Module

6
Actuators
Version 2 EE IIT, Kharagpur 1
 Lesson
25
Control Valves
Version 2 EE IIT, Kharagpur 2
Instructional Objectives
At the end of this lesson, the student should be able to:

• Explain the basic principle of operation of a pneumatically actuated control valve

• Distinguish between air-to-open and air-to-close valves.
• Explain the constructions and relative advantages and disadvantages of single- seated and
double-seated valves.
• Name three types of control valves and sketch their ideal flow characteristics.
• Sketch the shapes of the plugs for three different types of control valves.
• Define the term rangeability.
• Explain the different between ideal and effective characteristics.
• Explain the advantage of using equal percentage valve over using linear control valve.

Introduction
The control action in any control loop system, is executed by the final control element. The most
common type of final control element used in chemical and other process control is the control
valve. A control valve is normally driven by a diaphragm type pneumatic actuator that throttles
the flow of the manipulating variable for obtaining the desired control action. A control valve
essentially consists of a plug and a stem. The stem can be raised or lowered by air pressure and
the plug changes the effective area of an orifice in the flow path. A typical control valve action
can be explained using Fig. 1. When the air pressure increases, the downward force of the
diaphragm moves the stem downward against the spring.

Classifications
Control valves are available in different types and shapes. They can be classified in different
ways; based on: (a) action, (b) number of plugs, and (c) flow characteristics.

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 Air

Diaphragm

Spring

Stem

Flow

Plug
Fig. 1 Control valve
(a) Action: Control valves operated through pneumatic actuators can be either (i) air to
open, or (ii) air to close. They are designed such that if the air supply fails, the control valve will
be either fully open, or fully closed, depending upon the safety requirement of the process. For
example, if the valve is used to control steam or fuel flow, the valve should be shut off
completely in case of air failure. On the other hand, if the valve is handling cooling water to a
reactor, the flow should be maximum in case of emergency. The schematic arrangements of
these two actions are shown in Fig. 2. Valve A are air to close type, indicating, if the air fails, the
valve will be fully open. Opposite is the case for valve B.

A B
• Fail open or Air to close : A
• Fail closed or Air to open : B
Fig. 2 Air to open and Air to close valves

(b) Number of plugs: Control valves can also be characterized in terms of the
number of plugs present, as single-seated valve and double-seated valve. The difference in
construction between a single seated and double-seated valve are illustrated in Fig. 3.

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 Referring Fig.1 (and also Fig. 3(a)), only one plug is present in the control valve, so it is
single seated valve. The advantage of this type of valve is that, it can be fully closed and flow
variation from 0 to 100% can be achieved. But looking at its construction, due to the pressure
drop across the orifice a large upward force is present in the orifice area, and as a result, the
force required to move the valve against this upward thrust is also large. Thus this type of
valves is more suitable for small flow rates. On the other hand, there are two plugs in a
double-seated valve; flow moves upward in one orifice area, and downward in the other
orifice. The resultant upward or downward thrust is almost zero. As a result, the force
required to move a double-seated valve is comparatively much less.

But the double-seated valve suffers from one disadvantage. The flow cannot be shut off
completely, because of the differential temperature expansion of the stem and the valve seat.
If one plug is tightly closed, there is usually a small gap between the other plug and its seat.
Thus, single-seated valves are recommended for when the valves are required to be shut off
completely. But there are many processes, where the valve used is not expected to operate
near shut off position. For this condition, double-seated valves are recommended.
Stem
Packing gland

Stem
Packing gland

Flow
Plug

Flow Plug

Single-seated
control valve Double-seated
control valve
(a) (b)
Fig. 3 Single-seated and double-seated valves

(c) Flow Characteristics: It describes how the flow rate changes with the movement or lift
of the stem. The shape of the plug primarily decides the flow characteristics. However, the
design of the shape of a control valve and its shape requires further discussions. The flow
characteristic of a valve is normally defined in terms of (a) inherent characteristics and (b)
effective characteristics. An inherent characteristic is the ideal flow characteristics of a
control valve and is decided by the shape and size of the plug. On the other hand, when the
valve is connected to a pipeline, its overall performance is decided by its effective
characteristic.

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Ideal Characteristics
The control valve acts like an orifice and the position of the plug decides the area of opening of
the orifice. Recall that the flow rate through an orifice can be expressed in terms of the upstream
and downstream static pressure heads as:

q = K1a 2 g (h1 − h2 ) (1)

3
where q = flow rate in m /sec.
K1 = flow coefficient
a = area of the control valve opening in m2
h1 = upstream static head of the fluid in m
h2 = downstream static head of the fluid in m
g = acceleration due to gravity in m/sec2.
Now the area of the control valve opening (a) is again dependent on the stem position, or the lift.
So if the upstream and downstream static pressure heads are somehow maintained constant, then
the flow rate is a function of the lift (z), i.e.
q = f ( z) (2)
The shape of the plug decides, how the flow rate changes with the stem movement, or lift; and
the characteristics of q vs. z is known as the inherent characteristics of the valve.

Let us define
q z
m= and x=
qmax zmax
where, qmax is the maximum flow rate, when the valve is fully open and zmax is the corresponding
maximum lift. So eqn. (2) can be rewritten in terms of m and x as:
m = f ( x) (3)
and the valve sensitivity is defined as dm dx , or the slope of the curve m vs. x. In this way, the
control valves can be classified in terms of their m vs. x characteristics, and three types of control
valves are normally in use. They are:
(a) Quick opening
(b) Linear
(c) Equal Percentage.
The characteristics of these control valves are shown in Fig. 4. It has to be kept in mind that all
the characteristics are to be determined after maintaining constant pressure difference across the
valve as shown in Fig.4.

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 % flow ΔP is
(m) Constant
100
80
Quick ΔP
60 Opening
40 Linear
20 Equal
Percentage
0 % lift (x)
0 20 40 60 80 100

Fig. 4 Flow characteristics of control valves

Different flow characteristics can be obtained by properly shaping the plugs. Typical shapes of
the three types of valves are shown in Fig. 5

Equal percentage Linear Quick opening

Fig. 5 Valve plug shapes for the three common flow characteristics.

For a linear valve, dm dx = 1 , as evident from Fig.5 and the flow characteristics is linear
throughout the operating range. On the other hand, for an equal percentage valve, the flow
characteristics is mathematically expressed as:
dm
=βm (4)
dx
where β is a constant.
The above expression indicates, that the slop of the flow characteristics is proportional to the
present flow rate, justifying the term equal percentage. This flow characteristics is linear on a
semilog graph paper. The minimum flow rate m0 (flow rate at x=0) is never zero for an equal
percentage valve and m can be expressed as:
m = m0 e β x (5)
Rangeability of a control valve is defined as the ratio of the maximum controllable flow and the
minimum controllable flow. Thus:
maximum controllable flow
Rangeability =
minimum controllable flow
Rangeability of a control valve is normally in between 20 and 70.

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Effective Characteristics
So far we have discussed about the ideal characteristics of a control valve. It is decided by the
shape of the plug, and the pressure drop across the valve is assumed to be held constant. But in
practice, the control valve is installed in conjunction with other equipment, such as heat
exchanger, pipeline, orifice, pump etc. The elements will have their own flow vs. pressure
characteristics and cause additional frictional loss in the system and the effective characteristics
of the valve will be different from the ideal characteristics. In order to explain the deviation, let
us consider a control valve connected with a pipeline of length L in between two tanks, as shown
in Fig. 6. We consider the tanks are large enough so that the heads of the two tanks H0 and H2
can be assumed to be constant. We also assume that the ideal characteristic of the control valve is
linear. From eqn. (1), we can write for a linear valve:
K1a = Kz
where K is a constant and z is the stem position or lift.
Now the pipeline will experience some head loss that is again dependent on the velocity of the
fluid.

H2
Ho

Flow

Fig. 6 Effect of friction loss in pipeline for a control valve

The head loss ΔhL will affect the overall flow rate q and eqn.(1) can be rewritten as:
q = ⎡⎣ K 2 g ( H 0 − H 2 − ΔhL ⎤⎦ z (6)
The head loss (in m) can be calculated from the relationship:
L v2
ΔhL = F (7)
D 2g

where F = Friction coefficient

L = Length of the pipeline in m
D = inside diameter of the pipeline in m
v = velocity of the flow in m.
Further, the velocity of the fluid can be related to the fluid flow q (in m3/sec) as:
q
v= (8)
π 2
D
4
Combining (7) and (8), we can write:

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 8 FL 2
ΔhL = q (9)
π 2 gD5
Substituting (9) in (6) and further simplifying, one can obtain:
⎡ 2g (H0 − H 2 ) ⎤
q = ⎢K ⎥z (10)
⎣ 1 + α z 2
⎦
16FLK 2
where α =
π 2 D5
From (10), it can be concluded that q is no longer linearly proportional to stem lift z, though the
ideal characteristics of the valve is linear. This nonlinearity of the characteristics is dependent on
the diameter of the pipeline D; i.e. smaller the pipe diameter, larger is the value of α and more
is the nonlinearity. The nonlinearity of the effective valve characteristics can be plotted as shown
in Fig. 7.

ideal
qmax characteristics
Flow (m3/sec)

decreasing zmax
pipe diameters
O
Lift z (m)
Fig. 7 Effect of pipeline diameter on the effective flow characteristics of
the control valve
The nonlinearity introduced in the effective characteristics can be reduced by mainly (i)
increasing the line diameter, thus reducing the head loss, (ii) increasing the pressure of the source
H0, (iii) decreasing the pressure at the termination H2.
The effective characteristics of the control valve shown in Fig.7 are in terms of absolute flow
q
rate. If we want to express the effective characteristics in terms of m (= ) in eqn. (3)
qmax
deviation from the ideal characteristics will also be observed. Linear valve characteristics will
deviate upwards, as shown in Fig. 8. An equal percentage valve characteristic will also shift
upward from its ideal characteristic; thus giving a better linear response in the actual case.

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 100 effective
characteristics

% Flow (m)
50
ideal characteristics

0
0 50 100
% Lift (x)
Fig. 8 Comparison of ideal and effective characteristics for a linear valve
Thus linear valves are recommended when pressure drop across the control valve is expected to
be fairly constant. On the other hand, equal percentage valves are recommended when the
pressure drop across the control valve would not be constant due to the presence of series
resistance in the line. As the line loss increases, the effective characteristics of the equal
percentage valve will move closer to the linear relationship in m vs. x characteristics.

Conclusion
A control valve is the final control element in a process control. Thus the effectiveness of any
control scheme depends heavily on the performance of the control valve. The proper design and
fabrication of the valve is very important in order to achieve the desired performance level.
Moreover control valves are of different size and shapes. Only few types of control valves have
been discussed here, leaving a large varieties of valves, those are in use, to name a few, globe
valves, butterfly valves, V-port valves etc. We have discussed here the pneumatically actuated
control valves, though electrically and hydraulically actuated valves are also not uncommon.

The shape of a valve plug is not the only deciding factor for determining its effective flow
characteristics, but other equipment connected in the line along with the control valve, also affect
its flow characteristics. Thus the effective flow characteristics of a linear valve may become
nonlinear, as has been shown in this lesson. For this reason, equal percentage valves are
preferred in many cases, since their effective characteristics tend to be linear, in presence of head
loss in the pipeline. There are distinct guidelines for selecting the valve size and shape depending
on load change, pipeline diameter etc. Bypass lines are sometimes used with a control valve in
order to change the flow characteristics of the valve.

References
1. D.R. Coughanowr: Process systems analysis and control (2/e), McgrawHill, NY,
1991.
2. D.P. Eckman: Automatic process Control, Wiley Eastern, New Delhi, 1958.
3. B. Liptak: Process Control: Instrument Engineers Handbook
4. W.L. Luyben and M.L. Luyben: Essentials of Process Control, McgrawHill, NY,
1997.
5. P. Harriott: Process Control, Tata-McGrawHill, New Delhi, 1991.

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Review Questions
1. Sketch the construction of a pneumatically actuated diaphragm type single-seated
control valve.
2. Discuss the construction, advantages and disadvantages of a double-seated control
valve.
3. When would you recommend to use an air-to-close control valve? Give an example.
4. Sketch and discuss the plug shapes and ideal flow characteristics of three different
types of control valves.
5. Discuss the ideal flow characteristics of an equal percentage valve.
6. Define the term rangeability of a control valve. Why is the property important?
7. How does the friction loss of a pipeline connecting the control valve affect the flow
characteristics of the valve? Explain clearly.
8. Distinguish between the terms- ideal characteristics and effective characteristics.
9. What is the advantage of using a equal percentage valve over a linear valve?

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Module
6
Actuators
Version 2 EE IIT, Kharagpur 1
 Lesson
26
Hydraulic Actuation
Systems - I: Principle and
Components
Version 2 EE IIT, Kharagpur 2
Lesson Objectives
After learning the lesson students should be able to

• Describe the principles of operation of hydraulic systems and understand its advantages
• Be familiar with basic hydraulic components and their roles in the system
• Describe the constructional and functional aspects of hydraulic pumps and motors
• Draw the graphical symbols used to depict typical hydraulic system components

Introduction
Hydraulic Actuators, as used in industrial process control, employ hydraulic pressure to drive an
output member. These are used where high speed and large forces are required. The fluid used in
hydraulic actuator is highly incompressible so that pressure applied can be transmitted
instantaneously to the member attached to it.

It was not, however, until the 17th century that the branch of hydraulics with which we are to be
concerned first came into use. Based upon a principle discovered by the French scientist Pascal,
it relates to the use of confined fluids in transmitting power, multiplying force and modifying
motions.

Then, in the early stages of the industrial revolution, a British mechanic named Joseph Bramah
utilized Pascal’s discovery in developing a hydraulic press. Bramah decided that, if a small force
on a small area would create a proportionally larger force on a larger area, the only limit to the
force a machine can exert is the area to which the pressure is applied.

Principle Used in Hydraulic Actuator System

Pascal’s Law
Pressure applied to a confined fluid at any point is transmitted undiminished and equally
throughout the fluid in all directions and acts upon every part of the confining vessel at right
angles to its interior surfaces.

Amplification of Force
Since pressure P applied on an area A gives rise to a force F, given as,
F = P×A
Thus, if a force is applied over a small area to cause a pressure P in a confined fluid, the force
generated on a larger area can be made many times larger than the applied force that crated the
pressure. This principle is used in various hydraulic devices to such hydraulic press to generate
very high forces.

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Conservation of Energy
Since energy or power is always conserved, amplification in force must result in reduction of the
fluid velocity. Indeed if the resultant force is applied over a larger area then a unit displacement
of the area would cause a larger volumetric displacement than a unit displacement of the small
area through which the generating force is applied. Thus, what is gained in force must be
sacrificed in distance or speed and power would be conserved.

Pump
PA F
Q

L
Travel/unit time

Fig. 26.1 Major hydraulic and mechanical variables

Point to Ponder: 1
A. Can you give an analogy of the force amplification in hydraulic system from an electrical
system?
B. Can you imagine what would happen, if the cylinder piston in Fig. 26.1 is stopped
forcefully?

Advantages of Hydraulic Actuation Systems

Hydraulics refers to the means and mechanisms of transmitting power through liquids. The
original power source for the hydraulic system is a prime mover such as an electric motor or an
engine which drives the pump. However, the mechanical equipment cannot be coupled directly
to the prime mover because the required control over the motion, necessary for industrial
operations cannot be achieved. In terms of these Hydraulic Actuation Systems offer unique
advantages, as given below.

Variable Speed and Direction: Most large electric motors run at adjustable, but constant speeds.
It is also the case for engines. The actuator (linear or rotary) of a hydraulic system, however, can
be driven at speeds that vary by large amounts and fast, by varying the pump delivery or using a
flow control valve. In addition, a hydraulic actuator can be reversed instantly while in full
motion without damage. This is not possible for most other prime movers.

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Power-to-weight ratio: Hydraulic components, because of their high speed and pressure
capabilities, can provide high power output with vary small weight and size, say, in comparison
to electric system components. Note that in electric components, the size of equipment is mostly
limited by the magnetic saturation limit of the iron. It is one of the reasons that hydraulic
equipment finds wide usage in aircrafts, where dead-weight must be reduced to a minimum.

Stall Condition and Overload Protection: A hydraulic actuator can be stalled without damage
when overloaded, and will start up immediately when the load is reduced. The pressure relief
valve in a hydraulic system protects it from overload damage. During stall, or when the load
pressure exceeds the valve setting, pump delivery is directed to tank with definite limits to torque
or force output. The only loss encountered is in terms of pump energy. On the contrary, stalling
an electric motor is likely to cause damage. Likewise, engines cannot be stalled without the
necessity for restarting.

Point to Ponder: 2
A. Consider two types of variable speed drives. In the first one an electric motor with a
power electronic servo drive is directly coupled to the load through a mechanism. In
the second one an electric motor with a constant speed drive drives the pump in a
hydraulic system which provides the variable speed drive to the load. Which one of
these two is more energy efficient?
B. Why is stalling an electric motor is likely to cause damage? What can be done to
prevent it?

Components of Hydraulic Actuation Systems

Hydraulic Fluid
Hydraulic fluid must be essentially non-compressible to be able to transmit power
instantaneously from one part of the system to another. At the same time, it should lubricate the
moving parts to reduce friction loss and cool the components so that the heat generated does not
lead to fire hazards. It also helps in removing the contaminants to filter. The most common liquid
used in hydraulic systems is petroleum oil because it is only very slightly compressible. The
other desirable property of oil is its lubricating ability. Finally, often, the fluid also acts as a seal
against leakage inside a hydraulic component. The degree of closeness of the mechanical fit and
the oil viscosity determines leakage rate. Figure 26.2 below shows the role played by hydraulic
fluid films in lubrication and sealing.
Film of hydraulic
fluid lubricates

Film of hydraulic
fluid seals passage
from adjacent

Fig. 26.2 Lubrication and Sealing by Hydraulic Fluid

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The Fluid Delivery Subsystem
It consists of the components that hold and carry the fluid from the pump to the actuator. It is
made up of the following components.

Reservoir
It holds the hydraulic fluid to be circulated and allows air entrapped in the fluid to escape. This is
an important feature as the bulk modulus of the oil, which determines the stiffness of hydraulic
system, deteriorates considerably in the presence of entrapped air bubbles. It also helps in
dissipating heat.

From hydraulic system To hydraulic system

PUMP
Releases Bubbles

Reservoir
Dissipates
Heat
Baffle
Fig. 26.3 The functions of the reservoir
Filter
The hydraulic fluid is kept clean in the system with the help of filters and strainers. It removes
minute particles from the fluid, which can cause blocking of the orifices of servo-valves or cause
jamming of spools.

Point to Ponder: 3
A. What would happen if orifices of valves are blocked by, say, a metal chip in the
hydraulic oil?
Line
Pipe, tubes and hoses, along with the fittings or connectors, constitute the conducting lines that
carry hydraulic fluid between components. Lines are one of the disadvantages of hydraulic
system that we need to pay in return of higher power to weight ratio. Lines convey the fluid and
also dissipate heat. In contrast, for Pneumatic Systems, no return path for the fluid, which is air,
is needed, since it can be directly released into the atmosphere. There are various kinds of lines
in a hydraulic system. The working lines carry the fluid that delivers the main pump power to the
load. The pilot lines carry fluid that transmit controlling pressures to various directional and
relief valves for remote operation or safety. Lastly there are drain lines that carry the fluid that
inevitably leaks out, to the tank.

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 Working line

Pilot line Drain

line

Fig. 26.4 The various kinds of lines in a hydraulic system

Fig 26.5 below shows a typical configuration of connecting the supply and the return lines as
well as the filter to the reservoir. The graphical symbol for a Reservoir and Filters is shown in
Fig. 26.6.

Supply Line

Pump
Return Line

Filter

Reservoir

Fig. 26.5 Connection Arrangement of Filter and Lines with a Reservoir

Fig. 26.6 The graphical symbol for Reservoirs and Filters

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Fittings and Seals
Various additional components are needed to join pipe or tube sections, create bends and also to
prevent internal and external leakage in hydraulic systems. Although some amount of internal
leakage is built-in, to provide lubrication, excessive internal leakage causes loss of pump power
since high pressure fluid returns to the tank, without doing useful work. External leakage, on the
other hand, causes loss of fluid and can create fire hazards, as well as fluid contamination.
Various kinds of sealing components are employed in hydraulic systems to prevent leakage. A
typical such component, known as the O-ring is shown below in Fig. 26.7.

O-Ring

Fig. 26.7 Sealing by O-rings

Hydraulic Pumps
The pump converts the mechanical energy of its prime-mover to hydraulic energy by delivering a
given quantity of hydraulic fluid at high pressure into the system. Generically, all pumps are
divided into two categories, namely, hydrodynamic or non-positive displacement and hydrostatic
or positive displacement. Hydraulic systems generally employ positive displacement pumps
only. The symbol for a pump, is shown in Fig. 26.8 below.

Pump
Reversible
Fig. 26.8 The graphical symbol for Pumps

Hydrostatic or Positive Displacement Pumps

These pumps deliver a given amount of fluid for each cycle of motion, that is, stroke or
revolution. Their output in terms of the volume flow rate is solely dependent on the speed of the
prime-mover and is independent of outlet pressure notwithstanding leakage. These pumps are
generally rated by their volume flow rate output at a given drive speed and by their maximum
operating pressure capability which is specified based on factors of safety and operating life
considerations. In theory, a pump delivers an amount of fluid equal to its displacement each
cycle or revolution. In reality, the actual output is reduced because of internal leakage or slippage
which increases with operating pressure. Moreover, note that the power requirement on the
prime mover theoretically increases with the pump delivery at a constant fluid pressure. If this
power exceeds the power that the prime mover can handle the pump speed and the delivery rate
would fall automatically. There are various types of pumps used in hydraulic systems as
described below.

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Gear Pumps
Outlet

Drive
Free
Gear
Gear

Inlet
Fig. 26.9 The construction of a Gear Pump

A gear pump develops flow by carrying fluid between the teeth of two meshed gears. One gear is
driven by the drive shaft and turns the other, which is free. The pumping chambers formed
between the gear teeth are enclosed by the pump housing and the side plates. A low pressure
region is created at the inlet as the gear teeth separate. As a result, fluid flows in and is carried
around by the gears. As the teeth mesh again at the outlet, high pressure is created and the fluid
is forced out. Figure 26.9 shows the construction of a a typical internal gears pump; Most gear
type pumps are fixed displacement. They range in output from very low to high volume. They
usually operate at comparatively low pressure.

Point to Ponder: 4
A. Why do gear pumps usually operate at comparatively low pressure?

Vane Pumps
In a vane pump a rotor is coupled to the drive shaft and turns inside a cam ring. Vanes are fitted
to the rotor slots and follow the inner surface of the ring as the rotor turns (see Fig. 26.10).
Centrifugal force and pressure under the vanes keep them pressed against the ring. Pumping
chambers are formed between the vanes and are enclosed by the rotor, ring and two side plates.
At the pump inlet, a low pressure region is created as the space between the rotor and ring
increases. Oil entering here is trapped in the pumping chambers and then is pushed into the outlet
as the space decreases.

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 Vane

System Pressure

Drive Shaft Rotor

Fig. 26.10 Principle of Operation of Vane Pumps

Most fixed displacement vane pumps today utilize the balanced design shown in Fig. 26.11. In
this design, the cam ring is elliptical rather than a circle and permits two sets of internal ports.
The two outlet ports are 180 degrees apart so that pressure forces on the rotor are cancelled out
preventing side loading of the drive shaft and bearings

Outlet
Vane
Sense of rotation

.
Inlet

Fig. 26.11 Construction of Balanced Vane Pumps

Piston Pumps
In a piston pumps, a piston reciprocating in a bore draws in fluid as it is retracted and expels it on
the forward stroke. Two basic types of piston pumps are radial and axial. A radial pump has the
pistons arranged radially in a cylinder block (shown in Fig. 26.12) in an axial pump the pistons
are parallel to the axis of the cylinder block (shown in Fig. 26.13). The latter may be further
divided into in-line (swash plate or wobble plate) and bent axis types.

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Radial Piston Pumps
In a radial pump the cylinder block rotates on a stationary pintle and inside a circular reaction
ring or rotor. As the block rotates, due to centrifugal force, charging pressure or some form of
mechanical action the pistons remain pressed against the inner surface of the ring which is offset
from the centerline of the cylinder block. Due the ring being off-centre, as the pistons reciprocate
in their bores, they take in fluid as they move outward and discharge it as they move in.

Cylinder Block
Centerline
Centerline

Outlet
Case
Pintle

Pistons

Inlet
Cylinder Block
Reaction Ring

Fig. 26.12 Cross Sectional View of Radial Piston Pumps

Swash Plate Design Inline Piston Pumps

In axial piston pumps, the cylinder block and drive shaft are co-axial and the pistons move
parallel to the drive shaft. The simplest type of axial piston pump is the swash plate inline design
shown in Fig. 26.13 and 26.14. The cylinder block in this pump is turned by the prime mover
connected to the drive shaft. Pistons fitted to bores in the cylinder are connected to an angled
swash plate. As the block turns, the piston shoes follow the swash plate, causing the pistons to
reciprocate, since the distance of point of connection changes cyclically as the swash plate
rotates. The fluid ports are placed in the valve plate so that the pistons pass the inlet port as they
are being pulled out, so that fluid enters the cylinder cavity, and pass the outlet as they are being
forced back in, delivering fluid into the system.

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 Stroke Length

Determines Swash
Plate Angle that
(Maximum
Displacement)

Fig. 26.13 Cross Sectional View of an Axial Piston Pump

Valve Plate Slot

Piston Sub – Assembly

Outlet
Port.

Inlet
Port. Drive Shaft
Swash Plate
Shoe Plate
(Retractor Ring).
Cylinder Block Bore.
Fig. 26.14 Cut-out View of Axial Piston Pump
Motors
Motors work exactly on the reverse principle of pumps. In motors fluid is forced into the motor
from pump outlets at high pressure. This fluid pressure creates the motion of the motor shaft and
finally go out through the motor outlet port and return to tank. All three variants of motors,
already described for pumps, namely Gear Motors, Vane Motors and Piston motors are in use.

Accumulators
Unlike gases the fluids used in hydraulic systems cannot be compressed and stored to cater to
sudden demands of high flow rates that cannot be supplied by the pump. An accumulator in a

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hydraulic system provides a means of storing these incompressible fluids under pressure created
either by a spring, compressed a gas. Any tendency for pressure to drop at the inlet causes the
spring or the gas to force the fluid back out, supplying the demand for flow rate.

Spring-Loaded Accumulators
In a spring loaded accumulator (Fig. 26.15), pressure is applied to the fluid by a coil spring
behind the accumulator piston. The pressure is equal to the instantaneous spring force divided by
the piston area. The pressure therefore is not constant since the spring force increases as fluid
enters the chamber and decreases as it is discharged.

Spring loaded accumulators can be mounted in any position. The spring force, i.e., the pressure
range is not easily adjusted, and where large quantities of fluid are spring size has to be very
large.

Spring

Piston

Port

Fig. 26.15 A spring-loaded accumulator

Gas Charged Accumulator

The most commonly used accumulator is one in which the chamber is pre-charged with an inert
gas, such as dry nitrogen. A gas charged accumulator should be pre-charged while empty of
hydraulic fluid. Accumulator pressure varies in proportion to the compression of the gas,
increasing as pumped in and decreasing as it is expelled.

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 Gas under
pressure

Hydraulic
Fluid

Fig. 26.16 A gas-charged accumulator

Cylinders
Cylinders are linear actuators, that is, they produce straight-line motion and/or force. Cylinders
are classified as single-or double-acting as illustrated in Figures 26.17 and 26.18 with the
graphical symbol for each type.

Single Acting Cylinder: It has only one fluid chamber and exerts force in only one direction.
When mounted vertically, they often retract by the force of gravity on the load. Ram type
cylinders are used in elevators, hydraulic jacks and hoists.

Load Load
Symbol

From Pump To Tank

Extend Retract
Fig. 26.17 Cross Sectional View of Single-acting Cylinder

Double-Acting Cylinder: The double-acting cylinder is operated by hydraulic fluid in both

directions and is capable of a power stroke either way. In single rod double-acting cylinder there
are unequal areas exposed to pressure during the forward and return movements due to the cross-
sectional area of the rod. The extending stroke is slower, but capable of exerting a greater force
than when the piston and rod are being retracted.
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 Load
Load

Exhaust From Pump

To Tank Exhaust
From Pump To Tank

Extend Cylinder Retract Cylinder

Fig. 26.18 Cross Sectional View of Single-acting Cylinder

Double-rod double-acting cylinders are used where it is advantageous to couple a load to each
end, or where equal displacement is needed on each end. With identical areas on either side of
the piston, they can provide equal speeds and/or equal forces in either direction. Any double-
acting cylinder may be used as a single-acting unit by draining the inactive end to tank.

Lesson Summary
In this lesson we have dealt with the following topics:
A. Basic Principles and Advantages of Hydraulic Control Systems: It is seen that force can
be effectively multiplied by Hydraulic Systems due to Pascal’s Law. Further, there are
several advantages of such systems with respect to motion control such as the ability for
sudden stalling or reversal of motion under high loads.
B. Hydraulic Fluids, Lines, Reservoirs, Filters and Seals : The functions of the fluid in the
system is explained along with the accessories that carry it, such as lines and reservoirs.
Other accessories such as filters and seals have also been presented briefly.
C. Hydraulic Pumps and Accumulators: Various types of hydraulic pumps, namely, gear
pimps, vane pumps and piston pumps have been considered and their principles of
operation and construction explained. Two types of accumulators which act as temporary
sources of fluids during transient high demand periods have also been presented.
D. Hydraulic Motors and Cylinders: Factories have been classified into four major
categories based on the product volumes and product variety. Similarly Automation
Systems are also categorized into four types and their appropriateness for the various
categories of factories explained.

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Exercises
1. State Pascal's Law
2. Name several advantages of a hydraulic system
3. What makes petroleum oil suitable as a hydraulic fluid?
4. What determines the speed of an actuator?
5. How do you find the horsepower in a hydraulic system?
6. Name three kinds of working lines and tell what each does
7. Name four primary functions of the hydraulic fluid.
8. Name four quality properties of a hydraulic fluid
9. Name three functions of the reservoir?
10. What are the basic characteristics of positive displacement pumps?
11. How much oil does a vane pump rated for 5 gpm at 1200 rpm deliver at 1800 rpm?
12. What tends to limit the pressure capability of a gear pump?
13. What holds the vanes extended in a pump?
14. How can displacement be varied in a axis piston pump?
15. Name two functions of an accumulator.

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Answers, Remarks and Hints to Points to Ponder

Point to Ponder: 1
Can you give an analogy of the force amplification in hydraulic system from an electrical
system?

Ans: The electrical analog of force is voltage. Both are called across variables, while the
electrical analog of flow rate is current, both which are called through variables. Note that the
product of force and flow rate is power as is the product of voltage and current. Thus the
analogy of force amplification is voltage amplication as can be achieved by transformers.

A. Can you imagine what would happen, if the cylinder piston in Fig. 26.1 is stopped
forcefully?

Ans: If the cylinder is stopped, there cannot be any flow through the system. However, the
prime mover to the pump would attempt to rotate the drive shaft and deliver fluid. Thus the
operating pressure of the pump and load on the prime mover would tend to rise. Practically,
this operating pressure would be contained by a relief valve which would open a low flow
resistance path for the fluid to flow bypassing the cylinder (not shown in the Figure 26.1).
Otherwise the load on the prime mover would be so high that it would stall. Thirdly, due to
extremely high pressures fluid lines or pump may rupture.

Point to Ponder: 2
A. Consider two types of variable speed drives. In the first one an electric motor with a
power electronic servo drive is directly coupled to the load through a mechanism. In the
second one an electric motor with a constant speed drive drives the pump in a hydraulic
system which provides the variable speed drive to the load. Which one of these two is
more energy efficient?

Ans: The first one is likely to be more efficient. This is because the overall efficiency of both
the systems would include the efficiency of the motor and the efficiency of the final
mechanism that connects the load with the actuator, such a gear or a ball screw. However, the
hydraulic system would further involve the efficiency of the pump and cylinder as well as
that of other speed control equipment such control valves. For the first system this would
involve only the efficiency of the power electronic converter, which is likely to be higher.
Thus the lesson is that hydraulic systems are not used for their energy efficiency, but rather
for their small size, high power handling capacity and ease of control under high loads.

B. Why is stalling an electric motor is likely to cause damage? What can be done to prevent
it?

Ans: Stalling an electric motor reduces the back emf in the motor to zero. Therefore very
high current flows in the motor causing thermal damage. To prevent such damages, current
control techniqies are applied in all motor drives which sense the current and reduce the
motor terminal voltage whenever the current exceeds its limit. In other cases, where such rise

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 of current is considered to be due to fault, over current trip mechanisms are employed that
switch off supply to the motor.

Point to Ponder: 3
A. What would happen if orifices of valves are blocked by, say, a metal chip in the hydraulic
oil?

Ans: Immediately the pressure difference across the hydraulic cylinder, which moves the
cylinder against load, would be neutralized. Thus the load motion would stop. At the same
time the pressure difference across the jammed orifice would rise. Sometime this resulting
force can dislodge or shear the chip that causes the jam.

Point to Ponder: 4
A. Why do gear pumps usually operate at comparatively low pressures?

Ans: The load imposed by the drive shaft depends on the operating pressure. By
construction, this load is unbalanced in the gear pump and therefore, considerable side
loading on the drive shaft exists. To limit this loading, operating pressures have to be kept
low. Note that due to the symmetry of the inlet and out let ports such forces do not arise in
balanced vane pumps.

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