RWS PRE-FINAL EXAM HANDOUT

for GAS 11 A & B and HE 11 A & B

CRITICAL READING SKILLS

As a student, it is essential for you to practice reading critically. Critical reading goes beyond extracting
information from a text; rather, it involves recognizing the writer’s purpose, identifying the tone,
persuasive elements, and recognizing biases. Critical reading provides high reflective skills which allow
you to stand back and look at the text from different perspectives. It lends you the ability to see and
evaluate how a text presents arguments. Without this skill, a reader may run the risk of simply
memorizing texts and accepting them even if they are flawed, biased, and subjective.

Strategies for Effective Critical Reading

- Read the text with an open mind.

- Evaluate texts by examining the facts and examples.
- Check the accuracy and reliability of the sources.
- Distinguish facts from opinions.
- Assess if the conclusion is acceptable.

Guide Questions for Critical Reading

- What is the writer’s perspective? Does he/she write from an outsider’s or insider’s perspective?
- What relevant information is excluded from the text?
- Do you agree with the writer?
- Is the writer objective and accurate?
- How would you describe the tone of the writer?
- Does the text challenge your own values and beliefs?
- Does the text contain fallacies? What are those?
- Are there assumptions made by the writer?
- Does the writer oversimplify complex ideas?
- Does the writer use reasonable generalizations and inferences?

HYPERTEXT vs. INTERTEXT

Intertext
- refers to a work whose meaning is shaped by referencing or calling to mind other texts (shaping a
text’s meaning by another text).
- it is the interconnection between similar or related works of literature that reflects and influence an
audience’s interpretation of the text.
- Basically, other texts add meaning to the current text. It is putting a text in relation to another text,
usually through direct quotes or references.
- For instance, a book that quotes another book to compare, contrast, or expand on a point is using
intertext; The play Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare and the song Love Story by Taylor Swift, CS
Lewis’ The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe which alludes to the Bible.

Advantages of using Intertext

- Focuses on the process of composition. To reveal intention, while allowing the reader’s role in
producing the meaning of a text.
- Both reader and writer centered. Encompassing the entire process by which a text comes into being
and is understood.

Disadvantages of using Intertext

- Requires special knowledge on the part of the reader.

- Ignores the fact that a word or a phrase can mean something to a reader whether or not the reader
knows if that word or phrase has already been used by a previous writer.

Hypertext
- a text which contains links to other text; external links embedded in a text by the writer.
- A reader can read the text in a non-linear way because he is led to other links outside of the main text
and it enables the reader to arrive at the intended interpretation because he is led to where the author
exactly wants him to go.
- The context is taken through links and commentaries directly connected to the text being read.
- For example, definition of some terms, explanations to certain things mentioned, directions to the
next part of the plot, etc.
- It is applicable in both online and printed media.

ONLINE MEDIA PRINTED MEDIA

Hello, dear readers!
In my past blog posts I have shown you the
tranquility of Cagbalete Island, the enchanting
charm of Patar Beach, Bolinao, and the surreal
charm of the Underground River in Puerto
Prinsesa. In this post, let me take you to one of the
most beautiful places I’ve ever been to: Calaguas
Island.
The Pearl of the Orient Seas1 is blessed with many
beautiful beaches, but Boracay2 still remains one
of the most popular tourist destinations.
1
A historial moniker given to the Philippines
2
A small island in Aklan, Visayas

TYPES OF CLAIMS

When reading texts critically, it is necessary that you identify the type of claims, or the approach to the
topic, to see the main argument.
To identify the claims, focus on the first and last sentences of a paragraph. The details in each
paragraph will also guide you as to whether a text supports or opposes a certain claim or argument.
Take note also of the transitional devices used.
Guide Questions for Identifying the Claims

- Are the claims presented in the text supported by evidence?

- Are these pieces of evidence valid and sufficient?
- Are the pieces of evidence anecdotal or scientific? How does this nature affect the overall credibility of
the text?
- Does the text have references? Are they reliable and recent?
- How does the writer present facts and opinions?

Claim of Fact
- an argument about a quantifiable topic meaning, it can be expressed as an amount, quantity, or
numerical value.
- it is not a fact, it only asserts a stand regarding a debatable topic that which existed, is existing, and
will exist.
- A well-argued claim of fact clearly states the main argument and defines vague and controversial
terms. It is supported with factual information such as statistics, testimony, and observation that are
sufficient and accurate.
- For example: Climate change does not exist because these are simply natural cycles of weather change.
- From the example above, you cannot easily check whether this is indeed a fact as there are other
evidences and arguments which disagree with it.

Claim of Value
- it argues whether something is good or bad.
- it is based on judgment and evaluation on a philosophical, aesthetic, or moral standpoint.
- it is not merely a statement of subjective judgment but also assessed based on accurate information.
- A well-argued claim of value may assert that the value being defended will produce good results, as
long as it is backed up by reliable information. Also, it may cite experts on the field who support the
claim to make the argument more effective.
- For example: Euthanasia, which is also known as mercy killing, is an act to end a person’s life to
alleviate the suffering brought about by a terminal or grave illness.
- From the example above, some may agree to it but some may don’t because depending on their
personal beliefs and judgments.

Claim of Policy
- an argument which attempts to persuade a person or people to take some actions or change a
behavior usually to solve a problem.
- it generally states solutions and plans that are procedural and organized.
- it does not have to be a policy but it implies that some action is ought to be taken, but not that it
must or will be taken.
- the key words are should, must, and ought.
- For example: We should respect everyone in this school.
- From the example, it’s not a policy or a law but the statement wants the reader to follow what is said
or written.
LOGICAL FALLACIES
Logical fallacies are errors in reasoning that invalidate an argument. As a critical reader, you have to
identify and examine fallacies and manipulative language found in the text. It is therefore important that
you know what some of the common fallacies are.
Fallacy
1. False Dilemma
2. Appeal to Ignorance
3. Slippery Slope
4. Complex Question
5. Appeal to Force
6. Appeal to Pity
7. Appeal to
Consequences
8. Bandwagon
9. Attacking the Person
10. Appeal to Authority
11. Anonymous Authority
12. Hasty Generalization
Description
Occurs when an arguer presents his/her
argument as one of only two options despite
the presence of multiple possibilities
Occurs when something is instantly
concluded to be true just because it is not
proven to be false, and vice versa
Occurs when a series of increasingly
superficial and unacceptable consequences
is drawn
Occurs when two or more points are rolled
into one and the reader is expected to either
accept or reject both at the same time
Occurs when a threat, instead of reasoning,
is used to argue
Occurs when the element of pity is used
instead of logical reasoning
Occurs when unpleasant consequences of
believing something are pointed out to show
that the belief is false
Occurs when an argument is considered
valid because it is what the majority thinks
Occurs when someone tries to refute an
argument by attacking the character of a
person instead of the idea
Occurs when the argument quotes an expert
who is not qualified in the particular subject
matter
The authority in question is not mentioned
or named
Occurs when a sample is not significant or
Example
Either you fully devote yourself to
the company or you quit.
The writer doesn’t talk about the
connection of the victim’s killer and
his sister, so there must be none.
If we ban computer shops, then
students won’t be able to do
research. And if they do not have
tools for research, they will fail
their subjects.
“Have you stopped cheating on
exams?”
If you don’t admit that evolution is
real, we will isolate you from the
group.
Please don’t fire me for being
absent all month; I have a sick
mother and a special child to
support.
You can’t believe that colonialism is
bad, because if it were, then we
wouldn’t be civilized.
Most Filipinas want to have fair skin
because they think they look
beautiful. Therefore, having fair
skin must be the real standard of
beauty.
I cannot accept your argument
because, unlike me, you were not
educated at Harvard University.
Bill Gates, the co-founder of
Microsoft, recommends the
effective fabric softening properties
of Downy fabric softener.
Experts claim that eating peanuts
causes pimples.
Martha, the foreigner from France,
 enough to support a generalization about a
population
13. False Analogy Occurs when a writer assumes that two
concepts that are similar in some ways are
also similar in other ways
14. Accident Occurs when a general rule is applied to a
situation, even when it should be an
exception
15. Post Hoc Occurs when the arguer claims that since
event A happened before event B, A is the
cause of B
16. Wrong Direction Occurs when the direction between cause
and effect is reversed
17. Complex Cause Occurs when the explanation for an event is
reduced to one thing when there are other
factors which also contributed to the event
18. Irrelevant Conclusion Occurs when an argument which is
supposed to prove something concludes
something else instead
19. Straw Man Occurs when the position of the opposition
is twisted so that it is easier to refute
20. Affirming the Any argument of the form: if A is true then B
Consequent is true; if B is true, therefore A is true
21. Denying the Any argument of the form: if A is true then B
Consequent is true; if A is not true, therefore B is not
true
22. Inconsistency Occurs when arguments contradict one
another
is very impolite. French people are
mean and rude.
Drugs are like massages; they make
you feel good.
Jaywalking is not allowed, so you
shouldn’t have done that when you
were being chased by terrorists.
Dina saw a black cat when they
went home. Along the way, they
crashed into a tree. The black cat
must be the reason why they meet
an accident.
Liver damage leads to alcoholism.
We were not able to solve the
problem because of limited time,
even if all the other groups were
able to do so.
We must support the fight for
gender equality between men and
women. Women have suffered
enough violence at home. Violence
against women must be stopped.
Opponent: We should relax the law
governing the allowed smoking
areas in the city.
Fallacy: We should not do so,
because the number of smokers
might increase.
If you are drinking wine, you have a
problem. Therefore, if you have a
problem, you are drinking wine.
If you are drinking wine, you have a
problem. Therefore, if you’re not a
drinking wine, you don’t have a
problem.
Frank is older than Jake, Jake is
older than Noli, and Noli is older
than Frank.
 PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE WRITING

The components of a text or a composition can either be a paragraph or an essay.

Paragraph is a group of interrelated sentences that talk about one main idea while an essay is a group
of paragraphs that talk about one central idea. Check the table below to see the differences between
the two.

Paragraph
Organized around a topic sentence
Contains introductory sentence
Uses sentences to explain major points
May use a concluding sentence
Essay
Organized around a thesis
Contains introductory paragraph
Uses paragraphs to explain major points
Always uses a concluding paragraph

3 major parts of a paragraph:

- Topic sentence
- Supporting details
- Closing sentence

Topic Sentence – the Supporting Details –

central idea of the
paragraph; it can be
a stand or a
comment, an
objective statement,
or a question
Closing Sentence –
concludes the details
that have been
presented.
sentences that clarify
In their book, Wilbert McKeachie and Marilla Svinicki
and prove the main
described four types of challenging students. The first
type is composed of the attention-seeking, discussion- idea.
dominating students who want to be heard. The second
type is comprised of the inattentive students who
doodle and drift off during class discussions. They often
stare into their cell phones and chat with their
classmates during lecture. The third type is composed of
the unprepared students who are characterized as the
ones who skip doing their assignments prior to the class.
They do not have pens or paper even when they know
that they are scheduled to take their quizzes and exams.
The last type of challenging students includes the uncivil Cohesive Devices –
and disrespectful ones who display rude behaviors. transitional devices,
Knowing these types of challenging students would help
pronouns, or
teachers manage these behaviors constructively.
repetition of ideas
used in order for all
of the sentences to
be linked properly.
Unlike a paragraph, an essay has a more elaborate structure. It is divided into three general parts,
namely introduction, body, and conclusion. Below are the specific parts of an essay with their brief
definition.

I. Introduction

a. Lead or Attention-getter – the first statement in the essay which aims to hook the attention of the
readers.
b. Transitional Statement – a sentence that links the lead to the thesis statement.
c. Thesis Statement – a sentence that states the main idea or argument of the essay.

*Transitional Paragraph – a paragraph that does not directly provide support to a thesis statement but
functions as a bridge from one paragraph to another.

II. Body – is the meat of the essay. It discusses the thesis statement in detail through paragraphs. This is
where the topic is developed and where the arguments are laid out and discussed.

A. Major Point 1 (first argument/reason from the Thesis Statement)

1. Minor Detail 1
2. Minor Detail 2

B. Major Point 2 (second argument/reason from the Thesis Statement)

1. Minor Detail 1
2. Minor Detail 2

C. Major Point 3 (third argument/reason from the Thesis Statement)

1. Minor Detail 1
2. Minor Detail 2

III. Conclusion

a. Reiteration of thesis statement – restating the thesis statement or the main idea of the essay using a
different structure and wording to uphold the language style.
b. Transitional statement – reiteration of purpose, benefit, and recommendation
c. Closing Statement – used to wrap up the essay.

PROPERTIES OF A WELL-WRITTEN TEXT

A. Unity
- this is achieved when a composition contains one focused idea. In a unified text, all the supporting
ideas are relevant to the main thought. Without unity, the text will be confusing.

B. Coherence and Cohesion

- these are achieved when ideas are logically, clearly, and smoothly linked to one another.
- Coherence occurs when ideas are connected at the conceptual or idea level while the cohesion is the
connection of ideas at the sentence level.
- Cohesion can be applied using three techniques: use pronouns to refrain from using a specific word
repeatedly, use transitional devices to connect sentences with linked ideas, and to employ repetition of
keywords to tie up the paragraphs subtly.

C. Organization
- this is achieved when ideas are logically and accurately arranged.

D. Language Use

a. use clear and concise sentences

b. avoid redundancies, wordiness, clichés, and high falutin language
c. avoid excessive use of “there” and “it” structures; rewrite by dropping the “there” and “it”
d. use precise vocabulary; be accurate and condense lengthy phrases into fewer words.
e. be consistent with your pronoun’s point of view.
f. avoid sexist language
g. use the appropriate level of formality

E. Mechanics
- the technical aspect of writing which is characterized as a set of conventions on how to spell,
abbreviate, punctuate, and capitalize a composition.

1. Always use Standard English.

2. Avoid contractions (e.g., shouldn’t)
3. Avoid exclamation marks unless they are part of a direct quotations.
4. Mention the full name of an institution or organization with the abbreviation in parenthesis, in first
mention. Thereafter, use the abbreviation.
5. Numbers from zero to ten should be spelled out while numbers higher than ten should be written in
figure.
6. Generally, citations are used in academic and formal texts. However, they are sparingly used in
business texts.

THESIS STATEMENT, TOPIC SENTENCE, AND SUPPORTING DETAILS

Thesis Statement
- is the central idea of a multiple-paragraph composition. It is a one-sentence summary that guides,
controls, and unifies ideas when writing a paper. In simple terms, all the other ideas present in an essay
revolve around the thesis statement.
Examples:

Topic: Jogging
Question: Why is jogging beneficial?
Thesis Statement: Jogging is beneficial because it positively affects the physical well-being, emotional
welfare and mental fitness of a person.

Topic: Cagayan de Oro

Question: Why is Cagayan de Oro called the city of golden friendship?
Thesis Statement: Cagayan de Oro is called the city of golden friendship because of its hospitable
citizens, friendly accommodation, and sumptuous delicacies.

How To Write an Effective Thesis Statement

1. It should be written in a complete sentence.

2. It should not be too narrow nor too broad, and it should contain at least two details.
3. Avoid an awkward thesis statement which states the obvious. These statements usually start with the
phrase “I will tell you…” or “I will talk about…”
4. Enumerated details should have the same level of significance. If one of the details can be classified
under another detail, you can omit it.
5. It should not state an absolute fact, because it will not present any central idea that can be developed
further. It should have a point.

Topic Sentence
- this guides, controls, and unifies ideas in a paragraph to develop one argument from the thesis
statement.

Tips in Writing a Topic Sentence

1. It should be written in a complete sentence, just like the thesis statement.

2. It should not be phrased awkwardly and should not state the obvious. These statements usually start
with the phrase “I will tell you…” or “I will talk about…”
3. It should contain one detail which is related to one of the details in the thesis statement.
4. It should vary in structure across paragraphs. It will enable you to stress important parts.
5. If the composition is one paragraph, the topic sentence should be straightforward.

Example:

Topic: Jogging
Question: Why is jogging beneficial?
Thesis Statement: Jogging is beneficial because it positively affects the physical well-being, emotional
welfare and mental fitness of a person.

Topic Sentence 1: Jogging positively impacts one’s physical wellness by preventing hypertension and
other diseases.
Topic Sentence 2: Also, another benefit is that it balances the emotional welfare of a person.
Topic Sentence 3: Finally, another benefit from jogging is that it maintains mental fitness.

Supporting Details
- these details are pieces of information necessary to better understand the main idea.
- they can be facts, reasons, testimonies, statistics, and experiments that support the topic sentence.
- this is divided into two: Major details and Minor details.
- Major details directly support the topic sentence whereas minor details directly support the major
details.

Example:

Topic: Tagaytay City

Question: Why is Tagaytay City considered an enthralling city of the south?
Thesis Statement: Tagaytay City is an enthralling city of the South because of its beautiful landscape,
delicious food, and amazing people.

Topic Sentence 1: Tagaytay City attracts tourists with its magnificent landscape.
Topic Sentence 2: People go back to Tagaytay for its delicious food.
Topic Sentence 3: The warmth of the city’s amazing people is also another reason why Tagaytay is
alluring.

Sample Paragraph with Thesis Statement, Topic Sentences, and Supporting Details – Major and Minor

Tagaytay City is an enthralling city of the South because of its beautiful landscape, delicious food, and
amazing people. The city has magnificent scenery that never fails to capture the awe of its visitors. One
major tourist spot that exudes the beauty of Tagaytay is Taal Volcano, the smallest volcano in the
world. The lake which surrounds it is another attraction that cannot be missed. The city is also known
for its sumptuous native food. Tourists who drop by the city make it a point to try Tagaytay’s famous
bulalo and other delicacies. Aside from these, Tagaytay is also characterized by the warmth of its
people, the Caviteños. They bring with them their smiles as they welcome both local and foreign
visitors.

Prepared by,
Miss Shan M.