Exp-1-5-Ph-1001 - Manual-Before Mid

Measurement Techniques Mechanics
Measurement of basic constants: length, weight and time 1.1.01-00
What you can learn about …

Length
Diameter
Inside diameter thickness
Curvature
Vernier
Weight resolution
Time measurement
Principle:
Caliper gauges, micrometers and
spherometers are used for the accu-
rate measurement of lengths, thick-
nesses, diameters and curvatures. A
mechanical balance is used for
weight determinations, a decade
counter is used for accurate time
measurements. Measuring proce-
dures, accuracy of measurement and
reading accuracy are demonstrated.
What you need: Knife-edge measuring faces

for inside measurement
Vernier caliper 03010.00 1
Micrometer 03012.00 1 Slide Guide bar
Depth measuring
Spherometer 03017.00 1
Light barrier 11207.20 1
Digital counter, 4 decades 13600.93 1
Alternative to 13600.93: Vernier Graduated scale Measuring faces
for depth
Digital counter, 6-decade 13603.93 1 Movable jaw blade measurement
Precision balance, 2 pans, 500 g 44011.50 1
Set of precision weights, 1 mg–200 g 44070.20 1 Fixed Measuring faces
jaw for outside
Iron column 03913.00 1 blade measurement
Iron wire, d = 1.0 mm, l = 10 m 06104.01 1
Aluminium foil, set of 4 sheets 06270.00 1 Vernier caliper
Glass plate, 100851 mm 08203.00 1
Watch glass, dia. 80 mm 34572.00 1
Tasks:
1. Determination of the volume of
Glass tubes, straight, l = 80 mm, 10 36701.65 1 tubes with the caliper gauge.
Glass tube, d = 24/21 mm, l = 120 mm 45158.00 1 2. Determination of the thickness of
Cubes, set of 8 02214.00 1 wires, cubes and plates with the
Fish line, l = 100 m 02090.00 1 micrometer.
Steel ball with eyelet, d = 32 mm 02466.01 1 3. Determination of the thickness of
Rod with hook 02051.00 1 plates and the radius of curvature
of watch glasses with the sphe-
Support rod -PASS-, square, l = 630 mm 02027.55 1 rometer.
Tripod base -PASS- 02002.55 1
Right angle clamp -PASS- 02040.55 2
Measuring tape, l = 2 m 09936.00 1
Connecting cord, l = 500 mm, red 07361.01 2
Connecting cord, l = 500 mm, blue 07361.04 2
Complete Equipment Set, Manual on CD-ROM included

Measurement of basic constants:
length, weight and time P2110100
PHYWE Systeme GmbH & Co. KG · D - 37070 Göttingen Laboratory Experiments Physics 13
LEP
Measurement of basic constants: length, weight and time 1.1.01
-00
Related topics Glass plate, 100851 mm 08203.00 1

Length, diameter, inside diameter thickness, curvature, ver- Watch glass, dia. 80 mm 34572.00 1
nier, weight resolution, time measurement. Watch glass, dia. 100 mm 34574.00 1
Glass tubes, straight, l = 80 mm, 10 36701.65 1
Principle
Glass tube, d = 24/21 mm, l = 120 mm 45158.00 1
Caliper gauges, micrometers and spherometers are used for Cubes, set of 8 02214.00 1
the accurate measurement of lengths, thicknesses, diameters Fish line, l = 100 m 02090.00 1
and curvatures. A mechanical balance is used for weight Steel ball with eyelet, d = 32 mm 02466.01 1
determinations, a decade counter is used for accurate time Rod with hook 02051.00 1
measurements. Measuring procedures, accuracy of measure- Support rod -PASS-, square, l = 630 mm 02027.55 1
ment and reading accuracy are demonstrated. Tripod base -PASS- 02002.55 1
Equipment Measuring tape, l = 2 m 09936.00 1
Vernier caliper 03010.00 1 Connecting cord, l = 500 mm, red 07361.01 2
Micrometer 03012.00 1 Connecting cord, l = 500 mm, blue 07361.04 2
Spherometer 03017.00 1
Light barrier 11207.20 1
Digital counter, 4 decades 13600.93 1
Tasks
Alternative to 13600.93:
1. Determination of the volume of tubes with the caliper
Digital counter, 6-decade 13603.93 1
gauge.
Precision balance, 2 pans, 500 g 44011.50 1
2. Determination of the thickness of wires, cubes and plates
Set of precision weights,1 mg–200 g 44070.20 1
with the micrometer.
Iron column 03913.00 1
Iron wire, d = 1.0 mm, l = 10 m 06104.01 1 3. Determination of the thickness of plates and the radius of
Aluminium foil, set of 4 sheets 06270.00 1 curvature of watch glasses with the spherometer.
Fig. 1: Experimental set-up: Measurement of basic constants: length, weight, and time.
PHYWE series of publications • Laboratory Experiments • Physics • © PHYWE SYSTEME GMBH & Co. KG • D-37070 Göttingen 21101-00 1
LEP
1.1.01 Measurement of basic constants: length, weight and time
-00
Fig. 2: Vernier caliper.
Knife-edge measuring faces

for inside measurement
Slide Guide bar Depth measuring
Vernier Graduated scale Measuring faces for

depth measurement
Movable jaw blade
Fixed jaw Measuring faces for

blade outside measurement
4. Determination of the weight of different articles with highest The workpiece to be measured is plased between the meas-
possible accuracy with a manual precision balance. uring faces and the movable jaw blade is then pushed with
5. Determination of the frequency of the pendulum. moderate pressure up against the workpiece. When taking the
reading the zero mark of the vernier is regarded as the deci-
6. Familarisation of the use of a digital counter in his multiple
mal point which separates the whole numbers from the tenths.
methods of use.
The full millimetres are read to the left of the zero mark on the
main graduated scale and then, to the right of the zero mark,
Set-up and procedure the vernier division mark which coincides with a division mark
on the main scale is looked for. The vernier division mark indi-
1) Vernier caliper cates the tenths of a millimetre (Fig. 3).
The caliper gauge (sliding gauge) is the best known measur-
ing tool for rapid and relatively accurate measurement. Inside,
outside and depth measurements can be made. The accura- Micrometer collar
Measuring faces
cy which can be achieved is proportional to the graduation of
the vernier scale. The measuring faces which are relevant to Measuring
Measuring Rapid drive
the taking of reading may be seen in Fig. 2. anvil
spindle
When the jaws are closed, the vernier zero mark coincides
with the zero mark on the scale of the rule.
The name “vernier” is given to an addition to a gauge which
enables the accuracy of measurement (reading accuracy) of
the gauge to be increased by 10 to 50 times. The linear verni-
Scale barrel
er is a small rule which slides along a scale. This rule is pro-
vided with a small scale which is divided into m equal divi- Spindle lock
sions. The overall length of these m divisions is equal to m – 1 Yoke
on the main scale. Fig. 2, enlarged, show 39 divisions extend-
ing from 28 mm to 67 mm on the graduated scale, whereas
the vernier has 20 divisions (every second mark on the verni- Fig. 4: Micormeter, reading off 4.35 mm.
er has been omitted).
2) Micrometer
Graduated With the micormeter (Fig. 4) (micrometer screw gauge) the
accuracy of measurement can be increased by one order of
magnitude. The workpiece to be measured is placed between
the measuring faces, then the measuring spindle is brought up
to the workpiece with the rapid drive (ratchet, thumb screw).
When the rapid drive rotates idly, the pressure required for
measurement has been reached and the value can be read off.
The whole and half millimetres are read off on the scale barrel,
Vernier
the hundredths of millimetres on the micrometer collar. If the
Fig. 3: Reading off 28 on the graduated scale and 25 on the micormeter collar uncovers a half-millimetre, this must be
vernier scale give 28.25 mm. added to the hundredths.
2 21101-00 PHYWE series of publications • Laboratory Experiments • Physics • © PHYWE SYSTEME GMBH & Co. KG • D-37070 Göttingen
LEP
Measurement of basic constants: length, weight and time 1.1.01
-00
Fig. 5: Spherometer. The number of revolutions is given by the small pointer. The
maximum measurement displacement is 10 mm.
The radius of curvature R of a spherical surface is obtained
from the measured difference in height h according to the
equation
a2 h2
R
2h
where a is the distance of the measuring points from the cen-

tre of the system. The following figures are given for the four
possible positions of the measuring points from the inside
towards the outside, labelled with 1 to 4:
Pos | a/mm
1 | 15.0
2 | 25.0
3 | 32.5
4 | 40.0
5) Precision balance
For didactical reasons we have not chosen a digital balance
with high resolutions – which mostly is available in most labor-
atories. (You may use it for checking the results).
3) Spherometer Please follow the operating instructions to determine with
More accurate relative measurements of parallel surfaces maximum accuracy the weight of different samples.
(plate thickness) and curvatures of spherical surfaces can be Note: Do not touch the precision weights with your fingers,
made with the spherometer.The spherometer is used for the always use the tweezers to avoid transfer of fat or dust to the
measurement of the radius of curvature on spherical surfaces. weights.
In addition the thickness of plates and the differences in level
between surfaces can be found in a convenient manner. 6) Digital counter
The device has a tripod with three measuring points which
Also for didactical reasons we have chosen a powerful 4
form an equilateral triangle. In the centre of this triangle is
decade digital counter to learn the principles of time measure-
located the probe of a dial gauge. The distance between the
ment. Please follow the detailed operating instructions to get
tip of the probe and the plane defined by the three measuring
familiar with the multiple possibilities of this equipment as a
points can be read on the dial gauge. The measurement accu-
time, frequency and impulse measurement tool.
racy is better than 10–2 mm.
In detail we discribe the experiment of a pendulum. For the
experimental setup refere to Fig. 6:
4) Operation
There are four threaded holes available on each leg of the tri-
pod for the aceptance of the three measuring points. The
points must all have the same separation from the central
probe. In order to achieve a high accuracy of measurement,
the points are screwed in positions as far outwards as pos-
sible. Consideration should be given to the limits set by the
size of the surface to be investigated.
The dial gauge latches into the tripod at two precisely defined
positions. The upper position for the dial gauge is used for
measuring convex surfaces; in this case the black figures on
the gauge scale are used. If the dial gauge is pushed down-
wards in the tripod until it latches, then concave surfaces can
be measured using the red figures. It is important to check the
zero-point adjustment after matching the gauge position to
the measurement task in hand.
To adjust the zero point the spherometer is placed on the flat
surface of the included glass plate and the scale on the dial
gauge is rotated using the knurled ring so that its zero point
lies below the pointer. Veritcal pressure on the spherometer
should be avoided during the reading.
Once this preparatory step has been completed, the device is
placed on the surface to be measured and the difference in Fig. 6: Experimental setup: Frequency measurement of a
height h is measured. One revolution of the large pointer cor- pendulum. (In Fig. 1 the alternative with the 4-decade
responds to 1 mm (1 subdivision corresponds to 10–2 mm). counter is shown).
LEP
1.1.01 Measurement of basic constants: length, weight and time
-00
Principle – Measurement of the period duration through addition of

The oscillation of a thread pendulum is investigated using a about ten oscillations (onyl 6 decade counter). Connect the
light barrier. The frequency is assessed in different ways by leight
_ barrier to the START/STOP input of timer 1. Select
means of the digital counter. _| |_ for triggering condition and “ADD” for operating mode.
After starting the pendulum and pressing the START button,
ten oscillations are counted, after which the STOP buttonis
pressed. Then the measured time is divided by the number
Setup and Procedure
of oscillations, in order to obtain the duration of the oscillat-
– Determination of the period of oscillation by means of a dig- ing period T.
ital counter used as a manual stop-watch.
A fork light barrier is not required for this experimental set-
up. The “FUNKTION” push-butoon is pressed repeatedly
Result
until the “TIME” operating mode is activated. The pendulum
is set to oscillate and the START button is pressed. The In the case of a thread pendulum, the measured oscillating
STOP button is pressed after about 10 complete oscilla- time T is independent from the oscillating amplitude, it only
tions. After this, the measured time is divided through the depends from the length of the pendulum thread.
number of oscillations to obtain the period of oscillation T.
– Determination of the thread pendulum oscillation frequency Evaluation
6 decade counter, for higher frequencies the 4 decade can For small oscillating amplitudes, an exact evaluation of the
also be used. thread pendulum theory yields the following relation:
Connect the fork light barrier to Eingang/Input. Set to
“FREQ.” operating mode with the “FUNKTION” button.
l
Press the button repeatedly until the unit “Hz” appears on T 2p
the display (only 6 decade counter). Push the thread pendu- Bg
lum to let it oscillate and press the START butoon. The dis-
play is now continuously updated. The oscillating frequency, where
which is based on the half period, is displayed l = length of the pendulum thread
g = 9.81 m/s2, earth’s gravitational acceleration
f = 1/(T/2).
T = duration of period
– Measurement of the period duration (only 6 decade counter).
In the following example of measurement, the length of the
Connect the light barrier to Eingang/Input and set “PERI-
thread is l = 0.49 m. This yields a duration of period T =
ODE” function mode. Start the pendulum and press the
1.404 s, T/2 = 0.7021 s and the oscillating frequency 1/(T/2) =
START button. The display, which is continuously updated,
1.42 Hz. These data are in good agreement with the measured
indicates the period on which the half period T/2 is based.
data.
– Measurement of the complete period T (only 6 decade
counter). Connect the_light _ _barrier to the START/STOP input Notice
of Timer 1. Select |_| |_| |_ for triggering condition and
“AUTO” for operating mode. After starting the pendulum – If the fork light barrier is used for this experiment, the light
and pressing the START buttons, the actual period T is con- beam should be interrupted by the fishing line and not by the
tinuously displayed. The number of displayed digits can be ball. Press the “Set” button if the red control lamp on the
varied by means of the + and – buttons. housing of the light barrier is lit at the beginning of the
– Measurement of th half period T/2 (6 and 4 decade counter). experiment.
Connect the light _ barrier to the START/STOP input (of – A measuring microphone (e. g. 03542.00) can be connected
timer 1). Select _| |_ for triggering condition. After starting the to Eingang/Input instead of the fork light barrier. This allows
pendulum and pressing the START button, the half period to measure the duration of period and the frequency of
T/2 is displayed. acoustic phenomena (e. g. tuning fork oscillations).
Statics Mechanics
Hooke’s law 1.3.01-01

Hooke's law
Spring constant
Limit of elasticity
Elastic hysteresis
Elastic after-effect
Principle:
The validity of Hooke's law is deter-
mined for two helical springs with
different spring constants. The elon-
gation of the helical spring, which
depends on the deforming force, is
studied by means of the weights of
masses. For comparison, a rubber
band, for which no proportionality
exists between the exerted force and
the resulting elongation, is submit-
ted to the same forces.
Tasks:
1. Determining the spring constants
of helical springs
2. Study of the elongation of a rub-
ber band
What you need: Theory (Hook’s Law)

Fw
N
Tripod base -PASS- 02002.55 1 A Experiment
2,0 X
Barrel base -PASS- 02006.55 1 X
X
Support rod -PASS-, square, l = 1000 mm 02028.55 1
X
Right angle clamp -PASS- 02040.55 1 X
1,5 X
Cursors, 1 pair 02201.00 1
X
Weight holder f. slotted weights 02204.00 1 X
X
Slotted weight, 10 g, black 02205.01 2 X
10 12 14 16 18
Slotted weight, 10 g, silver bronze 02205.02 2 1,0 X
X
Slotted weight, 50 g, black 02206.01 1 X
Slotted weight, 50 g, silver bronze 02206.02 2 X
X
Helical spring, 3 N/m 02220.00 1 0,5 X
Helical spring, 20 N/m 02222.00 1 X
X
Silk thread, 200 m 02412.00 1 X
X
Meter scale, demo, l = 1000 mm 03001.00 1 B
0
Holding pin 03949.00 1 0 2 4 6 8 l
cm
Square section rubber strip, l = 10 m 03989.00 1
Acting weight Fw as a function of the extension l for a rubber band
Complete Equipment Set, Manual on CD-ROM included (elastic hysteresis).
Hooke’s law P2130101
LEP
Hooke’s law 1.3.01
-01
Related topics weight is decreased in 10 g steps by removing slotted

Hooke's law, spring constant, limit of elasticity, elastic hys- weights. The equilibrium position x0 of the rubber band with-
teresis, elastic after-effect out slotted weights is calculated approximately through appli-
cation of Hooke's law to equilibrium positions x1(10 g) and
x1(20 g):
Principle
The validity of Hooke's law is determined for two helical x0 = x1(10 g) - (x1(20 g) - x1(10 g)).
springs with different spring constants. The elongation of the
helical spring, which depends on the deforming force, is stud- Weight FW, which causes elongation, is plotted as a function
ied by means of the weights of masses. For comparison, a of elongation %l = Vx1 - x0V .
rubber band, for which no proportionality exists between the
exerted force and the resulting elongation, is submitted to the
same forces.
Fig. 1: Experimental set-up: Hooke’s law.
Equipment
Barrel base -PASS- 02006.55 1
Weight holder f. slotted weights 02204.00 1
Slotted weight, 10 g, black 02205.01 2
Slotted weight, 10 g, silver bronze 02205.02 2
Slotted weight, 50 g, black 02206.01 1
Slotted weight, 50 g, silver bronze 02206.02 2
Helical spring, 3 N/m 02220.00 1
Helical spring, 20 N/m 02222.00 1
Silk thread, 200 m 02412.00 1
Meter scale, demo, l = 1000 mm 03001.00 1
Holding pin 03949.00 1
Square section rubber strip, l = 10 m 03989.00 1
Tasks
Determining the spring constants of helical springs
Study of the elongation of a rubber band
Set-up and procedure

The experimental set-up to measure the spring constants is
shown in Fig.1. To start with, the helical spring is submitted to
no stress; the sliding pointer is set to the lower end of the
spring and its corresponding position x0 on the measuring
scale is recorded. The load on the helical spring is then
increased in steps of 10 g, using the weight holder and the
slotted weights, until a maximum load of 200 g is reached.
Noting the equilibrium (stabilised) position of the lower end of
the helical spring x1, the corresponding increase %l = Vx1 - x0V
of the spring is assessed. Weight FW, which causes elonga-
tion, is plotted as a function of elongation %l. The elasticity of
the helical spring is controlled by repeating the determination
of %l for some weights and by comparing the results to those
obtained during the first measurement. This procedure is
repeated for both helical springs (D = 3 N/m and 20 N/m).
To determine the characteristic curve of the rubber band, a
piece of band of about 50 cm length is cut off. Both ends of
the rubber band are tied to small loops with silk thread. One
loop is slipped onto the holding bolt (cf. Fig. 2) and the weight
holder is suspended from the other loop. In the same way as
for the helical springs, forces (weights) are increased in steps
of 10 g up to a maximum of 200 g. The momentary elongation
of the rubber band must be maintained by hand during the
exchange of weights, because the elongation depends on the
previous history of the material (cf. theory). Subsequently,
LEP
1.3.01 Hooke’s law
-01
Fig. 2: Fixing the rubber band to the holding bolt. Proportionality between the restoring forces, as long as they
are small, and the elongation of the solid body are ascertained
not only for the helical spring, but also for all other materials
which are in a state of stable equilibrium: the potential energy
of forces between molecules is approximately parabolic
around a stable point of equilibrium. Restoring forces obtained
by differentiating the potential are thus proportional to the
deviation from the rest position.
Taking for example a rod or wire of a given material of length
l and cross-section A, to which a traction force F is applied,
Hooke's law is expressed through:
%l F
α (6)
l A
Theory and evaluation
or
When forces act on a solid body, the resulting deformation
e = a·s
(translation and rotation movements are suppressed in the fol-
lowing) depends to a large extent on the material as well as on
where e = %l/l is the relative elongation of the rod, the propor-
the size and on the direction along which the exterior forces
tionality factor a is the coefficient of elasticity of the rod mate-
act. When the solid body regains its original shape after the
rial and s = F/A is the tension of the rod.
exterior force stops acting, that is, the interior restoring forces
of the material can bring the solid body back to its original
Proportionality only holds up to a characteristic limit stress. A
equilibrium position, the material is called elastic.
schematic stress-elongation diagram for a metal wire is shown
A helical spring is a very simple example of an elastic body (cf.
in Fig. 6. The limit of proportionality (sP) generally lies below
Fig.3). In addition, if deviations %l from the equilibrium position
the elastic limit (sE), above which the form of the solid body
l0 of the helical spring are not very large, the restoring force FR
changes permanently, due to interior molecular re-arrange-
of the spring is found to be proportional to its elongation (or to
ments. In this range of stresses, the material is said to be plas-
its compression) %l:
S S tic. If the deforming forces exceed the limit of solidity (sB), the
FR D ∆ l (1) solid material begins to flow and the body breaks.
An example of a material which does not follow Hooke's law,
This is Hooke’s law or the linear law of forces, where the pro- even when submitted to small forces, is a rubber band. Fig. 7
portionality constant D, which is a general magnitude of refer- shows the characteristic curve of a rubber band, with contin-
ence, is called the spring constant in the case of a helical uously increasing stress between point O and point A and with
spring. If an exterior force acts on the spring, such as the gradual relief between point A and point B. On the one hand,
weight FW = m · g of a mass m (g = 9.81 m/s2: acceleration of the relation between acting weight Fw and resulting elongation
terrestrial gravity) in this experiment, a new stable equilibrium
is reached for the length of the spring l1, for which the weight
mass m is equal to the restoring force of the spring: Fig. 3: Measurement of the elongation of the helical spring.
FR = D %l = mg = FW (2)
The elongation of the helical spring is therefore proportional to

the forces FW exerted by the weights:
1
∆l F (3)
D W
as is also shown by the characteristic curves of the two heli-

cal springs (Figs. 4 and 5). The slope of the characteristic
curves is the respective spring constant D of the helical
springs. Measurement values from Fig. 4 yield a spring con-
stant of:
D = 3.03 N/m,
measurement values from Fig.5 yield a spring constant of:
D = 19.2 N/m.
Thus, forces required to cause a given elongation of the spring

increase proportionally with the spring constant. Using equa-
tion (3), the new equilibrium length l1 is found to be:
mg
l1 l0 (4)
D
LEP
Hooke’s law 1.3.01
-01
Fig. 4: Weight Fw of a mass m which acts on the helical spring, Fig. 6: Stress-elongation diagram (schematic).
plotted as a function of elongation %l for a helical
spring with constant D = 3 N/m.
%l is no longer linear: elongation is larger than expected The hysteresis of the characteristic curve has two causes: on
according to Hooke's law, considering the measurement val- one hand, only part of the deformation reverts back to the
ues for small stresses (dotted line). original form momentarily, whereas the rest of the deformation
On the other hand, the degree of elongation depends on the reverts back over a period of several hours. This reversible
previous history of the rubber band. In the characteristic curve process is called elastic after-effect, the material reacts vis-
of the rubber band, part OA (gradual increase of stress) does coelastically. On the other hand, once the elastic limit is
not coincide with part AB (gradual relief of stress), which is exceeded, interior re-arrangements take place within the
contrary to what is observed for the helical spring, as long as material, which results in permanent changes of shape. This
it remains within the limit of elasticity. This phenomenon is process is irreversible, because work is converted to heat. In
called elastic hysteresis. If the same rubber band is stressed this experiment, the effect of the elastic after-effect domi-
again, elongation %l will now be significantly larger than had nates.
been the case for the new rubber band.
Fig. 5: Weight Fw of a mass m which acts on the helical Fig. 7: Acting weight Fw as a function of the extension %l for
spring, plotted as a function of elongation %l for a heli- a rubber band (elastic hysteresis).
cal spring with constant D = 20 N/m.
Theory (Hook’s Law)
Experiment
LEP
1.3.01 Hooke’s law
-01
Mechanics Dynamics
1.3.21-00 Mathematical pendulum

Duration of oscillation
Period
Amplitude
Harmonic oscillation
Principle:
A mass, considered as of point form,
suspended on a thread and subjected
to the force of gravity, is deflected
from its position of rest. The period
of the oscillation thus produced is
measured as a function of the thread
length and the angle of deflection.
What you need:

Light barrier with Counter 11207.30 1
Power supply 5 V DC/2.4 A 11076.99 1
Steel ball with eyelet, d = 24.4 mm 02465.01 1
Steel ball with eyelet, d = 32 mm 02466.01 1
Fish line, l = 100 m 02090.00 1
Clamping pads on stem 02050.00 1

Mathematical pendulum P2132100
Period of the pendulum as a function of the angle of deflection.
Tasks:
1. For small deflections, the oscilla-
tion period is determined as a
function of the cord length.
2. The acceleration due to gravity is
determined.
3. The oscillation period is deter-
mined as a function of the deflec-
tion.
36 Laboratory Experiments Physics PHYWE Systeme GmbH & Co. KG · D - 37070 Göttingen
LEP
Mathematical pendulum 1.3.21
-00
Related topics Tasks

Duration of oscillation, period, amplitude, harmonic oscilla- 1. For small deflections, the oscillation period is determined
tion. as a function of the cord length.
2. The acceleration due to gravity is determined.
Principle
3. The oscillation period is determined as a function of the
A mass, considered as of point form, suspended on a thread
deflection.
and subjected to the force of gravity, is deflected from its posi-
tion of rest. The period of the oscillation thus produced is
measured as a function of the thread length and the angle of Set-up and procedure
deflection. The experimental set up is arranged as shown in Fig. 1. The
steel ball is tied to the fishing line and the latter is fixed in the
Equipment clamping pads on stem. With a new line,the ball should be
allowed to hang for a few minutes, since the fishing line
stretches slightly. The pendulum length should be measured
before and after the experiment and averaged in each case.
Steel ball with eyelet, d = 24.4 mm 02465.01 1
The radius of the ball should be taken into account in the
Steel ball with eyelet, d = 32 mm 02466.01 1
measurement. For problem 1, the light barrier can be used to
measure a half-cycle.
Fish line, l = 100 m 02090.00 1
To measure the oscillation period as a function of the deflec-
tion, the pendulum is deflected to both sides and the half-
Clamping pads on stem 02050.00 1
cycle times are added. In each case switch the light barrier to
Tripod base -PASS- 02002.55 1 -mode.
Fig. 1: Experimental set up for determining the oscillation period of a mathematical pendulum.
LEP
1.3.21 Mathematical pendulum
-00
Fig. 2: Motion of the pendulum. With k = sin B/2, the period is obtained as
p>2

l df l
T4 4 K1k2
Bg 0 21 k sin f
2 2 Bg
where K is the complete 1st-order elliptical integral.
Development of the series for K(k) gives
e 1 sin2 ... f
l 1 a
T 2p (2)
Bg 4 2
For small values of B (B ≤ 2°):

l 2p 1>2
T 2p ·l (3)
Theory and evaluation Bg 2g
From the energy equation there follows, with the notation of
Fig. 2: From the regression line to the measured values of Fig. 3 with
df 2 the exponential statement
Ia b mgl 11 cosf2 E0 const. (1)
1
2 dt
Y = A · XB
Since the angular velocity vanishes at the reversal point, when the exponent is obtained
G=B B = 0.502 ± 0.001 (see (3))
then one obtains for E0 and

2p 2
E0 = m g l (1- cosB) A 2.007 s> 2m 1 g a b
A
Therefore, from (1) From this, with (3), the value for the acceleration due to grav-
T>4 a ity is obtained as

l df
dt T>4 , with
0
Bg 0 22 1cosf cosa2 g = 9.80 m/s2
I = m l2 For larger angles B, T depends on B (2).
Fig. 4: Period of the pendulum as a function of the angle of

Fig. 3: Period of the pendulum as a function of length. deflection.
Mechanics Dynamics
1.3.31-00 Moment of inertia and torsional vibrations

Rigid body
Moment of inertia
Axis of rotation
Torsional vibration
Spring constant
Angular restoring moment
Moment of inertia of a
sphere
Moment of inertia of a disc
Moment of inertia of a
cylinder
Moment of inertia of a long
bar
Moment of inertia of 2 point
masses
Principle:
Various bodies perform torsional
vibrations about axes through their
centres of gravity. The vibration
period is measured and the moment
of inertia determined from this.
What you need:

Rotation axle 02415.01 1
Sphere 02415.02 1
Disk 02415.03 1
Hollow cylinder 02415.04 1
Solid cylinder 02415.05 1
Rod with movable masses 02415.06 1
Spring balance 2.5 N 03060.02 1
Barrel base -PASS- 02006.55 1

Moment of inertia and torsional vibrations P2133100
Tasks:
The following will be determined:
1. The angular restoring moment of
the spiral spring.
2. The moment of inertia
a) of a disc, two cylinder, a sphere
and a bar, Moment of inertia of two equal masses, of 0.214 kg each, as a function of the
b) of two point masses, as a func- distance between them.
tion of the perpendicular dis-
tance to the axis of rotation.
The centre of gravity lies in the
axis of rotation.
48 Laboratory Experiments Physics PHYWE Systeme GmbH & Co. KG · D - 37070 Göttingen
LEP
Moment of inertia and torsional vibrations 1.3.31
-00

Rigid body, moment of inertia, axis of rotation, torsional vibra- The following will be determined:
tion, spring constant, angular restoring moment, moment of
1. The angular restoring moment of the spiral spring.
inertia of a sphere, moment of inertia of a disc, moment of
inertia of a cylinder, moment of inertia of a long bar, moment 2. The moment of inertia
of inertia of 2 point masses. a) of a disc, two cylinder, a sphere and a bar,
b) of two point masses, as a function of the perpendicular
Principle distance to the axis of rotation. The centre of gravity lies
Various bodies perform torsional vibrations about axes in the axis of rotation.
through their centres of gravity. The vibration period is meas-
ured and the moment of inertia determined from this.
Set-up and procedure
Equipment The experimental set-up is arranged as shown in Fig. 1. To
Rotation axle 02415.01 1 determine the angular restoring moment, the bar is clamped in
Sphere 02415.02 1 the torsion spindle and the two masses fixed symmetrically at
Disk 02415.03 1 a defined distance from the axis of rotation. With the spring
Hollow cylinder 02415.04 1 balance, the bar is rotated by 180° about the axis in each case
Solid cylinder 02415.05 1 and the force is measured. During this measurement, the
Rod with movable masses 02415.06 1 spring balance is held at right angles to the lever arm.
Spring balance 2.5 N 03060.02 1
Light barrier with Counter 11207.30 1 To measure the vibration period of the various bodies, a mask
Power supply 5 V DC/2.4 A 11076.99 1 (width ≤ 3 mm) is stuck on. The light barrier is pushed over the
Tripod base -PASS- 02002.55 1 mask while the body is at rest. Switch the light barrier to
Barrel base -PASS- 02006.55 1 -mode. Now the body is deflected through about 180°.
Fig. 1: Experimental set-up for determining moments of inertia of various bodies.
LEP
1.3.31 Moment of inertia and torsional vibrations
-00
In each case, the time of a half-cycle is measured, several Fig. 2: Moment of a spiral spring as a function of angle of
measurements being averaged. For reasons of safety and sta- rotation.
bility, it is recommended that the spring should not be twistedt
beyond ± 720°.

The relationship between the angular momentum L of a rigid
body in a stationary coordinate system
with its origin at the
centre of gravity, and the moment T acting on it, is
S d S
T L. (1)
dt
The angular momentum is expressed by the angular velocity

W and the inertia tensor Iˆ :
L Iˆ S
S
v ,
that is, the reduction of the tensor with the vector.

In the present case, W has the direction of a principal inertia
axis (z-axis), so that L has only one component:
LZ = IZ · W,
where *Z is the z-component of the principal inertia tensor of

the body. For this case, equation (1) reads:
dv d2f
TZ IZ IZ 2 .
dt dt
where G is the angle of rotation.
The period and frequency of this vibration are respectively
The moment of a spiral spring, in the Hooke’s law range, is:
T 2p2IZ>D (3)
TZ = – D · G (2)
where D is the angular restoring constant. 1

f p2D>IZ
2
From the regression line to the measured values of Fig. 2 with If r (x, y, z) is the density distribution of the body, the moment
the linear statement of inertia *Z is obtained as
Y =A+B·X IZ = ∫∫∫ (x2 y2) S (x, y, z) dx dy dz.
the slope The origin of coordinates is located at the centre of gravity.
B = 0.0265 Nm/rad. (see (2))
For a sphere of radius
is obtained.
r = 0.070 m
The angular restoring factor is
and of mass
D = 0.0265 Nm/rad.
m = 0.761 kg,
The equation of motion reads: 2
IZ m r2 = 1.49 · 10–3 kgm2.
5
d2f D The measured value is
f 0.
dt2 IZ
IZ = 1.48 · 10–3 kgm2.
LEP
Moment of inertia and torsional vibrations 1.3.31
-00
For a circular disc of radius Fig. 3: Moment of inertia of two equal masses, of 0.214 kg
each, as a function of the distance between them.
r = 0.108 m
and of mass
m = 0.284 kg,
m 2
IZ r = 1.66 · 10–3 kgm2.
2
The measured value is
IZ = 1.68 · 10–3 kgm2.
For a solid cylinder of radius
r = 0.0495 m
and of mass
m = 0.367 kg,
1
IZ mr2 = 0.45 · 10–3 kgm2.
2
IZ = 0.44 · 10–3 kgm2.
For a hollow cylinder with the two radii
ri = 0.046 m
ra = 0.050 m
and of mass
For a point mass of mass m, at a distance a from the axis of
m = 0.372 kg, rotation, one obtains:
IZ = ma2 (4)
IZ m 1ri2 ra2 2 = 0.86 · 10–3 kgm2.
1
2 From the regression line to the measured values of Fig. 3, with
the statement
Y = A + BX2 (see (4))
IZ = 0.81 · 10–3 kgm2.
the slope
For a thin rod of length
B = 0.441kg
l = 0.6 m
and the axis intercept
and of mass
A = 0.0043 kg/m2
m = 0.133 kg
are obtained.
m 2
IZ l = 3.99 · 10–3 kgm2.
12
IZ = 3.98 · 10–3 kgm2.
LEP
1.3.31 Moment of inertia and torsional vibrations
-00
Dynamics Mechanics
Torsional vibrations and torsion modulus 1.3.30-00

Shear modulus
Angular velocity
Torque
Moment of inertia
Angular restoring torque
G-modulus
Modulus of elasticity
Principle:
Bars of various materials will be ex-
citing into torsional vibration. The
relationship between the vibration
period and the geometrical dimen-
sions of the bars will be derived and
the specific shear modulus for the
material determined.
Tasks:
1. Static determination of the tor-
sion modulus of a bar.
2. Determination of the moment of
inertia of the rod and weights
fixed to the bar, from the vibration
period.
3. Determination of the dependence
of the vibration period on the
length and thickness of the bars.
4. Determination of the shear modu-
lus of steel, copper, aluminium
and brass.
What you need:

Torsion apparatus 02421.00 1
Torsion rod, steel, l = 500 mm, d = 2mm 02421.01 1
Torsion rod, Al, l = 500 mm, d = 2 mm 02421.02 1
Torsion rod, brass, l = 500 mm, d = 2 mm 02421.07 1
Torsion rod, Cu, l = 500 mm, d = 2 mm 02421.08 1
Spring Balance 1 N 03060.01 1
Spring balance 2, 5 N 03060.02 1
Stopwatch, digital, 1/100 sec. 03071.01 1
Sliding weight 03929.00 2
Support base -PASS- 02005.55 1

Torque and deflection of a torsion bar.
Torsional vibrations and torsion modulus P2133000
LEP
Torsional vibrations and torsion modulus 1.3.30
-00

Shear modulus, angular velocity, torque, moment of inertia, 1. Static determination of the torsion modulus of a bar.
angular restoring torque, G-modulus, modulus of elasticity. 2. Determination of the moment of inertia of the rod and
weights fixed to the bar, from the vibration period.
Principle 3. Determination of the dependence of the vibration period on
Bars of various materials will be exciting into torsional vibrati- the length and thickness of the bars.
on. The relationship between the vibration period and the geo-
4. Determination of the shear modulus of steel, copper, alumi-
metrical dimensions of the bars will be derived and the speci-
nium and brass.
fic shear modulus for the material determined.
Equipment Set-up and procedure

Torsion apparatus 02421.00 1 The experimental set-up is arranged as shown in Fig. 1. Care
Torsion rod, steel, l = 500 mm, d = 2mm 02421.01 1 should be taken that the torsion bars are perpendicular to the
Torsion rod, Al, l = 500 mm, d = 2 mm 02421.02 1 beam. For the static determination of the torsion modulus, the
Torsion rod, Al, l = 400 mm, d = 2 mm 02421.03 1 spring balance acts on the beam at r = 0.15 cm. The spring
Torsion rod, Al, l = 300 mm, d = 2 mm 02421.04 1 balance and lever arm form a right angle. It is recommended
Torsion rod, Al, l = 500 mm, d = 3 mm 02421.05 1 that the steel bar, 0.5 m long, 0.002 m dia., is used for this
Torsion rod, Al, l = 500 mm, d = 4 mm 02421.06 1 experiment, since it is distinguished by a wide elastic range.
Torsion rod, brass, l = 500 mm, d = 2 mm 02421.07 1
The steel bar is also preferable for determining the moment of
Torsion rod, Cu, l = 500 mm, d = 2 mm 02421.08 1
inertia of the rod with the two masses arranged symmetrically
Spring Balance 1 N 03060.01 1
(longer vibration period).
Spring balance 2, 5 N 03060.02 1
Stopwatch, digital, 1/100 sec. 03071.01 1 The bars must not be deflected so far that the zero-point is
Sliding weight 03929.00 2 shifted (yield point, hysteresis) or that the bar rotates in the
Support base -PASS- 02005.55 1 upper clamping sleeve. Therefore, put a right angle clamp on
Support rod -PASS-, square, l = 250 mm 02025.55 1 both ends of the torsion apparatus.

If a body is regarded as a continuum, and if r o and r denote
the position vector of a point p in the undeformed and defor-
med states of the body, then for small displacement vectors
Fig.1: Experimental set-up for determining the torsion modu-

lus of various bars. u = r – r 0 < ( u1, u2, u3 )
and the deformation tensor d̂ is:

0ui 0uk
dik .
0xk 0xi

The forces dF, which act on a volume element of the body, the
edges of the element being cut parallel to the coordinate pla-
nes, are described by the stress tensor Û. To each area ele-
ment dA, characterised by the unit vectore in the direction of
the normal, there is assigned the stress p :
S
S dF
p
dA

p = e · Û
Hooke’s law provides the relationship between d̂ and Û :
tik a clmik dlm .
l,m
The tensor ĉ is symmetrical for an elastic body, so that only 21

of the 81 components remain. For isotropic elastic bodies, this
number is further reduced to 2 values, namely the modulus of
elasticity E and the shear modulus G or the Poisson’s ratio m:
E
t11
1m
e d11 1d d22 d33 2 f

m
1 2m 11
LEP
1.3.30 Torsional vibrations and torsion modulus
-00
Fig. 2: Force and resultant deformation Fx = G · S· W. Fig. 3: Torsion in a bar.
1 E
t12 G d12 d (1)
2 1 m 12
and analogously for U22, U33, U13, U23.

The period of this vibration is
Using the notations of Figs. 2 and 3, equation (1) can be writ-
ten: IZ
T 2p (3)
rf B DT
dFx g · v · dS G · · rdr · da .
L
or
From this, the total torque a ring is obtained
2p 2 L
2p 3 T IZ · · (4)
R B

2pGr fdr 2 p G
dTZ dFx · r
0
L
In Task1, DT is determined in accordance with (2).
and from this the total torque

R

p R4
TZ dTZ ·G·f· .
0
2 L
From the definition of the angular restoring torque or torsion

modulus DT,
TZ = DT · G (2)
one obtains
p R4
DT · ·G .
2 L
From Newton’s basic equation for rotary motion
S d S
T L .
dt

– were the angular momentum L is related to the angular velo-

city W and the inertia tensor Î in accordance with

L = Î · W
– and from (2), one obtains

d2f DT
2
f0 .
dt IZ
Fig. 4: Torque and deflection of a torsion bar.
LEP
Torsional vibrations and torsion modulus 1.3.30
-00
Fig. 5: Vibration period of a torsion bar as a function of its Fig. 6: Vibration period of a torsion bar as a function of its dia-
length. meter.
From the regression line to the measured values of Fig. 4 with the exponent
the linear statement
B = –1.99 ± 0.01 (see (4))
Y = A + BX,
is obtained.
the slope
Finally, the shear modulus G is determined from (4) for Cu, Al,
B = 0.238 Nm/rad (see (2)) steel and brass.
is obtained. GCu = 38 · 109 N/m2rad

GAl = 24 · 109 N/m2rad
From (3), the moment of inertia of the vibrating bars and mas-
ses is determined for the same torsion bar: GSteel = 76 · 109 N/m2rad
GBrass = 32 · 109 N/m2rad
IZ = 9.24 · 10–3 kgm2.
Figures 5 and 6 show the relationship between the vibration

period and the length and diameter of the aluminium bars.
From the regression line to the measured values of Fig. 5 with

the exponential statement
Y = A · XB
the exponent
B = 0.49 ± 0.01 (see 4))
is obtained.
From the regression line to the measured values of Fig. 6, with

the exponential statement
Y = A · XB
LEP
1.3.30 Torsional vibrations and torsion modulus
-00

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Measurement Techniques Mechanics

Measurement of basic constants: length, weight and time 1.1.01-00

What you can learn about …

What you need: Knife-edge measuring faces

Complete Equipment Set, Manual on CD-ROM included

Related topics Glass plate, 100851 mm 08203.00 1

Fig. 2: Vernier caliper.

Knife-edge measuring faces

Slide Guide bar Depth measuring

Vernier Graduated scale Measuring faces for

Movable jaw blade

Fixed jaw Measuring faces for

where a is the distance of the measuring points from the cen-

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Hooke’s law 1.3.01-01

What you can learn about …

What you need: Theory (Hook’s Law)

Related topics weight is decreased in 10 g steps by removing slotted

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The elongation of the helical spring is therefore proportional to

as is also shown by the characteristic curves of the two heli-

measurement values from Fig.5 yield a spring constant of:

Thus, forces required to cause a given elongation of the spring

1.3.21-00 Mathematical pendulum

What you can learn about …

What you need:

Complete Equipment Set, Manual on CD-ROM included

Period of the pendulum as a function of the angle of deflection.

Related topics Tasks

where K is the complete 1st-order elliptical integral.

Development of the series for K(k) gives

For small values of B (B ≤ 2°):

G=B B = 0.502 ± 0.001 (see (3))

then one obtains for E0 and

Fig. 4: Period of the pendulum as a function of the angle of

1.3.31-00 Moment of inertia and torsional vibrations

What you can learn about …

What you need:

Complete Equipment Set, Manual on CD-ROM included

Related topics Tasks

Fig. 1: Experimental set-up for determining moments of inertia of various bodies.

Theory and evaluation

The angular momentum is expressed by the angular velocity

that is, the reduction of the tensor with the vector.

where *Z is the z-component of the principal inertia tensor of

where D is the angular restoring constant. 1

IZ = 1.68 · 10–3 kgm2.

For a solid cylinder of radius

The measured value is

IZ = 0.44 · 10–3 kgm2.

For a hollow cylinder with the two radii

IZ = 3.98 · 10–3 kgm2.

Torsional vibrations and torsion modulus 1.3.30-00

What you can learn about …

What you need:

Complete Equipment Set, Manual on CD-ROM included

Related topics Tasks

Equipment Set-up and procedure

and the deformation tensor d̂ is:

The tensor ĉ is symmetrical for an elastic body, so that only 21

e d11  1d  d22  d33 2 f

Fig. 2: Force and resultant deformation Fx = G · S· W. Fig. 3: Torsion in a bar.

and analogously for U22, U33, U13, U23.

e d11 1d d22 d33 2 f