ME 315 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

Dr. Mubashir Ali Siddiqui

Mechanical Engineering Department
NED University of Engineering & Technology
Karachi, Pakistan

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 Chapter 8 - Internal Flow
8.1 Hydrodynamic Considerations
8.1.1 Flow Conditions
8.1.2 The Mean Velocity
8.1.3 Velocity Profile in the Fully Developed Region
8.1.4 Pressure Gradient and Friction Factor in Fully Developed Flow
8.2 Thermal Considerations
8.2.1 The Mean Temperature
8.2.2 Newton’s Law of Cooling
8.2.3 Fully Developed Conditions
8.3 The Energy Balance
8.3.2 Constant Surface Heat Flux
8.3.3 Constant Surface Temperature
8.4 Laminar Flow in Circular Tubes: Thermal Analysis and Convection
Correlations
8.4.1 The Fully Developed Region
8.4.2 The Entry Region
8.5 Convection Correlations: Turbulent Flow in Circular Tubes
8.6 Convection Correlations: Noncircular Tubes and the Concentric Tube
Annulus
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 8.1.1 Flow Conditions
Laminar flow
in a circular
tube;
fluid enters
tube with a
uniform
velocity

 When the fluid makes contact with the surface, viscous effects become
important, and a boundary layer develops with increasing x.
 This development occurs at the expense of a shrinking inviscid flow region
and concludes with boundary layer merger at the centerline.
 Following this merger, viscous effects extend over the entire cross section
and the velocity profile no longer changes with increasing x.
 The flow is then said to be fully developed, and the distance from the
entrance at which this condition is achieved is termed the hydrodynamic entry
length, xfd,h.
 Fully developed velocity profile is parabolic for laminar flow, and flatter (due to
turbulent mixing in the radial direction) for turbulent flow in a circular tube.
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 8.1.1 Flow Conditions (cont’d)
𝑢𝑚 𝐷
𝑅𝑒𝐷 =
𝜈
𝑢𝑚 : Mean fluid velocity
over the tube X-section.

 In a fully developed flow, the critical Reynolds number

corresponding to the onset of
turbulence is 𝑅𝑒𝐷,𝐶 ≈ 2300.
Although much larger
Re (𝑅𝑒𝐷 ≈ 10000) are needed to achieve fully turbulent conditions.
 For laminar flow, the hydrodynamic entry length may be obtained
from an expression of the form
𝑥𝑓𝑑,ℎ
≈ 0.05𝑅𝑒𝐷 𝑜𝑟 𝐿ℎ,𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟 ≈ 0.05 × 𝑅𝑒 × 𝐷
𝐷 𝑙𝑎𝑚
𝑥𝑓𝑑,ℎ
 For the entry length in turbulent flow, 10 ≤ ≤ 60
𝐷 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏
 Flow would be considered fully developed turbulent flow if
4𝑚
(x/D)>10. Also, 𝑅𝑒𝐷 =
𝜋𝐷𝜇
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 8.1.3 Velocity Profile in the Fully
Developed Region
2
𝑢 𝑟 𝑟
=2 1−
𝑢𝑚 𝑟𝑜

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 8.1.4 Pressure Gradient and Friction Factor
in Fully Developed Flow
− 𝑑𝑃/𝑑𝑥 𝐷
Moody (or Darcy) friction factor 𝑓 = 1
𝜌𝑢𝑚 2
2

for fully developed laminar flow,

64
𝑓=
𝑅𝑒𝐷

For fully developed turbulent flow, Colebrook correlation:

1 𝑒/𝐷 2.51
= −2.0 𝑙𝑜𝑔 +
𝑓 3.7 𝑅𝑒𝐷 𝑓

Petukhov Correlation
−2
𝑓 = 0.790𝑙𝑛𝑅𝑒𝐷 − 1.64 3000 ≤ 𝑅𝑒𝐷 ≤ 5 × 106

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 Moody Diagram

Friction factor for Fully Developed Flow in a Circular Tube

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 8.2 Thermal Considerations

For laminar flow the thermal entry length may be expressed as

𝑥𝑓𝑑,𝑡
≈ 0.05𝑅𝑒𝐷 𝑃𝑟
𝐷 𝐿𝑎𝑚

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 The development of the thermal boundary layer in a tube.
(The fluid in the tube is being cooled.)

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 Hydrodynamic & Thermal Entry Lengths
for Laminar and Turbulent Flows
𝐿ℎ,𝐿𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟 ≈ 0.05 × 𝑅𝑒 × 𝐷
𝐿𝑡,𝐿𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟 ≈ 0.05 × 𝑅𝑒 × 𝑃𝑟 × 𝐷 = 𝐿ℎ,𝐿𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟 . 𝑃𝑟
𝐿ℎ,𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 ≈ 𝐿𝑡,𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 ≈ 10𝐷
1
𝐿ℎ,𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 ≈ 1.359 𝑅𝑒 4

If Pr > 1, the hydrodynamic boundary layer develops more

rapidly than the thermal boundary layer (xfd,h < xfd,t), while the
inverse is true for Pr < 1.
For large Prandtl number fluids such as oils, xfd,h is much smaller
than xfd,t and it is reasonable to assume a fully developed
velocity profile throughout the thermal entry region.
In contrast, for turbulent flow, conditions are nearly
independent of Prandtl number, (xfd,t/D) > 10.

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 Mean Temperature
8.2.2 Newton’s Law of Cooling
The mean temperature Tm is a convenient reference temperature for
internal flows: 𝑞𝑠 = ℎ𝐴 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑚
1] When a fluid is heated or cooled as it flows through a tube, the
temperature of the fluid at any cross section changes from Ts at the
surface of the wall to some maximum (or minimum in the case of
heating) at the tube center. In fluid flow it is convenient to work with an
average or mean temperature Tm that remains uniform at a cross
section. Unlike the mean velocity, the mean temperature Tm will change
in the flow direction whenever the fluid is heated or cooled.
2] Fluid properties in internal flow are usually evaluated at the bulk mean
fluid temperature, Tb =(Tm,i +Tm,e)/2.
3] Note that the temperature profile in the thermally fully developed
region may vary with x in the flow direction. That is, unlike the velocity
profile, the temperature profile can be different at different cross
sections of the tube in the developed region, and it usually is. However,
𝑇𝑠 −𝑇
the dimensionless temperature defined below remains
𝑇𝑠 −𝑇𝑚
unchanged in the thermally developed region when the temperature or
heat flux at the tube surface remains constant. 11
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 8.2.3 Fully Developed Conditions
 Since the existence of convection heat transfer between the surface and
the fluid dictates that the fluid temperature must continue to change
with x, one might legitimately question whether fully developed thermal
conditions can ever be reached. The situation is certainly different from
the hydrodynamic case, for which (𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑥)= 0 in the fully developed
region.
 In contrast, if there is heat transfer, (dTm/dx), as well as (𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑥 ) at any
radius r, is not zero. Accordingly, the temperature profile T(r) is
continuously changing with x, and it would seem that a fully developed
condition could never be reached. This apparent contradiction may be
reconciled by working with a dimensionless form of the temperature.
𝑇 −𝑇
 Introducing a dimensionless temperature difference of the form 𝑠 ,
𝑇𝑠 −𝑇𝑚
this ratio becomes independent of x. That is, although the temperature
profile T(r) continues to change with x, the relative shape of the profile
no longer changes and the flow is said to be thermally fully developed.
𝜕 𝑇𝑠 𝑥 − 𝑇 𝑟, 𝑥
=0
𝜕𝑥 𝑇𝑠 𝑥 − 𝑇𝑚 𝑥
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 8.2.3 Fully Developed Conditions (cont’d)
𝑇𝑠 −𝑇 𝑇𝑠 −𝑇
remains unchanged. is independent of 𝑥.
𝑇𝑠 −𝑇𝑚 𝑇𝑠 −𝑇𝑚
𝜕 𝑇𝑠 −𝑇 𝑟,𝑥
In a thermally fully developed region, =0
𝜕𝑥 𝑇𝑠 −𝑇𝑚
𝜕 𝑇𝑠 −𝑇
Then must also be independent of 𝑥.
𝜕𝑟 𝑇𝑠 −𝑇𝑚

𝜕𝑇
𝜕 𝑇𝑠 −𝑇 𝜕𝑟 𝑟=𝑅
That is =− ≠𝑓 𝑥
𝜕𝑟 𝑇𝑠 −𝑇𝑚 𝑟=𝑅 𝑇𝑠 −𝑇𝑚
" 𝜕𝑇
Surface Heat Flux: 𝑞𝑠 = ℎ 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑚 = −𝑘
𝜕𝑟 𝑟=𝑅
𝜕𝑇
𝑘 𝜕𝑟
∴ℎ=− 𝑟=𝑅
is independent of 𝑥.
𝑇𝑠 −𝑇𝑚
Thus in thermally fully developed region of a tube,
Local convection coefficient does not vary with x.
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 8.3 The Energy Balance

𝑑𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 𝑇𝑚 + 𝑑𝑇𝑚 − 𝑇𝑚

𝑑𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑇𝑚
𝑞𝑠 " 𝑃. 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑇𝑚
𝑑𝑇𝑚 𝑞"𝑃 𝑃
= = ℎ 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑚
𝑑𝑥 𝑚𝐶𝑝 𝑚𝐶𝑝

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 8.3.2 Constant Surface Heat Flux
𝑑𝑇𝑚 𝑞"𝑃
= ≠𝑓 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑚𝐶𝑝
𝑞"𝑃
𝑑𝑇𝑚 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑚𝐶𝑝
𝑇𝑚 (𝑥) 𝑞" 𝑃 𝑥
Integrating, 𝑇𝑚,𝑖
𝑑𝑇𝑚 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑚𝐶𝑝 0
𝑞"𝑃
𝑇𝑚 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑇𝑚,𝑖
𝑚𝐶𝑝
i.e., the mean temperature varies
linearly with x along the tube. Axial temperature variations
for heat transfer in a tube -
Constant surface heat flux

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 8.3.2 Constant Surface Heat Flux (cont’d)
In fully developed flow in a tube
subjected to constant surface heat
flux, the temperature gradient is
independent of x and thus the shape
of the temperature profile does not
change along the tube.

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 8.3.3 Constant Surface Temperature
"
𝑑𝑇𝑚 𝑑 ∆𝑇 𝑑 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑚 𝑞𝑃 𝑃
=− =− = = ℎ∆𝑇
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑚𝐶𝑝 𝑚𝐶𝑝
𝑑 ∆𝑇 𝑃
=− ℎ𝑑𝑥
∆𝑇 𝑚𝐶𝑝
∆𝑇𝑜 𝑑 ∆𝑇 𝑃 𝐿 𝑃𝐿 1 𝐿
Integrating, ∆𝑇𝑖 ∆𝑇
=− ℎ𝑑𝑥 =− ℎ𝑑𝑥
𝑚𝐶𝑝 0 𝑚𝐶𝑝 𝐿 0
∆𝑇𝑜 𝑃𝐿 ∆𝑇𝑜 𝑃𝐿
𝑙𝑛 =− ℎ𝐿 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 − ℎ𝐿
∆𝑇𝑖 𝑚𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇𝑖 𝑚𝐶𝑝
𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑚,𝑜 𝑃𝐿
= 𝑒𝑥𝑝 − ℎ
𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑚,𝑖 𝑚𝐶𝑝 𝐿
𝑇𝑠 −𝑇𝑚 (𝑥) 𝑃𝑥
Or = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 − ℎ
𝑇𝑠 −𝑇𝑚,𝑖 𝑚𝐶𝑝
Now 𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇𝑖 − ∆𝑇𝑜
𝑃𝐿ℎ ℎ𝐴 ℎ𝐴 ∆𝑇𝑖 − ∆𝑇𝑜
𝑚𝐶𝑝 = − =− =− ×
∆𝑇 ∆𝑇 ∆𝑇 ∆𝑇𝑖 − ∆𝑇𝑜
𝑙𝑛 𝑜 𝑙𝑛 𝑜 𝑙𝑛 𝑜
∆𝑇𝑖 ∆𝑇𝑖 ∆𝑇𝑖
∆𝑇𝑜 − ∆𝑇𝑖
∴ 𝑚𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇𝑖 − ∆𝑇𝑜 = 𝑞 = ℎ𝐴 × = ℎ𝐴∆𝑇𝐿𝑀
∆𝑇𝑜
𝑙𝑛
∆𝑇𝑖
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 8.4 Laminar Flow in Circular Tubes: Thermal
Analysis and Convection Correlations
8.4.1 The Fully Developed Region

ℎ𝐷
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = = 4.36 𝑞𝑠 " = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑘
Hence in a circular tube characterized by uniform surface heat flux
and laminar, fully developed conditions, the Nusselt number is a
constant, independent of ReD, Pr, and axial location.

Also, 𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 3.66 𝑇𝑠 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

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 8.4.2 The
Entry
Region

Thermal Entry Length Problem - assuming that thermal conditions

develop in the presence of a fully developed velocity profile (unheated
starting length, Large Pr such as for oils).
Combined (Thermal and Velocity) Entry Length Problem -
temperature and velocity profiles develop simultaneously. 19
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 8.4.2 The Entry Region (cont’d)
𝐷
0.0668 𝐿 𝑅𝑒. 𝑃𝑟
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 3.66 + 2
𝐷 3
1 + 0.04 𝐿 𝑅𝑒. 𝑃𝑟

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 8.5 Convection Correlations: Turbulent Flow in Circular Tubes
1) For fully developed (hydrodynamically and thermally) turbulent
flow in a smooth circular tube, the local Nusselt number may be
obtained from the Dittus Boelter equation
0.6 ≤ 𝑃𝑟 ≤ 160
4
𝑁𝑢 = 0.023𝑅𝑒 5 𝑃𝑟 𝑛 𝑅𝑒𝐷 ≥ 10,000
𝐷 𝐷
𝐿
≥ 10
𝐷
With n = 0.4 for heating 𝑇𝑠 > 𝑇𝑚 and n = 0.3 for cooling
𝑇𝑠 < 𝑇𝑚 .
The equations may be used for small to moderate temperature
differences, 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑚 , with all properties evaluated at Tm.
2) For flows characterized by large property variations, the
following equation, due to Sieder and Tate, where all properties
except 𝜇𝑠 are evaluated at Tm.
0.7 ≤ 𝑃𝑟 ≤ 16,700
0.14
4
𝑁𝑢 = 0.027𝑅𝑒 5 𝑃𝑟 3
1 𝜇 𝑅𝑒𝐷 ≥ 10,000
𝐷 𝐷 𝜇𝑠 𝐿
≥ 10
𝐷
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 8.6 Convection Correlations: Noncircular Tubes

Hydraulic Diameter
4𝐴𝑐
𝐷ℎ =
𝑃

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 A 3 m long tube, 1.4 cm in diameter, is subjected to a uniform heat
flux of 2.2 kW/m2. It contains ethylene glycol at a flow rate of 3.25
x 10-6 m3/sec. The liquid enters the tube at a bulk temperature of
20 oC. Determine the fluid outlet temperature and the tube wall
temperature at outlet.

Air at 2x10-4 kg/sec and 27 0C enters a rectangular duct that is 1 m

long and 4 mm by 16 mm on a side. A uniform heat flux of 600
W/m2 is imposed on the duct surface. What is the temperature of
the air and the duct surface at the outlet?

Oil is heated by flowing through a circular tube of 50 mm dia and

25 m length, where surface is maintained at 150 0C. If the flow
rate and inlet temperature of oil are 0.5 kg/sec and 20 oC,
respectively, what is the outlet temperature of oil? What is the
total heat transfer rate for the tube?

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 A 3 m long tube, 1.4 cm in diameter, is subjected to a uniform heat flux of
2.2 kW/m2. It contains ethylene glycol at a flow rate of 3.25 x 10-6 m3/sec.
The liquid enters the tube at a bulk temperature of 20 oC. Determine the
fluid outlet temperature and the tube wall temperature at outlet.

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 Air at 2x10-4 kg/sec and 27 0C enters a rectangular duct that is 1 m long
and 4 mm by 16 mm on a side. A uniform heat flux of 600 W/m2 is
imposed on the duct surface. What is the temperature of the air and the
duct surface at the outlet?

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