Module

6
Actuators
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 Lesson
29
Pneumatic Control
Components
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Instructional Objectives
At the end of this lesson, the student should be able to

• Explain with a sketch the principle of operation of a flapper nozzle amplifier.

• Derive the approximate relationship between the output pressure and displacement for a
flapper nozzle amplifier.
• Justify the use of air relay in conjunction with a flapper nozzle amplifier.
• Explain the advantage of using closed loop configuration of flapper nozzle amplifier.
• Sketch and explain the operation of a flapper nozzle amplifier in closed loop.
• Explain the limitation of a direct acting type valve positioner.
• Explain the principle of operation of a feedback type valve positioner.

Introduction
A number of pneumatic components are present in a process control scheme. In earlier days, the
complete control system was built up on these components; with the advent of electronics many
of them are now replaced by electronic components. Still then, the importance of the pneumatic
components cannot be underestimated. Many of the industrial actuators used in steel and
automobile industries nowadays are pneumatic. The major advantages of using pneumatic
systems are (i) they are intrinsically safe and can be used in hazardous atmospheres, (ii) cheap
compared to hydraulic systems (air costs nothing) and (iii) a pneumatic actuator can generate
more torque (force) to its own weight and thus have a better torque-weight ratio compared to an
electrical actuator. However pneumatic components are slow in response. In this lesson we will
discuss different pneumatic components used in process control.

Flapper nozzle amplifier

A pneumatic control system operates with air. The signal is transmitted in form of variable air
pressure (often in the range 3-15 psi, i.e. 0.2 to 1.0 bar) that initiates the control action. One of
the basic building blocks of a pneumatic control system is the flapper nozzle amplifier. It
converts very small displacement signal (in order of microns) to variation of air pressure. The
basic construction of a flapper nozzle amplifier is shown in Fig.1. Constant air pressure (20psi) is
supplied to one end of the pipeline. There is an orifice at this end. At the other end of the pipe
there is a nozzle and a flapper. The gap between the nozzle and the flapper is set by the input
signal. As the flapper moves closer to the nozzle, there will be less airflow through the nozzle
and the air pressure inside the pipe will increase. On the other hand, if the flapper moves further
away from the nozzle, the air pressure decreases. At the extreme, if the nozzle is open (flapper is
far off), the output pressure will be equal to the atmospheric pressure. If the nozzle is blockes,
the output pressure will be equal to the supply pressure. A pressure measuring device in the
pipeline can effectively show the pressure variation. The characteristics is inverse and the
pressure decreases with the increase in distance. Typical characteristics of a flapper nozzle
amplifier is shown in Fig.2. The orifice and nozzle diameter are very small. Typical value of the
orifice diameter is 0.01 inch (0.25 mm) and the nozzle diameter 0.025 inch (0.6 mm). Typical
change in pressure is 1.0 psi (66 mbar) for a change in displacement of 0.0001 inch (2.5 micron).
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There is an approximate linear range in 3-15 psi, of the characteristics of the amplifier, that is the
normal operating range.

Nozzle

Air Flapper
Supply
xi

Output
pressure po po
(3-15psi)

Fig. 1 Flapper nozzle amplifier

po(psi)

20

15 Approximate
linear range

10

0 5 10
xi (mil)

Fig. 2 Characteristics of a flapper nozzle amplifier.

Performance Analysis
The performance analysis of the flapper nozzle amplifier can be carried out in two ways:
neglecting the compressibility of air and taking compressibility of air into account. For the sake
of simplicity, we shall neglect the compressibility in this section and carry out the simplified
analysis.
The mass flow rate through the orifice can be expressed as:
Cd π d s2
Gs = 2 ρ ( ps − po ) (1)
4

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where, Cd is the discharge coefficient of the orifice, ds is the inside diameter of the orifice, ρ is
the density of air, ps is the supply pressure and po is the pressure inside the pipe. The above
expression comes directly from the Bernoulli’s equation, considering that the area of the orifice
is much smaller than the area of the pipe.
For finding out the flow through the nozzle, the flow area is taken as the peripheral area of a
cylinder of diameter dn (nozzle diameter) and length xi (distance between the flapper and the
nozzle). That means that if we imagine a cylinder of diameter dn and length xi, the air is going
out of the nozzle to the atmosphere in the radial direction and the area of the orifice thus formed
will be surface area of the cylinder. Noting that the air pressure outside the cylinder surface is
ambient pressure (pamb), similar to (1), we can write the expression for the mass flow rate
through the nozzle as:

Gn = Cd π d n xi 2 ρ ( po − pamb ) (2)

We have assumed air to be incompressible. The discharge coefficient is also assumed to be the
same for both the orifice and the nozzle. So at steady state,
Gs = Gn , and pamb = 0 .
Equating (1) and (2) and simplifying, one can obtain:
d s4
( ps − po ) = d n2 xi2 po
16
po 1
or, = (3)
ps 16d n2 2
1 + 4 xi
ds
po d
Now denoting the normalized pressure pn = , and the normalized displacement as xn = n2 xi ,
ps ds
we can write,
1
pn = (4)
1 + 16 xn2
The pn vs. xn characteristics is similar to that shown in Fig.2. The sensitivity can be obtained as:
dpn 1
= −32 xn (5)
dxn (1 + 16 xn2 )2
For sensitivity to be maximum,
d 2 pn 32(1 + 16 xn2 ) 2 − 32 xn .2(1 + 16 xn2 ).32 xn
= 0 = −
dxn2 (1 + 16 xn2 ) 4
Solving, one obtains the condition for maximum sensitivity as:
1
xn2 = ; or xn ≈ 0.144
48
The maximum sensitivity, at xn = 0.144 is

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 dpn
= −2.59
dxn
and at this value of xn,
1 1 3
pn = = = = 0.75
1 + 16 xn 1 + 16. 1
2
4
48
If the supply pressure is 20 psi, the sensitivity is maximum when the output pressure p0 is around
15 psi. In order to avoid zero or very low sensitivity, the minimum workable pressure is chosen
as 3 psi. Thus the working output pressure range of 3-15 psi is normally used for practical
applications.

Air Relay
The major limitation of a flapper nozzle amplifier is its limited air handling capacity. The
variation of air pressure obtained cannot be used for any useful application, unless the air
handling capacity is increased. The situation can be compared with an operational amplifier in an
electronic circuit. Though the operational amplifier is useful in amplifying small voltage signals,
the output current delivered by the operational amplifier is limited and a power amplifier is used
at the output stage in order to drive any device. An air relay serves the similar purpose as a
power amplifier. It is used after the flapper nozzle amplifier to enhance the volume of air. The
principle of operation of an air relay can be explained using the schematic diagram shown in Fig.
3.

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 Air
Supply (ps)

double
seated
valve

pout

Air
vent
y
p2
p2
Diaphragm

xi

Fig. 3 Schematic diagram of an air relay

It can be seen from Fig.3 that the air relay is directly connected to the supply line (no orifice in
between). The output pressure of the flapper nozzle amplifier (p2) is connected to the lower
chamber of the air relay with a diaphragm on its top. The variation of the pressure p2 causes the
movement (y) of the diaphragm. There is a double-seated valve fixed on the top of the
diaphragm. When the nozzle pressure p2 increases due to decrees in xi, the diaphragm moves up,
blocking the air vent line and forming a nozzle between the output pressure line and the supply
air pressure line. So more air goes to the output line and the air pressure increases. When p2
decreases, the diaphragm moves downward, thus blocking the air supply line and connecting the
output port to the vent. The air pressure will decrease.

Flapper Nozzle Amplifier with Feedback

Another problem of a flapper nozzle amplifier is its sensitivity variation. It can be easily seen
from Eqn. (3) that the output pressure p0 is dependent on the supply pressure, orifice diameter
and the nozzle diameter. Any variation of the supply pressure will affect its sensitivity.
Moreover, accumulation of dirt at the nozzle or at the orifice will alter the sensitivity. As a result,
some measure is needed to reduce this parameter dependence of the sensitivity. Use of feedback
is an effective method for reducing the variation of the sensitivity. Flapper nozzle amplifiers are
never used in open loop; it is always used in closed loop (we can draw an analogy with operation

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amplifiers in this respect: operational amplifiers are always used in closed loop). A typical
application of flapper nozzle application with feedback for measurement of pressure and
converting the signal in terms of air pressure variation is shown in Fig. 4. The scheme is called a
torque balance arrangement.

PS (20psi)

Air Relay po
Input
pressure Feedback Bellows
(Area AB2)

a b

pi po
xi

Input Bellows zero

spring Fo
(Area AB1)
Fulcrum

Fig. 4 Flapper nozzle amplifier with feedback.

The basic scheme shown here has two bellows, one measuring the unknown pressure (pi); the
other, known as output bellows is connected to the output pressure line of the system. These two
bellows are attached to the two ends of a link, pivoted at some intermediate position. The link
towards the output bellows is extended and forms the flapper of the flapper-nozzle amplifier. The
output of the flapper nozzle amplifier is connected to the air relay whose output is the output
pressure (p0) of the system. A spring is also attached to the link as shown in Fig.4. One end of
the spring is fixed and the other end is connected to the link. The fixed end of the spring can be
adjusted so that the spring generates a variable upward force F0 to the link. This spring is used
for zero adjustment, say, when we want that p0 = 3psi for pi= 0.
Suppose initially the rigid link is at stable horizontal position. In that case the clockwise and
anticlockwise torques on the beam would balance. Looking at Fig.4,
Anticlockwise moment: TA = Pi AB1 a + F0b , and
Clockwise moment: TC = p0 AB 2b
Where AB1 and AB 2 are the areas of the two bellows, a and b are the corresponding lengths of the
link segments.
Thereby at balance:
AB a F
p0 = 1 pi + 0 (6)
AB2 b AB2

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When the input pressure increases, the left side of the link moves down, thus moving the flapper
on the right hand side closer to the nozzle. This will increase the nozzle pressure and
subsequently the pressure p0 at the outlet of the air relay. The bellows in the right hand side is
connected to this output pressure line. Increase in this pressure will result in more downward
force by the output bellows, thus moving the nozzle back to almost its original position. From the
expression given in (6), it is apparent that the output pressure here is independent of the
diameters of the orifice and nozzle, thus is not affected by the accumulation of dirt or sensitivity
variation due to variation of the supply pressure. Moreover the sensitivity can be adjusted by
varying the lengths a and b.

Electro-pneumatic Signal Converter

It has been mentioned earlier, that the controller used in process control is normally electronic
and for actuation pneumatic actuator is the preferred. Thus there is a need for converting the
electrical signal (often 4-20 mA) from the controller to pneumatic 3-15 psi signal. Such a scheme
is shown in Fig.5. It is similar to that one shown in Fig.4, except there is an electromagnet and a
permanent magnet on the left of the link. The current flowing through the electromagnet causes a
force of repulsion between the electromagnet and the permanent magnet. An increase in current
through the coil increases the repulsive force, thereby moving the link upward on the left hand
side and decreasing the gap between the flapper and the nozzle. The feedback action causes the
increase in the output pressure and brings back the link in its equilibrium position.

4-20 mA

Air Relay
Output
(3-15psi)

Permanent
magnet

PS (20psi)
Fig. 5 Electro-pneumatic Signal Converter

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Pneumatic Valve Positioner
Pneumatic valve positioner is another important component used in process control. The control
valve should be moved up or down, depending on the air pressure signal (3-15 psi). The valve
postioner can be of two types, (a) direct acting type and (b) feedback type. The direct acting type
valve positioner is shown in Fig.6. Here the control pressure creates a downward pressure on the
diaphragm against the spring, and the stem connected to the diaphragm moves up or down
depending on the control pressure pc. At equilibrium the displacement of the stem can be
expressed as:
pc A = K x (7)
where A is the area of the diaphragm and K is the spring constant.
But the major shortcoming of this type of positioner is the nonlinear characteristics. Though
ideally, the stem displacement is proportional to the control pressure (from (7)), the effective
area of the diaphragm changes as it deflates. The spring characteristics is also not totally linear.
Moreover, in (7) we have neglected the upward thrust force exerted by the fluid. The change in
thrust force also causes the change in performance of the positioner. Besides the force exerted on
the control valve is also not sufficient for handling valves for controlling large flow. As a result,
the use of direct acting type valve positioner is limited to low pressure and small diameter
pipelines.

Air

Diaphragm

Spring

Stem

Flow

Plug
Fig. 6 Direct acting type valve positioner

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 Pressure
(3-15psi)

Spring To valve

Diaphragm

Feedback link

vent

20psi

vent

Power cylinder
Fig. 7 Feedback type valve positioner
The feedback type valve positioner (Fig.7) has a pilot cylinder with which the diaphragm is
attached. The piston of this pilot cylinder opens or closes the air supply and vent ports to the
main cylinder whose piston is connected to the stem of the control valve (not shown). There is a
mechanical link connected to the stem that adjusts the fixed end of the spring connected to the
diaphragm. This link provides the feedback to the postioner. As the control pressure increases,
the diaphragm moves down, so is the piston of the pilot cylinder. This causes the lower chamber
of the main cylinder to be connected to the 20 psi line and the upper chamber to the vent line.
Compressed air enters the bottom of the main cylinder and the piston moves up. As the piston
moves up, the feedback link compresses the spring further and this causes the diaphragm to
move back to its original position. The air supply and the vent ports are now closed and the
piston of the main cylinder remains at its previous position. The relationship between the control
pressure and movement of the stem in this case is more or less linear. Moreover due to presence
of power cylinder, the scheme is more suitable to position large control valves.

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Conclusion
In this lesson we have discussed the construction and principle of operation of a number of
pneumatic components normally used in a process control scheme. A flapper nozzle amplifier is
most important component among these, the simplified characteristics of a flapper nozzle
amplifier, assuming the air to be compressible has been presented in this lesson. The need for
using air relay and feedback mechanism with a flapper nozzle amplifier is also elaborated.
Majority of the valve positioners are pneumatic. Different types of pneumatic valve postioners
are also discussed in this lesson. However two important pneumatic components have been left
out. The first one is air pressure regulator and the second one is air filter. Air pressure regulator
is needed to provide constant pressure air supply (20 psi) irrespective of air flow variation. Air
filter removes moisture and dirt present in the air before it is used in the pneumatic components.
Interested readers are requested to consult the books referred for understanding the construction
and principle of operation of these two devices.
Pneumatic controllers, though not so popular nowadays, are built up on these basic components
discussed in this lesson. The details of pneumatic P-I-D controllers would be discussed in the
next lesson.

References
1. D.R. Coughanowr: Process systems analysis and control (2/e), McgrawHill, NY, 1991.
2. D.P. Eckman: Automatic process Control, Wiley Eastern, New Delhi, 1958.
3. B. Liptak: Process Control: Instrument Engineers Handbook
4. W.L. Luyben and M.L. Luyben: Essentials of Process Control, McgrawHill, NY, 1997.
5. P. Harriott: Process Control, Tata-McGrawHill, New Delhi, 1991.
6. J.P. Bentley: Principles of Measurement Systems (3/e), Longman, U.K., 1995.

Review Questions
1. Explain with a simple sketch the principle of operation of a flapper nozzle amplifier.
2. Sketch the input-output characteristics of a flapper nozzle amplifier.
3. Identify the factors those affect the sensitivity of a flapper nozzle amplifier.
4. What is the function of air relay in pneumatic control?
5. What is the major advantage of using a flapper nozzle amplifier in closed loop?
6. Sketch and explain the working principle of a pneumatic torque balance transducer.
7. Explain the construction and working principle of a direct acting type pneumatic valve
postioner. What are the limitations of this type of positioners?
8. How can you convert a 4-20mA current signal to a 3-15 psi pressure signal? Explain with
a schematic.

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 Module
1
Introduction
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 Lesson
1
Introduction to Industrial
Automation and Control
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Lesson Objectives
• To define Automation and Control and explain the differences in the sense of the terms
• To explain the relation between Automation and Information Technology
• To underline the basic objectives of a manufacturing industry and explain how
automation and control technologies relate to these
• To introduce the concept of a Product Life Cycle and explain how Automation and
Control technologies relate to the various phases of the cycle
• To classify Manufacturing plants and categorise the different classes of Automation
Systems that are appropriate for these

Understanding the Title of the Course

Let us first define the three key words in the title, namely,

Industry
In a general sense the term “Industry” is defined as follows.
Definition: Systematic Economic Activity that could be related to
Manufacture/Service/ Trade.
In this course, we shall be concerned with Manufacturing Industries only.

Automation
The word ‘Automation’ is derived from greek words “Auto”(self) and “Matos”
(moving). Automation therefore is the mechanism for systems that “move by itself”.
However, apart from this original sense of the word, automated systems also achieve
significantly superior performance than what is possible with manual systems, in terms
of power, precision and speed of operation.

Definition: Automation is a set of technologies that results in operation of machines

and systems without significant human intervention and achieves performance
superior to manual operation

A Definition from Encyclopaedia Britannica

The application of machines to tasks once performed by human beings or,
increasingly, to tasks that would otherwise be impossible. Although the term
mechanization is often used to refer to the simple replacement of human labour by
machines, automation generally implies the integration of machines into a self-
governing system.

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Point to Ponder: 1
A. Why does an automated system achieve superior performance compared to a manual
one?
B. Can you give an example where this happens?

Control
It is perhaps correct to expect that the learner for this course has already been exposed to
a course on Control Systems, which is typically introduced in the final or pre-final year
of an undergraduate course in Engineering in India. The word control is therefore
expected to be familiar and defined as under.

Definition: Control is a set of technologies that achieves desired patterns of variations

of operational parameters and sequences for machines and systems by providing the
input signals necessary.

Point to Ponder: 2
A. Can you explain the above definition in the context of a common control system, such as
temperature control in an oven?
B. Is the definition applicable to open-loop as well as closed loop control?

It is important at this stage to understand some of the differences in the senses that these two
terms are generally interpreted in technical contexts and specifically in this course. These are
given below.
1. Automation Systems may include Control Systems but the reverse is not true. Control
Systems may be parts of Automation Systems.
2. The main function of control systems is to ensure that outputs follow the set points.
However, Automation Systems may have much more functionality, such as computing
set points for control systems, monitoring system performance, plant startup or shutdown,
job and equipment scheduling etc.

Automation Systems are essential for most modern industries. It is therefore important to
understand why they are so, before we study these in detail in this course.

Point to Ponder: 3
A. Can you give an example of an automated system, which contains a control system as a
part of it?
B. What are the other parts of the system?

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Industrial Automation vs. Industrial Information Technology
Industrial Automation makes extensive use of Information Technology. Fig. 1.1 below shows
some of the major IT areas that are used in the context of Industrial Automation.

Industrial IT
Control and Signal Communication
Processing and Networking

Simulation, Design,
Real-time Computing
Analysis, Optimization

Database

Fig. 1.1 Major areas of IT which are used in the context of Industrial Automation.

Point to Ponder: 4
A. Try to find an example automated system which uses at least one of the areas of
Industrial IT mentioned in Fig. 1.1 (Hint: Try using the internet)

However, Industrial Automation is distinct from IT in the following senses

A. Industrial Automation also involves significant amount of hardware technologies, related

to Instrumentation and Sensing, Actuation and Drives, Electronics for Signal
Conditioning, Communication and Display, Embedded as well as Stand-alone Computing
Systems etc.
B. As Industrial Automation systems grow more sophisticated in terms of the knowledge
and algorithms they use, as they encompass larger areas of operation comprising several
units or the whole of a factory, or even several of them, and as they integrate
manufacturing with other areas of business, such as, sales and customer care, finance and
the entire supply chain of the business, the usage of IT increases dramatically. However,
the lower level Automation Systems that only deal with individual or , at best, a group of
machines, make less use of IT and more of hardware, electronics and embedded
computing.

Point to Ponder: 5
A. Can you give an example of an automated system, some of whose parts makes a
significant application of Industrial IT?

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 B. Can you give an example of an automated system, none of whose parts makes a
significant application of Industrial IT?

Apart from the above, there are some other distinguishing features of IT for the factory that
differentiate it with its more ubiquitous counterparts that are used in offices and other business.

A. Industrial information systems are generally reactive in the sense that they receive stimuli
from their universe of discourse and in turn produce responses that stimulate its environment.
Naturally, a crucial component of an industrial information system is its interface to the
world.
B. Most of industrial information systems have to be real-time. By that we mean that the
computation not only has to be correct, but also must be produced in time. An accurate result,
which is not timely may be less preferable than a less accurate result produced in time.
Therefore systems have to be designed with explicit considerations of meeting computing
time deadlines.
C. Many industrial information systems are considered mission-critical, in the sense that the
malfunctioning can bring about catastrophic consequences in terms of loss of human life or
property. Therefore extraordinary care must be exercised during their design to make them
flawless. In spite of that, elaborate mechanisms are often deployed to ensure that any
unforeseen circumstances can also be handled in a predictable manner. Fault-tolerance to
emergencies due to hardware and software faults must often be built in.

Point to Ponder: 6
A. Can you give an example of an automated system, which is reactive in the sense
mentioned above?
B. Can you give an example of an automated system, which is real-time in the sense
mentioned above
C. Can you give an example of an automated system, which is mission-critical in the sense
mentioned above

Role of automation in industry

9 Manufacturing processes, basically, produce finished product from raw/unfinished
material using energy, manpower and equipment and infrastructure.
9 Since an industry is essentially a “systematic economic activity”, the fundamental
objective of any industry is to make profit.
9 Roughly speaking,
Profit = (Price/unit – Cost/unit) x Production Volume (1)
So profit can be maximised by producing good quality products, which may sell at higher
price, in larger volumes with less production cost and time. Fig 1.2 shows the major
parameters that affect the cost/unt of a mass-manufactured industrial product.

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 Cost/unit

Material Energy Manpower Infrastructure

Fig. 1.2 The Components of per unit Manufacturing Cost

Automation can achieve all these in the following ways,

9 Figure 1.4 shows how overall production time for a product is affected by various factors.
Automation affects all of these factors. Firstly, automated machines have significantly
lower production times. For example, in machine tools, manufacturing a variety of parts,
significant setup times are needed for setting the operational configuration and
parameters whenever a new part is loaded into the machine. This can lead to significant
unproductive for expensive machines when a variety of products is manufactured. In
Computer Numerically Controlled (CNC) Machining Centers set up time is reduced
significantly with the help of Automated Tool Changers, Automatic Control of Machines
from a Part Program loaded in the machine computer. Such a machine is shown in Figure
1.3. The consequent increase in actual metal cutting time results in reduced capital cost
and an increased volume of production.

Point to Ponder: 7
A. With reference to Eq. (1), explain how the following automation systems improve
industrial profitability.
a. Automated Welding Robots for Cars
b. Automated PCB Assembly Machines
c. Distributed Control Systems for Petroleum Refineries

Fig. 1.3 A CNC Machine with an Automated Tool Changer and the Operator Console
with Display for Programming and Control of the Machine
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 Production Volume

Production Material Idle Quality Assurance Time

Time Handling Time
Time
Fig. 1.4 The major factors that contribute to Overall Production Time

9 Similarly, systems such as Automated Guided Vehicles, Industrial Robots, Automated

Crane and Conveyor Systems reduce material handling time.
9 Automation also reduces cost of production significantly by efficient usage of energy,
manpower and material.
9 The product quality that can be achieved with automated precision machines and
processes cannot be achieved with manual operations. Moreover, since operation is
automated, the same quality would be achieved for thousands of parts with little
variation.
9 Industrial Products go through their life cycles, which consists of various stages.

¾ At first, a product is conceived based on Market feedbacks, as well as Research and

Development Activities.
¾ Once conceived the product is designed. Prototype Manufacturing is generally needed to
prove the design.
¾ Once the design is proved, Production Planning and Installation must be carried out to
ensure that the necessary resources and strategies for mass manufacturing are in place.
¾ This is followed by the actual manufacture and quality control activities through which
the product is mass-produced.
¾ This is followed by a number of commercial activities through which the product is
actually sold in the market.
¾ Automation also reduces the over all product life cycle i.e., the time required to complete
(i) Product conception and design (ii) Process planning and installation (iii) Various
stages of the product life cycle are shown as in Figure 1.5.

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 Research and
Development Product
Design

Process
Market Planning,
Feedbacks Installation

Production,
Quality
Control

Fig. 1.5 A Typical Industrial Product Life Cycle

Economy of Scale and Economy of Scope

In the context of Industrial Manufacturing Automation, Economy of Scale is defined as follows.

Economy of Scale
Definition: Reduction in cost per unit resulting from increased production, realized
through operational efficiencies. Economies of scale can be accomplished because as
production increases, the cost of producing each additional unit falls.

Obviously, Automation facilitates economy of scale, since, as explained above, it enables

efficient large-scale production. In the modern industrial scenario however, another kind of
economy, called the economy of scope assumes significance.

Economy of Scope
Definition : The situation that arises when the cost of being able manufacture multiple
products simultaneously proves more efficient than that of being able manufacture single
product at a time.

Economy of scope arises in several sectors of manufacturing, but perhaps the most
predominantly in electronic product manufacturing where complete product life cycle, from
conception to market, are executed in a matter of months, if not weeks. Therefore, to shrink the
time to market drastically use of automated tools is mandated in all phases of the product life
cycle. Additionally, since a wide variety of products need to be manufactured within the life
period of a factory, rapid programmability and reconfigurability of machines and processes
becomes a key requirement for commercial success. Such an automated production system also
enables the industry to exploit a much larger market and also protects itself against fluctuations
in demand for a given class of products. Indeed it is being driven by the economy of scope, and

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enabled by Industrial Automation Technology that Flexible Manufacturing (i.e. producing
various products with the same machine) has been conceived to increase the scope of
manufacturing.
Next let us see the various major kinds of production systems, or factories, exist. This would be
followed by a discussion on the various types of automation systems that are appropriate for each
of these categories.

Point to Ponder: 8
A. Can you give an example of an industry where economy of scope is more significant than
the economy of scale?
B. Can you give an example of an industry where economy of scale is more significant than
the economy of scope?
C. Can you give an example of an industry where both economy of scope, and economy of
scale are significant?

Types of production systems

Major industrial processes can be categorized as follows based on their scale and scope of
production.

¾ Continuous flow process: Manufactured product is in continuous quantities i.e., the

product is not a discrete object. Moreover, for such processes, the volume of production
is generally very high, while the product variation is relatively low. Typical examples of
such processes include Oil Refineries, Iron and Steel Plants, Cement and Chemical
Plants.
¾ Mass Manufacturing of Discrete Products: Products are discrete objects and
manufactured in large volumes. Product variation is very limited. Typical examples are
Appliances, Automobiles etc.
¾ Batch Production: In a batch production process the product is either discrete or
continuous. However, the variation in product types is larger than in continuous-flow
processes. The same set of equipment is used to manufacture all the product types.
However for each batch of a given product type a distinct set of operating parameters
must be established. This set is often referred to as the “recipe” for the batch. Typical
examples here would be Pharmaceuticals, Casting Foundries, Plastic moulding, Printing
etc.
¾ Job shop Production: Typically designed for manufacturing small quantities of discrete
products, which are custom built, generally according to drawings supplied by customers.
Any variation in the product can be made. Examples include Machine Shops, Prototyping
facilities etc.

The above types of production systems are shown in Figure 1.6 categorized according to
volumes of production and variability in product types. In general, if the quantity of product is
more there is little variation in the product and more varieties of product is manufactured if the
quantity of product is lesser.

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 Oil Refinery
Iron & Steel
Chemical
Appliances
Bicycles
Continuous
Flow
Process Foundry
Mass Food Processing
Manufacturing
Of Discrete
Products
Quantity
Machine Tools
Batch Prototypes
Production

Job shop
Production

Variety

Fig. 1.6 Types of Production Systems

Types of Automation Systems

Automation systems can be categorized based on the flexibility and level of integration in
manufacturing process operations. Various automation systems can be classified as follows

¾ Fixed Automation: It is used in high volume production with dedicated equipment, which
has a fixed set of operation and designed to be efficient for this set. Continuous flow and
Discrete Mass Production systems use this automation. e.g. Distillation Process,
Conveyors, Paint Shops, Transfer lines etc.
A process using mechanized machinery to perform fixed and repetitive operations in
order to produce a high volume of similar parts.
¾ Programmable Automation: It is used for a changeable sequence of operation and
configuration of the machines using electronic controls. However, non-trivial
programming effort may be needed to reprogram the machine or sequence of operations.
Investment on programmable equipment is less, as production process is not changed
frequently. It is typically used in Batch process where job variety is low and product
volume is medium to high, and sometimes in mass production also. e.g. in Steel Rolling
Mills, Paper Mills etc.
¾ Flexible Automation: It is used in Flexible Manufacturing Systems (FMS) which is
invariably computer controlled. Human operators give high-level commands in the form
of codes entered into computer identifying product and its location in the sequence and
the lower level changes are done automatically. Each production machine receives
settings/instructions from computer. These automatically loads/unloads required tools
and carries out their processing instructions. After processing, products are automatically
transferred to next machine. It is typically used in job shops and batch processes where

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 product varieties are high and job volumes are medium to low. Such systems typically
use Multi purpose CNC machines, Automated Guided Vehicles (AGV) etc.
¾ Integrated Automation: It denotes complete automation of a manufacturing plant, with
all processes functioning under computer control and under coordination through digital
information processing. It includes technologies such as computer-aided design and
manufacturing, computer-aided process planning, computer numerical control machine
tools, flexible machining systems, automated storage and retrieval systems, automated
material handling systems such as robots and automated cranes and conveyors,
computerized scheduling and production control. It may also integrate a business system
through a common database. In other words, it symbolizes full integration of process and
management operations using information and communication technologies. Typical
examples of such technologies are seen in Advanced Process Automation Systems and
Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM)

As can be seen from above, from Fixed Automation to CIM the scope and complexity of
automation systems are increasing. Degree of automation necessary for an individual
manufacturing facility depends on manufacturing and assembly specifications, labor conditions
and competitive pressure, labor cost and work requirements. One must remember that the
investment on automation must be justified by the consequent increase in profitability. To
exemplify, the appropriate contexts for Fixed and Flexible Automation are compared and
contrasted.

Fixed automation is appropriate in the following circumstances.

A. Low variability in product type as also in size, shape, part count and material
B. Predictable and stable demand for 2- to 5-year time period, so that manufacturing
capacity requirement is also stable
C. High production volume desired per unit time
D. Significant cost pressures due to competitive market conditions. So automation systems
should be tuned to perform optimally for the particular product.

Flexible automation, on the other hand is used in the following situations.

A. Significant variability in product type. Product mix requires a combination of
different parts and products to be manufactured from the same production system
B. Product life cycles are short. Frequent upgradation and design modifications alter
production requirements
C. Production volumes are moderate, and demand is not as predictable

Point to Ponder: 9
A. During a technical visit to an industry how can you identify the type of automation
prevailing there from among the above types?
B. For what kind of a factory would you recommend computer integrated manufacturing
and why?
C. What kind of automation would you recommend for manufacturing

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 a. Light bulbs
b. Garments
c. Textile
d. Cement
e. Printing
f. Pharmaceuticals
g. Toys

Lesson Summary
In this lesson we have dealt with the following topics:
A. Definition of Automation and its relations with fields of Automatic Control and
Information Technology: It is seen that both control and IT are used in automation
systems to realize one or more of its functionalities. Also, while Control Technology is
used for operation of the individual machines and equipment, IT is used for coordination,
management and optimized operation of overall plants.
B. The role played by Automation in realizing the basic goal of profitability of a
manufacturing industry: It is seen that Automation can increase profitability in multiple
ways by reducing labour, material and energy requirements, by improving quality as well
as productivity. It is also seen that Automation is not only essential to achieve Economy
of Scale, but also for Economy of Scope.
C. Types of Factories and Automation Systems that are appropriate for them: Factories have
been classified into four major categories based on the product volumes and product
variety. Similarly Automation Systems are also categorized into four types and their
appropriateness for the various categories of factories explained.

Exercises
A. Describe the role of Industrial Automation in ensuring overall profitability of a industrial
production system. Be specific and answer point wise. Give examples as appropriate.
B. State the main objectives of a modern industry (at least five) and explain the role of
automation in helping achieve these.
C. Explain with examples the terms “economy of scale” and “economy of scope”. How does
industrial automation help in achieving these? Cite examples.
D. Differentiate between a job shop and a flow shop with example what are their
‘process plant’ analogues? Give examples.
E. Run any internet search engine and type “History of Automation” to prepare a term paper
on the subject.
F. There are some aspects of automation that have not been treated in the lesson. Consult
references and prepare term papers on the impact of automation on
a. Environmental Appropriateness for Industries
b. Industrial Standardisation Certification such as ISO 9001
c. Industrial Safety

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G. Locate the major texts on Manufacturing Automation
H. From the internet find alternate definitions of the terms : Industry, Automation and
Control

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Answers, Remarks and Hints to Points to Ponder

Point to Ponder: 1
A. Why does an automated system achieve superior performance compared to a manual
one?

Ans: Because such systems can have more precision, more energy and more speed of
operation than possible manually. Moreover using computing techniques, much more
sophisticated and efficient operational solutions can be derived and applied in real-time.

B. Can you give an example where this happens?

Ans: This is the rule. Only few exceptions exist. How many of the millions of industrial
products could be made manually?

Point to Ponder: 2
A. Can you explain the above definition in the context of a common control system, such as
temperature control in an oven?

Ans: Consider a temperature-controlled oven as found in many kitchens. A careful

examination of the dials would show that one could control the temperature in the oven. This
is a closed loop control operation. One can also control the time for which the oven is kept
on. Note that in both cases the input signal to the process is the applied voltage to the heater
coils. This input signal is varied as required to hold the temperature, by the controller.

B. Is the definition applicable to open-loop as well as closed loop control?

Ans: Yes

Point to Ponder: 3
C. Can you give an example of an automated system, which contains a control system as a
part of it?

Ans: Many examples can be given. One of these is the following:

In an industrial CNC machine, the motion control of the spindle, the tool holder and the job
table are controlled by a position and speed control system, which, in fact, uses a separate
processor. Another processor is used to manage the other automation aspects.
Another example is that of A pick and place automated robot is used in many industrial
assembly shops. The robot motion can be programmed using a high level interface. The
motion of the robot is controlled using position control systems driving the various joints in
the robotic manipulator.

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 D. What are the other parts of the system?

Ans: The other functional parts of the CNC System include:

The operator interface, the discrete PLC controls of indicators, lubricant flow control, tool
changing mechanisms.

Point to Ponder: 4
Try to find an example automated system which uses at least one of the areas of Industrial IT
mentioned in Fig. 1.2. (Hint: Try using the internet)

Ans: Distributed Control Systems (DCS) used in many large Continuous-Flow processes
such as Petroleum Refining and Integrated Steel Plants use almost all components of
Industrial IT

Point to Ponder: 5
A. Can you give an example of an automated system, some of whose parts makes a
significant application of Industrial IT?

Ans: Distributed Control Systems (DCS) used in many large Continuous-Flow processes
such as Petroleum Refining and Integrated Steel Plants use almost all components of
Industrial IT

B. Can you give an example of an automated system, none of whose parts makes a
significant application of Industrial IT?

Ans: An automated conveyor system used in many large Discrete Manufacturing Plants such
as bottled Beverage Plants use no components of Industrial IT.

Point to Ponder: 6
A. Can you give an example of an automated system, which is reactive in the sense
mentioned above?

Ans: Any feedback controller, such as an industrial PID controller is reactive since it
interacts with sensors and actuators.

B. Can you give an example of an automated system, which is real-time in the sense
mentioned above

Ans: Any feedback controller, such as an industrial PID controller is real-time, since it has to
compute its output within one sampling time.

C. Can you give an example of an automated system, which is mission-critical in the sense
mentioned above

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 Ans: An automation system for a Nuclear Power Plant is mission critical since a failure is
unacceptable for such a system.

Point to Ponder: 7
A. With reference to Eq. (1), explain how the following automation systems improve
industrial profitability.
d. Automated Welding Robots for Cars
e. Automated PCB Assembly Machines
f. Distributed Control Systems for Petroleum Refineries

Ans: Some of the factors that lead to profitability in each case, are mentioned.
a. Automated Welding Robots for Cars
Increased production rate, Uniform and accurate welding, Operator safety.
b. Automated PCB Assembly Machines
Increased production rate, Uniform and accurate placement and soldering
c. Distributed Control Systems for Petroleum Refineries
Energy efficiency, Improved product quality

Point to Ponder: 8
A. You give an example of an industry where economy of scope is more significant than the
economy of scale?

Ans: One such example would a job shop which manufactures custom machine parts by
machining according to customer drawings. Another example would be a factory to
manufacture Personal Computer components

B. Can you give an example of an industry where economy of scale is more significant than
the economy of scope?

Ans: One such example would be a Power plant. Another one would be a Steel Plant.

Point to Ponder: 9
A. During a technical visit to an industry how can you identify the type of automation
prevailing there from among the above types?

Ans: Check for the following.

♦ Whether automatic control exists for majority the equipment
♦ Whether supervisory control is manual, partially automated or largely automated
♦ Whether operator interfaces are computer integrated or not.
♦ Whether communication with individual control units can be done from
supervisory interfaces through computers or not

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 ♦ Whether any information network exists, to which automation system and
controllers are connected
♦ Product variety, product volumes, batch sizes etc.
♦ Whether the material handling systems are automated and if so to what extent.
The type of automation system can be determined based on these information, as discussed in
the lesson.

B. For what kind of a factory would you recommend computer integrated manufacturing
and why?

Ans: For large systems producing sophisticated and expensive products in large volumes
having many subunits to be integrated in complex ways.

C. What kind of automation would you recommend for manufacturing

a. Light bulbs
Ans: Fixed
b. Garments
Ans: Flexible
c. Textile
Ans: Programmable
d. Cement
Ans: Programmable
e. Printing
Ans: Flexible
f. Pharmaceuticals
Ans: Flexible
g. Toys
Ans: Flexible

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