Introduction to research

Methodology

Research Methodology and Statistics

Concepts
Dr. Judu Ilavarasu (SVYASA)
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 Introduction to Research Methodology

► Systematic study of how to conduct research

► Planning – Skill of Research Methodology

► Execution – Soft skills

► Analysis – Skill of statistics

► Dissemination – Skill of scientific writing

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Definition of research
► Research is a systematic evaluation of an idea through
scientific methods for the benefit of society
► Research Idea:
► Novel
► Solve existing problem
► Substantially adds to existing body of scientific literature
► Doable
► Socially relevant

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Definition of research
► Scientific Method:
► Objective
► Logical
► Empirical
► Repeatable

► Key ideas: Systematic evaluation, Research idea, Scientific

methods, useful to the society.

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 Types of research - Classification

I. Classification based on scope:

1) Basic

2) Applied

II. Examples:
1) To study how we store information in our brain - Basic

2) Use of various memory techniques to enhance long term and short term memory - Applied

3) To study how pranayama (breathing exercise) increases lung capacity - Basic

4) To study the efficacy of pranayama to improve the lung functions in asthmatics - Applied
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 Types of research - Classification

I. Classification based on nature of approach:

1) Experimental
2) Theoretical

II. Examples:
1) To measure the potential difference generated in the neurons of brain - Experimental
2) A review of concepts of freewill and determinism according to various schools of eastern and
western philosophies - Theoretical
3) Study of effect of pranayama (breathing exercise) on lung capacity using PFR- Experimental
4) To study the concept of prana (subtle bio-energy) according to Upanishads - Theoretical
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 Types of research - Classification

I. Classification based on nature of method:

1) Quantitative
2) Qualitative
3) Mixed

II. Examples:
1) To study how various brain waves change during meditation - Quantitative
2) To understand various types of experiences during deep meditation, using in-dept interview- Qualitative
3) To study the changes in brain waves during meditation and correlating it with the self-report measure of
experience of meditation as reported by the meditators - Mixed

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Types of research
Types of
research

Scope Approach Method

Basic Applied Experimental Quantitative

Theoretical Qualitative

Mixed
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The research process
► Research process is a 7 step process spread across 3 phases
► Methodology (Planning)
► Research question- Doable, Unique, Socially relevant
► Literature review- To see what has been done and what needs to be done Phase I
► Design- Experimental plan/blueprint

► Data collection Phase II

► Statistical analyses
► Analyse & Interpret
Phase III
► Infer and make conclusion
► Dissemination
 Research question
► Descriptive – When we do not know anything about the area
► Correlational – After getting some basic information, when we are
interested to study the relationship between difference variables
► Causal – When we want to establish cause and effect relationship,
study mechanism etc.
► Examples:
► What is the prevalence of diabetes in a country? - Descriptive
► What is the relation between number of hours spend for preparing for an exam
and the exam marks ? - Correlational
► Does practice of Trataka (Eye gazing) improve concentration? - Causal
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 Attributes of a good research question

► Attributes:
► Novel, Doable, Socially relevant
► How to construct a good research question?
► It should be precise, It should contain the essence of research problem.
► Give an much information as possible: Intervention, Population, Variable, Tools
► Example:
1) Can practice of one month of Bhramari Pranayama (breathing
exercise) increase the lung capacity of asthmatics?

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Literature review – Purpose, Process

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Review of Literature

A literature review is a “critical analysis of a segment of a published body of

knowledge through summary, classification, and comparison of prior
research studies, reviews of literature, and theoretical articles”

(Source: University of Wisconsin Writing Center)

When it is done?
All the three phases – Before, During, & After data collection
Before (80%), During (5%), After (15%)
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Why literature review? - Purpose
To know what has been done and what needs to be done
To ensure novelty, avoid duplication
To understand the field
To Understand research gap
Delimiting the research problem
Gaining methodological insights
Design, Methods, Tools, important variables (including confounding)

Identifying recommendations for further research by others

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How literature review? - Process
Define clearly what is to be searched
Select appropriate online database
Pubmed, Sciencedirect, PsycNet, ERIC, etc.
Literature can be obtained through offline means – Print
journals in the library etc.
Select key words
Enter the keywords and other needed filter parameters (year, author, topic,
etc.)
Select the relevant articles
Read, appraise, and organize the literature
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Types of research articles

Original articles
Review articles
Case reports
Brief communications
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Types of review
1) Narrative Review
Does not follow strict systematic method to identify articles to review
Usually written by experts in a field or senior researchers
2) Systematic Review
Follows predefined procedure to search with specific inclusion and exclusion criteria
Content of the articles are critically appraised
3) Meta-analysis
Has all qualities of a systematic review
Statistically combines the results of studies – Pooled effect size
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Literature Review Organizer
Title
Journal, Year, Author

Problem

Methods/Procedures

Findings

Conclusion(s), Recommendations

Relatedness/ Significance to Researcher's Problem

NULL HYPOTHESIS SIGNIFICANCE
TESTING
(NHST)

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Null Hypothesis Significance Testing

NHST: Scheme of evaluating research idea

Research idea Research Question Research Hypothesis
We create as many null hypotheses as possible and try to evaluate them through experiments
If more null hypotheses are rejected then it means alternate hypothesis is supported by those many
ways
Ways of investigating truth: Looking for presence (Direct) & Negating the Absence (Indirect –
Inference)
Karl Popper’s philosophy of falsifiability – we cannot confirm a hypothesis with certainty but we can
always reject a hypothesis with certainty
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Null Hypothesis Significance Testing
1. State Alternate Hypothesis (Ha)
2. State Null Hypothesis (H0)
3. Fix alpha (α) [0.05, 0.01, 0.001]
4. Fix power (1-β) [0.80, 0.95, 0.99]
5. Estimate effect size
6. Calculate required sample size
7. Collect data
8. Analyze and Interpret
9. Conclude – p value (< 0.05 [Reject] or >= 0.05 [Fail to Reject])
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Alternate & Null Hypothesis
Hypothesis: Statement that conveys the anticipated outcome
Null Hypothesis: A statement that negates the statement of hypothesis

For a given Alternate Hypothesis, there can be many Null hypotheses

Hypothesis
We can only reject or fail to reject Null hypothesis

Examples:

Bhramari Pranayama changes memory (2-tailed)

Bhramari Pranayama improves memory (1-tailed) One tailed Two tailed
Bhramari Pranayama does not change verbal memory
Bhramari Pranayama does not enhance verbal memory
Bhramari Pranayama does not reduce anxiety
TYPES OF ERROR

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Null Hypothesis Significance Testing
1. State Alternate Hypothesis (Ha)
2. State Null Hypothesis (H0)
3. Fix alpha (α) [0.05, 0.01, 0.001]
4. Fix power (1-β) [0.80, 0.95, 0.99]
5. Estimate effect size
6. Calculate required sample size
7. Collect data
8. Analyze and Interpret
9. Conclude – p value (< 0.05 [Reject] or >= 0.05 [Fail to Reject])
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Types of Errors

H0: Bhramari Pranayama does not change Assumed nature of H0

verbal memory
True H0: X (Pranayama doesn’t work) True H0 False H0
False H0: √ (Pranayama works)
Reject H0: √ (We claim pranayama works) ☹ ☺
1-β

Decision/ Claim
Reject H0 α

Researcher’s
Fail to reject H0: X (We fail to claim that Power
pranayama works) Type-I
Sensitivity
Type I : Overestimation
Type II: Underestimation
Fail to reject ☺ ☹
H0 1-α β
Specificity Type-II
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Errors and Correct Decisions

Alpha: Rejecting a null hypothesis when it is true

Beta: Failing to reject a null hypothesis when it is false

Power (1-β): Rejecting a null hypothesis when it is false

Specificity (1-α): Failing to reject a null hypothesis when it is true

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Null Hypothesis Significance Testing
1. State Alternate Hypothesis (Ha)
2. State Null Hypothesis (H0)
3. Fix alpha (α) [0.05, 0.01, 0.001]
4. Fix power (1-β) [0.80, 0.95, 0.99]
5. Estimate effect size
6. Calculate required sample size
7. Collect data
8. Analyze and Interpret
9. Conclude – p value (< 0.05 [Reject] or >= 0.05 [Fail to Reject])
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Effect size
Effect size: Magnitude of an interventional effect as measured by the measuring
variable

How to obtain?

Literature (Means & SDs of reported variables)

Pilot study
Cohen’s d
Cohen’s norms for difference of means study: Hi- 0.8, Mo- 0.5, Lo- 0.3

Cohen’s norms for correlational study: Hi- 0.5, Mo- 0.3, Lo- 0.1
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Sample Size Calculation

Required Sample Size: Number of participants need for a study to show the expected
effect with minimum adequate power
Done before the study
Calculated using alpha, effect size, power, & tail α↓
A Priori Power Analysis – to calculate required SS
ES ↓

SS ↑
What may go wrong if
1-β
we fail to calculate ↑
required SS a priori? Tail
↑
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Types of Power Analyses

A Priori Post hoc

When Before After

Why Calculate required SS To check achieved power

Input Alpha, ES, SS, Tail

How Input Alpha, ES, Power, Tail
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p value
p-value: Probability of finding the observed test statistic (change) given the null
hypothesis is true, p(D|H0)

p < alpha : Reject the null hypothesis

P >= alpha : Fail to reject the null hypothesis

Traditionally alpha is fixed at 0.05*, 0.01**, 0.001***

p (Sample Size + Effect Size)

Sampling Techniques

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Population & Sample
Population: All the people eligible to participate in study
as defined by the research question

Sample: A subset of population that actually participates

in the study Population
Sampling: Process of selecting sample from population
Sample
Types: Probability & Non probability sampling

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 Sampling – Probability & Non probability

Probability Sampling Non Probability Sampling

Equal chance to be in sample
1. Simple Random Sampling
2. Systematic Random Sampling
3. Stratified Random Sampling
4. Cluster Random Sampling
Unequal chance to be in sample
1. Convenience Sampling
2. Snow ball sampling
3. Quota sampling
4. Purposive sampling

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Simple Random Sampling
Procedure:

Prepare list of all participants in the population

Randomly select required number of participants

Example:

In a village population of 10000, a researcher decides to randomly survey

300 people to find prevalence of hypertension.

Prepares the list of villagers and randomly selects 300 people.

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Systematic Random Sampling
Procedure:

Select first participant randomly from the population list

Fix a sampling interval and select people at the fixed interval

Example:

A researcher selects 3rd person (randomly) from the population list as the
first member, and further selects every 7th person for the study. Here 7 is
the sampling interval.

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 Stratified Random Sampling
Procedure:

When certain population characteristics are already known, subgroups are created to
represent those population characteristics in the sample. Those subgroups of similar
characteristics are called as strata.
Participants in the sample are selected to represent the population in similar
proportion.
Example:

Men are three times more prone to colorblindness than women. So, in a sample of 100
colorblind people, a researcher selects 75 men and 25 women, to represent the
proportion of 3:1 in the population.
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Cluster Random Sampling
Procedure:

Divide the large geographic region into small clusters

Randomly select clusters for study

Example:

In a state wide survey, the whole state is divided into various districts. Required
number of clusters (districts) are randomly chosen for study.

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Convenience Sampling
Procedure:

Participants are selected based on convenience – easy availability and

approachability

Sample may not truly represent the population

Example:

Research participants are invited for study through advertisements put on

departmental notice boards.

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Snow Ball Sampling
Procedure:

Researcher initially approaches a few target participants

Through referral of those participants new participants are recruited.

Example:

In a study on HIV patients, a researcher indentifies a few HIV patients and

through them gets new participants through referrals. Useful to study socially
sensitive target groups.

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Quota Sampling
Procedure:

Based on desired condition, a researcher creates quota of required number of participants

for a study

Researcher recruits participant until the needed quota is fulfilled

Quota is the number of people needed for each of the subgroups.

Example: In a study on college students, a researcher wants 50 students from first year, 100
from second year, and 150 from third year. Sampling is continued until the required quota
of 50, 100, and 150 is filled.

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Purposive Sampling
Procedure:

To study a rare population, researchers purposely select participants based on

special characteristics.

Example:

To study the effect of long term meditation, a researcher decides to select a few
experienced yogis from Himalayas.

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Types of Variable

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Types of Variables

Independent
Dependent
Confounding
Independent Variable

A variable that is controlled by the researcher

It is related to the cause

• Examples:
• Duration of yoga intervention
• Frequency of yoga intervention

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Dependent Variable

A variable that depends on independent variable

It is related to the effect

• Examples:
• Effect of pranayama on Memory
• Effect of pranayama on Attention

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 Confounding Variable

• A variable that influences the dependent variable, but a researcher is

not interested to study that. These variables cause noise or distort the
information.

• Examples:
• Effect of Pranayama on Memory, IQ can be a confounding variable
• Effect of Pranayama on Memory, Age can be a confounding variable

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Types of Variables

Independent CF1
Dependent
Confounding Cause Effect
(IV) (DV)

CF2
LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT

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Levels of Measurement

Nominal
Categorical
Ordinal

Interval
Continuous
Ratio

Significance: Along with the design, it is used to decide what

type of statistical tests should be used
Nominal

A variable that is used for categorization or just naming

It is the lowest level of measurement

• Examples:
• Country name
• Gender

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Ordinal

A variable that can be ordered

It is the next higher level of measurement

• Examples:
• Rank of students (First, Second, Third)
• Socio-economic status (High/ Moderate/ Low)

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Interval

A variable in which the scale has equal interval

It is the next higher level of measurement

• Examples:
• Temperature (37o C, 98o F)
• Time ( 9 am, 6 pm)

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Ratio
A variable in which the absolute zero is meaningful, and also the ratio is meaningful
Zero meaningful: total absence of that property
Ratio meaningful: 60 Kg is twice the 30 Kg weight

It is the highest level of measurement

• Examples:
• Height (146 cm, 163 cm)
• Weight (30 Kg, 60 Kg)

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VALIDITY

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Validity

Validity: Measure of authenticity

Types of Validity:
Internal

External

Construct

Statistical
Internal Validity

To ensure that only the independent variable influences

dependent variable, and not any other confounding variables

Example: When a study is conducted controlling for various

confounding factors, the study has high internal validity

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External Validity

To ensure that the study results can be generalized across

different study settings

Example: When a study is conducted in many places

(multi-centric study), it has high external validity

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Construct Validity
Construct is an unseen variable that can not be directly measured. Mostly
used in Psychology.

Examples: Anxiety, Depression, Happiness

Construct validity is to ensure if the measured tool is really measuring what

it supposed to measure

Example: Checking if a questionnaire to measure anxiety really measures

anxiety, and not anything else

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Operational Definition
Construct cannot be directly measured, so in order to measure, we operationally
define the construct.

Examples of operational definitions of anxiety:

Anxiety can be operationally defined as the change in galvanic skin response

during an arousal period

Anxiety can be operationally defined as number of times a person stammers

during a 5 minutes extempore speech
Statistical Validity
To ensure correct statistical tests are performed according to the
design, and the conclusions made are valid

Example:
Using correct statistical test and correctly interpreting and
reporting the results ensures high statistical validity

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RELIABILITY

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Reliability

Reliability: Measure of consistency in measurement

Types of Reliability:
Test-retest reliability

Split half reliability

Internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha)

Inter rater reliability

Test-Retest Reliability

Measurement is done twice and correlation between those two

measurements – Test-retest Reliability

During the test-retest period, it is assumed that no change has

happened to the subject

Duration between test and retest is decided based on the stability

of construct – State or Trait Constructs

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Split-Half Reliability

Items in a questionnaire are split into two halves, and correlation

between those two halves – Split-half Reliability

Rationale: Since the whole questionnaire is assessing one

construct, items in that tool should correlate among themselves

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Internal Consistency (Cronbach’s Alpha)

Performing split halves in different ways and then calculating one

representative value – Cronbach’s Alpha

It is considered better than split-half reliability

Alpha value ranges from 0 to 1.

> 0.90 – Excellent, > 0.80 – Very good, > 0.70 – Good, > 0.60 – Fair, <
0.50 - Poor

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Inter Rater Reliability

Measure of consensus among different raters

Used to validity new tool based on experts’ opinion

Lawshe’s Content Validity Ratio (CVR) is a measure of Inter Rater

Reliability

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METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

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Methods of Data Collection
Observations

Interviews

Psychological tests

Questionnaires

Physiological tests

Biochemical tests

Archives
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Methods of Data Collection
Observation: Involves careful observation of a phenomenon in
the field and making notes

Non-intrusive (passive)

Example:

To study sports aggression, a researcher goes to watch many

football matches and records the scenario where event of
aggression happened
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Interview
Interact with participant and ask series of questions to
understand the experiences of the person, opinion, belief,
perception, etc.

Examples:
In-dept interview – Obtain detailed information about a person’s
experience

Focus group interview – Obtain varied aspect of a situation from more

than one person through mutual discussion
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Psychological tests
Standardized tests that measure various psychological domains
like attention, memory, planning, decision making etc.

Examples:
D2 Test of attention – Test to measure attention

Tower of London – Test to measure planning ability

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Questionnaire
Standardized tools to measure psychological attributes like
attitude, belief, personality

Examples:
Mindfulness Questionnaires – Test to measure mindfulness

Big Five Personality Inventory – Questionnaire to measure five

domains of personality, OCEAN – Openness, Conscientiousness,
Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism
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Physiological tests
Measures physiological functions like heart rate, blood
pressure, brain functions etc.

Examples:
Heart Rate Variability (HRV) – Measure of autonomic function

Electroencephalography (EEG) – Measure of Brainwave activity

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Biochemical tests
Measures biochemical parameters from biological samples like
blood, saliva etc.

Examples:
Blood biochemistry test

Neurotransmitter assessment

Gene expression assessment

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Archival Data
Data available from already recorded sources

Examples:
Hospital records

Old palm leaf manuscripts

RESEARCH DESIGN

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Research Design

Set of procedures by which a study is conducted, which

includes participant procedure, assessment, and intervention

Good research design

Reduce noise, enhance/ secure signal

Noise = Confounding factors

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Design - Components
Participant

Tool Design Intervention

Situational
constraints
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Types of research design

Experimental (Causal relationship, with randomization)

Quasi experimental (Causal relationship, Without

randomization)

Non experimental (No causal relationship)

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Experimental Design

Experimental designs attempt to establish cause and effect

relationship, and participant allocation happens through
randomization

Should have high internal validity

Examples:
Two group pretest posttest design
ANOVA design
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Experimental Design

Two group pretest posttest design

Intervention Types of Control Group:

Experimental
Pre Post
Group 1 month 1. Normal control
Randomization
2. Active control
Control No Intervention
Group Pre Post 3. Wait List control
1 month
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Experimental Design

Three group pretest posttest design (ANOVA)

Experimental Intervention 1
Pre Post
Group 1 1 month
Randomization

Experimental Intervention 2
Group 2 Pre Post
1 month

Control No Intervention
Pre Post
Group 1 month
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Quasi-Experimental Design
Quasi Experimental designs also study causal relationship but
without randomization

Have lower internal validity compared to pure experimental

designs

Examples:

Two group pretest posttest design without randomization

ANOVA design without randomization

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Quasi Experimental Design

Two group pretest posttest design

Experimental Intervention
Pre Post
Group 1 month
Randomization

Control No Intervention
Group Pre Post
1 month
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Within Group Design

Within group:
Same participants undergoing different conditions

Experimental Intervention 1
Pre Post
Group 1 month
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Between Group Design

Between group:
Different participants undergoing different conditions

Experimental
A
Group 1

Control
B
Group
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Pure Between Group ANOVA

Experimental
A
Group 1

Experimental
B
Group 2

Control
C
Group
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Pure Within Group Repeated Measures ANOVA

Experimental Intervention Intervention Follow

Pre Post
Group 1st month 2nd month Up
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Non-Experimental Design
No cause and effect relationship is not studied

Has lower internal validity compared to pure experimental designs

Examples:
Descriptive Design – Survey
Correlational Design – Relation between two variables
Case study Design – Study of one or a few extraordinary/ unique
cases
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Survey

Gather opinion from the target audience about research question

Examples:

Survey to find out prevalence of yoga practitioners in a state

Survey to find out different reasons to practice yoga among adults

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Correlation Studies

Finds relationship between variables

Examples:

To study the relation between stress and anxiety

To study the relation between memory and exam performance

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Cross Sectional Studies

Comparison of two or more group of people with similar

characteristics, but exposed to different types of condition

Example:

Comparison of memory of Gurukulam students versus Conventional

School students
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Case Studies

Extraordinary features, or changes in a single person or a few

persons, when documented scientifically, they are called as single
case studies

Example:

Physiological changes in a Yogi who can suspend his breathing for five
minutes
RESEARCH BIAS

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Types of confounding factors

Researchers know and control them (Experimental)

Researchers know but cannot control them (Statistical)

Researchers do not know and so cannot control

(Randomization)
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Types of bias

Selection bias

Recall bias

Measurement bias

Publication bias
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Selection bias

Bias at the sampling stage:

Non representative sample selection from population

Probability sampling – less selection bias

Non probability sampling – more selection bias

How to avoid: Use of probability sampling, large sample size

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Recall bias
Recall bias: When participants provide inaccurate information while
recollecting information from the memory

Recall bias can be deliberate or unintentional

Many factors influence accuracy of self-reported information –

experience of trauma, current state of body and mind

How to avoid: Cross check reported information

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Measurement bias

Measurement bias: When error happens while making

measurements

Instrumental error, operator error leads to measurement bias

How to avoid: Check instrumental calibration, employ trained

technicians/ researcher should be trained
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Publication bias

Bias during publication phase:

Selective reporting of results

Incorrect use of statistics and wrong claims

How to avoid: Reporting as per the original protocol

What we knew and couldn’t avoid, we should report

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Methods of controlling bias

Randomization

Matching

Restriction

Blocking

Crossover design
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Randomization
Randomization: Randomly allocating participants into
experimental and control groups, thereby evenly distributing
confounding variables

Experimental Intervention 30
10 40
Group 1 month

20
Control No Intervention 10
Group 10 20
1 month
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Matching

Matching: Two groups are matched for various confounding

factors in order to make the two groups as similar as possible

Example: In experimental group, if there are 20 males and 30

females, then in control group also we get 20 males and 30
females – This is gender matching
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Restriction

Restriction: Restricting participants to involve in the study

based on certain important criteria, which need to be controlled

Usually mentioned as Exclusion Criteria

Example: Exclusion of diabetics with retinopathy

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Blocking
Block: Subgroups of homogenous characteristics

Blocking: Process of making blocks based on confounding factors

and then statistically control their influence

Block Randomization: Randomization is done after creating blocks

Example: Block randomization based on gender

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Crossover design

Crossover design: To control order effect

RN RN
Right Nostril Pre Post Pre Post
15 minutes 15 minutes
15

LN LN
Left Nostril Pre Post Pre Post
15 minutes 15 minutes
15

Washout period
 STATISTICAL CONCEPTS –
DESCRIPTIVE & INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

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Statistics
Statistics: Tool to summarize and interpret the data

Descriptive statistics: Statistical procedures that describe the

sample

Sample statistic: Information related to sample

Inferential statistics: Statistical procedures used to make inference

about the population

Population parameter: Information related to population

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Descriptive statistics
Measures of central tendency
Mean

Median

Mode

Measures of spread

Range

Variance

Standard deviation
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Mean
Mean = Sum of all values/ Total number of values

Example: 1,2,3,4,5 ✔ Mean is the most often used

Sum = 1+2+3+4+5 = 15 measure of central tendency
Total no. of values = 5 ✔ Means are vulnerable to
Mean = 15/5 = 3 extreme values
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Median
Median = Middle value after arranging all the values

Example: 1,23,3,5,4 ✔ When data are skewed, median is

Ordered values: 1,3,4,5,23 used
Middle value = 1,3,4,5,23 ✔ Medians are less vulnerable
Median = 4 towards extreme values
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Mode
Mode = Most frequently occurring value

Example: 1,2,2,3,5,4,2 ✔ Used when there are many

Most frequent value: 2 repeating values

Mode = 2
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Range
Range = Maximum value minus minimum value

Example: 1,23,3,5,4

Max. value = 23

Min. value = 1

Range = 23-1 = 22
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Variance and Standard Deviation

X X−x̅ (X−x̅)2
1 1-3 = -2 4
2 2-3 = -1 1
3 3-3 = 0 0
4 4-3 = +1 1
Variance = SD2
5 5-3 = +2 4
Mean (x̅) = 3 ∑=0 ∑ = 10 n – for population
n-1 – for sample
Variance = 10/4 = 2.5; Standard Deviation = √2.5 = 1.58
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Degrees of Freedom
Degrees of freedom: Number of values in a variable that can
actually vary

Generally, degrees of freedom (df) = n -1

Significance of df in statistics: Statistical calculations are done on

those values that actually vary, so in a given variable, only n-1
values can actually vary
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Z Score
Method to standardize raw scores

Z = (Raw score – Mean) / Standard Deviation

Example: 1,2,3,4,5

Mean = 3

SD = 1.6

Z score of the raw score, 3 = (3-3)/1.6 = 0

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Inferential statistics
Generalize the results of sample to the population

95% Confidence Interval

Statistical tests – t test, ANOVA

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Point Estimate
Point estimate: A sample statistic that is an estimator of the
population parameter

Example: Sample mean (sample statistic) is a point estimate of

the population mean (population parameter)
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Interval Estimate
Interval estimate: A range of values which hold the true
population parameter

Example:

95% Confidence Interval (CI) of mean: 95% chance that the

interval will contain the true population mean

Narrower intervals are better

CENTRAL LIMIT THEOREM

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Sampling Distribution
Frequency Distribution:

X = 1,2,3,4,2,3,3,4,5

1 – 1 time
2 – 2 times
3 – 3 times
4 – 2 times
5 – 1 time
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Sampling Distribution
Conduct experiments many times (say 100), and each time
measure the mean

Frequency distribution of all the 100 sample means is called as

Sampling Distribution of Means
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Central Limit Theorem (CLT)
Statistical Theorem that helps to estimate population
parameters from sample statistic

It tells about the nature of sampling distribution based on the

individual sample size
 125
Statements of Central Limit Theorem
1) If the size of individual sample is 30 or more than 30, then the sampling
distribution will be normally distributed, irrespective of the nature of
distribution of the individual sample

2) Mean of the sampling distribution is also equal to the mean of the

population

3) Standard error is equal to standard deviation of the sample divided by

square root of sample size
 126
Statement 1 – CLT (Normality of Sampling Distribution)
If the size of individual sample is 30 or more than 30, then the sampling
distribution will be normally distributed, irrespective of the nature of
distribution of the individual sample
 127
Normal Distribution:

A bell shaped distribution is called as normal distribution

68% of data points – within ±1 SD

95% of data points – within ±2 SD

99.7% of data points – within ±3 SD

Deviation from normality: Skewness & Kurtosis

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Properties of Normal Distribution
Normal distribution – Mean, Median, Mode are equal

Shape of the distribution is symmetrical

Mathematically it can be described by two parameters – Mean

and Standard Deviation

If data are normally distributed – parametric tests

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130
131
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Statement 2 – CLT (Population Mean)
Mean of the sampling distribution is also equal to the mean of the
population
 133
Statement 3 – CLT (Population Standard Error)

Standard error is equal to standard deviation of the sample divided by

square root of sample size

Standard error is like standard deviation of sampling distribution

Higher the sample size, smaller will be the standard error

STATISTICAL TESTS & DESIGN

134
 135
Tests for Assumption – Parametric
Independence

Normal distribution

The data are measured at Continuous levels of measurement

(Interval/ Ratio)

Variances should be equal (ONLY for BETWEEN GROUP

Analysis)
 136
Tests for Assumption – Parametric

Name of the Name of the Test Null Hypothesis Comments

Assumption
To test normality Shapiro wilk’s test Data are normally Condition for
distributed normality changes
according to the
design
Equivalence of Levene’s test The variances of two Done only in
variance groups are same BETWEEN GROUP
condition
Within group and Between Group

Like design, analysis also can be labeled as within group

analysis and between group analysis

Within group: Same subjects undergoing different conditions

(Pretest – Posttest within a group)

Between group: Different subjects undergoing different

conditions (Post of expt. vs. Post of control)
 Selection of statistical tests

Name of the Design Parametric Test Non-parametric Test Null Hypothesis

Correlation Pearson’s r Spearman’s rho There is no correlation

between two variables

Within group Paired sample t-test Wilcoxon’s sign Rank The mean of difference
Test is zero

Between group Independent sample Wilcoxon’s Sum Rank The means of two
t-test Test groups are same
Name of the Design Parametric Test Non-parametric Test Null Hypothesis

ANOVA ANOVA Kruskal Wallis Test There is no difference in

the means of all the
groups
Repeated Measures RMANOVA Friedman’s Test There is no difference in
ANOVA the means at various
assessment points

Chi Square Test for independence There is no correlation

- between two
categorical variables
Chi Square Test for goodness of fit The proportions are
- equal with various
levels of a variable
 Test

Categorical Continuous

Non
parametric Within group Between group
tests

Check for normality Check for normality

&
Chi Square test Chi Square test for Equivalence of
for goodness of fit Variance
Normal Not Normal
independence
Normal & Normal but
parametric Non Equal Unequal
parametric variance Variance

Parametric
Parametric test with
test correction