Vat Polymerization (1) - Merged

21-Oct-21
Vat Photopolymerization Processes
Radha Raman Mishra, Ph. D.

Course Instructor & Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
This chapter
Vat photopolymerization We will discuss –

Classification of AM Processes
• Photopolymer materials
• Vector scan SL machines:
Powder bed fusion technologies, and processes.
• Mask projection approaches
Material extrusion • Additional configurations
• Advantages, disadvantages, and
Material jetting uniquenesses of each approach
Binder jetting
Sheet lamination
Directed energy deposition

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Vat photopolymerization
(SLA Process)
Photopolymerization processes
 Primary materials: liquid, radiation-curable resins, or photopolymers
 Radiation: ultraviolet (UV) range of wavelengths and visible light systems
 Photopolymerization: materials undergo a chemical reaction to become solid

when irradiated
 Reactions: typically complex and involve many chemical participants
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Ian Gibson, David W. Rosen, Brent Stucker, Additive manufacturing technologies: rapid prototyping to direct digital manufacturing Springer, 2010.
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Brief history
 Inventor: Charles (Chuck) Hull (In the mid-1980s)
 Work: exposure of UV-curable materials with a scanning laser
 Observation: by curing solid polymer patterns could be produced
 Result: fabrication of a solid 3D part by curing one layer over a previous layer
 Outcome: beginning of stereolithography (SL) technology
 Industrial aspect: a company 3D Systems was created to market SL machines as

“rapid prototyping” machines
 Till date, a wide variety of SL-related processes and technologies has been
developed.
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Vat photopolymerization
 VP: A general term that encompasses SL and related processes.
 SL will be used to refer specifically to macroscale, laser scan vat

photopolymerization
 Radiations used: including gamma rays, X-rays, electron beams, UV, and visible
light. Applications –
• Microelectronics industry: for irradiating photomask photopolymers (UV and

electron beams)
• Dentistry field: visible light predominantly
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Configurations for photopolymerization processes

The configurations include:
 Vector scan, or point-wise, approaches:
typical of commercial SL machines
 Mask projection or layer-wise approaches:

that irradiate entire layers at one time
 Two-photon approaches: that are essentially

high-resolution point-by-point approaches
Digital Micromirror Device
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Configurations: comparison
 Vector scan and two-photon approaches need scanning laser beams
 Mask projection approach utilizes a large radiation beam that is patterned by

another device, in this case a Digital Micromirror Device™ (DMD).
 In the two-photon case, photopolymerization occurs at the intersection of two

scanning laser beams
 In other configurations, use a single laser and different photoinitiator chemistries.
 Vector scan and mask projection approaches need to recoat or apply a new layer
of resin
 Two-photon approach: the part is fabricated below the resin surface, making
recoating unnecessary. Thus, faster and less complicated.
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Photopolymer Chemistry
 Reaction of occluded sites:
o No reaction with another polymer chain or monomer
o Prefer to react with oxygen or another reactive species that diffuses into the
occluded region
o causes aging or other changes in mechanical properties of cured parts
 Cationic photopolymerization: similar to free-radical polymerization with a

difference that a photoinitiator generates a cation as a result of laser energy
(typical catalyst for a cationic polymerization is a Lewis Acid, such as BF3)
 Free-radical photopolymerization was the first type that was commercially

developed.
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 Initially used SL resins were acrylates.

 Exhibit high photospeed (react quickly when
exposed to UV radiation)
R denotes a molecular group
 Have a number of disadvantages including –
o Significant shrinkage and
o A tendency to warp and curl.
 As a result, they are rarely used now without

epoxy or other photopolymer elements.
 The most common cationic photopolymers: epoxies

(although vinylethers are also commercially
available)
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 Epoxy monomers have rings
 Ring opening: when reacted, provides sites for other chemical bonds
 Ring opening facilitates –
 Essentially identical number and types of chemical bonds before and after
reaction
 Impart minimal volume change
 As a result, epoxy SL resins typically have –
 Much smaller shrinkages and
 Much less tendency to warp and curl
 Almost all commercially available SL resins have significant amounts of epoxies.
 Polymerization of VP monomers is an exothermic reaction; however, requires a

catalyst
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Industrial use of photopolymer

 Epoxy resins have disadvantages including –
 Slow photospeed
 Brittleness of the cured parts
 Sensitivity to humidity
 Some suitable acrylate addition is required to epoxy resins for –

 Reducing the brittleness
 Rapid building of the part
 Adequate strength for handling without distortion during fabrication.
 Industrial use:
 Hybrid resign: epoxides with some acrylate content
 Offers advantages of both curing types
 Improvement in accuracy has given SL a tremendous boost
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Reaction Rates
 Reaction rates for photopolymers are controlled by concentrations of
photoinitiators [I] and monomers [M].
 The rate of polymerization is the rate of monomer consumption, which can be

shown as –
 where k is constant that is a function of radical generation efficiency, rate of

radical initiation, and rate of radical termination.
 Hence, the polymerization rate is proportional to the concentration of monomer,

but is only proportional to the square root of initiator concentration.
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VP Machines
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Vector Scan VP Machines

Subsystems for SL technology
The ProJet® 6000 HD from

3D Systems
https://www.3dsystems.com/
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Working of SLA Machines
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Scan Patterns
Layer-Based Build Phenomena and Errors
 Discretization: a stack of layers causes “stair steps” on slanted or curved surfaces
 Causes edges of layers to be visible
 Material safe mode of part building: stair steps are on the outside of the CAD part
surfaces
 Part can be finished: material will be removed outside of the desired part
geometry.
 Other discretization examples are the set of laser scans or the pixels of a Digital
Micro-mirror Devices (DMD)
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Scan Patterns
Residual stresses:
 Due to shrinkage associated with solidification of resins
 Similarly, in powder melts, cooling and freezing reduces the volume of material
 Shrinkage pulls on the previous layers causing stresses
 Results in curl/warpage/deformation of the part
Print-through errors
 Extra energy that extended below the current layer results in thicker part sections
 Extra thickness is called print-through error (in SL) and bonus Z (in laser sintering).
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Scan Patterns
WEAVE
 Need:
 Uncured resign leads to distortion in post-cured parts
 Shrinkage lags exposure
 Key idea:
 To separate the curing of the majority of a layer from the adherence of that
layer to the previous layer
 To prevent laser scan lines from interfering with one another while each is
shrinking,
 Parallel scans were separated from one another by more than a line width.
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Scan Patterns
 The WEAVE style consists of two sets of
parallel laser scans:
 First, parallel to the x-axis, spaced 1 mil

(1 mil=0.001 in. = 0.0254 mm)
 Second, parallel to the y-axis, spaced 1
mil apart
 Eliminates curl and warpage
 Drawbacks:
 Corners were distorted on large flat surfaces
 Microfissures (on a flat plate with a hole)
 Macrofissure tangent to the hole would appear
 Significant internal stresses developed within parts during part building
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Scan Patterns
STAR-WEAVE
 STAR-WEAVE gets its name from the three main
improvements from WEAVE:
1. Staggered hatch
2. Alternating sequence
3. Retracted hatch
 WEAVE Scan Pattern : border of a cross section

is scanned first, then the hatch is scanned.
 As a result, x-axis vectors adhere to both the left
and right border vectors.
 When they shrink, they pull on the borders,
bending them towards one another, causing
internal stresses.
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Scan Patterns
Retracted hatch
 Improvement in the STAR-WEAVE over WEAVE
 Alternating hatch vectors are retracted from the

border
 Performed for both the x and y vectors.
 Eliminated – microfissures and stress concentrations in the regions between vectors
 Addressed all of the known deficiencies of WEAVE
 Worked very well with the resins available at the time

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Scan Patterns
ACES Scan Pattern
 ACES (Accurate, Clear, Epoxy, Solid)
Typical ACES process variables for the SLA-250
 Represents a family of build styles
 To address the needs of epoxy-based

photopolymers
Scan
 Overcomes deficiencies in STAR-WEAVE –
 Adequate resin cure (98 %) than in STAR-
Recoat
Weave (96 %)
 Reduction in post-cure shrinkage and
 Elimination of internal stresses, curl, and
warpage
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Scan Patterns
ACES Scan Pattern
 Accomplished by overlapping hatch
vectors
 As a result, each point in a layer is
exposed to laser radiation from
multiple scans
 Multiple scans affects cure depth
 Passes: one parallel to the x-axis and
one parallel to the y-axis.
 Region of influence is proportional to beam spot size
 Number of scans depends upon the beam size and the hatch spacing
 Drawback: more scan vectors are necessary compared with WEAVE and STAR-WEAVE
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Mask Projection VP Technologies and Processes

 These latest systems use radiation
sources – visible light or lasers
 MicroTEC GmbH, Germany
commercialized the technology
 Based on point-wise and layer-wise
photopolymerization principles. A MPVP system from Georgia Tech, USA Envision Tec
 Capability:
 layers thickness: 1 μm
 Surface quality: High (sub-nm range)
 Feature definition: <10 μm
 Other manufacturers:
EnvisionTec, V-Flash machineand
3D Systems (Sec. 4.9.2)
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Two-Photon Vat Photopolymerization

 Photoinitiator requires two photons
to initiate the polymerization
 Increases the resolution of
processes
 Feature sizes: 0.2 μm or smaller
 Parts can be built inside the resin
vat which eliminates the need for
recoating
 The larger the value of two-photon Bull model
absorption cross section, the more (2p-VP: 13 m)
Scale: 1 μm
sensitive is the resin 2P-VP
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Process Benefits and Drawbacks

 Advantages
 Part accuracy and
 Surface finish
 Flexibility: supporting many different machine configurations and size scales
 Mask projection VP technologies have an inherent speed advantage over laser
scan SL
 Drawback
 Usage of photopolymers: limited to acrylates and epoxies for commercial
materials
 Less impact strength and durability
 Known to age, resulting in degraded mechanical properties over time
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Thank you
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Powder Bed Fusion (PBF) Processes

This chapter
Materials
Powder fusion and Mechanisms
PBFP Process variants and commercial machines
Powder handling
Benefits and limitations
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Introduction
• PBF processes were among the first commercialized AM processes.
• Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) was the first commercialized and developed at the
University of Texas at Austin, USA.
• SLS processes were originally developed to produce plastic prototypes using a

point-wise laser scanning technique.
• This approach was subsequently extended to metal and ceramic powders
• Later, modified approaches were developed –

 To enhance machine productivity
 To process different materials
 To avoid specific patented features
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Basic characteristics of PBF processes
Includes –
• One or more thermal sources
(for inducing fusion between powder particles)
• A method for controlling powder fusion to a

prescribed region of each layer and
• Mechanisms for adding and smoothing

powder layers
• Thermal sources:
 Lasers (the most common)
 EB, Plasma (non-laser thermal sources)
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King et al. Applied Physics Reviews 2, 041304 (2015); https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4937809

• Inert Gas: nitrogen gas is common (other inert gasses)
 to minimize oxidation and degradation of the powdered material
• Powder Preheating:
 To minimize the laser power requirements of the process and
 To prevent warping of the part during the build due to non-uniform thermal
expansion and contraction (resulting in curling).
 maintained at an elevated temperature just below the melting point and/or
glass transition temperature of the powdered material
 Infrared heaters are placed above the build platform
 Build platform is also heated using resistive heaters
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Powder Fusion Mechanisms
• All PBF processes describe mechanism of Fusion, with variants of –

 Sintering and
 Melting
• There are four different fusion mechanisms which are present in PBF processes –
 Solid-state sintering,
 Chemically induced binding,
 Liquid-phase sintering (LPS), and
 Full melting
• Most commercial processes utilize primarily LPS and melting.
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Solid-State Sintering
• Indicates the fusion of powder particles without melting at elevated temperatures
• Temperature range: temperatures between one half of the absolute melting
temperature and the melting temperature.
• Deriving force: minimization of total free energy
• Mechanism of sintering:
primarily diffusion between powder particles
where,
ϒs = surface energy per unit area for a
particular material, atmosphere, and
temperature,
SA = total particle surface area

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Chemically Induced Sintering

• Involves the use of thermally activated chemical reactions between –
 Two types of powders or
 Powders and atmospheric gases
• Produces a by-product which binds the powders together.
• Primarily utilized for ceramic materials.
• Examples –
 SiC + oxygen, whereby SiO2 forms and binds
 ZrB2 + oxygen, whereby ZrO2 forms and binds
 Al + N2, whereby AlN forms and binds
SLS-produced investment casting shell for impeller wheel

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Chemically Induced Sintering

• By adding chemical reaction energy to the laser energy, high-melting-temperature
structures can be created at relatively low laser energies.
• Common characteristic CIS: part porosity
• Higher densities are often needed to achieve properties that are useful for most
applications.
• Post-processing: infiltration or high-temperature furnace sintering
• Infiltration: may involve other reactive elements; forms new chemical compounds
after infiltration.
• Limitation: cost and time associated with post-processing have limited the adoption
of CIS in commercial machines.
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Liquid Phase Sintering (LPS) – Partial Melting

• Arguably the most versatile
mechanism for PBF.
• a portion of constituents within a
collection of powder particles become
molten, while other portions remain
solid.
• Molten constituents: act as the glue
which binds the solid particles
together
• As a result, high temperature particles can be bound together without needing to melt
or sinter those particles directly.
• Traditional powder metallurgy example – cemented carbide cutting tools (Co, WC)
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Liquid Phase Sintering (LPS) – Partial Melting

Liquid phase sintering variations used in powder bed fusion
processing:
a) Separate particles (different binder and structural grains)
b) Composite particles (both in a same grain) Darker regions: lower-
melting-temperature
c) Coated particles, and ( binder coating on structural material) binder material.
d) Indistinct mixtures (do not exhibit a clear distinction; distinguishable
in molten and non-molten material areas) Lighter regions: high
• Single phase, partially molten (heat supplied is insufficient) melting-temperature
structural material.
• Fusing powder mixture (consisting of multiple phases)
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Kruth et. al. (2005). Binding mechanisms in selective laser sintering and selective laser melting. Rapid prototyping journal, 11(1), 26-36.
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Full Melting
• Most commonly associated with PBF processing of engineering metal alloys and
semi-crystalline polymers.
• Entire region of material subjected to impinging heat energy is melted to a depth

exceeding the layer thickness
• Thermal energy of subsequent scans of a laser or electron beam is typically

sufficient to re-melt a portion of the previously solidified solid structure
• This type of full melting is very effective at creating –

 well-bonded
 high-density structures
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Process Parameters
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Powder Handling Systems and Challenges
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Powder Handling Systems

First approach: Earliest commercialized LS Another approach: Hopper-based powder delivery systems
powder delivery system
Use of Doctor blade:

• Non-fluidized powder bed in case of Doctor blade
• Fluidized powder bed • Higher shear on the previous layer (reduced by Ultrasonic vibrations)
• Small shear on the previous layer
Multimaterial powders: effective method is to use multiple hoppers
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Characteristics of Powder Delivery System
1. A powder reservoir
2. Delivery of the correct volume of powder from powder reservoir to the build
platform
3. The powder must be spread to form a smooth, thin, repeatable layer of powder.
4. The powder spreading must not create excessive shear forces that disturb the
previously processed layers.
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Powder Handling Challenges
Any powder delivery system must be able to deal with the following universal
characteristics of powder feeding –
1. Powder flowability
2. Avoiding powder interaction with atmosphere
3. Minimizes the creation of airborne particles
4. Reducing the negative effects of the fine particles
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Powder Recycling
Some approaches –
• Mix a specific ratio of unused powder with used powders (fraction-based
mixture: 1/3 unused powder, 1/3 overflow/feed powder, and 1/3 build platform
powder)
• Mixing inconsistencies: Due to different thermal history of the powders
• Melt Flow Index (MFI):

 Used powders (part-bed and overflow/feed materials) are mixed and tested.
 Unused powder is also tested.
 The MFI for both is determined.
 A well-blended mixture of unused and used powder is created
 Tested to achieve the target MFI
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Electron Beam Melting
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Electron Beam Melting
• One of the most promising

aspects of EBM is the ability
to move the beam nearly
instantaneously.
• Residual stresses are less
Representative CoCrMo mLS microstructure (left, courtesy: EOS),

and Ti6Al4V EBM microstructure (right, courtesy: Arcam)
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Process Benefits and Drawbacks
Some more aspects–

• PBF can process a very wide variety of materials
• During part building, loose powder provides a sufficient support
• Accuracy and surface finish of powder-based AM processes are typically inferior to liquid-based
processes
• With PBF processes, total part construction time can take longer
• Residual stresses
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Thank you
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Extrusion-based Systems

This chapter
Basic principles
Extrusion-based technology
Extrusion- Plotting and path control

based
systems
FDM approach: materials and limitations
Bio-extrusion
Other systems
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Introduction
• AM technologies that use extrusion to form parts
• Extrusion-based machine must be capable of –

 scanning in a horizontal plane as well as
 starting and stopping the flow of material while scanning
• Extrusion-based processes use two primary approaches –

 to use temperature as a way of controlling the material State
 to use a chemical change to cause solidification
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Basic Principles
Basic features are :
• Loading of material
• Liquification of the material
• Application of Pressure
• Extrusion
• Plotting (predefined path and controlled
manner)
• Material bonding (itself or secondary build

materials)
• Support structures (complex geometrical

features)
• Part finishing
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Basic Principles
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Gu, Z., Fu, J., Lin, H., & He, Y. (2019). Development of 3D bioprinting: from printing methods to biomedical applications. Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 15(5), 529-557.
Bonding potential
• Minimum energy required to bond two roads.
Critical temperature (Tc): above which a diffusive bonding process is activated and
below which bonding is prohibited.
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Plotting and Path Control

Precise control of extrusion is a complex trade-off, dependent on a significant
number of parameters, including :
• Input pressure
• Temperature
• Nozzle diameter
• Material characteristics
• Gravity and other factors
• Temperature build up within the part
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Strategy for fill pattern

• Rapid changes in direction can make
it difficult to control material flow
• Common Strategy:
 Draw the outline of the part
using a slower plotting speed
 Rapid building of internal fill
patterns
 Ensures material flow is
maintained at a constant rate.
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Support Generation
Two general forms :
• Similar material supports
• Secondary material supports
Second option is the most effective way as it

enables easy distinguishable support from part
material. Obtained using –
 Visually (e.g., using a different color material)
 Mechanically (e.g., using a weaker material)
 Chemically (e.g., using a material that can be Two different color materials, highlighting
removed using a solvent without affecting the part a bone tumor
material)
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Fused Deposition Modeling

• The most common extrusion-based AM technology
• Produced and developed by Stratasys, USA
FDM technology to get things printed.

Typical Stratasys machine (Source: ALL3DP)
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Materials
• FDM works best with polymers that are amorphous
• Amorphous polymers can be extruded in a viscous paste as they have –
 no distinct melting point and
 softens and viscosity lowers with increasing temperature
• Most widely used is ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene) with different additives –
Another materials:
1. ULTEM 9085
Use: aircraft, marine, and
ground vehicles.
2. Polyphenylsulfone (PPSF)
Use: improved heat deflection,
(264 psi of 189 C)
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Limitations of FDM
• Build speed
• Accuracy
• Material density
• Minimum layer thickness: 0.078 mm
The actual shape produced is dependent on –

• Nozzle
• acceleration, and deceleration characteristics
• the viscoelastic behavior build material
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Material Jetting Processes

This chapter
Introduction
Material Basic principles

Jetting
Process
Process and Technology
Benefits and Drawbacks
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Introduction
• AM technologies in which all of the part material is dispensed from a print head
• Liquid droplets of build material are selectively deposited and become solid via –
 cooling (e.g., by crystallization or vitrification),
 Chemical changes (e.g., cross-linking of a polymer), or
 Solvent evaporation
• Initially used for printing parts out of wax and polymers
• Most appropriate for concept modeling and investment casting patterns
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MJ Process
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Material Processing Fundamentals

• Phase changes in existing printing technologies are –
 Solidification of a melted material (e.g., wax, solder),
 Evaporation of the liquid portion of a solution (e.g., some ceramic approaches)
 Curing of a photopolymer (e.g., Objet, ProJet machines)
 Other chemical reactions
• The phase change must occur either during droplet flight or soon after impact
• The time and place of this conversion will also affect –

 Droplet’s interaction with the substrate and
 Final deposition created
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Material Processing Fundamentals
Considering energy conservation during droplet generation mechanisms for printing –
losses due to the Energy needed to kinetic energy required

viscosity of the fluid form the free surface to propel the liquid
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Droplet Formation Technologies

Can be categorized based on the possible modes of expulsion:
• Advantages: High throughput rate • Advantages:

 Smaller drop size
• Application: such as food and pharmaceutical
 High accuracy of drops placement
labeling
• Application: such as PCB board printing
• Constraints:
• Constraints:
 Materials must be able to carry a charge
 Time consumption is high
 Efficient waste management
 Control over drop formation
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Advantages of MJ
• Low cost
• High speed
• Scalability
• Ease of building parts in multiple materials
• Capability of printing colors
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Technical challenges in MJ
• Formulation of the liquid material
• Droplet formation
• Control of the deposition of droplets –
 Droplet flight path
 Impact
 Substrate wetting or interaction
 Droplet velocity and size
• Control of the deposition of droplets on top of previously deposited layers
• Challenges in process planning (Nozzle clogging and droplet existing etc.)
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Binder Jetting Process

This chapter
Evolution of technology
Basic principles
Binder Jetting
Materials
Process
Process parameters
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Introduction
• AM technologies in which a binder material is

printed on a powder bed
• Originally named ‘Three-dimensional printing

technique’
• Invented and patented by MIT in the early 1990s
• Early uses: fabrication of sand moulds and cores
• Presently, attracted attention due to its high

productivity and the relative simplicity
• Closely related with powder metallurgy industry
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BJ: machines
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Li, M., Du, W., Elwany, A., Pei, Z., & Ma, C. (2020). Metal Binder Jetting Additive Manufacturing: A Literature Review. Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering, 1-45.
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BJ: processing steps
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Ziaee, M., & Crane, N. B. (2019). Binder jetting: A review of process, materials, and methods. Additive Manufacturing, 28, 781-801.
BJ: binder interaction with powder

Binder: A temporary glue to join the powder particles into the desired shape and holding
the particle in that shape until initial stage of sintering
The binder deposition is controlled by –

• Droplet volume
• Spacing between binder droplets
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BJ: materials
Powder
 Metals alloys
 Ceramics
 Polymers
Binder
 Organic liquid: butyral resins, polymeric resins, and polyvinyl
 3D System: plaster with water based binder
 Voxeljet: PMMA (poly-methyl methacrylate) powder with liquid binder
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BJ: process parameters

Feedstock Properties
• Binder: binding ability and evaporation
• Powder
 Shape: Particle size distribution (PSD) – Bimodal powder size
 Size (0.2 – 200 µm): Affects flowability, reactivity with binder, wettability,
surface roughness and resolution of the part
Inconel powder
 Physical properties: flowability and bulk density
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Printing Parameters
• Layer Thickness (2r, 3r or >r largest provides good flow and spreadability)
• Printing Saturation (The percentage of air volume which is occupied by the binder)
“PR” is packing rate (50-70%)
Schematic of
printing saturation
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Printing Parameters
• Heater Power Ratio (ratio of current heater power to the maximum heater power)
 Determines heating speed and temperature
 Too low power ratio cannot dry the binder
 Too high power ratio consumes more power, energy and may increase deformation and
shrinkage rate during printing
• Drying Time (duration of drying the

binder under the heater after printing
each layer)
 Short drying time results in printhead

blockage
 Significantly impacts part surface
quality
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BJ: post-processing
• Binder curing
• Depowdering (brushing, blow air, vibration, vacuum, if binder is not soluble ultrasonicating,
microwave-induced boiling, and CO2 bubble generation)
• Debinding
• Sintering
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Advantages of BJS
• Faster
• Parts with material combinations
• Better quality parts
• Color printing
Disadvantages of BJS
• Shrinkage
• Poor accuracy and surface finish
• Infiltration is required
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Applications
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Direct Write Technologies

This chapter
Introduction
Basic principles
DWT Materials
Process parameters
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Introduction
• DW includes technologies which can –
 Create two- or three-dimensional functional structures directly onto flat or
conformal surfaces in complex shapes
 No tooling or mask
• More specifically,
• capable of creating meso-, micro-, and nanoscale structures using a freeform
deposition tool
• Deposits materials on a surface
3
Classification
DW processes can be subdivided into five categories, including –
• Ink-based
• Laser transfer
• Thermal spray
• Beam deposition
• Liquid-phase, and
• Beam tracing processes
4
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Ink-based DW
• Involves use of liquid inks which are deposited on a surface
• A significant number of ink types are available, including, among others:
 Colloidal inks Droplet jetting
 Nanoparticle-filled inks
 Fugitive organic inks
 Polyelectrolyte inks
 Sol–gel inksInk-based
Continuous filament writing Nozzle Dispensing Processes

Inkjet Printing Processes
Quill-Type Processes Aerosol DW

5
Laser Transfer DW
• A focused high-energy laser beam is absorbed by a material, that material may be
heated, melted, ablated, or some combination thereof
• Ablation - a gas or plasma - expands rapidly (as further laser energy is added)
• Rapid expansion can create a shock wave within a material or can propel a material
Mechanism for laser transfer using a sacrificial transfer material Mechanism for laser transfer using thermal shock and spallation
6
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Thermal Spray DW
• A process that accelerates material to high velocities and deposits them on a
substrate
• Key characteristics of thermal spray DW

include:
• a high volumetric deposition rate,
• material flexibility,
• useful material properties in the as-
deposited state (without thermal
treatment or curing), and
• moderate thermal input during
processing, allowing for deposition
on a variety of substrates.
7
Beam Deposition DW
• Based upon vapor deposition technologies
using, primarily, thermal decomposition of
precursor gases.
• Vapor deposition technologies produce solid

material by condensation, chemical reaction,
or conversion of material from a vapor state.
• Methods include –
 Laser CVD
 Focused Ion Beam CVD
 Focused Electron Beam CVD
The LCVD system developed at Georgia Tech

8
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Liquid-Phase Direct Deposition

• Thermal or electrical energy can be used to convert liquid-phase materials into
solid materials.
• Techniques –
 Thermo-Chemical Liquid Deposition
 Electrochemical Liquid Deposition (ECLD)

Advantages –
• used to produce complex-geometry solids
• Useful for small length scales An electrochemical liquid deposition system
Disadvantages
• TCLD: need for a heated substrate and the use of chemical precursors
• ECLD: slow deposition rate and post-processing requirements
9
Beam Tracing Approaches to Additive/Subtractive

• A beam can be used to trim each layer into the prescribed cross-sectional geometry
• These micro- or nano- diameter beams are used to selectively cure or remove
materials deposited in a layer-by-layer fashion
• Techniques –
• Electron beam tracing
• Laser beam tracing
• Focused Ion beam tracing
10
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Applications of DW
• Fabrication of sensors
(thermocouples, thermistors, magnetic flux sensors, strain gages, capacitive gages,
crack detection sensors, accelerometers, pressure gages, and more)
• Antenna fabrication
• A freeform tool to connect combinations of electronic components on freeform

surfaces
11
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Sheet Lamination Processes

Course Instructor
Assistant Professor of Mechanical Engineering
This chapter
Introduction
Basic principles
Sheet Materials
Lamination
Process
Process parameters
Ultrasonic Additive Manufacturing
1
27-Nov-21
Introduction
• AM technologies in which sheets are used to form a 3D object
• Also known as Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM)
• Initially, process was developed to produce layer-by-layer lamination of paper

material sheets
• A CO2 laser was used to cut the outer contours of the parts are cut
• The sheets can be either cut and then stacked or stacked and then cut
• Each sheet represents one cross-sectional layer of the CAD model of the part
• Further, techniques were developed to process sheets of different materials

3
Generic LOM process
Schematic of the LOM process

4
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27-Nov-21
Classification of Sheet Lamination Processes (SLP)

Based on the mechanism employed to achieve bonding between the layers –
Gluing
/Adhesive
Bonding
Thermal
Ultrasonic
welding SLP Bonding
Clamping
5
Gluing or Adhesive Bonding

• Use of a polymer-based adhesive
• Requirement:
 sheet material that can be precisely cut using a laser/mechanical cutter
 It can be bonded
• Types: based on the order of steps –

Bond-then-Form processes Form-then-Bond processes
6
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27-Nov-21
Bond-then-Form processes
Advantages –
• Little shrinkage, residual stresses, and distortion
• Paper feedstock: amenable to common finishing operations
• Large parts can be fabricated rapidly
• A variety of build materials can be used
• Nontoxic, stable, and easy-to-handle feedstock
Disadvantages –
• Parts need coating to prevent moisture absorption and excessive wear
• Difficult to control of the parts’ accuracy in the Z-dimension
• Inhomogeneous mechanical and thermal properties of parts
• Small part feature detail is difficult to maintain
7
Thermal Bonding
• An effective method for forming complex metal parts and tools, particularly those
which have internal cavities and/or cooling channels
Commercial utilization is limited
due to –
• Bond-then-form processes
require extensive post-
processing
• Form-then-bond processes are
difficult to automate for
arbitrary, complex geometries.
Commercial interest is limited to –
the area of inexpensive, full-color paper parts and large tooling, where internal, conformal
cooling channels can provide significant benefits over traditional cooling strategies.
8
Zak, G., & Wang, W. X. (2002). Adhesive Bonding of Sheet for Laminated Metal Tooling 502. In 2002 International Solid Freeform Fabrication Symposium.
4
27-Nov-21
Sheet Metal Clamping

• Used in the case of assembling rigid metal laminates into simple shapes
• Clamp the sheets together using bolts and/or a clamping mechanism rather than
using an adhesive or thermal bonding method
Advantages –
• Clamping is quick and inexpensive
• Modification is possible
• Easy recycling of the materials
• Acts as a reference point to register each laminate with
respect to one another Profiled edge laminate
Disadvantages-
• Separation of laminates
• Damage at bolted areas 9
Ultrasonic Additive Manufacturing
• A hybrid sheet lamination process

• Combines ultrasonic metal seam welding
and CNC milling
• Also known as Ultrasonic Consolidation (UC)
• UAM is a bond-then-form process
t = 100–150 μm
f = 20 kHz frequency
Schematic of ultrasonic consolidation
10
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27-Nov-21
Mechanism of bonding
11
Zhang, Y. et. al. (2018). Additive manufacturing of metallic materials: a review. Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance, 27(1), 1-13.
UAM Bond Quality

Bonding develops due to the presence of one/a combination below listed mechanisms –
1. Mechanical interlocking
2. Melting of interface materials
3. Diffusion bonding; and
4. Atomic forces across nascent metal surfaces (e.g., solid-state metallurgical bonding)
A UAM part made from four layers of Al 3003 foils SEM microstructures of Al 3003/SS mesh: (a) SS mesh embedded between Al 3003 layers
12
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UAM Process Parameters
• Oscillation amplitude (Generally the higher the oscillation amplitude, the greater the
ultrasonic energy delivered; consequently, more elastic/plastic deformation occurs; optimum value)
• Normal force (to establish metallurgical bonds across the interface; optimum value)
• Travel speed (determines exposure time of ultrasonic energy; optimum value)
• Preheat temperature (reduces flow stress of sheet; optimum value)
• Metal foil thickness (~150 μm)
13
Defects in UAM parts

• The most common defects in UAM-made parts are voids.
• Depending upon defect origin, they can be classified as –
• Type-1 defects: typically have a flat upper surface and a rounded lower surface
• Type-2 defects: voids where the interface has been torn apart after bonding
• Type-3 defects: physical gaps between adjacent metal foils
Type-1 defect Type-3 defect

14
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UAM Applications
• Internal Features
• Material Flexibility
• Fiber Embedment
• Smart Structures
15
16
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Directed Energy Deposition (DED) Processes

This chapter
Introduction
Basic principles
Classification
DED
Process
Process parameters
Electron beam-based DED
1
27-Nov-21
Introduction
• DED Process enable the creation of parts by melting material while depositing
• NOT used to melt a material that is pre-laid in a powder bed (like PBF).
• The basic approach can work for polymers, ceramics, and metal matrix composites
• Predominantly used for metal powders
• Often referred to as “metal deposition” technology
3
Classification
4
Dass, A., & Moridi, A. (2019). State of the art in directed energy deposition: From additive manufacturing to materials design. Coatings, 9(7), 418.
2
27-Nov-21
Powder-Based DED
(a) Coaxial feeding: a higher capture efficiency of powder, and protect the melt pool from oxidation
(b) Single nozzle feeding: apparatus simplicity, economical, and ability to deposit material into tight
locations; however, melt pool geometry is direction specific
5
Wire-based DED
6
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27-Nov-21
Basic Principles
Schematic illustrating laser optics and energy density
7
Process Parameters
Process Parameters:
• Track scan spacing
• Powder feed rate
• Beam traverse speed
• Beam power and
• Beam spot size
• Feedstock material properties
Dilution (D) = d/ (h+d)
8
4
27-Nov-21
Generic (Laser-based) DED process

Complex 3-D geometry: requires either support material or
a multi-axis deposition head.
LENS-deposited Ti/TiC metal matrix composite structure
Laser-Based Metal
Deposition (LBMD)
is more popular
Schematic of a typical laser powder DED process DED of CoCrMo

9
Electron Beam-Based DED
• Electron Beam Freeform Fabrication (EBF3) was

developed by NASA Langley, USA,
• To fabricate and/or repair aerospace structures

both terrestrially and in future space-based systems
• Uses wire feeder
• Advantages
 More efficient in converting electrical energy into a beam than most lasers
 Work effectively in a vacuum but not in the presence of inert gases
 Well suited for the space environment
 Wire feeding is preferred for low-gravity environments
10
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27-Nov-21
Benefits and drawbacks
• Benefits
 Fully dense parts with unparalleled control of microstructure
 Effectively repairing and refurbishing defective and service damaged parts
 Producing of in-situ generated composite and heterogeneous material parts
• Drawbacks
 Poor resolution and
 Surface finish (> 25 μm)
 Poor accuracy (> 0.25 mm)
 Slower build speed
11
12
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15-Dec-21
Reverse Engineering and Rapid Prototyping

(Integration of techniques)

Integrating RE and RP
ME F416
• Need: can facilitate the process of new product

development
• Process focus:
RE – extracting the design data
RP – verifying or evaluating the design
• Use of CAD model:

RE – 3D CAD models are created from physical parts
RP – 3D CAD models are utilized to make physical
parts
• Ideal combination: as one helps in the design

phase and the other in the prototyping phase
• The modes of interface can be critical in terms of

efficiency
2
Lee, K. H., & Woo, H. (2000). Direct integration of reverse engineering and rapid prototyping. Computers & Industrial Engineering, 38(1), 21-38.
1
15-Dec-21
Interfacing modes between RE and RP

ME F416
3
Problems of existing approaches ME F416
• Process can be carried out

using the existing programs
• Task of creating surfaces is
difficult and time-
consuming • Reduces a step
• Involves tedious manual
• Well accepted operation
• Includes unsorted and
unrelated triangles and
does not retain any surface
• Less time consuming
or feature data
• number of point clouds
• Error caused by
needs to be reduced
approximating the model
• Increases computing load
using planar triangular
patches
• Computing time increases
with smaller triangles
4
2
15-Dec-21
ME F416
Legal Aspects in Reverse Engineering
Legal aspects ME F416
• Contractual restraints
 Restriction to disclose information to third parties
 Confidentiality clauses / proprietary data clauses / right of use clauses
• Trade secrets
 Information concerning the business or industrial relations of a company
 Company keeps it secret and the revelation causes a damage from a
competition point of view in –
o Manufacturing process
o Method of treating or preserving materials
o Pattern for a device
3
15-Dec-21
Legal aspects ME F416
• Patents
 Valid for 20 years
 Both components and processes may be protected
 A new patent cannot hinder anyone to copy an old technology
 It can protect an improvement on the old technology
 The patent holder may grant a license
 A criminal offence to infringe in a patent
• Design rights and Copyright

 Design rights and copyrights may exist for a product
 Such rights should be possible to work around, using a different design
 Otherwise, agreement with the rights holder
ME F416
Barriers to Reverse Engineering
4
15-Dec-21
Barriers to RE ME F416
• Any thing that impedes RE
• Barriers in the reverse engineering

process can be classified as –
1. Technical complexity of the product

or feature
2. Availability of the necessary

resources
3. Skill of the reverse engineering team
9
Curtis, S. K. et al. (2011). The fundamentals of barriers to reverse engineering and their implementation into mechanical components. Research in Engineering Design, 22(4), 245-261.
1. Technical Complexity of the Product ME F416
• The technical complexity of a product or feature is an internal barrier to reverse

engineering—the original designer has a direct influence over the magnitude of this
barrier.
Stickiness is a measure of the rate at which usable information
may be extracted from a product while reverse engineering
• When sticky information interacts with other sticky information in a product, the
result is a powerful barrier to reverse engineering.
• The stickiness of pertinent information can be increased by reducing its accessibility

or including more superfluous information in the product to disguise pertinent
features.
10
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15-Dec-21
2. Availability of the necessary resources ME F416
• The availability of the necessary resources is

an external barrier to reverse engineering—
the original designer typically has an
indirect influence on this barrier. (optical comparator, CAD and CAE software, laser cutter, wire EDM)
• When few or no samples of the product are

available, the magnitude of this barrier
increases dramatically
• Proper equipment is often required for efficient product dissection, information

extraction, and data processing. The absence of this equipment could severely reduce
the quality of collected data. The barrier can be made larger by embedding
information that requires specialized and/or unavailable tools to extract.
Curtis, S. K. et al. (2011). The fundamentals of barriers to reverse engineering and their implementation into mechanical components. Research in Engineering Design, 22(4), 245-261. 11
3. Skill of the reverse engineering team ME F416
• A reverse engineering team is more likely to succeed if they have a basic

understanding of the science being analyzed and a familiarity with the process and
tools of reverse engineering.
• Knowing which approach is needed—as-built, design intent, or a combination of

both—will help maximize the return on reverse engineering investment.
Fig. Example of reverse engineering from WWII. a United States Air Force B-29 bomber b Soviet Union Tupolev Tu-4 bomber
Curtis, S. K. et al. (2011). The fundamentals of barriers to reverse engineering and their implementation into mechanical components. Research in Engineering Design, 22(4), 245-261. 12
6
15-Dec-21
Barrier Implementation ME F416
• An innovative product: the driving force for

technological progress
• If successfully reverse engineered: the market

advantage is quickly lost
• Affects incentive for innovation
• The best interest of original designers: to design

products that are difficult to reverse engineer
13
Thank you
All the best for Comprehensive Examination
14
7
15-Dec-21
Post-processing of AM Parts
(Integration of techniques)

Introduction
• Post processing: final step of the manufacturing process which offers –
 smoothing and
 strengthening
• Despite many advantages of AM over traditional manufacturing, it is still imperfect.
• AM parts can still have poor surface finishes, and the production method can affect
the mechanical properties of the component.
• The main objective of post-processing is to eliminate potentially dangerous defects
• Post processing methods can include –

 heat treatment (to reduce the stress on components)
 separating the components from support structure
 surface finishing (CNC machining, blasting and polishing)
• The post processing of AM parts can be just as vital as the fabrication itself. 2
1
15-Dec-21
Issues in AM
Surface roughness achieved in different AM processes
• Demand for better materials.
• Existing CAD systems.
• Data management (Size of STL file)
• Low-volume production
• Financial overheads
• Surface Quality of Products
Kumbhar, N. N., & Mulay, A. V. (2018). Post processing methods used to improve surface finish of products which are manufactured by additive manufacturing technologies: a
review. Journal of The Institution of Engineers (India): Series C, 99(4), 481-487. 3
Issues in AM
To minimize the Stair casing
a CAD Model b Slicing c Actual output d Stair casing effect effect, the possible approaches
are –
• Control over parameters
 part orientation
 layer thickness and
 orientation of material
deposition
• Post-processing techniques
Effect of reducing layer thickness
2
15-Dec-21
Post-processing methods
Classification of Post-processing methods

Different raw materials
Nature of the process
3
15-Dec-21
Thermal Post-Processing
• Hot isostatic pressing

• Heat treatment
 Solution HT
 T6 HT
Optical micrographs presenting defects. (a) Electron beam melting

(EBM) part (b) after the hot isostatic pressing (HIP) treatment.
Schematic diagram of SEM micrographs. (a,b) as-built. (c,d) HIP. (e,f) HIP + HT
Peng, X., Kong, L., Fuh, J. Y. H., & Wang, H. (2021). A Review of Post-Processing Technologies in Additive Manufacturing. Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing, 5(2), 38. 7
Laser Peening
4
15-Dec-21
Laser Polishing
• During laser polishing, morphology apexes can
reach the melting temperature rapidly when the
energy source irradiates the material surface.
• The liquid material redistributes to the same
level after molten-pool formation because of the
effect of gravity and surface tension.
• Once the laser beam stops scanning the surface,
the temperature of the heat-affected zone (HAZ)
drops rapidly, resulting in the solidification of the
molten pool, and the surface roughness reduces
accordingly
(a) Overview of the substrate and laser-polished region. (b)

Microstructure of the laser-polished region. (c) Microstructure of the
substrate. (d) XRD profiles.
Machining and Abrasive Finishing

SLM-ed AlSiMg0.75
Difference in surface finish for
an untreated and CNC
machined part
(a) conventional diamond turning (b) ultrasonic elliptical vibration-assisted machining
5
15-Dec-21
Machining and Abrasive Finishing
Micro-blasting of SLM-ed tubular lattice structure. (a) setup. (b) lattice structure before micro-blasting. (c) after blasting
Impact of post-processing
True stress strain plots of 3D printed samples with different printing speeds: (a) 88 μm (fast) and (b) 110 μm (slow) respectively.
In each plot, the three curves correspond to three different treatments including 3D printing (blue), 3D printing and 900 °C heat
treatment (red) and 3D printing, 900 °C hot forging and 900 °C heat treatment (yellow)
6
15-Dec-21
Impact of post-processing
Mean values of conventional Vickers hardness of fast (blue) and slow (yellow) 3D printed samples for three different treatments, namely direct 3D
printing, 900 °C heat treating after printing, and 900 °C forging (900°C H) and 900 °C heat treatment after printing (900°C F+900°C H).
Thank you
All the best for Comprehensive Examination
14

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21-Oct-21

Vat Photopolymerization Processes

Radha Raman Mishra, Ph. D.

Vat photopolymerization We will discuss –

Directed energy deposition

 Primary materials: liquid, radiation-curable resins, or photopolymers

 Radiation: ultraviolet (UV) range of wavelengths and visible light systems

 Photopolymerization: materials undergo a chemical reaction to become solid

 Reactions: typically complex and involve many chemical participants

 Work: exposure of UV-curable materials with a scanning laser

 Observation: by curing solid polymer patterns could be produced

 Outcome: beginning of stereolithography (SL) technology

 Industrial aspect: a company 3D Systems was created to market SL machines as

 VP: A general term that encompasses SL and related processes.

 SL will be used to refer specifically to macroscale, laser scan vat

• Microelectronics industry: for irradiating photomask photopolymers (UV and

• Dentistry field: visible light predominantly

Configurations for photopolymerization processes

 Mask projection or layer-wise approaches:

 Two-photon approaches: that are essentially

 Mask projection approach utilizes a large radiation beam that is patterned by

 In the two-photon case, photopolymerization occurs at the intersection of two

 In other configurations, use a single laser and different photoinitiator chemistries.

 Cationic photopolymerization: similar to free-radical polymerization with a

(typical catalyst for a cationic polymerization is a Lewis Acid, such as BF3)

 Free-radical photopolymerization was the first type that was commercially

 Initially used SL resins were acrylates.

 As a result, they are rarely used now without

 The most common cationic photopolymers: epoxies

 Polymerization of VP monomers is an exothermic reaction; however, requires a

Industrial use of photopolymer

 Some suitable acrylate addition is required to epoxy resins for –

 The rate of polymerization is the rate of monomer consumption, which can be

 where k is constant that is a function of radical generation efficiency, rate of

 Hence, the polymerization rate is proportional to the concentration of monomer,

Vector Scan VP Machines

The ProJet® 6000 HD from

Working of SLA Machines

 Discretization: a stack of layers causes “stair steps” on slanted or curved surfaces

 Causes edges of layers to be visible

 Shrinkage pulls on the previous layers causing stresses

 Results in curl/warpage/deformation of the part

 First, parallel to the x-axis, spaced 1 mil

 WEAVE Scan Pattern : border of a cross section

 Alternating hatch vectors are retracted from the

 Performed for both the x and y vectors.

 Eliminated – microfissures and stress concentrations in the regions between vectors

 Addressed all of the known deficiencies of WEAVE

 Worked very well with the resins available at the time

 To address the needs of epoxy-based

Mask Projection VP Technologies and Processes

Two-Photon Vat Photopolymerization

Process Benefits and Drawbacks

Powder Bed Fusion (PBF) Processes

Radha Raman Mishra, Ph. D.

Powder fusion and Mechanisms

PBFP Process variants and commercial machines

Benefits and limitations

• SLS processes were originally developed to produce plastic prototypes using a

• This approach was subsequently extended to metal and ceramic powders

• Later, modified approaches were developed –

Basic characteristics of PBF processes

• A method for controlling powder fusion to a