Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Advanced
Examples
Despite having had a stressful week, Mr Sparky decided to throw a party. Not wanting to seem in
hospitable, he ordered a lot of delivery food. Having prepared his home, Mr Sparky checked his p
hone and found out that half of the people invited to the party couldn't come. Knowing his friends
, Mr Sparky chose to hold two get-togethers so that everybody could unwind.
Forms
Present participles
These forms are similar to simple tenses.
active: V + ing (knowing, reading)
passive: being + V3 (being fixed, being made)
Past participles
These forms are similar to passive verbs.
V3/ed (used, made)
Perfect participles
These forms show the sequence of two events.
active: having + V3 (having asked)*
passive: having been + V3 (having been heard)
*Having + V3 is similar in meaning to After + Ving.
Having called her mum, she went to bed. = After calling her mum, she went to bed. (= After she h
ad called her mum, she went to bed.)
Usage
Participle clauses
Do not have an explicit subject or tense because they are indicated in the main clause. They replace r
elative clauses.
Half of the people invited (who were invited) to the party couldn't come.
The shares acquired (which were acquired) before 1999 are liable for taxation.
function as clauses of condition, result, time, reason
Left for too long, a steak turns out tough and chewy. = Having been left for … (= If you leave it for t
oo long)
The water in the lake was cold making me feel sick. (= As a result, I felt sick)
Having prepared his home, Mr Sparky checked his phone. (= After he prepared his home)
Not wanting to seem inhospitable, he ordered a lot of delivery food. (= Because he didn't want to see
m inhospitable)
can be used after some prepositions and conjunctions, such as after, since, when, despite, etc.
Despite having had a stressful week, Mr Sparky decided to throw a party.
Remember some typical phrases:
Generally speaking, participle clauses are used to make language more concise.
Judging from his comment, Pete wasn’t aware of the problem.
All things considered, she'd rather stay at home.
We should be tolerant of cultural differences. Having said that/That being said, our company policy
applies to all the employees.
Common mistakes
Linkers
Advanced
Examples
People study languages in order to communicate with foreigners. It may be difficult, due to the fac
t that languages can have very different structures. Since some languages are related, they can hav
e common grammar elements, despite still being different. Nevertheless, you have to pay close atte
ntion to the special features of the language you study, so as not to fall into a trap. It isn't particul
arly challenging, although it may seem so at times.
Usage
Linkers are used to clarify the nature of the connection between ideas in the same sentence or between
sentences in a text.
Reason and result
because
Mike likes horror films because they give him an adrenaline rush.
because of + noun/gerund
The roads were closed because of the abnormally heavy snowfall.
so
I felt ill, so I didn't go to work.
as
It's too early to announce the survey results, as we haven't collected all the information yet.
since
Since I felt ill, I didn't go to work.
As a result (formal)
We set off later than planned and got stuck in traffic. As a result, we missed our flight.
Due/owing to the fact that
I'm afraid we can't visit the mountains today, due/owing to the fact that the roads are closed.
due to + noun/gerund
The elevator is closed due to maintenance works.
Therefore (formal)
I'm afraid the company doesn't have resources to maintain the IT department. Therefore, we will outsou
rce all IT projects to freelance platforms from now on.
Consequently (formal)
Ann didn't handle the negotiations well. Consequently, the company lost an important contract.
Flexible workers find themselves in high demand and therefore/consequently gain high salaries. (can
be used before the verb as well)
Contrasting (different or opposing) ideas
but
Our teacher is strict but reasonable.
However (formal)
Many animals are endangered. However, there are certain things we can do to improve the situation.
Nevertheless (more formal/literary than however)
Max doesn't have enough work experience. Nevertheless, we're going to offer him the position. (only at
the beginning of the sentence)
Nonetheless (= Nevertheless)
There was a terrible downpour. Nonetheless, Adam went for an evening run.
The meeting, which was declared illegal, was nonetheless attended by over 12000 people. (in the middl
e of the sentence)
It was only a small donation, but it was gratefully received nonetheless. (in the middle or at the end of
the sentence)
Although, even though (more emphatic), though (more common in informal speech)
Although I felt ill, I still went to work.
Pater forgave Sally, even though she didn't deserve it.
I like Hugo, though his smoking habit irritates me a little.
In spite of/despite the fact that
Despite the fact that I felt ill, I still went to work.
Smiths refused to buy a burglar alarm, in spite of the fact that several houses in the neighbourhood had
been burgled.
in spite of/despite + gerund/noun
Max decided not to go to university, despite being the best student in his class.
Judy really wants a cat, in spite of her allergies.
Purpose of the action
To, in order (not) to, so as (not) to
I went to work to/in order to/so as to speak to my boss.
So (that) + can/could/will/would/Present Simple
Lily studies medicine, so (that) she can/will become a doctor.
In case (in conditional sentences)
Take the jacket with you in case it gets colder.
Common mistakes
Upper-Intermediate
Examples
Jack's house, which he bought in 1998, is very important to him. This is the house where he got married
and where his children were born. His wife, who is a decorator, added a lot of little details to the interio
r of the house, which made it even more cosy. Jack hopes to give the house to his children when they gr
ow up.
Forms
Relative pronoun
Which (for things and animals)
Have you read the book which I gave you last week?
Who (for people)
This is the person who helped me yesterday.
When (for times)
I remember the time when we had a fight.
Where (for places)
Alex has a room where he keeps all his trophies.
Why (for reasons)
The reason why he is here is to help you.
Whose (for possession)
Stephen King, whose books became bestsellers many times, will be teaching a writing workshop next w
eek.
Whom (for people as the object of the relative clause)
We need to call back the man whom we interviewed last Friday.
Formal Informal
whom who
Do you remember Allie whom we met yesterday Do you remember Allie who we met yesterday?
?
Preposition + whom who + preposition at the end of the clause
I forgot to whom I need to address this letter I forgot who I need to address this letter to.
Where and when can be replaced with preposition + which.
In informal English, we can put the preposition at the end of the clause.
This is the house where I grew up. = This is the house in which I grew up. = This is the house which I g
rew up in.
Can you remember the year when the telephone was invented? = Can you remember the year in which t
he telephone was invented? = Can you remember the year which the telephone was invented in?
Usage
Relative Clauses give extra information about something or someone
Defining relative clauses give essential
information (the sentence usually doesn’t make sense without the clause)
Non-defining relative clauses give not essential, extra
information (the sentence makes sense without the clause)
NOT separated by commas
I'm planning to redecorate the room where I work.
separated by commas
Common mistakes
Inversion 1
In statements it is usual for the verb to follow the subject, but sometimes this word order is reversed. We
can refer to this as inversion. There are two main types of inversion: when the verb comes before the su
bject (inversion is often optional), and when the auxiliary comes before the subject and the rest of the ve
rb phrase follows the subject (inversion is usually necessary):
Alex stood in the doorway. → In the doorway stood Alex. (or ...Alex stood.)
I had rarely seen such a view. → Rarely had I seen such a view. (not Rarely I had seen...)
Inversion brings about fronting, the re-ordering of information in a sentence to give emphasis in a partic
ular place. Often this causes an element to be postponed until later in the sentence, focusing attention on
it.
In conversation we use Here comes + noun and There goes + noun, with inversion of verb and subject,
to talk about things and people moving towards or away from the speaker:
Here comes the bus.
There goes Per Alvin, the conductor.
Here comes... is also used to say that something is going to happen soon, and There goes... is used to ta
lk about things (particularly money) being lost and to say that something (such as a phone or door bell )
is ringing:
Here comes lunch.
My bike's been stolen! There goes £100!
There goes the phone. Can you answer it?
We also put the verb before the subject when we use adverbs expressing direction of movement, such as
along, away, back, down, in, off, out, up with verbs such as come, fly, go. This pattern is found partic
ularly in narrative, to mark a change in events:
The door opened and in came the doctor. (less formally... and the doctor came in.)
As soon as I let go of the string, up went the balloon, high into the sky. (less formally... the ball
oon went up...)
For more on inversion after adverbs of place and direction, see Unit 76A.
We can use clauses with inversion instead of certain kinds of if-clause (see Unit 83). Compare:
It would be a serious setback, if the talks were to fail.
If you should need more information, please telephone our main office.
If Andy had asked, I would have been able to help.
It would be a serious setback, were the talks to fail.
Should you need more information, please telephone our main office.
Had Andy asked, I would have been able to help.
The sentences with inversion are rather more formal than those with "if". Note that in negative clauses w
ith inversion, we don’t use contracted forms:
Had the plane not been diverted, they would have arrived early. (not Hadn't the plane...)
In formal written language we commonly use inversion after as and than in comparisons:
Paper was invented in China, as was the process of printing.
Most young people did not vote in the election, as was the case in 2010.
I believed, as did my colleagues, that the plan would work.
Research shows that parents watch more television than do their children.
Note that we don't invert subject and verb after as or than when the subject is a pronoun:
We now know a lot more about the universe than we did ten years ago. (not ... then did we ten y
ears ago.)
Frequent mistakes
The train comes here!
Here comes the train!
Pizza is traditional in Italy, as pasta.
Pizza is traditional in Italy, as is pasta.
You should need any help, call me.
Should you need any help, call me.
Inversion 2
Inversion after negative adverbials
In formal and literary language in particular, we use negative adverbials at the beginning of a clause. Th
e subject and first auxiliary are inverted, and do is used with a simple tense verb after —
* the time adverbials never (before), rarely, seldom; barely/hardly/scarcely ... when/before; no soon
er ... than:
Seldom do we have goods returned to us because they are faulty.
Hardly had everybody taken their seats when Dr Lee began her lecture.
* only + a time expression, as in only after, only later, only if, only once, only then, only when:
She bought a newspaper and some milk at the shop on the corner. Only later did she realise that
she'd been given the wrong change.
Only when she apologises will we speak to her again.
* only + other prepositional phrases beginning only by ..., only in ..., only with ..., etc.:
Only by chance had Carl discovered where the birds were nesting.
Maria had to work in the evenings. Only in this way was she able to complete the report.
* expressions such as at no time, in no way, on no account, under / in no circumstances:
At no time did they actually break the rules of the game.
Under no circumstances are passengers permitted to open the doors themselves.
* expressions with not ..., such as not only, not until, not since, not for one moment and also not a +
noun:
Not until August did the government order an inquiry into the accident.
Not a word had she written since the exam had started.
* little with negative meaning:
Little do they know how lucky they are to live in such a wonderful house. (= "they don't know"
or "they don't know sufficiently"
Note that inversion can occur after a clause beginning only after/if/when or not until:
Only when the famine gets worse will world governments begin to act.
Not until the train pulled into the station did Miguel find that his coat had gone.
Inversion after so + adjective ... that; such + be ... that; neither ... / nor ...
We can use so + adjective at the beginning of a clause to emphasise the adjective. When we do this, the
subject and first auxiliary are inverted, and do is used with a simple tense verb:
So successful was her business,that Lana was able to retire at the age of 50.
So dangerous did weather conditions become, that all mountain roads were closed.
We can use such + be at the beginning of a clause to emphasise the extent or degree of something:
Such is the popularity of the play that the theatre is likely to be full every night.
We use inversion after neither and nor when these words begin a clause to introduce a negative additio
n to a previous negative clause or sentence:
For some time after the explosion Jack couldn't hear, and neither could he see.
The council never wanted the new supermarket to be built, nor did local residents.
Note that we also use inversion in Neither/Nor do I, Neither/Nor does Diane (etc.) and in So do I, So
does Maya (etc.).
Frequent mistakes
No sooner Mary had started singing than everyone noticed her.
No sooner had Mary started singing than everyone noticed her.
On no account I will meet that man.
On no account will I meet that man.
Only when he was in trouble he called me.
Only when he was in trouble did he call me.
So great the child’s shock was that he couldn’t speak.
So great was the child’s shock that he couldn’t speak.
Advanced
Examples
No sooner had we come home than we had to leave again.
At no point in time did I have any suspicions about his sincerity.
Such a scandal had Irene's affair caused that it was impossible to cover the story up.
Under no circumstances should you open this door!
Walking up and down the street were the grey, tired people from the local office centres.
Forms
Barely (... when)
Barely did I have time to think when he asked me to give him an answer.
Hardly (... when)
Hardly had we solved one problem when another one appeared.
No sooner (... than)
No sooner had we left the house than it started raining.
Never
Never have I seen such beautiful mountains!
Not
Not a sound did we hear from the room.
Not only
Not only was the water dirty, but it was cold as well.
Only
Only in case of a fire should you call the fire department.
Only when
Only when it's dark am I allowed to turn the light on.
Only after
Only after the guests had left could we finally take a break.
Not until
Not until the end of the survey will we know the results.
In no way
In no way are you responsible for other people's actions.
At no point/stage/time
At no stage did I realise who he really was.
On no account
On no account should you eat poisonous plants.
Little
Little did we know that we had the winning lottery ticket.
Rarely
Rarely do I go to the cinema on my own.
Seldom
Seldom do teenagers listen to their parents.
Under no circumstances
Under no circumstances are you allowed to talk to the prisoner.
So (... that)
So delicious was the food that we kept asking for more.
Such (... that)
Such interest has the story provoked that the news spent months covering it.
Here
Here comes the principal now.
There
There lies the Grand Canyon.
Participle clauses
Sleeping in the crib was a sweet little baby with a head of soft golden hair.
!
Because Not until and Only when require additional clauses to follow them, it is important to be careful
to invert the subject and verb in the main clause.
Not until you learn to be responsible will you be ready to live on your own.
!
When the verb to be inverted is negative, we put not after the subject.
In no way should you not tell the truth to your doctor.
!
We can also invert conditional sentences.
Were they to ever leave the town, it would become very lonely.
Should the recession continue, many people might lose their jobs.
Had we not studied first aid at school, we might not have been able to help our friend.
Usage
Because the English language has a very strict sentence word order, it is possible to make certain information mor
e emphatic through inversion, which involves rearranging the information in a sentence in a way that puts more i
mportant information in focus.
We can use inversion for:
➢
Emphasis
Only after you have dinner, can you eat sweets.
Given to the students was the task so difficult that even the teachers had troubles with it.
➢
Dramatic purpose
Never in my life have I been so shocked!
Not only was the room dirty, but it was also cold as ice!
➢
Formality
Should you need anything, report to the front desk.
Under no circumstances are you allowed to take off your helmet and safety goggles during working hou
rs.
Common mistakes
Fronting
We often place information at or near the beginning of a sentence to emphasise it. To do this, we have to
alter the normal word order of the sentence. We can do this by:
placing the complement or direct object of a verb before the subject. Compare these sentences:
We know quite a lot about the Moon and Mars. We have less information about Venus.
We know quite a lot about the Moon and Mars. Venus, we have less information about.
placing the subordinate clause before the main clause. Compare these sentences:
NASA has sent a spacecraft to Mars because they want to find out if there is life there.
Because they want to find out if there is life on Mars, NASA has sent a spacecraft there.
placing preposition and adverb phrases that are not part of another phrase before the subject of th
e sentence. Compare these sentences:
There is a lot of interest in space exploration despite its cost.
Despite its cost, there is a lot of interest in space exploration.
Cleft sentences
There are some ways of forming cleft sentences:
What + subject + auxiliary verb + "is"/"was" + infinitive with/without "to":
The Chinese sent a probe to the Moon. → What the Chinese did was to send a probe to the Mo
on.
People don’t think about the level of planning that is involved. → What people don’t think abou
t is the level of planning that is involved.
What + subject + main verb + "is"/"was" + infinitive with "to":
Space explorers want to find water on other planets. → What space explorers want is to find wa
ter on other planets.
It + "is"/"was" + noun/noun phrase + ("that" / "which" (for things) / "who" (for people)):
The astronauts enjoyed the spacewalk most. →
It was the spacewalk that astronauts enjoyed the most.
All ("that") + subject + verb + "is"/"was":
We only require political will to set up a permanent base on the Moon. →
"All (that)" we require to set up a permanent base on the Moon is political will.
Advanced
What I love the most is cooking. It is food that makes
me really happy
Examples
What Andy loves is money. The only thing he truly wants is to be rich. All he cares about is his
fortune.
It is family that Richard considers the most important. Those are the
people who he cares about the most. It is for them that Richard does everything.
Forms
It + be + noun + relative clause
It's Alex's car that was stolen.
It's Monday when I have my appointment.
It was my father who taught me to read.
!
It is possible to omit the relative pronouns who/that from the relative clause if they don’t serve as a subj
ect of the clause.
It was Alex (who/that) I talked to on the phone.
!
We can also use other pronouns instead of it to make cleft sentences.
That was my lunch (that) you ate.
These are the flyers (that) I needed.
Clause + be + the emphasised word/phrase
What we need is a holiday.
Something I really like is horror films.
Usage
Cleft sentences add emphasis to parts of the sentence by changing the word order. A single message is
divided (cleft) into two clauses.
Cleft sentences connect what is already understood to what is new to the listener. We focus on new inf
ormation by:
Introducing it at the start of the sentence (It-cleft sentences)
Original sentence: I play tennis on Fridays.
It-cleft sentence: It is tennis that I play on Fridays.
Building the sentence up to it (Wh-cleft sentences).
Original sentence: I play tennis on Fridays.
Wh-cleft sentence: What I play on Fridays is tennis.
modal verbs with be
NB:
Cleft sentences are much more common in written English.
new information goes after "it" to emphasise it for the listener
A: "I heard Nina wants a puppy for her birthday."
B: "Actually, it's a kitten (that) Nina wants."
Old information (understood) — Nina wants something for her birthday.
New information (focus) — She wants a kitten.
negative it-clause to emphasise that the old information is incorrect
use singular "be" with "it" even when "it" refers to plural subjects
It wasn't Alex who called you, it was me.
It is my friends that I talk to when I’m upset.
Wh-cleft sentences (also called pseudo-cleft sentences)
the new information is put at the end of the sentence and the beginning of the sentence builds up the e
mphasis
A: "Do you need any sugar in your coffee?"
B: "No, thank you. What I need is some milk or cream."
Old information (understood) — I need something in my coffee.
New information (focus) — I need milk or cream.
Common mistakes
Upper-Intermediate
Cleft sentences are used to emphasise particular words
or expressions. In a cleft sentence a single message is
divided into two clauses.
Examples
A: It
is high running costs that we should worry about. What we offer for their reduction is using renewable
energy.
The information we want to emphasise usually comes after “be” and is followed by a clause usually begin
ning with “that”. We sometimes use “which” or “who” instead of “that”, “when” and “where”, “why” can also
be used, but usually only in informal English.
The information to be emphasised is outside the what-clause.
What clauses can be put either at the beginning or at the end of sentences without changes in meaning.
Common mistakes
Zero Conditional: If you mix black and white colours, you get grey.
First Conditional: If I study English, I will have more opportunities to get a better job.
Forms
Zero Conditional
"If" + Present Simple, Present Simple.
If you heat up water, it boils.
First Conditional
"If" + Present Simple, Future Simple ("will" + infinitive).
If he finds a good job, he will be happy.
Note: you can use modal verbs and imperative forms in both types of Conditionals:
I can help you if I have time.
If you have time tomorrow, call me.
Usage
We use Zero
Conditionals to express something which is always true (we can use "when" instead of "if):
If/When the temperature falls below 0, water turns into ice.
If/When my husband has a cold, I usually catch it.
We use First
Conditionals to express real or very probable situations in the present or future (we can use "after
", "before", "until", "as soon as", "unless", etc. instead of "if"):
Unless I finish my final report on time, I won't get a bonus.
If she calls me tomorrow, I will tell her the truth.
Common mistakes
Second Conditional
Intermediate
If Tina worked harder, she would be a CEO by now.
Mike would look like Charles Dickens if he had a beard.
If I were you, I'd stop smoking so much.
Forms
Second Conditional to talk about unreal situations in the present.
If + Past Simple/Continuous, would/wouldn't + bare infinitive
If I didn't know Allie, I wouldn't have a supportive friend.
If I wasn't working right now, I would help you.
If + Past Tense, might or could + infinitive
If I had more money, I might start my own business.
Annie could travel on her own if she was older.
NB
It doesn't matter in which order we put the condition and the result.
If I had time, I'd play some games. = I'd play some games if I had time.
BUT
If we start a sentence with the condition, we separate it from the result with a comma.
If you told me about your problem, I would be able to help you.
VS
I would be able to help you with your problem if you told me about it.
NB
In British English If + were is used to talk about things we wish were or weren't true.
I'd buy a house if it weren't so expensive.
Usage
to talk about unlikely or unreal (hypothetical) situations in the present and future
If people could fly, we wouldn't need cars.
to give advice (usually with "If I were you")
If I were you, I would think very carefully about that job offer.
Common mistakes
Intermediate
Life is full of coincidences. Some are weird, some are painful. Here are two amazing coincidences that s
aved people’s lives:
1. Steve was arrested and put in prison in the countryside. Next morning the nearby volcano erupte
d, and only 3 out of 30,000 people survived, including Steve. If he hadn’t been in prison, he would
have died.
2. Wilson cancelled his flight to the Dominican Republic because his favorite baseball team lost the
game. Wilson was depressed and decided to stay in the city. His flight crashed, 260 passengers died.
If the baseball team had won the game, Wilson would have been on that plane.
Forms
+
If + had V3/ed, would have + V3/ed
If I had known about the meeting, I would have come.
(full form)
Usage
A conditional sentence includes 2 parts — an impossible condition + its result.
Condition: If the baseball team had won the game…
Result: ... Wilson would have been on that plane.
Use the Third Conditional to talk about unreal events in the past.
If he hadn't been in prison, he would have died (but he was in prison and survived).
The pie wouldn’t have been too sweet if you had put less sugar (but you put too much sugar, and the
pie turned out too sweet).
Common mistakes
Mixed Conditionals
Advanced
If Sally and Peter were more willing to listen to each
other, their relationship problems would have been
solved a long time ago.
Forms
If + Past Simple/Continuous, would + have + V3
If Helen wasn't working on an important project, she would have spent the weekend with her friend
s.
If we didn't already have three dogs, we would have adopted a cat we found last month.
If + Past Perfect, would + infinitive
If you had followed the instructions, we wouldn't try to fix so many problems now.
If Jane hadn't been careful, she would be in a hospital.
Usage
To make a Mixed Conditional sentence, we take a situation in the past (Third Conditional) and connect
either its condition or its result to the present (Second Conditional).
We use Mixed Conditionals:
➢
For past situations with present results.
If I hadn't bought a laptop, I wouldn't be able to work on-the-go.
Mary wouldn't have her own restaurant, had she not won that lottery.
Compare:
If Joe had listened to his parents, he would have studied medicine at University. (= He didn't listen t
o his parents in the past, so he didn't study medicine in the past.)
If Joe had listened to his parents, he would be a doctor. (= He didn't listen to his parents in the past, s
o he isn't a doctor now.)
➢For general situations with a result in the past.
If I wasn't so forgetful, I wouldn't have lost my phone.
Linda would have become a singer, if she had a good voice.
Compare:
If I had been more assertive, I would have defended my opinion. (= I wasn't assertive at a specific poi
nt in the past, and I didn't defend my opinion.)
If I were more assertive, I would have defended my opinion. (= I am generally not an assertive person
, so I didn't defend my opinion at some point in the past.)
Common mistakes