Research Methods

Basic Concepts of Science and Research

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 Plan

• Science
• Scientific method
• Theory
• Paradigm
• Research
• Types of research
• Research process

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 Science…

• “Regular knowledge, which chooses a part of

the universe or events as its subject and tries
to draw laws based on empirical methods and
reality.”
• “The common name of mental activities based
on objective observation and systematic
experimentation regarding the world and the
phenomena in this world.”
(Kaptan, 1977, s. 3)

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Scientific Thought

• “Science-based, free, critical,

investigative and independent thinking”
(Turkish Dictionary)
• “creative, systematic, and problem-
solving purposeful thinking” (Kaptan,
1977, s. 2)

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 Basis for Problem Solving

• Traditions (previous practices,

precedent, etc.)
• Law
• Authority
• Individual experiences
• Science

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 Foundation of Science

• Experience
• Experiment
• Research

• Science investigates an existing order

that we do not yet know.

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 Basic Functions of Science

• Understanding
• Explanation
– Idiographic: description of a specific event
(an example of failing an exam)
– Nomothetics: more general descriptions of
events (football teams getting better results
on their own pitch)
• Control

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 Characteristics of Science

•Observational
•Mentally

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 Empiricism - Rationalism

• The orderly and methodical study of

nature and the establishment of a system
of science based on facts grasped through
observation and experimentation (Bacon)
• Only information that is "clear and
distinct" conceived by the mind is
reliable. Intuition, which provides clear
and distinct information, is the
prerequisite for infallible judgment.
(Descartes)
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 Sources of Science
• Supernaturalism (searching for the source of
events in other things)
• Individual experiences (collection, recording,
systematization of experiences and discovery of
general principles related to them)
• Quantity (measurement)
– Everything that happens in the universe is
quantitative and measurable (Thorndike)
• Discovery of relationships (cause-effect
relationship)
• Approximation to truth (“absolute” truths,
“immutable” truths)

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 Rationalism / Empiricism

• Rationalism takes the mind as a source of

information independent of emotional
perceptions and emphasizes "meaning".
• Empiricism takes emotions and
experiences as a source of information
and accepts "matter" as the first data.
There is no place for metaphysics in
empiricism.

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 Deduction - Induction

• Deducing from general propositions

(truths) to special cases by
reasoning (Aristotle)
• Generalizations obtained by
systematically examining individual
observations and experiments
(Bacon)

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 Theory

• Conceptual system that explains a set of

facts or factual relationships
• A set of logically related statements
about empirical reality

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Paradigm

The basic models, general frameworks,

worldviews or viewpoints we use to
organize our observations or reasoning.
Positivism, structural functionalism,
rational objectivity, etc.

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 Scientific Method

• Clear, controllable, critical, corrective,

experimental, selective, reasonable,
sensitive, factual, safest problem-solving
method known
• The way of producing science
• The scientific method is a synthesis of
deduction and induction.

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 Scientific Method
• “The ideas, rules, techniques and
approaches used by the scientific
community to generate and evaluate
knowledge”

Kaynak: Neuman, 2006, s. 17

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 Norms of the Scientific Community

• A set of informal rules, principles, and

values that govern how scientists conduct
their research.

• Universalism
• Organized skepticism
• Objectivism
• Sharing
• Honesty Kaynak: Neuman, 2006, s. 16

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 Basic Assumptions on which the Scientific
Method is Based

• Having a cause-effect relationship between

events
• Examination of events
• Gathering valid/reliable information by
induction/deduction
• Explaining the events without relying on
metaphysics

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 Stages of the Scientific Method

1- Sensing the difficulty

2- Defining the problem
3- Estimating the solution
4- Determination of observable testers
5- Making trials and evaluations
6- Reporting

Kaynak: Karasar, 1995, s. 14

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 Research

• Analyzing events, collecting and

organizing information, analyzing and
synthesizing, interpreting, evaluating and
making meaningful information

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 Research Types I

• Basic research • Applied research

– Generating knowledge – Actual solution of
for theory problems by
development evaluating the
– Adding new information produced
knowledge to existing (action research, R&D
knowledge research)
– Description -> Detail – Types: Evaluation,
detection -> Cause- action, social impact
effect relationship measurement
detection -> Theory
development

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 Research Types II

• Quantitative Studies • Qualitative Studies

– Measurement of – The structure of social
material facts reality, cultural meaning
– Focuses on interactive
– Focuses on variables
processes, events
– Reliability is – Limited to the situation
important
– Few subjects
– Context free – Clear values
– Free of value – Thematic analysis
– Too many subjects – The researcher is
– Researcher outside of involved
the case
Kaynak: Neuman, 2003, s. 16

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Stages of the Quantitative Research Process

1 Find
a subject
7 Inform
others 2 Focus
on question

6 Interpret Theory 3 Design

the data the research

5 Analyze
the data 4 Collect data

Kaynak: Neuman, 2006, s. 15

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Stages of the Qualitative Research Process

1 Accept the
social self
7 Inform
others 2 Adopt
perspective

6 Interpret Theory 3 Design

the data the research

5 Analyze
the data 4 Collect data
Kaynak: Neuman, 2006, s. 15

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 Research Types III
Exploratory Descriptive Explanatory
• Familiarize yourself •Create a detailed, •Test predictions or
with basic material accurate picture principles of a theory
data •Find new data that •Elaborate or enrich the
• Create a general conflicts with old data explanation of a theory
mental picture of the •Create a new set of •Apply a theory to new
conditions categories or classify problems or topics
• Formulate questions types •Support or refute a
for future research •Document a causal prediction or explanation
• Develop new ideas, process or mechanism •Relate problems or issues
hypotheses •Report the background to a general principle
• Decide whether to or context of a situation •Decide which
conduct research explanations are best
• Develop new data
discovery and
measurement
techniques
Kaynak: Neuman, 2006, s. 14

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 Summary

• Science
• Scientific method
• Theory
• Paradigm
• Research
• Types of research
• Research process

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 Thanks…

This lecture presentation prepared by Prof. Dr. Yaşar

TONTA has been edited and used by us with his permission
dated 29.09.2021.

We thank him for the main framework and content of the

presentation.

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