Water Supply by Er. Abhash Acharya

ABHASH ACHARYA 1
WATER SUPPLY
ENGINEERING
(INTRODUCTION)
Compiled and Prepared By:

Abhash Acharya
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Central Campus, Pulchowk
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1.1 Importance of Water:
Water is an essence of life. Human, animals, and plants require water for their survival. Seventy-
one percent of the surface of the earth is covered by water. Five percent of water loss in the body
causes degradation of the muscle strength and endurance. 10% reduction in water leads to delirium
and blurred vision and 20% reduction in water leads to death.
Functions of water in human body:
 It moisturizes the air in lungs and joints

 It helps in metabolism
 It protects our vital organs
 It transports oxygen and nutrients into cells
 It regulates human body temperature
 It helps to absorb nutrients
Importance of Water supply Engineering:
 Necessity of life
 Prevention of land pollution
 Aesthetic appearance
1.2 Definition of Types of Water:
1.2.1 Pure and Impure Water:
Water which does not contain any other substances except Hydrogen and Oxygen is said to be
pure water. Pure water is note actually suitable for drinking as it lacks vital minerals required for
human growth. Pure water is used in laboratories and medical purposes and is obtained by the
special method of distillation.
Water that contains other substances as mineral salts, organisms, gases except hydrogen and
oxygen is called impure water. The water that is used for drinking is impure water, but impurities
should not be excessive to cause an adverse effect on human health.
1.2.2 Potable and Wholesome Water:
Water that is safe for drinking by humans and other animals is called potable water. It is also called
safe water.
Water that is practically clear, colourless, odourless, palatable, sparkling and reasonably free from
objectionable chemical salts in solution and from microscopic organisms in suspension is called
wholesome water.
Requirements:
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 Biological quality: Including the levels of bacteria and viruses.

 Chemical quality: Including the levels of metals, pesticides, solvents and hydrocarbons.
 Physical quality: Including colour, taste and odour.
1.2.3 Polluted and Contaminated Water:
The water that contains excessive impurities as minerals, salts, gases, microorganisms is called
polluted water. The polluted water is not generally clean and wholesome.
The water that contains microorganisms such as bacteria, virus, protozoa, and worms is called as
contaminated water. It is non potable and must not be used for drinking purposes.
1.3 Historical Development of Water Supply System:
The process of supplying potable water from source to consumers through the network of pipes,
reservoir, and other appurtenances is known as water supply system or water supply scheme.
 Digging of shallow wells was the earliest innovation beyond rivers, lakes, and springs.
 Brick lined wells were built by city dwellers in the Indus River basin as early as 2500 BC
and wells almost 500m deep are known to have been used in ancient China.
 Use of cast iron pipes with joints started in the 19thcentury.
 Stone spouts were introduced to the Kathmandu valley during the Lichhavi period, in the
fifth to seventh centuries.
 There are 118 stone spouts in Kathmandu, 103 in Bhaktapur and 48 in Patan.
 Bir Dhara System was commissioned in 1895 A.D.
 Pani Goshowara Adda was established.
 Department of Water Supply and Sewerage (DWSS) were formally established in 1972.
1.4 Water Supply Sector Institutions in Nepal
Urban Development (MoUD)
Local Development (MLD)
Ministries Water Resources (MWR)
Education and Sports (MoES)
Health and Population (MoHP)

Department of Water Supply and Sewerage (DWSS)
Government
Departments Department of Urban Development and Building Construction (DUDBC)
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Department of Local Infrastructure Development and Agriculture Roads

(DoLIDAR)
Water Supply Tariff Fixation Commission (WSTFC)
Town Development Fund (TDF)

Government Bodies
Nepal Water Supply Corporation (NWSC)
Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani Limited (KUKL)

District Development Committees (DDC)
Local Government Municipalities
Village Development Committees (VDC)

Nepal Water for Health (NEWAH)
Water Aid Nepal

NGOs
Environment and Public Health Organization (ENPHO)
Federation of Drinking Water and Sanitation Users Nepal (FEDWASUN)

Urban Development through Local Efforts
Urban Environment Improvement Project
Public Private Partnership for Urban Environment
Others Un Habitat-Nepal
World Health Organization (WHO)
United Nations International Children Education Fund (UNICEF)
Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Fund Development Board (RWSSFDB)
Source : PPTA No. 4972-NEP
Sectors Functions
Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD) Water Supply Promotion
Promotion of local development and
Ministry of Local Development (MLD)
decentralization
Overall development of education in the country
Ministry of Education and Sports (MoES)
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Designing and construction of school

infrastructures (water supply and sanitation)
Ministry of Water Resources (MWR) Implements the water resource policies.
Water supply Tariff Fixation commission Fixes water tariffs and ensures quality standards
(WSTFC) in service delivery.
Responsible for the provision of drinking water in
Nepal Water Supply Corporation (NWSC)
designated municipalities.
Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Fund Implements projects through a system of technical
Development Board (RWSSFDB) support agencies.
Develops technical standards
Construction of sanitation facilities

Department of Water Supply and Sewerage
(DWSS) Coordination of health and hygiene education
Designs and constructs activities for water supply

and sanitation
1.5 Objectives of Water Supply System:
 Qualitative water supply (safe, wholesome and potable water)

 Quantitative water supply
 Efficient water supplies scheme
 Affordable water supply
 Accessible water supply
 Continuation
 Reliable water supply
 Water supply for industrial, commercial and domestic purposes.
Job:
 Collection of water
 Transmission of water
 Treatment of water
 Distribution of water
1.6 Schematic Diagrams of Typical Water Supply System:
The layout of water supply system and its component extending from the water source to the
consumer areas is called schematic diagram of a water supply system.
Intake > Sedimentation Tank > Disinfection > Distribution
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Fig: Rural water supply scheme
Intake > Reservoir > Sedimentation Tank > Sedimentation with coagulation > Filtration >
Disinfection > Hardening/Softening > Aeration > Storage tank > Distribution
Fig: Urban water supply scheme
1.7 Components of water supply system:
Intake: A device or a structure constructed at the water source for the purpose of drawing water
from the source and conveying to the other components of the water supply system is termed as
intake.
Pump: It is a device to lift the water from the source. Pumping is required when the consumer
area is at the higher elevation than the source. It should be avoided as far as possible to minimize
the cost.
Transmission main: It is a pipe laid to convey water from source to reservoir. It is designed for
the flow equivalent to the maximum daily demand. The transmission main and all other
components located in it are designed for the average flow as daily peak factor is considered to be
one in Nepal.
Collection Chamber: Collection chamber is provided either at the intake or near the intake site to
collect the water from one of more sources. It breaks the incoming water pressure into atmospheric
pressure which prevents the backflow of water from one source to another.
Distribution Chamber: It is a tank provided at the junction of the pipeline when water has to be
conveyed in more than one direction at atmospheric pressure.
Interruption Chamber: It is a tank present in the transmission main to break the excessive
internal water pressure built in the pipeline.
Reservoir: It is a tank or a basin which is used to store water. It may be classified as clean water
reservoir and service reservoir. Clean water reservoir stores water after treatment has been done
and is used for water supply purposes. Service reservoir stores water that is used for firefighting
purposes.
Distribution System: Distribution system is a network of pipeline that conveys the water from
the service reservoir to the consumer. It is designed for maximum or peak flow.
Break Pressure Chamber (BPC): It is a tank that is located in the distribution system to break
the excessive internal water pressure built up in the pipeline. It reduces the cost as it avoids the
necessity of high-pressure rating pipes. It is provided with the float valve.
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Public Stand Post (PSP): It is a structure in the pipeline (usually in the rural water supply system)
from where water is distributed to the consumers.
Valves: Valves are appurtenances provided in the pipeline to control and regulate the flow of
water, to prevent the flow in opposite direction, to release the excessive pressure and to conduct
other functions.
Valve Chamber: The chamber in which one or more valves are located is called a valve chamber.
Fittings: Fittings are those appurtenances that allow pipes to be joined or installed in the
appropriate place and closed where necessary.
Bibliography:
Kansakar B.R. (2015), Water Supply Engineering, Divine Print Support, Lagan Tole, Kathmandu.
Punmia B.C., Jain A. and JainA. (1998), Water Supply Engineering, Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd.,
New Delhi, India.
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WATER SUPPLY
ENGINEERING
(SOURCES OF WATER)

Abhash Acharya
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2.1 Classification of Sources of Water
Sources of water may be classified as Surface Sources and Ground Sources which are further
described below.
2.2 Surface Sources:
Sources of water that are available at the ground surface is called surface source. It includes river,
streams, lakes, ponds, impounded reservoir.
Surface water contains organic debris, suspended materials, herbicides and pesticides, domestic
and industrial wastes. On reaching to the impounded reservoir the suspended material settles and
the water improve in turbidity. Organisms can oxidize material and give rise to colour, taste, and
odour.
2.2.1 River:
A river is a natural channel which carries surface runoff received by it from its catchment or
drainage basin. The quantity of water increases as river travels from mountain to downwards. It is
due to the small catchment in the mountain. As river move forward more and more springs
combine resulting in increased discharge. The river may be perennial as well as non-perennial.
Perennial rivers are those rivers in which water are available throughout the year. The water in
such rivers is due to rains in the rainy season and by melting of snow during the summer season.
Non-perennial rivers are those rivers in which water are not available throughout the year.
The quality of water is better at the place of origin i.e. mountainous region and goes on degrading
as it moves forward as it gets contaminated with organisms, suspended materials, clay, silt, etc. As
the quantity of supply from the river is large, it is used as a water supply source for towns and
cities. The water from river must be analyzed and treated before use.
2.2.2 Streams:
Streams are defined as the natural drainage channel. They are found in the mountainous region.
The quantity of water from the stream is less as compared to the river due to its small catchment.
Perennial streams are snow fed and non-perennial streams are fed from surface runoff. It acts as a
water source in villages of hilly areas. Generally, water from streams are used without any
treatment but it is recommended that the water should be analyzed and treated before use.
2.2.3 Lakes:
A large natural depression formed in the earth’s surface where water gets deposited is called the
lake. It is also generally found in the mountainous region. The quantity of water available from
lake depends upon the following factors:
 Size of the lake

 Catchment area of the lake
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 Annual rainfall
 Porosity of the ground surface
 Geological formations
The quality of water from lake depends upon the characteristics of its catchment. The water in a
lake would be pure if it draws water from uninhabited upland hilly areas. Water would be
contaminated if it draws from low land areas. Water from Rara Lake can be used without treatment
whereas water from smaller lakes must be analyzed and treated before distribution.
2.2.4 Ponds:
Ponds are artificially made the body of standing water. These are smaller than lakes in size. The
water from pond cannot be used for water supply purposes. They are used for bathing, washing of
clothes.
2.2.5 Impounded Reservoir
For large cities, a single source cannot fulfil the demand of the growing population. The water may
not be available throughout the year in adequate amount. So a dam is constructed across the river
to form a reservoir where water is stored and can be used when there is a limited supply of water
from the source. Such constructed reservoir are said to be impounded reservoirs. These are used
for water supply scheme in large cities and towns. The water from impounded reservoir is
improved in turbidity.
2.2.6 Capacity determination of Impounded Reservoir:
The capacity of the impounded reservoir is calculated using an analytical method or mass curve
method.
IR capacity = Maximum cumulative surplus + Maximum cumulative deficit – Total inflow + Total
demand.
Inflow > Outflow, reduce the tank by difference or surplus or overflow occurs.
Inflow <= Outflow, no considerations.
2.3 Subsurface Geologic Formation:
The water below the ground surface is known as groundwater. Precipitation acts as the major
source of groundwater.
Infiltration: The entrance of water into the ground.
Percolation: The movement of water underground after infiltration.
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Water table: The surface of the ground water exposed to atmospheric pressure beneath the ground
surface. The water table rises and falls according to the amount of precipitation and the rate at
which groundwater is added or withdrawn from the ground water reservoir.
Aquifer: Aquifer are water bearing strata from which water can be extracted easily.
Confined aquifer: The aquifer between two impermeable layers is called confined aquifer.
Unconfined aquifer: The aquifer which is in between a permeable and impermeable layer is
called unconfined aquifer.
Pearched aquifer: The aquifer that occurs in patches is called pearched aquifer.
Aquiclude: Geologic formation which permits the storage of water but not capable of transmitting
water in sufficient quantity. Eg: Clay.
Aquifuge: Geologic formation which neither contains nor transmits water. Eg: Solid granite.
2.4 Ground Sources:
Those sources of water that exist below the ground surface is called ground water sources. The
ground water may be contaminated with polluted water from agricultural fields, high mineral
content, iron, and sulphur, calcium and magnesium. Iron and manganese affect taste and odor. Iron
and sulphur give rotten egg odor. Calcium and Magnesium cause hardness of water. The various
groundwater sources are:
 Springs
 Wells
 Infiltration galleries
 Infiltration wells
2.4.1 Springs:
A place where ground water naturally comes to the surface at the intersection of the ground surface
and the water table is called spring.
Gravity Springs:
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Depression Spring
Contact or Surface Spring
Artesian Spring
 Depression springs: Springs formed where ground surface intersects the water table.
 Contact springs: Created by a permeable water bearing formation over lying a less
permeable formation that intersects the ground surface.
 Artesian springs: Result from the release of water under pressure from confined aquifers
either at an outcrop of the aquifer or through an opening in the confining bed.
Non-Gravity Springs:
 Tabular/Fracture Springs: It is issuing from rounded channels such as lava tubes, of

fractures on impermeable rocks connecting on ground water.
2.4.2 Wells:
Wells are holes or shaft, usually vertically excavated for bringing ground water to the surface.
Wells are classified as:
 Open wells/Dug wells

 Tube wells
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1. Open wells/Dug wells:
Shallow and Deep Open Wells
 Diameter: 1-10m
 Depth: 2-20m
 Low yield
Open wells can be further classified as:
 Shallow wells:
Shallow wells are those wells that rest in top water bearing strata and draw their supplies from
surrounding materials. There is more chance of contamination in shallow wells. The yield from
shallow wells is less and the water from such wells are adequately available for a single family.
 Deep wells:
Deep wells are those wells that rest in impervious strata and draw its supplies from the pervious
formation lying below the impervious strata through bore holes. The chance of contamination in
the deep well is less but there is the presence of minerals in high amount. The yield from deep
wells is more and are adequately available for a community.
2. Tube Wells:
It is a long pipe sunk into the ground intercepting one or more water-bearing stratum. The
diameters are much less as compared to open wells. Classified as:
 a. Shallow tube wells – Max 30 m

 b. Deep tube wells. - Max 600 m
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 These tube wells may be classified as:
(i)Strainer type tube well
(ii)Cavity type tube well
(iii)Slotted type tube well
i) Strainer type of Tube well:
Strainer type tube well
 If not stated, tube well means Strainer type.

 The strainer pipes and blind pipes are alternately placed.
 Strainer consists of fine wire mesh wrapped round a perforated pipe.
 The size of openings of wire mesh= D60,D70 of surrounding soil.
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ii) Cavity type of Tube Well
Cavity type tube well
 The borehole is dug until it finds the pervious layer of water.

 Pumping is done and sandy water is withdrawn.
 Cavity formation occurs at the sandy layer and thus, water enters the sand pore at critical
velocity but less than this in the cavity.
 Thus after sometimes clear water is obtained.
iii) Slotted type of Tube well
 Derives water from aquifer using education pipe and casing.
2.4.3 Infiltration Galleries:
Infiltration Galleries
Infiltration galleries are also known as horizontal wells. Groundwater moving towards, river,
stream, and lakes is intercepted and collected. They are located near the perennial recharge sources.
The depth of placement is 3-10 meters below the ground surface. When the ground water is
available in small quantity infiltration pipes are used. These are horizontal pipes with perforations
all around its surface laid in place of the rectangular tunnel. The perforations are covered with
gravel to prevent entry of fine sand particles.
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2.4.4 Infiltration Wells:
Infiltration Well
Infiltration wells are constructed in series along the bank to collect the water seeping through the
bank. These wells work on the same principle as infiltration galleries. The yield through infiltration
well is less as compared to infiltration galleries. These wells are used as a source of water for the
small community. They are open at the bottom and closed at the top. The various infiltration wells
are connected by the porous pipe to collecting sump well, known as jack well. The water flows
into the jack well by gravity flow which is then treated and distributed.
2.5 Selection of water sources:
The selection of water sources depends upon the following factors:
 Location:
The water source must be near the community. This enables the reduction in cost for pipes as
shorter pipes can be used. The location of the water source should be such that the water is supplied
to the consumers through gravity rather than pumping which decreases the overall system cost.
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 Quantity of water:
The source must be selected such that it is able to fulfil the demand of consumers even during the
driest period. The domestic, industrial, commercial, livestock, public and fire demand need to be
fulfilled.
 Quality of water:
The source should supply potable water to the consumer which is suitable for drinking. The
treatment of water should be avoided as far as possible so as to reduce the system cost.
 Continuity and Reliability:
The source must be selected such that it is able to supply water continuously to the consumers and
the source needs to be reliable as well.
 Cost:
The cost of water supply scheme should be taken into consideration during the selection of source.
The cost should be minimized as far as possible so as to supply water to the consumers at the
affordable price.
Bibliography:
Punmia B.C., Jain A., and JainA. (1998), Water Supply Engineering, Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd.,
New Delhi, India.
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WATER SUPPLY
ENGINEERING
(QUANTITY OF WATER)

Abhash Acharya
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The design of water supply system for any community requires the determination of the quantity
of water required for various purposes. The sources that fulfills the demand of the water are
examined. Multiple sources are determined if the water from a single source cannot fulfill the
demand of the community. For estimating the quantity of water required following three factors
needs to be known.
 Per capita Demand of water

 Base and design period
 Population
3.1 Per Capita Demand of Water
It is also termed as the rate of demand. It is defined as the total annual average daily consumption
including all demands of water for a person. It is expressed in liters per capita per day (lpcd). In
Nepalese context, for rural water supply system per capita demand is taken as 40 – 45 lpcd and for
urban water supply system per capita demand is taken as 100-160 lpcd. If Q be the quantity of
water required per year by community with population P, then per capita demand of water is given
as:
Per capita demand of water = Q/(P*365)
3.2 Base and Design Periods
Base Period:
Base period is the period required for survey, design and construction of water supply system.
Usually, base period of two to three years is adopted.
Design Period:
Design period is defined as the future period for which a provision is made while planning and
designing the water supply programs. Usually, 15 to 20 years is adopted as design period. For
developing community where population growth rate is high, the population estimation may not
be accurate so a low design period is taken. For the developed community where population growth
rate is low, high design period can be taken.
3.2.1 Typical Base and Design Periods:
For rural water supply system with the high population growth rate base period of 2-3 years and
design period of 15 years is taken whereas for rural water supply system with low population
growth rate base period of 2-3 years and design period of 20 years is taken. For urban water supply
system base period of 2-3 years and design period up to 30 years is taken.
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3.2.2 Base Year:
After the completion of the water supply system, water is delivered to the community. The year in
which the water is delivered to the community is called the base year.
Base year = Survey year + Base Period
3.2.3 Design Year:
Design year is defined as that year for which the water supply system is designed for. It depends
on the base year and the design period and is given as:
Design Year = Base year + Design Period
3.2.4 Selection Basis of Design Period
Design period must be selected in such a way that it is neither too long nor too short. Shorter design
period may lead to an uneconomical project whereas a longer design period may result in the
financial burden on the present population as the components need to be of high capacities.
Following are the selection basis of design period:
1. Fluid Available:
The fluid available at the water source must be able to fulfill the needs and demands at the design
year. Higher the fluid available longer can be the design period and the design period would be
shorter if the fluid available is low.
2. Development of community:
For the developing communities, higher will be the population growth rate due to migration from
the community with poor infrastructures. So the estimation of the population may not be accurate
so a short design period is selected whereas the case is just reverse for the developed community
where population growth rate is low.
3. Population Growth rate:
Due to migration and other natural phenomenon as birth and death the population cannot be
accurately determined so the design period is taken shorter for high population growth rate.
4. Availability of funds and rate of interest:
If the fund available for the water supply system is adequate (not limited), the system with higher
capacity can be constructed for which a longer design period can be taken. Shorter design period
is taken when the fund is limited. If the interest on the money borrowed for the construction of
water supply project, a longer design period can be taken and vice-versa.
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5. Useful life of components:
Every component used in the water supply system (pipe, valves, fittings, etc) has their useful life.
The design period should not exceed the useful life of such components.
3.3 Types of Water Demand:
Depending upon the water used for various purposes water demand are classified as:
3.3.1 Domestic Demand (DD)
The domestic demand includes water used for drinking, bathing, cooking, house washing, utensils
washing, cloth wasting, latrine, gardening and so on.
 112 lpcd for fully plumbed houses

 45 lpcd for partly plumbed houses
 45 lpcd for rural areas served by public stand posts.
As per WHO guidelines, 135 lpcd is recommended for domestic demand.
3.3.2 Livestock Demand (LD)
Livestock demand includes the quantity of water consumed by domestic animals and birds as cows,
buffalos, horses, sheep, goat, pigs, chicken, ducks, etc.
 45 lits/animal/day for big animals as cows, horses, etc.

 20 lits/animal/day for medium sized animals as pigs, sheep, goats, etc.
 20 lits/100birds/day for birds such as chicken ducks, etc.
The livestock demand should not exceed 20% of the total domestic demand. The livestock demand
in the urban area is much lower as compared to the domestic demand and can be neglected.
3.3.3 Commercial Demand (CD)
Commercial Demand includes the demand of water by offices, restaurants, schools, colleges,
hospitals, hotels and other institutions.
 500-1000 lits/day for offices (Depending upon the size)

 500 lits/bed/day for hospitals with the bed.
 2500 lits/day for hospitals without bed and health clinics.
 200 lits/bed/day for hotels with the bed.
 500 - 1000 lits/day for hotels without the bed.
 500 – 1000 lits/day for restaurants and tea stalls.
 10 lpcd for day scholars.
 65 lpcd for boarders.
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3.3.4 Public/Municipal Demand (PD)
Public Demand includes the quantity of water required for watering of public parks and gardening
purposes. It includes cleaning of roads and sewers. This demand is taken into consideration in
urban communities only. 5-10% of the total consumption is made for public/municipal demand.
3.3.5 Industrial Demand (ID)
Water consumed by industries is included within the industrial demand. The consumption depends
upon the size and type of industries. 20-25% of the total consumption is made for industrial
demand.
3.3.6 Fire Demand (FD)
The quantity of water that is required for firefighting purposes is included under fire demand. For
cities and towns provision of fire, demand should be included in the water supply scheme.
Following are the empirical formulas to determine the fire demand:
Indian Water Supply Manual and Treatment Formula
Q = 100 P1/2
Where, Q = Quantity of water for fire demand in kilolitres/day.
P = Population in thousands.
Buston’s Formula
Q = 5663 P1/2
Where, Q = Quantity of water for fire demand in liters/min.
Kuichling’s Formula
Q = 3182 P1/2
Freeman’s Formula
Q = 1136 ((P/5)+10)
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National Board of Fire Underwriters’ Formula
Q = 4637 P1/2 (1-0.01P1/2)
3.3.7 Loss and Wastage (LW)
There is always a loss and wastage during the supply of water. The actual amount of water wasted
cannot be determined. So 15% of the total supply is taken as loss and wastage. The loss of water
may be due to leakage in valves, mains, unauthorized connections, fittings, etc.
3.3.8 Total Water Demand
The sum of all the various types of demand is known as water demand.
Total water Demand = DD + LD + CD + PD + ID + FD + LW
3.4 Variation in Demand of Water
The water consumption varies from day to day, season to season and hour to hour. As the water
consumption is not uniform they are studied as:
1. Seasonal Variations:
The rate of demand of water varies from season to season. During summer, more quantity of water
is required for drinking, bathing, washing of clothes. It is due to the hotter climatic condition during
summer. During winter, due to cool weather the consumption of water is less. In Nepalese context,
the seasonal variation is low and can be neglected.
Maximum Seasonal Demand = Seasonal Peak Factor * Annual average demand
The seasonal peak factor is 1 in Nepal.
2. Daily Variations:
The rate of demand of water also varies from day to day. The consumption of water during special
occasion and function is more than in any other normal day. Water is consumed more during
Dashain, Tihar, wedding ceremony and other festivals. In Nepalese context, water is consumed
more on Saturday.
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Maximum Daily Demand = Daily Peak Factor * Annual average demand
The daily peak factor is 1 in Nepal.
3. Hourly Variations:
The rate of demand of water also varies from hour to hour. The demand of water is high in the
morning from 5 AM to 7 AM as more amount of water is consumed for cleaning and sanitary
purposes. The demand is also high during the period of cooking. The water demand remains less
during day time and increases from 5 PM to 7 PM. From midnight to 5 AM in the morning, the
demand remains almost zero.
Maximum Hourly Demand -= Hourly Peak Factor * Annual average demand.
The hourly peak factor is 3 in Nepal.
3.5 Peak Factor
Peak factor is the factor which is used to match the maximum demand as per fluctuation of daily
water demand as well as seasonal from average.
It is the ratio of maximum demand to that of average annual demand of water.
Maximum demand = Peak factor * Annual average demand
Peak factor = Seasonal peak factor * Daily Peak Factor * Hourly Peak factor.
For continuous system: Peak factor of 2 – 4 is adopted.
For intermittent System: Peak factor 4 – 6 is adopted.
3.6 Factors Affecting Demand of Water
 Size and type of community:
The rate of demand of water demand depends on the size and type of community. If the community
is large with more municipal and other types of demand, the demand of water is high and for the
small community, the demand of water is also less.
 Climatic conditions:
During summer, the water consumption is high as water is required in more quantity for drinking,
washing and bathing purposes. During winter due to cool climate, the rate of water demand is also
less.
 Standard of living:
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Higher the standards of living higher would be the demand of water as people with high standards
can afford the luxury and use of more water.
 Quality of water:
The demand for water increases if the quality of water supplied is good as consumers feel safe to
consume the provided water. The demand decreases when the quality of water decreases.
 System of Supply:
The rate of demand of water depends upon the system of supply. If the system of supply is
continuous the demand is more and the demand is less when the system of supply is intermittent.
 Sewerage System:
If the community or a society is provided with sewerage system. More water is required for
flushing sanitary units.
 Metering and Cost:
For metered water supply the demand is less and for the unmetered system of supply, the demand
is high. If the cost is high, the demand is less and the demand increases for the low cost.
Other factors:
 Pressure in the distribution system

 Industrial and commercial activities
 Public and Private connections
 Distance of tap stand
 Dominating age group
3.7. Population Forecasting
Water demand for the community is given by the product of per capita demand of water and the
population of the community. The population needs to be known for the design and construction
of water supply system. So, population forecasting needs to be done.
Methods of Population Forecasting:
1. Mathematical Method:
o Arithmetical increase Method
In this method, the increase in population from decade to decade is assumed to be constant.
Pn = P0 + nC
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Where,
P0 = Population at the base year
Pn = Population at the nth decade
n = no of decades
C = average increase in population for a decade.
 Geometrical Increase Method
In this method, the percentage increase in population per decade remains constant for each future
decade.
Pn = P0 (1+(r/100))n
Where,
n = no of decades
r = average percentage increase in population per decade
 Incremental Increase Method
Pn = P0 + nC + (nC’(n+1))/2
Where,
n = no of decades
C = average increase in population for a decade
C’ = average incremental increase in population for decade.
 Decreased Rate of Growth/Changing Rate of Increase Method
Pn = P0 (1+(rn – r’)/100) (1+(rn – 2r’)/100)….(1+(rn – nr’)/100)
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Where,
n = no of decades
rn = percentage increase in population in the last decade
r’ = average decrease in percent increase in population per decade
 Saturation Limit Method

 Logistic Curve Method (S - curve Method)
2. Graphical Method:
 Extension Method
 Comparison Method
3. Miscellaneous Method:
 Master Plan Method
Bibliography:
New Delhi, India.
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WATER SUPPLY
ENGINEERING
(QUALITY OF WATER)

Abhash Acharya
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4.1 Impurities in water, their classification and effects:
Pure water contains only two parts of Hydrogen and one part of oxygen by volume which is never
found in nature. Water found in nature contains a number of impurities.
4.1.1 Classification of impurities according to its characteristics:
 Physical Impurities
 Chemical Impurities
 Bacteriological Impurities
Physical Impurities:
Physical impurities are those impurities that affect the physical properties of water. The physical
properties include colour, odour, taste and turbidity.
Chemical Impurities:
Chemical impurities are those impurities that affect the chemical properties of water. The chemical
properties of water include pH, solids, hardness, mineral content, chloride, nitrogen, etc.
Bacteriological Impurities:
Bacteriological impurities are those impurities that affect the bacteriological characteristics of
water as pathogenic and non-pathogenic microorganisms present in the water.
4.1.2 Classification of impurities according to its state:
 Suspended impurities
 Colloidal impurities
 Dissolved impurities
Suspended impurities:
Suspended impurities are impurities with size more than one micron and can be visible by naked
eyes. It includes:
 Bacteria: Pathogenic bacteria cause diseases.

 Algae, Protozoa: Affects taste, color and turbidity.
 Clay, Silt: Murkiness and turbidity.
 Organic matters: Vegetable – color, taste and acidity. Dead animals – Cause harmful
diseases.
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Colloidal impurities:
Colloidal impurities are impurities with size more than 10-3 micron and less than 1 micron. They
are not visible to naked eyes. Acidic materials such as silica, glass, and most organic particles
acquire negative charge whereas basic materials such as metallic oxides Al2O3 and Fe2O3 are
positively charged.
Dissolved impurities:
Dissolved impurities are impurities with size greater than 10-5 micron and less than 10-3 micron.
1. Salts of sodium:
 Bicarbonate: Softening and alkalinity

 Carbonate: Softening and alkalinity
 Fluoride: Leads to mottled enamels
 Chloride: Affects taste
2. Metal and Compounds:
 Iron oxide: Gives red colour, affects taste and hardness and causes corrosiveness.
 Manganese: Gives black or brown colour.
 Lead: Causes cumulative poisoning.
 Arsenic: Causes toxicity.
 Barium: Toxic effect on heart and nerves.
 Cadmium: Toxic in nature.
 Cyanide: Fatal.
 Boron: Affects the central nervous system.
 Selenium: Highly toxic to animals.
 Silver: Discoloration of the skin.
3. Gases:
 Oxygen: Corrosiveness
 Carbon dioxide: Acidity, corrosiveness
 Hydrogen sulphide: Odor, acidity, corrosiveness
4. Organic Matters:
 Vegetable: Produce bacteria

 Dead animals: Causes pollution of water and causes diseases.
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4.2 Hardness and Alkalinity
4.2.1 Hardness:
Hardness is the characteristics of water due to which sufficient lather is not formed with soap. It
is due to the presence of bicarbonates, sulphates, chlorides and nitrates of calcium, magnesium,
and strontium.
Effects of hardness:
 Consumption of more soap.

 Corrosion in pipes.
 Forms scale in boilers.
 Modification of color in dying industries.
 Choking or clogging of house plumbing.
 Bad taste of food.
Types of hardness:
Temporary hardness: Bicarbonates of calcium, magnesium and strontium causes temporary

hardness. It is also known as carbonate hardness.
Permanent hardness: Sulphates, chlorides, and nitrates of calcium, magnesium and strontium
causes permanent hardness. It is also known as non-carbonate hardness.
Total Hardness = Carbonate Hardness + Non-carbonate hardness = CH + NCH.
Determination of hardness:
Hardness in mg/l as CaCO3 = ion concentration in mg/l * (Equivalent wt of CaCO3/Eq wt of ion)
Equivalent wt of CaCO3, Ca++, Mg++ and Sr++ are 50, 20, 12.2 and 43.8 respectively.
Hardness
Grade Value
Soft 0-75
Moderate 75-150
Hard 150-300
Very Hard >300
Removal of hardness is discussed in Chapter 6.
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4.2.2 Alkalinity:
The alkalinity of water is the capacity to neutralize a standard solution of acid. Waste water is
normally alkaline in nature. Alkaline water is bitter in taste. The water with pH more than 7 is
alkaline and less than 7 is acidic in nature. The presence of bicarbonate (HCO3-), carbonate (CO3-
) and hydroxide (OH-) causes alkalinity. The major form of alkalinity is the bicarbonate alkalinity.
The carbonate alkalinity and bicarbonate alkalinity or carbonate alkalinity and hydroxide alkalinity
can exist together. But bicarbonate alkalinity and hydroxide alkalinity do not exist together.
Total alkalinity = Carbonate alkalinity + Bicarbonate alkalinity
Or
Total alkalinity = Carbonate alkalinity + Hydroxide alkalinity
Determination of alkalinity:
Carbonate alkalinity in mg/l as CaCO3 = CO3—concentration/0.6
Bicarbonate alkalinity in mg/l as CaCO3 = HCO3- concentration/1.22
Hydroxide alkalinity in mg/l as CaCO3 = OH- concentration/0.34
4.2.3 Relation between Hardness and alkalinity:
Carbonate Hardness = Alkalinity
NCH = TH – CH when Alkalinity < TH
CH = TH
NCH = 0 when, Alkalinity >= TH
4.3 Living Organisms in Water
Living organisms either plant or animals exist in water. They may be microscopic as well as
macroscopic. They may be unicellular or multi-cellular. They may be harmful or may not be
harmful. Algae, Bacteria, Viruses, and Worms exist in the water as living organisms.
4.3.1 Algae:
Algae are unicellular photosynthetic plants which grow in water. They derive energy from
inorganics substances as gases and salts dissolved in the presence of sunlight. They are self-
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nourishing. Algae affect taste, odor, color and turbidity. Excessive growth of algae in water may
be controlled by the application of copper sulphate or chlorine.
4.3.2 Bacteria:
Bacteria are unicellular prokaryotic organisms that reproduce by fission.
Classification
On the basis of shape:
 Cocci: Round, ovoid or spherical in shape.

 Bacilla: Straight or rod-shaped bacteria with square or rounded ends.
 Spirilla: Helical or spiral in shape.
 Filamentous: Length of 100 microns or larger.
On the basis of oxygen demand:
 Aerobic: Bacteria that survives in the presence of oxygen.

 Anaerobic: Bacteria that survives in the absence of oxygen.
 Facultative: Bacteria that lives and multiplies with or without oxygen.
On the basis of disease-causing characteristics:
 Pathogenic: Bacteria that causes disease.

 Non-pathogenic: Bacteria that does not cause disease.
On the basis of life process:
 Saprophytic: Bacteria that depends upon dead or decaying organic matter.

 Parasitic: Bacteria that lives and multiplies within the body of living organism.
On the basis of use of source:
 Heterotrophic
 Autotrophic
On the basis of temperature survival:
 Psychrophilic bacteria: 10-30oC

 Mesophilic bacteria: 20-50oC
 Thermophilic bacteria: 35-75oC
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Indicator organisms:
Pathogenic bacteria are present in small numbers in water supply and are difficult to detect. The
presence of pathogenic bacteria can be indirectly checked by testing the water for coliforms or E-
coli. The presence of E-coli in water indicates the pollution of water. So, coliforms are known as
indicator organisms as their presence indicate probable pollution from excreta. They are also
identified by a simple procedure which is quick and economical.
4.3.3 Viruses:
Viruses are known as obligatory parasites. They require the host for survival or multiplication.
They consist of an outer protein coat enclosing a core of nucleic acid. Viruses cause hepatitis,
jaundice, etc. They can be inactivated by disinfection.
4.3.4 Worms:
Worms are also known as helminths. Worms are classified into roundworms and flatworms. They
can be removed by controlling turbidity through effective coagulation and filtration.
4.4 Water-Related Diseases
The water acts as a prime cause for various diseases. Such diseases are said to be water related
diseases. It is classified as:
 Water borne diseases

 Water-washed diseases
 Water-based diseases
 Water vector diseases
4.4.1 Water borne diseases
The transmission of such disease occurs when the pathogen is in water. Such water when drunk,
the consumer is infected.
1. Diarrhoea:
Symptoms:
 Watery stool
 Abdominal Discomfort
 Swollen intestine
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2. Dysentery:
Caused by: Bacillary dysentery – Bacillus Sighella; Amebic dysentery – Entamoeba Hystolytica.
Symptoms:
 Intestinal Inflammation
 Abdominal Pain
 Intense diarrhoea
3. Typhoid:
Caused by: Salmonella Typhi.
Symptoms:
 Headache
 Fever
 Slow heart beat
 Swollen intestine
 Indigestion
 Constipation
Preventive Strategies:
 The quality of water needs to be improved.

 The source of water needs to be made clean.
4.4.2 Water Washed Diseases
The transmission of such disease depends on the quantity of water used, rather than the quality of
water. Affects mainly the intestinal tract and the skin.
1. Ascariasis
Symptoms:
 Nausea and vomiting

 Diarrhoea
 Loss of appetite
 Abdominal discomfort
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2. Conjunctivitis
Symptoms:
 Redness of eyes
 Pus in eyes
 Burning in eyes
 Blindness if not treated
3. Bacillary Dysentery
Symptoms:
 Diarrhoea
 Vomiting
 Fever
 Constipation
 Increase the water quantity.
4.4.3 Water Based Diseases
All these diseases are due to infections by parasitic worms.
1. Schistosomiasis (Bilharziasis)
Symptoms:
. Itchy skin
. Skin rash
. Fever
. Cough
. Damage to the abdomen, liver or spleen after five years.
. Damage to brain, lungs.
. Paralysis of the lower body.
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 Reduce contact with infected water.
4.4.4 Water Vector Diseases:
These diseases are caused by insects that either breed in water or bite near water.
1. Malaria
Symptoms:
 Chills
 Fever
 Headache
 Nausea
 Heavy sweating
2. Yellow Fever and Dengue (Arboviruses)
Symptoms:
 Fever
 Headache
 Body ache
 Vomiting
3. Filariasis
Symptoms:
 Fever
 Inflammation of lymph nodes
 Step to improve the surface water must be taken.

 Make an unfavorable environment for insects to breed on water. Kerosene may stop the
breeding of mosquitoes in water.
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4.4.5 Transmission Routes:
F-diagram
4.4.6 Preventive measures:
 Care on personal and food hygiene need to be given.

 Consumption of safe water needs to be practiced.
 Domestic hygiene and animal management,
 Human excreta needs to be disposed safely.
4.5 Examination of water/analysis of water:
The following types of examination are carried out for water:
 Physical examination
 Chemical examination
 Bacteriological examination
4.5.1 Physical examination:
This examination is done to determine the physical characteristics of water.
 Temperature:
Temperature affects several parameters as surface tension, viscosity, density, etc. The desirable
temperature is 10 to 15.60C. The temperature above 250C is considered objectionable and the
temperature above 350C is considered to be unsuitable for water supply. The temperature of the
water is measured by the thermometer.
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Determination of temperature:
 200ml water is taken in a beaker.

 The thermometer is dipped in a beaker with water.
 Reading is taken after two minutes.
 Color:
The color is measured by the ability of the solution to absorb light. Dissolved organic material
imparts color in the water. The color is expressed in units of platinum cobalt scale. The permissible
color unit is 5 for drinking water but up to 15 units is considered. The color is measured by means
of tintometer or colour meter.
Determination of color:
 The instrument is kept with the red switch towards us.

 The lid of the instrument is opened.
 Colour measurement disc with colour units either in oHazen or platinum-cobalt scale is
inserted.
 The empty glass tube is inserted into the left-hand slot and the tube with the water sample
is inserted in the right-hand slot.
 The lid of the instrument is closed.
 The instrument is then switched on.
 Looking through the eye piece the standard color disc is rotated until the color on the disc
matches with the color or water.
 The reading is then taken carefully.
 Turbidity:
Turbidity is defined as the measure of the resistance of the passage of light through it. The units
of turbidity are Nephelometric Turbidity Unit (NTU), Jackson Turbidity Unit (JTU), Formazyn
Turbidity Unit (FTU). The standard unit of turbidity is obtained by one mg of Fuller’s Earth in the
form of finely divided silica in one liter of distilled water. Permissible turbidity is 5NTU but
turbidity up to 10 NTU is tolerated.
Determination of Turbidity:
 The instrument is turned on.

 The instrument is left for 10 minutes for stabilization.
 25ml of the sample is poured into the sample cell.
 10 NTU standard cell is selected and is put into the sample holder.
 Scale reading is then adjusted to 100.
 The standard cell is removed and the sample cell is introduced.
 The reading is then taken.
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4.5.2 Chemical Examination:
The chemical examination is done to determine the chemical characteristics of the water sample.
 pH:
pH is defined as the negative logarithm of H+ concentration. The pH of drinking water should be

between 6.5 and 8.5.
Determination of pH:
 Function control to ‘Batt Test’ is turned on and the voltage is maintained.

 The electrode is connected to the meter and is immersed in the buffer solution of known
pH.
 The function ‘pH’ is switched on.
 The function ‘pH’ is turned off and the electrode is removed from the buffer solution.
 The electrode is well rinsed and is immersed in the water sample and the ‘pH’ function is
switched on.
 The reading is recorded.
 Solids:
Solids are classified as total solids, dissolved solids and suspended solids. 1000mg/l total dissolved
solids is acceptable in water supply scheme.
Determination of total solids:
 The weight of the clean and dry crucible is measured. Let it be A mg.
 A known volume of water, let it be W ml is taken in the crucible.
 The water is evaporated to dryness.
 The crucible is then kept in the oven at 103oC for half an hour and cooled in the dessicator
with Calcium Carbonate for 10 minutes.
 The weight of the crucible is then measured again. Let it be B mg.
 The total solid is calculated in mg/l as Total solids (mg/l) = (B-A)*1000/W.
Determination of suspended solids:
 Whatman filter No. 44 is kept in a funnel and a known volume of the water sample is
filtered through the filter paper.
 The weight of the clean and dry crucible is measured. Let it be A mg.
 A known volume of filtered water, let it be W ml is taken in the crucible.
 The crucible is then kept in the oven at 103oC for half an hour and cooled in the dessicator
with Calcium Carbonate for 10 minutes.
 The weight of the crucible is then measured again. Let it be B mg.
 The suspended solid is calculated in mg/l as suspended solids (mg/l) = (B-A)*1000/W.
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4.5.3 Bacteriological Examination:
The bacteriological examination is carried out to determine the presence of microorganisms in the
water sample. The concentration of indicator organisms E-coli are tested to determine the presence
of pathogens. The two methods are:
 Multiple tube fermentation technique.

 Membrane filter fermentation technique.
Multiple tube fermentation technique:
Durham tubes are used for the determination of the coliform group of bacteria. The method is
performed in three tests as:
 Presumptive test
 Confirmed test
 Completed test
Presumptive test:
The sample is take in Durham tubes containing lactose broth in multiples of ten as 0.1 ml, 1 ml,10
ml and so on. The tubes are then incubated at a temperature of 37 oC for 24 hours. After that, the
presence of gas is checked in the tube. The presence of gases indicates the presence of coliform
group and the test is said to be positive. The absence of gas means the test is negative. If all the
tube contains gas i.e. result is positive from all the tubes confirmed test is carried out else the
incubation at 37oC is carried out for other 24 hours. The observation of gas is done again and the
sample showing positive tests are taken for confirmed test and the sample showing negative tests
are discarded.
Confirmed test:
A small portion of the incubated material from the tubes showing positive test in the presumptive
test is transferred to the other fermentation tube containing brilliant lactose broth. The tubes are
then incubated at a temperature of 37oC for 24 hours. After that, the presence of gas is checked in
the tube. The presence of gases indicates the presence of coliform group and the test is said to be
positive. The absence of gas means the test is negative. If all the tube contains gas i.e. result is
positive from all the tubes completed test is carried out else the incubation at 37 oC is carried out
for other 24 hours. The observation of gas is done again and the sample showing positive tests are
taken for completed test and the sample showing negative tests are discarded.
Completed test:
A small portion of the incubated material from the tubes showing positive test in the confirmed
test is marked as streaks in the plates containing Endo or Eosin methylene blue agar. The plates
are then incubated at the temperature of 37oC for 24 hours. Colonies of the coliform group will be
formed after the incubation period. The discrete isolated colonies of the coliform group are
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transferred to the fermentation tube containing lactose broth. The tubes are then incubated at a
temperature of 37oC for 24 hours. After that, the presence of gas is checked in the tube. The
presence of gases indicates the presence of coliform group and the test is said to be positive. The
absence of gas means the test is negative.
Most Probable Number (MPN)
Most Probable Number (MPN) is defined as that bacterial density which is most likely to be present
in the water.
MPN/100ml = Number of positive tubes * 100 / (ml in negative tubes * ml in all tubes)1/2
Membrane filter fermentation technique:
Membrane filter fermentation technique is the most recent method for detecting coliform group.
Sterile membrane filter having porosity 80% with microscopic pores of 5-10 micron capable of
retaining bacteria is taken and is fitted with a funnel. About 20 ml of the water sample is filtered
through the funnel with the vacuum pump. The membrane filter is taken out from the funnel and
is put in the plate containing M-Endo medium as a nutrient which inhabits the growth of bacteria
other than the coliform group. The plate is then incubated at a temperature of 37oC for 20 hours.
If the bacteria of the coliform group were present, they become visible colonies at this period of
time. The number of visible colonies was counted with the help of the microscope. Coliform
colonies / 100 ml is then calculated as:
Coliform colonies / 100 ml = (Number of coliform colonies counted*100)/(ml of water sample

taken).
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4.6 Water quality standard for drinking purposes:
Water quality standard for drinking purposes
Bibliography:
New Delhi, India.
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WATER SUPPLY
ENGINEERING
(INTAKES)

Abhash Acharya
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5.1 Definition of intakes
A structure placed in a water source to permit the withdrawal of water from the source and
discharge it into an intake conduit through which it flows to the treatment plant is called intake.
Intake consist of two sections First, intake conduit with the screen at the inlet end and valve to
control the flow of water. Second, a structure permitting the withdrawal of water from source and
housing and supporting intake conduit, valves, pumps etc. The structure may be of stone masonry
or brick masonry, R.C.C, or concrete blocks. The structure is constructed watertight and is
designed to resist all forces likely to come upon it including the pressures due to water, wave
action, the wind, floating debris, annual rainfall, geological formations.
5.2 Site selection of intakes
 Location:
 Should be constructed on the upstream side.
 Should never be located in the curves in the river or at least on sharp curves in meandering
rivers.
 Should never be constructed near the navigation channel.
 Should be constructed such that it is accessible during the flood and other time.
 Quantity:
 Sufficient withdrawal of water is permitted.
 Capable to fulfil the expansion water works.
 Quality:
 Purer zone of the source must be selected for intake construction.
 Economy:
 For the reduction in system cost, the intake site is selected near the treatment plant.
 The site must be well connected by the good approach of roads.
5.3 Classification of Intakes
 Submerged Intake: Submerged intakes are those intakes that are constructed entirely
under water and is commonly used to obtain water from lakes.
 Exposed Intake: Exposed intakes are in the form of oil or tower constructed near the bank
of the river, or in some cases even away from the bank of the river. It is common due to
ease of its operation.
 Wet Intake: In wet intake the water level of intake tower is practically the same as the
water level of sources of supply. It is also known as jack well or sump well.
 Dry Intake: In dry intake there is no water in the water tower. Water enters through the
port directly into the conveying pipes. The dry tower is simply used for the operation of
valves.
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5.4 Characteristics of Intakes
5.4.1 River Intakes:
River Intake
River Intake when river bed is unstable
It is the structure constructed with an objective of withdrawing water from the rivers. It is generally
constructed when water is required in large amount for a large community. River intakes are so
located that even during the low water level in the river water remains available at the intake in
sufficient quantity. It consists of masonry or RCC inlet tower which is provided with several inlets
called penstocks. Sometimes approach channel is constructed in the river to lead water from
upstream of the river to the intake. The penstocks are provided with valves to control the entry of
water through them. The penstocks are provided at different water levels to permit the withdrawal
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of water when the water level in the river drops. The penstocks discharge water into intake tower.
Pumping is required when the level of intake is lower than community.
When river bed is unstable or soft, the foundation is kept slightly away from the river bed. Intake
is kept submerged under lowest water level. Weir or channels are constructed to get water in all
conditions.
5.4.2 Reservoir Intakes:
Reservoir Intake
Reservoir Intake (Gravity)
In the case of a reservoir created by constructing an earth dam, the intake consists of a masonry or
R.C.C intake tower (or intake well) placed near the upstream toe of the dam. The intake tower is
connected to the top of the dam by a foot bridge.
Earth dam:
 Made of the earth (or soil) and gravel built up by compacting successive layers of soil.
 Can be constructed to a moderate height to which it depends on foundation material.
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 The shear strength of soil plays the vital role in resisting the forces.
 It is cheaper in construction.
Gravity dam:
 Made up of masonry or solid concrete.

 The weight of the water is actually enough to resist the horizontal thrust of water pushing
against it.
 The weight of the gravity dam makes it more stable.
 It can be constructed to any height.
 Once built, it needs less maintenance.
Reservoir intake for earth dam
 The intake pipes are at different levels with the common vertical pipe.
 The intake pipe has the fine screen to permit entry of clear water.
 Pipes at different level maintain level of reservoir.
 Intake pipes are provided with valves to control the flow of water.
 The control room is at the top to operate valves.
 Common vertical pipe enters the conduit which carries water to the treatment plant.
 The dry intake tower has pipes fitted inside.
Reservoir intake for gravity dam
 In the case of the reservoir, the type of intake to be provided depends on the type of dam
constructed to create the reservoir.
 The reservoir intake for gravity dam consists of an intake created by constructing gravity
dam.
The reservoir intake involves two alternative forms of intake works as in figure below:
1. Single inlet port:
 The trash rack provided at the inlet check the entry of debris and other floating materials.
 Water enters from the single port which has trash rack.
 The slide gate allows water to flow through trash rack to another supply system.
2. Many inlet ports:
 In this, intake well is provided in the main body of the dam.

 Inlet at various levels enables withdrawal of water even if the level of reservoir water drops.
 Gates and valves are used to control the flow of water.
 Inlet ports have screened openings to prevent debris from entering.
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5.4.3Spring Intakes:
Spring Intake
A spring intake is provided to abstract water from a spring source. It also prevents outside water
and other sources of pollutants from entering into the water supply system. The intake thus protects
the water from getting contaminated.
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Selection basis for location of spring intakes:
 The place should be close to the source.

 The place should be above populated or farming areas.
 The place should be above foot path, cattle watering and washing places.
 Places where surface water run-off during the monsoon can be easily drained off.
 Where the immediate surrounding above the spring is not easily accessible to people and
livestock.
It consists of two chambers as collection chamber and valve chamber. Collection chamber should
be away from the source as far as possible. The base of the collection chamber is made of plain
cement concrete to avoid leakage. All walls are made of stone masonry. The heavy structure is
avoided to avoid its settlement. In order to reduce the backup pressure, the collection chamber
needs to be constructed away from the source. The collection chamber is provided with the wing
walls on both sides which divert the water from the source to the collection chamber. The
collection chamber acts as sedimentation tank, which removes suspended particles and turbidity.
In monsoon, the turbidity of the water is high, so special treatment with sedimentation and filters
are needed. As far as possible the treatment work should be avoided to reduce the cost so a pure
source needs to be selected. The gravel and packing are done in the water-bearing layer upstream
to prevent the coarse material entering the collection chamber. Water-bearing layer is covered with
the plastic sheet and clay filling. The outlet pipe fitted with screens is kept at about 10 to 15 cm
above the floor to screen out the suspended particles to enter into the transmission main of water
supply system. The water contains particle in it which may settle down in the collection chamber
as sediments which should be washed out when it reaches 5 cm of the outlet pipe. The washout
pipe is carried down the slope to allow the sediments to flow into the nearby drainage system. The
overflow pipe is provided in the collection chamber to prevent the backup pressure. The washout
valve is operated when washing of the sediments is done in the collection chamber. Mild steel,
concrete or stone masonry covers are used to cover the collection and the valve chamber. In the
valve chamber, the valves are connected to outlet pipe and washout pipe. During normal operation
outlet valve is opened while washout valves are closed but during washing of the sediments from
the collection is done it is opened. The vent pipe is provided to outlet pipe to release air pressure.
The unions are provided to facilitate the removal of valves during maintenance works.
Protection of spring intakes
 For safe drinking water free of contamination.

 For increasing quality and quantity of water content.
 For prevention of scarcity of water in near future.
Proper drainage should be provided around source to divert the run-off water. Surface run-
off must not be allowed to flow into the catchment of springs.
Elements for protection of spring intake:
 Afforestation
 Surface water drain
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 Plantation (bush)
 Barbed wire fence
 Concrete covers.
 Retaining walls
Afforestation: Tress are planted above the spring sources allow the water to seep rather than as
surface runoff and increase intake water.
Surface water drain: Surface water drain should be 8m above and around the spring to drain the
surface water run off during monsoon. The ditch should be deep, and can be lined with dry stone
masonry.
Plantation (Bush): Plantation of grasses below the barbed wire fence which also allow the water
to seep. Grasses and bushes prevent the surface soil erosion.
Barbed wire fence: There should be no habitant and easy access to animals around springs up to
a distance of 30 m to 90 m to avoid contamination. To prevent trespassing of humans and grazing
animals and contamination of spring water, barbed wire fencing at a distance of 5m from spring
intake.
Concrete Covers: The catchment of a spring source can be roofed over with concrete slab and
buried for further protection.
Retaining walls: If erosion is seen to be a major problem then retaining walls of gabion or dry
stone masonry are built to stabilize land around the intake.
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Protection of Spring Intake
Bibliography:
New Delhi, India.
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ABHASH ACHARYA 1
WATER SUPPLY
ENGINEERING
(RESERVOIRS AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM)

Abhash Acharya
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7.1 Systems of Supply:
7.1.1 Continuous System:
The system of supply in which water is transmitted to the consumers 24 hours a day is called
continuous system.
Advantages:
 No use of reservoir or other public tanks

 Favorable for firefighting purposes
 Less pipe diameter is used
 Clear and fresh water
 No suspended materials are present
 Less wastage of water
Disadvantages:
 Leakage increases
 Difficult to repair
 Large size of source is necessary
7.1.2 Intermittent System:
In this system, water is supplied only during fixed hours of the day is called intermittent supply.
Advantages:
 Repair and maintenance are easy in this system

 Wastage of water due to leakage is less
 During emergency and system breakdown, the water stored for the domestic purpose can
be utilized.
Disadvantages:
 Storage tank needs to be built

 Not favorable for firefighting purposes
 Pipe diameter needs to be increased
 No of valves increases
 Clear and fresh water is not available
7.2 Reservoirs:
Reservoirs are the tanks which are used to store water for various purposes. Larger the reservoir
size more would be the reliability and high would be the cost. On the basis of use (purposes) it is
classified as:
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 Clean Water Reservoir

 Service Reservoir
7.3 Clean Water Reservoir:
Clean water reservoir are those reservoirs that stores water that has been treated and clear. The
clean water should have the capacity of 14 to 16 hours of daily water demand. The larger the size
of the clean water reservoir, higher would be the reliability but higher would be the cost.
7.4 Service Reservoir:
Service Reservoir is constructed after clear water reservoir where clear water is not kept. They are
used to provide storage to meet fluctuation in demand of water. It has three main functions as:
 Balancing or equalizing flow

 Break down reserve
 Firefighting reserve
7.4.1 Types of service reservoir:
 Surface Reservoir
 Elevated Reservoir
7.4.2 Construction of Service Reservoir:
Surface Reservoir:
Surface Reservoir
They are also called as ground or non-elevated reservoir. They are rectangular or circular in shape.
The supply may be by gravity flow or by pumping. Pumping is avoided as far as possible to
minimize the cost. They are constructed with two compartments so that one can be used when
other is being repaired. The two compartments are connected by control valves. It consists of an
inlet pipe. The reservoir contains ventilation for aeration. Overflow pipes are provided at full
supply level to maintain a constant level in the reservoir. The deposited sludge can be removed
through washout pipes during occasional cleaning. The outlet pipes are placed at the higher level
than the washout pipes.
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Elevated Reservoir:
Elevated Reservoir
They are also known as overhead tanks.

They are rectangular, elliptical or circular in shape.
It consists of the inlet for entry, the outlet for the exit, ventilation for aeration and overflow pipe
at full supply level to maintain a constant level.
It consists of the ladder to reach the top of the reservoir and manhole for regular inspection.
7.5 Water Consumption Pattern:
It refers to the variation in the amount of water consumed with respect to time. The water
consumption pattern depends upon the several factors listed as:
 Location
 Climatic Condition
 Type of society
 System of supply
 Cost and metering
 Quality of water
 Distance from the source
7.6 Determination of balancing reservoir capacity:
Tank capacity = Maximum cumulative surplus + Maximum cumulative deficit – total inflow +
total demand.
Inflow > Outflow, reduce the tank by the difference of surplus or overflow occurs.
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Inflow <= outflow, no consideration.
7.7 Layout of the distribution system:
It is a network of pipeline that conveys water to the consumers in the community.
7.7.1 Dead end/ Tree system/ Branched System:
Dead End System
It is a layout which consists of one supply main from which sub mains are taken and branches are
taken from the sub main which ends at service consumers.
Advantages:
 It is a simple layout which is easy to be performed.

 Analysis and calculations are easy.
 Construction cost is less.
 Pipe with less diameter can be used.
 A number of valves required are less.
 It is easy to operate and maintain.
Disadvantages:
 Stagnation of water at the dead end.

 Pressure remain unbalanced.
 The problem occurs during firefighting as the discharge is low.
 Suspended particle settles in the pipe.
 The problem arises when repair need to be done as large part (area) gets affected.
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Looped System:
7.7.2 Grid Iron System
Grid Iron System
It is also known as reticulation system. This system is an improvement over dead end system. In
this type of system main, sub mains and branch are interconnected. Along the main roads, the main
supply line is laid. Submains are then taken in both the directions as shown in the figure. Branches
are taken from mains and sub-mains and are interconnected.
Advantages:
 No stagnation of water takes place as there is no dead ends present.

 Water is available in adequate amount for firefighting.
 The suspended particle does not settle in the pipe.
 Only a small part (area) gets affected during repair.
Disadvantages:
 Analysis and calculations are difficult.

 A number of valves required are more.
 The cost is more for laying pipes than in dead end layout.
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Ring and Radial System
7.7.3 Ring System/Circular System:
An area to be served is fixed and then the main is laid around that area. The submains are taken
from the mains and are run on inside the area to be served. This system is used for cities with
planned roads. It has similar advantages and disadvantages as grid iron system.
7.7.4 Radial System:
In this system the area to be served is divide into smaller zones and each zone is supplied with the
distribution reservoir and the water is supplied radially towards the distribution zone. It supplies
water with high pressure and low head loss. It is just the reverse of the ring or circular system.
During actual practice, only a single way of the layout is not possible so a combination of layouts
is used.
7.8 Design of distribution system:
For laying pipes and constructing a distribution system, knowledge on the size of pipes to convey
water under a known pressure difference between inlet and outlet section need to be known. It
includes pipe hydraulics, design criteria, and design process.
7.8.1 Pipe Hydraulics:
Size of pipes can be determined using:
Continuity Equation:
Q = A * V = ((Pi)*d2)/4
Where,
Q = discharge through the pipe
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A = Area of cross-section
d = diameter of the pipe
V = velocity of flow
The equation indicates that if the velocity is high, the pipe required is of smaller diameter and vice
versa.
Bernoulli’s Equation:
Head at inlet = Head at outlet + Head loss
Head losses are further classified as major head loss and minor head loss.
Major Head loss is due to the frictional loss. For longer pipes the frictional head loss is more than
any other type ho head losses.
Determination of loss of head due to friction:
Darcy-Weisbach Formula:
 Darcy-Weisbach Formula
Where, Hf = head loss in m
L = length of pipe in m
D = diameter of pipe in m
V = mean velocity of flow through pipe in m/s
Q = discharge through the pipe in m3/s
g = acceleration due to gravity
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f = friction factor which is dimensionless
Equation by Colebrook and White is used to determine the friction factor.
Where,
K = roughness of pipe material
Re = Reynold’s number
K = k0 + αt
Where k0 = roughness of the new pipe material
K = roughness at any time t
Α = rate of increase in roughness in time
Manning's Formula:
Where,
V = mean velocity of flow in m/s
R = hydraulic mean depth in m
S = slope of energy grade line of head lost per unit length of pipe
N = Manning’s roughness coefficient
For pipe:
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We have,
Hazen Williams Formula:
V = 0.849CR0.63S0.54
Where, V = mean velocity of flow in m/s
R = hydraulic mean depth of pipe in m
S = slope of energy grade line or head lost per unit length of pipe
C = roughness coefficient
We have,
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Minor Losses are categorized as Entry Loss, Exit Loss, Bend Loss, Expansion Loss, and
Contraction Losses.
Entry Loss: Loss of energy at the entrance is called entry loss and is given as: hL= (0.5V2)/2g
Exit Loss: Loss of energy at the exit is called exit loss and is given as: hL=V2/2g
Bend Loss: Loss of energy in the bend provide in the pipe is called bend loss and is given as hL =
kV2/2g.
Where, V is the mean velocity of flow in the bend
K is the value which depends upon the total angle of the bend and the relative radius of curvature
(R/d). R is the radius of curvature of the pipe axis and d is the diameter of the pipe.
Expansion Loss: Loss of energy due to sudden enlargement in pipe is expansion loss and is given
as:hL= (V1- V2)2/ 2g
Where, V1 and V2 are the mean velocities of flow in smaller and larger section of pipe respectively.
Contraction Loss: Loss of energy due to sudden contraction in pipe is contraction loss and is
given as:hL= (0.5V2)/2g
Where V is the mean velocity in the smaller section of the pipe.
Loss of energy due to gradual contraction or enlargement in the pipe is given as: h L= k(V1- V2)2/
2g.
Where, V1 and V2 are the mean velocities of flow in smaller and larger section of pipe respectively.
K is the value which depends upon the angle of convergence or divergence and on the ration of
smaller and larger cross-sectional areas of the pipe.
Loss of energy in valves and fittings is given as: kV2/2g.
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Where, V is the mean velocity of flow in the bend and k is the value which depends on the type of
pipe fittings.
7.8.2 Design Criteria:
Those criteria or conditions that need to be fulfilled during design so that the system will work in
a proper manner is said to be design criteria.
a) Velocity:
The velocity of flow in a pipe need not be too low or too high. Low velocity leads to the settlement
of suspended particles in the pipe and high velocity leads to the erosion of pipes. So a suitable
velocity termed as recommended velocity is selected.
Minimum velocity = 0.3m/s
Maximum velocity = 3 m/s
Minimum velocity for untreated water = 0.6m/s
b) Pressure:
Same as velocity, the pressure in the pipe also should not be too low or too high. Low velocity
leads to the low flow to the required height and high pressure leads to the increment in chances of
bursting of pipes. Recommended pressure:
For Private connection:
Maximum Pressure = 15m
Minimum Pressure = 5m
For Public stand post:
Desirable Pressure = 15m
Minimum Pressure = 5m
Maximum Pressure = 55m
c) Pipe Size:
The size of the pipe that is calculated theoretically may not be available commercially. So the pipe
size just above the size that has been calculated must be recommended. Commercially available
pipe sizes in mm are : 15, 20, 25, 32, 40, 50, 65, 80, 100, 125, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350, 400, 450,
500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1000, 1200, 1400, 1600, 1800, 2000, 2200, 2400, 2600, 2800 and 3000.
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7.8.3 Design Steps:
a) Maps and Surveys:
The topographical map of the area in which the distribution is to be done is studied. The location
of the components are marked and the possible ways/routes are determined. The way of serving
water i.e. either through pumping or gravity flow is made. The technical survey includes the survey
by the use of instruments as Abney level, theodolite. It also includes the study of the contour maps.
The cross section of streets, roads. Lanes are prepared and the soil type, hard rock areas, and
landslide prone areas are also studied.
The social survey includes the data collection regarding the total water demand, the population
growth. A number of commercial, institutional, industrial establishments are also recorded. The
dispute that may arise during the planning and implementation should be solved.
b) Tentative Layout:
It includes the adjustments of mains, sub mains, and the branches. It too includes the position of
the proposed water supply components and the route that may be followed.
c) Discharge in Pipelines:
On the basis of data collected (number of households, water demand for domestic and livestock
purposes, the number of industrial, commercial and institutional establishments) the discharge
desired is calculated. The transmission line is designed for maximum daily demand and the
distribution system is designed for maximum hourly demand with the variation in peak factor from
2 to 4.
d) Calculation of Pipe Diameters:
For known discharge through the pipes, the diameter of the pipes can be computed by using Darcy-
Weisbach or Hazen-Williams formula. The commercially available pipe diameter equal to or
greater than the computed pipe size should be used for the distribution system.
e) Computation of residual pressure and velocity:
The residual pressure in the distribution system is computed using
 The pressure available in the upstream

 Ground levels
 Design discharge
 Head loss in the pipe
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When the diameter of the pipe is known, the velocity for the design discharge is computed. The
residual pressure and velocity need to conform the design criteria. If they don’t conform the criteria
new diameter of the pipe is selected.
7.9 Design of Pipe Networks:
a) Branched System:
Steps to design the branched system are listed as follows:
1. The population to be served by each section is determined.

2. The discharge to be carried by each section is determined.
3. The allowable head loss in the pipe which depends upon ground levels, residual head
pressure available in the upstream and minimum head pressure to be maintained in the pipe
is to be determined.
4. Using Darcy-Weisbach or Hazen-Williams equation, the diameter of the pipe in each
section is determined.
5. Head loss in each pipe section is determined.
6. Velocity, as well as residual heads, are checked. If they are within the limit, the calculation
is completed else change the pipe diameter so as to make velocity and residual heads within
the limit.
b) Looped System:
Hardy Cross method is one of the widely used methods to analyze and design the looped system.
1. ΣQ = 0, at any joint.
2. ΣHf = 0, at any loop.
3. For any closed circuit pipe section Hf α Q.Hf = k1Q1n = k2Q2n, n = 1.852 in the case of
Hazen-Williams Coefficient.
4.
Flow correction formula
Steps:
1. Assume the discharge and its direction.

2. Calculation of head loss of each branch.
3. Correction to flow is computed until reduced to an acceptable limit using
QA = Assumed Flow
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Q = Actual flow
Δ = Q – QA
4. If Δ is positive.
Add it to the flow which is in the clockwise direction and subtract it to the flow in the anticlockwise
direction.
If Δ is negative.
Add it to the flow in the anticlockwise direction and subtract it to the flow in the clockwise
direction.
For common pipes or networks: correction should be applied in both loops.
5. Find the corrected discharges.
6. Repeat the steps until Δ ≠ 0.
Bibliography:
New Delhi, India.
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ABHASH ACHARYA 1
WATER SUPPLY
ENGINEERING
(CONVEYANCE OF WATER)

Abhash Acharya
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Gravity Conduits and pressure conduits:
Gravity conduits are those conduits in which water flows under the action of gravity where water
surface will be at atmospheric pressure. Pressure conduits are those conduits where water flows
under pressure above atmospheric pressure.
8.1 Pipe Materials
Water is supplied to the consumers through the pipe under pressure. The pipe materials should be
corrosion resistant and resistant to chemical reactions. Pipe material should not release harmful
substances into the water they carry.
8.1.1 Requirement of good pipe material
1. Structural Strength:
The pipe material should be able to withstand internal as well as external pressures. Internal
pressures generate due to static and dynamic water pressures as well as water hammer effects. The
external pressures are due to the pressure due to vehicles and overburden pressure by soils.
2. Durability:
The durability of the pipe material must be more than the design period of the water supply
scheme.
3. Resistance to corrosion:
Water contains gases as carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide which are corrosive in nature. The
pipe material should resist such corrosions and the corrosion caused due to chemical reactions.
4. Resistance to abrasion:
Suspended solids present in the water may cause the erosion of the pipe as high-velocity flow leads
to abrasion. The pipe material must resist such abrasion.
5. Imperviousness:
The groundwater and waste water may enter the pipe line carrying water to be supplied to the
consumers if the pipe is not impervious. So, to prevent such movement of groundwater and waste
water into the pipe, the pipe material must be impervious.
6. Smoothness:
Smoothness determines the carrying capacity of the pipe. The smoother is the pipe, the more will
be the carrying capacity and vice versa. When the pipe is smooth, the resistance to the flow of
water decreases.
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7. Weight:
The pipe material should be light in weight which contributes to easier transportation and reduced
transportation cost.
8. Easy to join:
The pipe materials must be easy to join. It should be easier to make service connections.
9. Cost:
The cost of the pipe including handling, transportation and installation must be within the
affordable limit (less) so to make the water supply scheme economical.
8.1.2 Types of Pipe Material
 Cast Iron (CI) Pipe

 Steel Pipe
 Wrought Iron (WI) Pipe
 GI Pipe
 Ductile Iron
 Concrete Pipe
 Asbestos Pipe
 Plastic Pipe
8.1.2.1 Cast Iron (CI) Pipes
CI pipe contains 4 – 5 % of carbon and other impurities such as Sulphur, phosphorous, silicon,
e.t.c. They are used for making the casting of various shapes.
Advantages:
 Moderate cost
 High durability
 Strong and resistance to corrosion
 Withstand high internal and external pressure
 Easy to cut and join
Disadvantages:
 They are heavy and are difficult to transport and handle.

 They are brittle in nature.
 The carrying capacity of pipe decreases with time.
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Remarks:
 Joined by socket, spigot, and flanged joints.

 Provision of expansion joints.
8.1.2.2 Ductile Iron (DI) Pipes
Material: Ductile Iron
Weight: 0.1 – 8 kg
Type: 0.5” – 6”
Casting dimension tolerance: 0.2 – 0.39mm
Advantages:
 Greater strength than CI pipes.

 Greater impact resistance than CI pipes.
 Greater durability than CI pipes.
 They are lighter in weight than CI pipes.
 They can easily be joined.
Disadvantages:
 These pipes are prone to internal and external protection systems. So internal as well as
external protection systems are required.
 Corrosion can occur.
8.1.2.3 Steel Pipes
Material: Mild Steel. An alloy of iron containing 0.5 to 1.5% carbon.
Advantages:
 Moderate cost
 Resist very high internal pressure
 Light in weight
 Easy to handle
 Perfectly impervious
 Flexible and can be used in curves
Disadvantages:
 Easily corroded
 Cannot be used for vacuum creating locations
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 Maintenance cost is high

 Cannot withstand external pressure
8.1.2.4 Cement Concrete Pipes
Advantages:
 Less corrosion
 Requires less maintenance
 Durable (Life span of about 75 years)
 Resist external loads
 Transportation cost is reduced when cast in situ pipes are used
Disadvantages:
 Difficult to repair
 Cannot withstand high internal pressure
 Difficult to make service connections
 Acidic and alkaline water corrodes the pipe
 Cannot be used for small diameter pipes
Remarks:
 Used in main pipe diameter greater than 50 – 250 cm.

 Cast in-situ or precast Plain cement concrete pipes are used for heads up to 15m.
 RCC pipes are used for heads up to 100m.
 Prestressed pipes are used for heads up to 100-150m.
8.1.2.5 Galvanized Iron (GI) Pipes
These are zinc coated wrought iron pipes which are widely used for inside building and service
connections.
Advantages:
 Moderate cost
 Easy to handle
 Easy to join by threading
Disadvantages:
 Corrosion occurs with acidic and alkaline water flow

 Less durable
 Roughness increases with time
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8.1.2.6 Wrought Iron (WI) Pipes
Wrought iron is the purest form of iron-containing about 0.2% carbon.
Advantages:
 Light in weight
 Easy to transport
 Easy to cut and thread
 Malleable and ductile
Disadvantages:
 Costly
 Less durable
 Easily corroded
 Weak
8.1.2.7 Asbestos Cement Pipes
These pipes are outdated as they were supposed to cause the carcinogenic effect. They are light in
weight, brittle and very smooth.
8.1.2.8 Plastic Pipes
Advantages:
 Cheap
 Flexible
 Light in weight
 Easy to join
 High impact strength
 Chemical resistant
 Durable (Life span up to 50 years)
Disadvantages:
 Cannot be used for high temperature

 Inflammable
 Less resistant to weathering.
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8.1.2.9 PVC Pipes
Advantages:
 Cheap
 Corrosion resistant
 Easy to join
 Durable (Life span up to 50 years)
 Rust proof
 Smooth which reduces loss of head due to friction
Disadvantages:
 Brittle
 Cannot be used to carry hot water
 Less resistant to weathering
8.1.2.10 Poly Propylene Random (PPR) Pipes
Advantages:
 Environment friendly
 Light in weight : Density 0.89 – 0.92 g/cm3
 Long service life
 Good anti-corrosion property
 Low pipe resistance i.e. inner wall of pipe is smooth
 Firm pipe fittings connection
 Recycling property
 Reasonable price
Disadvantages:
 Not suitable for outdoor installation

 Addition or repairs can only be done by making use of a fusion-welding tool
8.2 Pipe Joints
The selection of pipe joints depend upon:
 Pipe materials
 Pressure
 Durability
 Site conditions, etc.
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Types of pipe joints
8.2.1 Socket and Spigot Joint/Bell and spigot joint/Run lead joint:
Socket and Spigot Joint
Used for: Cast iron, ductile iron and cement concrete pipes.
One end of the pipe is normal which is called spigot end whereas another end is enlarged to form
a socket-like structure which is called the socket end. Few strands of jute are wrapped around the
spigot end and a rubber gasket is placed over the jute. The spigot end is inserted into socket end
of preceding pipe. The inserted pipe is aligned and centered and the annular space between socket
and spigot is filled with molten lead which on cooling and provides the water tight joint.
8.2.2 Tyton Joint/Push on joint/Push on flexible joint:
Tyton Joint
Used for: Cast iron and ductile iron pipes.
The rubber gasket is placed in the socket end of the preceding pipe and spigot end is inserted
through the rubber gasket into the socket. The socket on 50% compression makes the joint
watertight. Spigot end is chamfered and lubricated for smooth entry of the pipe in the socket.
8.2.3 Flanged Joint:
Flanged Joint
Used for: Cast iron, ductile iron, steel and galvanized iron pipes.
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Uses: Used for temporary pipelines, treatment plants, hydraulic laboratories, boiler houses, etc.
Not used where deflections and vibrations are expected.
The pipe consists of flanges on both ends which are cast during manufacturing of the pipe. The
two ends of the pipe are brought closer making the holes of flanges in line with each other. After
that for making the joint water tight the rubber gasket is placed between two flanges and is bolted
by nuts and bolts.
8.2.4 Collar joint:
Collar Joint
Used for: Cement concrete pipes.
The pipe has the groove along the cross section at both ends. The ends of the two pipes to be
jointed are brought in contact and a rubber gasket between steel rings soaked in cement paste is
placed in the groove. The collar made up of reinforced cement is slipped over the pipes. The
annular space between the inside of the collar and outside of the pipe is filled with 1:1 cement
mortar.
8.2.5 Screwed Socket Joint:
Screwed Socket Joint
Used for: Galvanized iron pipes.
The pipe ends consist of screw threads on the outer surface. For the joint to be possible a socket
with threads on the inner surface is screwed and tighten on the pipe ends on which jute are placed.
So the joint becomes water tight and is held firmly.
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8.2.6 Expansion Joint:
Expansion Joint
It consists of a socket end and a spigot end. The socket end of the pipe is cast flanged. A cast iron
follower ring is introduced at the spigot end of the pipe and is held away from the pipe end. On
the spigot end of the pipe, a rubber gasket is introduced and is inserted into the socket end. The
cast iron follower ring is moved and is fixed to the socket by nuts and bolts. The rubber gasket will
absorb the variation in length due to movement of socket end in forward or backward direction.
The follower ring keeps the rubber gasket in the position which makes the joint water tight.
Uses: Used when the elongation and shortening of pipe may occur due to change in temperature.
8.3 Laying of Pipes
Steps in the laying of pipes are listed below:
1. Setting out:
It includes the transferring of points of pipe alignment from the drawing to the ground. Centre line
of alignment is marked on the ground by driving the stakes. Stakes are driven 30m apart on straight
stretches and 7.5m to 15m apart on curves.
2. Excavation of trench:
The trench is excavated along the alignment to place the pipes. The width of the trench should be
30cm more than the external diameter of the pipe. The depth of trench should be equal to or more
than 90cm from the top to protect the pipe from external pressure (vehicular pressures) and the
depth at joints should be 15cm more than normal depth.
3. Timbering of trench:
After excavation, the excavation needs to be supported by timbering which prevents the soil from
caving in. The timbering is not required for hard soil where the soil does not cave in.
4. Preparation of subgrade:
Subgrade is prepared by ramming the layer of soil to the thickness of 15-30cm. A single layer
brick flat soling is provided above the compacted soil. In those sites where settlement is likely to
occur the subgrade is prepared with a cement concrete bed of 15cm thick over a brick flat soling.
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5. Laying and jointing of pipes:
After the preparation of subgrade, pipes are lowered for laying. Small diameter pipes are lowered
manually whereas large diameter pipes are lowered using mechanical devices. The pipes are then
jointed including the use of various appurtenances as valves, fittings.
6. Testing of pipeline:
The pipeline is tested in pressure and leakage.
 Pressure Test:
Among the pressure of about 0.5N/mm2 or the maximum pressure plus 50% more whichever is
greater is supplied to the pipeline. The fall of pressure in the pipeline is then observed and recorded.
If the test pressure is maintained without any measurable head loss for at least half an hour, the
pipeline is considered ok.
 Leakage Test:
Q = NDP1/2/3.3
Where,
Q is the allowable leakage in cm3/hr
N is the number of pipe joints in the test section
D is the diameter of the pipe in mm
P is the applied test pressure in kg/cm2
7. Backfilling of the trench:
After laying and testing of the pipeline the back filling of the trench is carried in layers of 15-30cm
thickness and is well rammed to resist the movement of pipes.
8. Disinfection of pipeline:
The disinfection of the pipeline needs to be done. For the disinfection of the pipeline, the pipeline
is filled with chlorinated water so that the residual chlorine after 12 hours is maintained to be
50mg/l. The pipe is then emptied, flushed with fresh water and put into service.
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Bibliography:
Punmia B.C., Jain A. and JainA. (1998), Water Supply Engineering, Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd.,
New Delhi, India.
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WATER SUPPLY
ENGINEERING
(VALVES AND FITTINGS)

Abhash Acharya
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9.1 Valves
Valves are appurtenances used in the pipeline to:
1. Control the flow of water

2. Regulate the pressure
3. Adjust or release air into the pipe
4. check the reverse flow of water
5. Discharge the water out from sediment
9.1.1 Sluice Valves:
Sluice valves are also known as gate valves, cut off valves or shut off valves. They are required to
shut off the supplies whenever desired in the water supply system.
Mechanism: The valve consist of a gate connected to the wheel by the spindle. When the wheel
is rotated in an anti-clockwise direction the spindle rises up and allows the water to flow through
it. When the wheel is rotated in clockwise direction, the flow of water is cut off.
9.1.2 Reflux Valves:
Reflux valves are also known as check valves or non-return valves. It is used to make the water
flow in a single direction.
Mechanism: It consists of a hinged gate. When water flows the pressure of flowing water make
the gate open by rotating about the hinge and allows the water to pass through the other section.
When the flow of water stops the gate gets closed by rotating about the hinge and prevents the
backflow of water.
9.1.3 Pressure Relief Valves:
Pressure relief valves are also known as automatic cutoff valves or safety valves. They are used to
keep the pressure below predetermines value in the pipeline. When the pressure exceeds the
predetermine value there exist the chance of bursting of the pipes, so pressure relief valves are
used.
Mechanism: The valve consists of the spring-loaded disc which is adjusted to a predetermined
pressure. When the pressure in the pipeline is below the predetermined value, the valve remains
closed. But when the pressure exceeds the predetermined value the valve opens as the disc is lifted
up and the certain amount of water is discharged which reduces the pressure.
9.1.4 Air Valves:
Air valves are provided to prevent the accumulation of air at higher points that creates backward
pressure. So, air valves are provided at higher points to make the accumulated air exit.
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Mechanism: It consists of the cast iron chamber, float, lever, poppet valve. When there is no air
present in the iron chamber, the float is connected to the roof. When the air start accumulating in
the chamber the float gets lowered and the poppet valve gets opened and the air gets escaped. The
float again moves to the original position (touches the roof) after the air is liberated.
9.1.5 Drain Valves:
Drain valves are also known as scour valves or washout valves or blow off valves. They are used
to wash out the deposited sediments from the pipeline.
Types of Valve
9.2 Fittings
Fittings are appurtenances used in the pipeline to carry out the following functions:
 To connect pipe of different sizes

 To connect pipe to other appurtenances
 To change the direction of flow
 To change the gradient of flow
 To connection pipe sections
Bend: Bend is a fitting used to change the direction of a pipeline.
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Tee: Tee is a fitting with one inlet and two outlets. It is used to for connecting pipes of different
diameters or for changing the direction of pipelines.
Cross: Cross is a fitting to connect four pipe sections. It has one outlet and three inlets or vice
versa.
Wye: Wye is a fitting with two inlets or one outlet or vice versa. It is used to create a branch.
Reducer: Reducer is a fitting that joins two pipes of different diameters.
Plug: A plug is a fitting that closes off the end of the pipe.
Socket: Socket is a fitting that fits over the pipe. It is classified as the plain and reducing socket.
Plain socket connects two pipes of same diameters. Reducing sockets is used to connect two pipes
of different diameters.
Nipple: Nipple is a fitting (short stub of pipe) which is used for connecting two other fittings.
Union: Union is a fitting to connect two pipes of the same diameter for quick and convenient
disconnection.
Stopcock: Stopcocks are fittings which are cut off valves of small size.
Water tap: Water taps are fittings which are used to obtain water from the consumers.
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Common Pipe Fittings
9.3 Beak Pressure Tank
BPT
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Break Pressure Tank (BPT) allows the flow to discharge into the atmosphere. Thus, the
hydrostatics pressure is reduced to zero and a new static level is established. BPT are used mostly
in gravity flow in hill region to reduce the high-class pipes. They are used to burn off the excessive
head and to use lower strength pipe. Components are air vent, overflow, gate valve, washout, and
valve box.
9.4 Public Stand Post
Public Stand Post (PSP) is a structure in the pipeline from where water is distributed to the
consumers. It is generally used in the rural water supply system. The public stand post consists of
the faucet, valve and stands post with necessary facilities of water collection, washing, and bathing.
9.4.1 Location:
The selection of place depends upon the community and drainage system available. The walking
distance to fetch the water must be less than 200m. Desirable population served by a public stand
post is 30 – 60 persons and maximum population served must be limited up to 100.
9.4.2 Flow:
The flow is adjusted by the globe valve.
Ideal flow: 0.15 lps
Minimum flow: 0.1 lps
Maximum flow: 0.25 lps
9.4.3 Residual Head:
The residual head in the public stand post must not be too high or too low. The low residual head
leads to low flow whereas the high residual head leads to high erosion. The recommended residual
heads in the public stand post are as follows:
Absolute minimum: 5 meters
Most desirable: 15 meters
Absolute maximum: 56 meters
9.4.4 Construction
A good foundation is required for the construction of public stand post. It may be constructed of
brick, stone or wood, using mortar or dry stone masonry. A masonry standpost of cement mortar
should have a supporting column 50cm*50cm around the GI pipe and should be on a footing
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embedded 30cm below ground level. The faucet should not protrude more than 30cm. The
adequate height of tap is 1.2 – 1.5 m from the base.
Masonry Standpost
Temporary and Permanent Standpost
9.5 Maintenance of water supply system:
Maintenance of water supply system is necessary to provide safe and clean drinking water and
proper functioning of the water supply scheme. When the system has regularly maintained the
repair which costs more can be avoided.
9.5.1 Requirements of operation and maintenance
1. Preparation of plan for operation and maintenance.

2. Providing required number of trained personnel to operate and maintain.
3. Availability of spares and tools for ensuring maintenance.
4. Establishing a sound financial management system.
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9.5.2 Methods of Maintenance
1. Preventive Maintenance:
Preventive maintenance is also known as regular or routine maintenance. It includes the inspection
of water supply system at regular interval and minor repairs and replacement as dictated by routine
examinations. Flushing of well, cleaning and greasing of mechanical parts and replacement of
parts with limited lifespan are included in the preventive maintenance.
2. Corrective Maintenance:
It includes the replacement or repairmen of something that was incorrectly done as reallocation of
pipe route or replacement of faulty pumps.
3. Reactive Maintenance:
This is done after public complaints. It is also known as emergency maintenance and is performed
after the malfunctioning or breakdown of equipment.
9.5.3 Institutional Arrangement for Maintenance
 Users Committee
 Village Maintenance Worker
 Maintenance and Sanitation Technician
 Stand post User Group
Bibliography:
New Delhi, India.
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Water Supply by Er. Abhash Acharya

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ABHASH ACHARYA 1

Compiled and Prepared By:

1.1 Importance of Water:

Functions of water in human body:

 It moisturizes the air in lungs and joints

Importance of Water supply Engineering:

1.2 Definition of Types of Water:

1.2.1 Pure and Impure Water:

1.2.2 Potable and Wholesome Water:

 Biological quality: Including the levels of bacteria and viruses.

1.2.3 Polluted and Contaminated Water:

1.3 Historical Development of Water Supply System:

1.4 Water Supply Sector Institutions in Nepal

Urban Development (MoUD)

Local Development (MLD)

Ministries Water Resources (MWR)

Education and Sports (MoES)

Health and Population (MoHP)

Department of Local Infrastructure Development and Agriculture Roads

Town Development Fund (TDF)

Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani Limited (KUKL)

Local Government Municipalities

Village Development Committees (VDC)

Water Aid Nepal

Federation of Drinking Water and Sanitation Users Nepal (FEDWASUN)

Urban Environment Improvement Project

Public Private Partnership for Urban Environment

World Health Organization (WHO)

United Nations International Children Education Fund (UNICEF)

Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Fund Development Board (RWSSFDB)

Source : PPTA No. 4972-NEP

Designing and construction of school

Construction of sanitation facilities

Designs and constructs activities for water supply

1.5 Objectives of Water Supply System:

 Qualitative water supply (safe, wholesome and potable water)

1.6 Schematic Diagrams of Typical Water Supply System:

Intake > Sedimentation Tank > Disinfection > Distribution

Fig: Rural water supply scheme

Fig: Urban water supply scheme

1.7 Components of water supply system:

Compiled and Prepared By:

2.1 Classification of Sources of Water

2.2 Surface Sources:

 Size of the lake

2.2.5 Impounded Reservoir

2.2.6 Capacity determination of Impounded Reservoir:

Inflow <= Outflow, no considerations.

2.3 Subsurface Geologic Formation:

Infiltration: The entrance of water into the ground.

Percolation: The movement of water underground after infiltration.

2.4 Ground Sources:

Contact or Surface Spring

 Tabular/Fracture Springs: It is issuing from rounded channels such as lava tubes, of

 Open wells/Dug wells

1. Open wells/Dug wells:

Shallow and Deep Open Wells

Open wells can be further classified as:

 a. Shallow tube wells – Max 30 m

 These tube wells may be classified as:

(i)Strainer type tube well

(ii)Cavity type tube well

(iii)Slotted type tube well

i) Strainer type of Tube well: