. G. et. Davis, E. H.: Pile Foundations Analysis and Design. New York:
John Wiley and Sons, 1980, chapter 5.3.3, pp. 86 (figure 5.11).

Correction Factor for Pile Compressibility Ck

The values of the factor Ck are generally presented as a function of the pile-stiffness
factor K for various pile length to pile diameter ratios (l/d). These graphs are
implemented in the program in a digital format.
 Compressibility correction factor for
baseload Ck
Literature:
Poulos, H. G. et. Davis, E. H.: Pile Foundations Analysis and Design. New York:
John Wiley and Sons, 1980, chapter 5.3.3, pp. 86 (figure 5.12).

Correction Factor for Poisson's Ratio of Soil Cv

The values of the factor Cν are generally presented as a function of Poisson's ratio of
the surrounding soil νs for various pile-stiffness factor K. These graphs are
implemented in the program in a digital format.

Poisson's ratio correction factor for

baseload Cν
Literature:
Poulos, H. G. et. Davis, E. H.: Pile Foundations Analysis and Design. New York:
John Wiley and Sons, 1980, chapter 5.3.3, pp. 86 (figure 5.13).
Correction Factor for Stiffness of Bearing Stratum
Cb
The values of the factor Cb are generally presented as a function of the ratio of
modulus of elasticity of soil at the pile base and secant modulus of the surrounding
soil (Eb /Es) for various pile-stiffness factor K and various pile length to pile diameter
ratios (l/d). These graphs are implemented in the program in a digital format.

Base modulus correction factor for baseload Cb (L/d

= 10)

Base modulus correction factor for baseload Cb (L/d

= 5)
Literature:
Poulos, H. G. et. Davis, E. H.: Pile Foundations Analysis and Design. New York:
John Wiley and Sons, 1980, chapter 5.3.3, pp. 87 - 88 (figure 5.14).
Pile-Stiffness Factor K
The pile-stiffness factor is defined as:

where: Ep - elastic modulus of pile material [MPa]

Es - average value of secant modulus of soil along the pile shaft [MPa]

Ra - ratio of an area of pile section to the area bounded by pile outer-circumference [-]

where: A1 - average area of cross-section of a pile [m2]

A2 - area of pile shaft [m2]

(for stiff piles Ra= 1)