Physical Quantities, Units and Measurement

7 Basic Physical Quantities

Physical Quantities SI Units Symbols
1. Length meter m

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2. Mass kilogram kg

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3. Time seconds s
4. Temperature Kelvin K

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5. Current Amperes A
6. Amount of Substance Moles mol
7. Luminous Intensity candela cd

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These are the basic physical quantities that are used to define every physical quantity
appearing in science. All the other quantities are the derived from these 7 quantities.

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Measuring Instruments
1. Length
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Device Range Accuracy Purpose
Trundle wheel Several meters 0.1 cm (1 mm) Long, non-linear
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distances (especially
for road/track
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distances)
Measuring Tape Several meters 0.1 cm (1 mm) Long, non-linear
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distances
Meter rule 1m 0.1 cm (1 mm) Straight lengths of
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less than 1m
Vernier Caliper 25 cm 0.01 cm (0.1 mm) Internal, external
dimensions and
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depth of less than 25

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cm and with higher

accuracy
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Micrometer Screw 6 cm 0.001 cm (0.01 mm) External length of

gauge less than 6cm and
with much higher
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accuracy
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Figure 1 Trundle Wheel

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Figure 2 Vernier Caliper

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Figure 3 Micrometer Screw Gauge

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2. Mass
a) Electronic balance
(It can measure greater masses than a beam balance)

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 b) Beam balance
(Limitation in measuring mass due to
its construction principle i.e. principle
of moments)
3. Time

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a) Stopwatch (analog/digital)

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Digital stopwatches are more accurate and easy to read that analog

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hence it is always preferred to use a digital stopwatch to take
readings

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b) Clock
4. Temperature
a) Liquid in glass thermometer

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These thermometers are general purpose equipment with small ranges and satisfactory
responsiveness
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b) Thermocouple Thermometer
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These are known for their responsiveness, responding immediately to sudden changes in
temperature.
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5. Current
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a) Ammeter
b) Galvanometer (sensitive ammeter)
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c) Multi meter (It can measure voltage, resistance and

connectivity as well)
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Type of Errors
1. Systematic Error
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This error occurs due to the fault in the instrument itself. For example, the dial of the meter
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is faulty or the readings are erased from the instrument. Zero error is a type of systematic
error.
To remove systematic error, the error has to be added or subtracted from the original
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reading. Taking the average will not eliminate a systematic error.

2. Random Error
This type of error occurs due to varying environmental conditions. Human reaction time,
changing wind speed, changing temperature are the examples that produce random error.
To remove random error, repeat the reading several times and then take the average.

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 3. Parallax Error
The error produced due to faulty placement of the eye
alongside the instrument while taking the reading is
called parallax error. It occurs when the line of sight is
not perpendicular to the reading

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To avoid parallax error, the line of sight should be

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perpendicular to the reading. In order to achieve this,
the reader might use Set Square to mark the reading or should vary the height of the head

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until the line of sight is right in front of the reading.
Taking average will not remove a parallax error.

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Unit Conversion
Prefix Exponents
Giga (G) × 109

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Mega (M) × 106
kilo (k) × 103
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deci (d) × 10−1
centi (c) × 10−2
mili (m) × 10−3
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micro (µ) × 10−6

nano (n) × 10−9
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Note: you need to remember the prefix and their exponent to solve the conversion
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1. If a prefix is to be added with a unit e.g. convert m to km, diivide the value by the
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exponent of that prefix

800m to km 48000g to Mg
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2.8 x 10-12 s to µs 490 x 10-6 N to mN

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 2. If a prefix is to be removed from a unit e.g. convert cm to m, multiply the value by
the exponent of that prefix

6700 µs to s 30 MN to N

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6.05 x 10-6 nJ to J 48000 mV to V

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3. If prefix is to be replaced by another one e.g. mV to MV, then combine both methods
1 and 2.
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5000 µs to ms 65 kN to dN
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8.85 x 10-12 GJ to µJ 6.7 x 10-5 mC to MC

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 Measurements using Vernier Caliper (Optional)
1. Note the reading on the main scale that lies just before the zero mark on the Vernier
scale.

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2. Note the reading on the Vernier scale that is coinciding with any mark on the main scale.

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3. Multiply the Vernier scale reading with the least count of that scale and add it to the main
scale reading obtained earlier.

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Example:

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Main scale reading: 1.1 cm
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Vernier Scale reading: 7 x 0.01 = 0.07 cm

Total reading: 1.1 + 0.07 = 1.17 cm
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(Hint: Just place the Vernier scale value in front of the main scale reading)
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Measurement using Micrometer Screw Gauge

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1. Note the reading on the main scale that lies just before the boundary of the thimble.
Make sure to note the 0.5 mark on the main scale, if visible.
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2. Note the reading on the thimble scale that is coinciding with the central line placed on the
main scale.
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3. Multiply the reading with the least count and add the value to the main scale reading.
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 Example:

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Main scale reading: 5.5mm

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Thimble scale reading: 28 x 0.01 = 0.28
(Hint: Thimble scale reading is always mentioned after decimal. In case of single digit,
example 1, it is 0.01 and in case of double digit, example 34, it is 0.34)

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Total reading: 5.5 + 0.28 = 5.78mm
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Zero Error
On closing the instrument, if the zero of the main scale does not coincide with the zero of
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the Vernier scale (in case of Vernier caliper) or thimble scale (in case of Micrometer Screw
Gauge), the error produced is called zero error.
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There are two types of zero error.

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1. Positive zero error

When the zero of the Vernier scale/thimble scale is ahead/above of the zero of the main
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scale, the error is called a positive zero error.

Eliminating error:
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Calculate the reading on the Vernier caliper/Screw Gauge using the method described
above.
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Assign a positive sign with the value of zero error obtained.

Subtract this reading from the faulty reading to calculate the accurate reading.
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2. Negative zero error

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When the zero of the Vernier scale/thimble scale is behind/below of the zero of the main
scale, the error is called a negative zero error.
Calculate the reading on the Vernier caliper/Screw Gauge using the method described
above.
Assign a negative sign with the value of zero error obtained.
Subtract this reading from the faulty reading to calculate the accurate reading.

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 Eliminating Errors
Micrometer Screw Gauge
Positive Zero Error
Faulty reading:

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Error:

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Correct reading: Faulty reading – zero error:

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Negative Zero Error
Faulty reading:

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Error:
Correct reading: Faulty reading – zero error:

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Time Period of a simple Pendulum

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It is the time taken for the pendulum bob to complete

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a single cycle of oscillation. A single oscillation is

defined as a repetitive motion when an object moves
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from one extreme position and returns back to that

position.
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Time period of a simple pendulum depends upon the

gravity and the length of the pendulum bob. Note that
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changing the mass of the bob will not affect the time
period of vibration.

𝑙
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑔

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 Increasing the length of the string increases the time period.
Increasing the gravity of the environment decreases the time period.
Following are the steps that can be adopted to measure the time period of the pendulum
accurately.

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1. Note the time for n oscillations. ‘n’ should range from 10 to 20 oscillations.

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2. Repeat the previous step at least five times to obtain at least five sets of readings.
3. Divide the average of the time for n oscillations using the formula

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𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 5 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠
Average tn =
5

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4. Divide the value obtained by ‘n’ to obtain the time for a single oscillation, i.e. time period.

Experiment to determine the effect of change in length on the time period

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1. Set a particular length and measure it using a meter rule.
2. Start oscillation and the stopwatch simultaneously and time n oscillations.
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3. Repeat step # 2 one more time.
tn (1)+tn (2)
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4. Calculate the average time for n oscillations using the formula tn (avg) =
2
tn (avg)
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5. Divide the average time for n oscillation by 10 to calculate the time period T=
𝑛
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6. Repeat the entire procedure with increasing lengths

7. Plot a graph for length l/cm against T/s to show the graphical representation of variation.
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8. A sample table is drawn below that can be used to determine the time period.

S.no Length l/cm Time for n oscillations Time Period

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tn (1)/s tn (2)/s tn (1)+tn (2) 𝑡𝑛 (avg)

tn (avg)/s = T/s=
2 𝑛
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 Scalar and Vector Quantities
Quantities in physics are distributed into two fundamental categories namely scalar
quantities and vector quantities. The table below highlights the definition and properties of
these quantities.

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S.no Scalar Vector
1. These quantities have magnitude These quantities have both magnitude

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only and direction
2. They can be completely expressed by The direction along with the numerical

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a single numerical value value needs to be mentioned in a certain
way
3. No graphical representation Arrow is used to graphically represent a

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vector. The length of the arrow shows the
magnitude and the inclination of the
arrow head shows the direction.

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4. Time, temperature, Energy, power, Displacement, velocity, acceleration,
distance, speed, mass, density, force, moment, (momentum, electric field
pressure, area, volume, charge are strength, magnetic flux density) are some
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some examples of scaler quantities examples of vector quantities
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Addition of Scalar Quantities

Scaler quantities can be added simply as they are simple numerical values and do not
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require the interference of incorporating direction.

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Addition of Vector Quantities

Graphical Method: Head to Tail rule
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1. The tail of one vector is placed on the head of the other at its same inclination as before.
2. Now the tail of the first vector (the one on which the tail of the other vector was placed)
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is joined with the head of the second vector.

3. The produced represents the resultant vector.
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4. The length of the resultant vector represents the magnitude and the inclination (angle)
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from the x-axis or y-axis represents the direction.

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 Graphical Method: Parallelogram rule
1. The tails of both the vectors are joined at their respective inclinations.
2. Now one vector is translated in a way the tail of that vector touches the head of the

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other.

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3. In the similar way, the second vector is translated until the tail of that vector touches the
head of the first one.

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4. Now join the points where the two heads and two tails meet.

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5. The resulting line is the resultant vector. Its length will represent the magnitude and the
angle from the axis will represent the direction.

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 Kinematics
Distance Displacement
1. Length of any path between two points 1. The shortest distance between two points

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2. Scalar quantity 2. Vector quantity

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3. SI Unit: meters (m) 3. SI Unit: meters (m)

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Route Distance Displacement

A to B 20 m +20 m
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A to C 20 + 12 = 32 m +20 – 12 = 8 m
A to D 20 + 12 + 12 = 44 m +20 – 12 – 12 = - 4 m
A to E 20 + 12 + 12 + 2 = 46 m +20 – 12 – 12 + 2 = - 2 m
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 Speed Velocity
1. Distance covered by a body per unit time 1. Displacement covered by a body per unit
time
2. SI Unit: meters/second (ms-1) 2. SI Unit: meters/second (ms-1)

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3. Scalar quantity 3. Vector quantity
4. Speed does not change when a body 4. Velocity changes when a body makes a

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makes a turn or moves in a circular direction turn or moves in a circular direction as the
direction of the body changes.

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𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
5. Speed = 5. velocity =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

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Positive and negative signs are used to show the direction of motion of a body. This is used
when dealing with the velocity of the body. Speed does not need the use of sign.
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Acceleration
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Rate of change of velocity is acceleration. OR

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Change in velocity with respect to time.

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Its SI Unit is ms-2.

It must be noted that the definition deals with the velocity so magnitude and direction both
need to be taken care of. It is a vector quantity.
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𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣−𝑢

Acceleration = or a=
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡
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A body is said to be accelerating when

1. The magnitude of velocity changes i.e. its speed increases of decreases
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2. The body changes its direction while motion. (Note that change in direction causes a change
in velocity as it is vector quantity, and change in velocity is acceleration)
Hence a body moving in a circular direction is continuously acceleration even if it is moving at a
constant speed.

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 Speed-time Graphs
Extracting information from the graph can be done by using its axis i.e. x-axis and y-axis, its
gradient at various points and the area under it.

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In a speed-time graph, the significance of these characteristics is as under.

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1. X-axis: time (t/s)
2. Y-axis: speed (v/ms-1)

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3. Gradient: acceleration (a/ms-2)
∆𝑦 ∆𝑣
𝑚= = =𝑎

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∆𝑥 ∆𝑡
4. Area under the graph: distance (s/m)
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑙 × 𝑏 = 𝑦 × 𝑥 = 𝑣 × 𝑡 = 𝑠

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These significances must be clearly kept in mind as they will be the source of extracting the
desired information from a speed-time graph
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1. Object at rest 0.9
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Gradient: zero 0.8
Acceleration: zero 0.7
speed (v/ms-1)

0.6
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Understanding: As the speed remains 0.5

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0.4
zero throughout the time, so no distance
0.3
is covered and the object is said to be at
0.2
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rest. Gradient is also zero means there is 0.1

no change of velocity. 0
0 1 2 3 4 5
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Time (t/s)
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2.5

2. Object at a constant speed 2

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Gradient: zero
speed (v/ms-1)

Acceleration: zero 1.5

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Understanding: The velocity is constant 1

but not zero throughout the time. The
0.5
gradient is zero which means
acceleration is also zero. Hence the 0
object is moving at a constant speed. 0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (t/s)

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 4.5
4
3. Object in uniform/constant acceleration
3.5
(increasing speed)

speed (v/ms-1)
3
Gradient: constant and positive

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2.5
Acceleration: constant and positive

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2
1.5
(Note that positive acceleration means

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1
increase in speed and negative
0.5
acceleration means decrease in speed,
0
UNTIL THE GRAPHS STAYS IN THE 1ST

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0 1 2 3 4 5
QUADRANT i.e. between the positive x- Time (t/s)
axis and y-axis. Otherwise this is not
always the case.)

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Understanding: The gradient of the line is constant but not zero. This shows that the
body is at constant acceleration. The graph is moving upwards with respect to time at a
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constant rate, which shows the increase 7
in speed.
6
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You may note that “dashed line” is more 5

speed (v/ms-1)

inclined “vertically” which shows that it 4

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has a greater gradient, means greater 3

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acceleration. Hence it attains a higher

2
speed in the same time and also covers a
1
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greater distance (more area under graph).

0
In short, the body following the motion of 0 1 2 3 4 5
the dashed line is travelling faster. Time (t/s)
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4.5
4. Object in uniform/constant deceleration 4
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(decreasing speed) 3.5

speed (v/ms-1)

Gradient: constant and negative 3

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Acceleration: constant and negative 2.5

2
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Understanding: The gradient of the line is 1.5

constant but not zero which means that 1

there is some acceleration. But as the 0.5

gradient is negative in nature, it is 0

0 1 2 3 4 5
undergoing deceleration. The graph is
Time (t/s)

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 moving down gradually with time at a constant rate, which shows that the speed is
decreasing.
4.5
4
You may note that the “dashed line” is

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3.5
more inclined vertically in this case as

speed (v/ms-1)
3
well. This shows that it has a greater

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2.5
magnitude of deceleration. Hence it
2
attains a lower speed in the same time

as
1.5
covering a lesser distance.
1
In short, the body following the motion of

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0.5
the dashed line is slowing down faster.
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Time (t/s)

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5. Object in (non-uniform) increasing
acceleration 16
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Gradient: increasing and positive 14 (3, 14)
Acceleration: increasing and positive 12
speed (v/ms-1)
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10
Understanding: The gradient of the graph is 8
increasing as it can be observed from the
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6 (2, 6)
inclining curve. This means that the
4
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acceleration is also increasing. The speed of

2 (1, 2)
the body is increasing but not at a constant
0 (0, 0)
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rate. Speed is increasing at an increasing

0 1 2 3 4
rate. The increase in speed is small at the Time (t/s)
start but large at the end.
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18
16
You may note that the dashed curve is 14 (3, 14)
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inclining more towards the vertical with time.

speed (v/ms-1)

12
This means that its acceleration is changing at 10
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a greater magnitude. Hence it attains at higher 8

speed in the same time. 6 (2, 6)
Always remember, a curve in a speed time 4
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graph means non uniform acceleration. 2 (1, 2)

0 (0, 0)
0 1 2 3 4
Time (t/s)

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 6. Object in (non-uniform) decreasing
acceleration 10
(4, 9.5)
Gradient: decreasing and positive 9 (3, 9)
Acceleration: decreasing and positive 8 (2, 8)

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7

speed (v/ms-1)
6 (1, 6)
Understanding: The gradient of the

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5
graph is decreasing with time but the 4
graph is moving upwards. This shows

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3
that the acceleration of the body is 2
decreasing with time. The speed is 1

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increasing but its rate of increase is 0 (0, 0)
0 1 2 3 4 5
decreasing and soon the body will reach
Time (t/s)
a constant speed. The increase in speed
is large at the start but small at the end.

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10
(4, 9.5)
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You may note that the “dashed curve”
8 (2, 8)
shows a body have non-uniform 7
speed (v/ms-1)

acceleration but the magnitude of 6

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(1, 6)
acceleration is less. 5
In short, the body following the motion 4
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of the dashed line is accelerating less. 3

2
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1
0 (0, 0)
0 1 2 3 4 5
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Time (t/s)

7. Object in (non-uniform) increasing deceleration

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Gradient: increasing and negative

Acceleration (Deceleration): increasing 10
(0, 9.5)
9 (1, 9)
and negative
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8 (2, 8)
7
speed (v/ms-1)

Understanding: The gradient of the

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6 (3, 6)
graph is increasing as it is inclining 5
towards vertical. This shows that the 4 (3.5, 4)
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deceleration is increasing with time. 3

The speed is decreasing with time at 2
1
an increasing rate as the graph is seen
0 (4, 0)
moving downward and getting 0 1 2 3 4 5
steeper. The decrease in speed is small Time (t/s)
at the start but large at the end.

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 10
You may note that the dashed line (0, 9.5)
9 (1, 9)
reaches 0 ms-1 in a shorter time interval. 8 (2, 8)
This shows that the body following that 7

speed (v/ms-1)
graph undergoes a greater deceleration. 6 (3, 6)

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The steepness of the dashed curve 5
highlights the greater deceleration

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4 (3.5, 4)
property of motion. 3
2
In short, the body following the motion

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1
of the dashed line has hit the brakes
0 (4, 0)
harder. 0 1 2 3 4 5

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Time (t/s)

8. Object in (non-uniform) decreasing

10
deceleration

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(0, 9.5)
9
Gradient: decreasing and negative 8
Acceleration (deceleration): decreasing 7
speed (v/ms-1)
and negative 57 as 6
5
Understanding: The gradient of the 4 (1, 4)
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graph is decreasing as its moving 3
2 (2, 2) (3, 1)
towards horizontal. The speed is
1
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decreasing as the graph is moving (3.5, 0.9)

0
downward with time. The speed is 0 1 2 3 4
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decreasing at a decreasing rate. The Time (t/s)

decrease in speed is large at the start but
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small at the end.

10
(0, 9.5)
You may note that the dashed curve 9
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cs

8
shows a motion of a body with greater
7
speed (v/ms-1)

deceleration. The graph is steeper at the 6

start and the decrease in speed is
si

5
greater with time. It reaches a lower 4 (1, 4)
speed in the same time.
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3
2 (2, 2) (3, 1)
1
(3.5, 0.9)
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0
0 1 2 3 4
Time (t/s)

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 Explanation of combined graphs

• 0s to 10s: increasing accleration,

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followed by constant acceleration and

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then followed by decreasing
acceleration.

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• 10s to 30s: constant speed (no
acceleration)
• 30s onwards: constant deceleration.

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• 0s to 10s: increasing acceleration
• 10s to 30s: constant acceleration
•
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30s onwards: constant deceleration
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• Segment 1: increasing acceleration

• Segment 2: constant speed
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• Segment 3: constant acceleration

• Segment 4: constant deceleration
•
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Segment 5: decreasing deceleration

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• Segment 6: constant deceleration

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 Calculations from speed time graph

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Time Interval Acceleration Displacement
0s to 4s

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4s to 14s
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by

14s to 16s
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0s to 16s 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
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𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = 4.6875 ≈ 4.7 𝑚/𝑠
16

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 Estimation of Area under graph

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as
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When calculating area under a curve, estimation needs to be done.
1. Draw a line in a such a way that
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𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒍𝒆𝒇𝒕 𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅 = 𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒓𝒂 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅
2. Now calculate the area under that new graph.
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Calculating gradient at a point on a curve

S
by
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cs
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Draw a tangent at that point and then determine the gradient of the line.

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 Distance-time Graphs
Distance time graphs represent the distance covered by a body during its motion with time. Its
characteristics are different from that of a speed time graph.

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In a distance-time graph, the significance of these characteristics is as under.

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1. X-axis: time (t/s)

as
2. Y-axis: distance (s/m)
3. Gradient: velocity (v/ms-1)

10 n R
4. Area under the graph: no significance
These significances must be clearly kept in mind as they will be the source of extracting the
desired information from a distance-time graph

84 ha
There are 5 possible distance-time graphs. 1
0.9
1. Object at rest 57 as 0.8
Gradient: zero 0.7
disntance (s/m)

Speed: zero 0.6

-2 K
0.5
Understanding: As the distance remains 0.4
0.3
42 ir

zero throughout the time, there appears

0.2
to be no motion happening. Moreover,
S

0.1
the gradient of the graph is zero as well,
0
which means that the speed is also zero. 0 1 2 3 4 5
by

Time (t/s)

2.5
03
cs

The second graph also shows a body at 2

rest as the distance is same whereas the
disntance (s/m)

1.5
si

time is changing. However in this case

the distance is not zero.
1
hy

0.5
P

0
0 1 2 3 4 5
time (t/s)

23 of 220
 2. Object in uniform speed (forward)
Gradient: constant and positive 4.5
Speed: constant and positive 4
3.5

d
distance (s/m)
(Note that positive speed means the 3
object is moving in a positive direction

hi
2.5
and negative speed means the object is 2
moving in the reverse direction. This is 1.5

as
important to remember as it assists in 1

converting a speed time graph into 0.5

10 n R
distance time and going vice versa.) 0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (t/s)

Understanding: The gradient of the line 7

84 ha
is constant but not zero. This shows that 6
the body is moving at a constant speed. 5
distance (s/m)
57 as
You may note that “dashed line” is more
inclined “vertically” which shows that it
4

has a greater gradient, means greater 3

-2 K
speed. Hence it covers a greater distance 2
in the same time. In short, the body 1
42 ir

following the motion of the dashed line

0
is travelling faster.
S

0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (t/s)
by

3. Object in increasing speed (forward)

03

Gradient: increasing and positive

cs

Speed: increasing and positive 16

14 (3, 14)
si

Understanding: The gradient of the

12
graph is increasing as it can be
distance (s/m)
hy

10
observed from the inclining curve
8
towards vertical. This means that the
speed is also increasing. The change in 6 (2, 6)
P

distance is small at the start and then 4

the change increases with time. 2 (1, 2)
0 (0, 0)
0 1 2 3 4
Time (t/s)

24 of 220
 18
You may note that the dashed curve is 16
inclining more towards the vertical 14 (3, 14)
with time. This means that its speed is

distance (s/m)
12
increasing at a greater magnitude. 10

d
Hence it attains at higher speed in the 8
same time and covers more distance.

hi
6 (2, 6)
4
Always remember, a curve in a

as
2 (1, 2)
distance time graph means 0 (0, 0)
acceleration. 0 1 2 3 4

10 n R
Time (t/s)

IT CANNOT BE UNDERSTOOD JUST BY LOOKING AT GRAPH WHETHER

84 ha
ACCELERTION IS INCREASING, DECREASING OR CONSTANT.

57 as
4. Object in decreasing speed (forward)
Gradient: decreasing and positive
10
-2 K
Speed: decreasing and positive 9 (3, 9)
(4, 9.5)

8 (2, 8)
Understanding: The gradient of the
42 ir

7
distance (s/m)

graph is decreasing with time but the 6 (1, 6)

S

graph is moving upwards. This shows 5

4
that the speed of the body is decreasing
3
by

with time. The distance is increasing

2
but its rate of increase is decreasing 1
and if this continues, soon the body will 0 (0, 0)
03

come to rest.
cs

0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (t/s)

10
si

You may note that the “dashed curve” (4, 9.5)

9 (3, 9)
shows a body travelling slower and 8 (2, 8)
hy

covering a lesser distance. Its speed 7

distance (s/m)

decreases at a greater pace which can 6 (1, 6)

5
be observed from the curvature of the
P

4
graph.
3
In short, the body following the motion 2
of the dashed line is slowing down 1
faster. 0 (0, 0)
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (t/s)

25 of 220
 Explanation of combined graph
Whatever happens to gradient, happens to speed in a distance-time graph

d
• 0s to 5s: increasing speed

hi
• 5s to 7s: constant speed
• 7s to 12s: decreasing

as
speed
• 12s to 15s: at rest
•

10 n R
15s to 17s: constant speed
• 17s to 20s: at rest

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Calculations from a distance time graph
57 as
-2 K
42 ir
S
by

Time interval Speed

0s to 10s
03
cs
si

10s to 15s
hy
P

15s to 25s

26 of 220
 Freefall
A body is said to be under freefall if it moves only under gravity. This means that gravity causes
the body to accelerate when falling down and decelerate when rising up. No external driving

d
force is exerted when the object is released or during its fall.

hi
The acceleration due to freefall has a magnitude of 9.81 ms-2 which is equal to gravitational
acceleration but candidates are advised to use 10 ms-2 unless specified.

as
Freefall in classified in two types:
1. With air resistance

10 n R
2. Without air resistance

Freefall with air resistance

84 ha
Terminal Velocity: When a body falls in air or in any fluid medium, it causes resistance in its
motion. Hence a point comes when the weight, in case of a falling body becomes equal to the
resistance force. At this point, the body
57 as
reaches its peak velocity, which is called
terminal velocity.
-2 K
It is the velocity achieved when driving
force becomes equal to resistive force.
42 ir

If a car moving on a road is considered,

S

the engine’s driving force will be

balanced by the resistive forces (friction
by

and air resistance).

Remember: Unbalanced forces produce
acceleration whereas balanced forces
03
cs

do not produce acceleration. Hence

when the forces are
balanced, the body
si

is either at rest or
the body is moving
hy

at constant velocity.
Hence when a
P

moving body has all

its forces balanced,
the object will travel
at constant velocity.

27 of 220
 Freefall without air resistance
If the body falls in vacuum, the speed will keep on
increasing with an acceleration equal to gravitational

d
acceleration. On Earth, it is 10 ms-2. Hence a rock and
feather will have same acceleration, travel at the same

hi
speeds at same instances and will fall together.

as
In this case, the only force acting on the body is the
weight force.

10 n R
84 ha
Freefall without Air Resistance
57 as
Speed-time Graph Distance-time Graph
-2 K
42 ir
S
by

Freefall with Air Resistance

03
cs

Speed-time Graph Distance-time Graph

si
hy
P

28 of 220
 P
hy
si
cs
by
03
S
42 ir
-2 K
57 as
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10 n R
as
hi

29 of 220
d
 DYNAMICS
Force

d
A push or a pull is called force.

hi
Its SI Unit is Newtons (N). It is a vector quantity, hence has both magnitudes and direction.

as
Tension force acts away from the point of application of force.

10 n R
84 ha
Compression force acts towards the point of application of force.

57 as
-2 K
42 ir
S
by

Newton’s Laws of Motion

Newton presented three laws of motion that govern the movement of bodies under the
03
cs

umbrella of Newtonian mechanics.

1. Newton’s First Law of Motion
si

“An object continues in the state of rest or uniform motion unless a net external force
hy

acts on it to change its state.”

This law highlights a particular property of matter i.e. inertia. Inertia is a tendency of a
P

body that resists sudden change in the state of rest or uniform motion. Means if a body
is suddenly accelerated from rest, it will resist the motion in the accelerating direction
and similarly, if it is suddenly tried to stop, it will try to continue its motion.

30 of 220
 Inertia can be explained by an
example of a driver and a car. If the
driver suddenly accelerates his drive,
he will feel a pull backwards. This pull

d
is actually the result of inertia that his
body tries to resist the change being

hi
produced. It tries to stay in its
previous rest position.

as
Similarly, if a sudden brake is applied,
the body throws itself forward. This is

10 n R
also because of the same reason,
inertia. The forward motion of the
body is resisted by the brakes but the body still wants to keep on moving forward.

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Newton’s First law also provides the situations for the equilibrium of the body.
Equilibrium occurs when the body is either at rest (not moving at moving at all) or in a
57 as
uniform motion (travelling at a constant velocity).
There are two conditions that need to be satisfied for an object to be in equilibrium.
-2 K
1. Sum of all the forces acting on the body equal to zero.
∑𝐹 = 0
42 ir

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
S
by
03
cs
si
hy

If forces are cancelled out, the resultant is zero. If any of the forces is removed, the
P

resultant appears in the direction exactly opposite to the removed force and of the
same magnitude. When F2 is removed, the resultant appears opposite to F2 and of
same magnitude as F2.

31 of 220
 d
hi
as
10 n R
84 ha
If the system is in equilibrium, the values of x and y can be determined using the
Newton’s 1st Law or the first condition of equilibrium.
57 as 10 + 𝑥 = 18 𝑠𝑜 𝑥 = 8𝑁
20 + 30 = 𝑦 + 25 + 10 𝑠𝑜 𝑦 = 15𝑁
-2 K
2. Sum of all the moments acting on the body equal to zero.
∑𝑀 = 0
42 ir

During linear motion, linear acceleration is zero while the object is in equilibrium. During
S

circular motion, angular acceleration is zero.

A body moving in a circle at a constant angular speed (zero angular acceleration) will be
by

in rotational equilibrium. A fan moving at a constant angular speed is in rotational

equilibrium.
03
cs
si
hy
P

32 of 220
 2. Newton’s Second Law of Motion
This law takes the situation one step ahead. It tells us what happens when a net external

d
force is acted upon. It states that;

hi
“When a net force act on a body of a constant mass, it accelerates in the direction of the
net force. The acceleration and the net force are directly proportional, keeping the mass

as
of the body constant.”
Another, more simple statement is

10 n R
“Acceleration of a body is directly proportional to resultant force and is in the same
direction as resultant force, if mass is constant.”

𝑭𝒏𝒆𝒕 ∝ 𝒂

84 ha
𝑭𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝒎𝒂
Remember that there needs to be net force acting on a body to produce a change in its
57 as
motion. If the resultant forces turns out to be zero, the object will continue in the state
of equilibrium.
-2 K
The opposing force produced on the body during its motion is usually friction or air
resistance. The driving force of the body is cancelled out by these forces and they
42 ir

always act opposite to the direction of motion.

S

If the driving force FD is greater than the resistive force FR, the resultant force comes out
positive and in the forward direction.
by

FD - FR = (+) Fnet
Hence the object also accelerates in the forward direction and increases its speed. This
03
cs

is because the resultant force and acceleration both act in the same direction.
But if the driving force FD is smaller than the resistive force FR, the resultant force comes
si

out negative and in the backward direction.

FD - FR = (-) Fnet
hy

Hence the object decelerates (accelerates

backwards) and decreases its speed. This is also
P

because of the same reason that force and

acceleration act in the same direction, which in
this case is in the opposite direction of motion.

33 of 220
 d
hi
as
You may note that the net force is also directly proportional to mass of the body if the

10 n R
same acceleration is to be produced. An object of smaller mass m requires less amount
of force to gain the same acceleration as compared to an object of larger mass. The
second object need to be acted upon by a larger amount of force to gain the same
acceleration.

84 ha
Remember: Whenever there will be a resultant force, there will be acceleration.
Take an example of a rocket having a mass of 5000kg.
57 as
Diagram represents magnitude of forces acting on it.
Using Newton’s 2nd Law, the resultant force and
-2 K
hence acceleration can be calculated.
42 ir
S
by
03
cs
si
hy
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34 of 220
 Vector Diagram using Parallelogram Method
Example: A truck is being pulled by two ropes.
One rope has a tension of 5000N and the

d
other one has a tension of 3000N. The angles
produced of these ropes are shown in the

hi
diagram as 20° and 30° from horizontal.
Calculate magnitude of resultant force and its

as
direction from horizontal.

10 n R
S.no Steps Explanation
1 1cm = 1000N Select a suitable scale to convert
force to length. The scale should

84 ha
neither produce a very small
diagram, nor a very large that it
exceeds the available area.
2 57 as Mark a point and draw a
horizontal line through it as a
reference for force vectors.
-2 K
3 Place a protractor at that point
and mark a point at the angle of
42 ir

first force, which is in this case

20°.
S
by

4 Remove protractor and draw a

03
cs

line of 5cm representing 5000N

force, joining the two points.
Mark an arrow at the end of line
si

to represent direction of force.

It’s a must!
hy
P

35 of 220
 5 Now place the protractor upside
down for the next force, at the
center point. Mark a point at
the next angle, which in this

d
case is 30°.

hi
as
10 n R
6 Draw another line of required
length, which is in this case 3cm,

84 ha
representing 3000N force. Draw
this line at the angle marked. No
need to extend the line beyond
57 asthat length.
-2 K
42 ir

7 Place compass at the head of

S

one vector and mark an arc of

radius of length equal to the
by

length of other vector which is

in this case 5cm.
In this case, the compass pin
03
cs

was placed at X.

8 Repeat the same procedure as

si

above for the next vector. Place

the compass at Y and draw an
hy

arc of the length equal to that of

the other vector, which in this
case is 3cm. The arcs will
P

intersect.
In this case the compass pin was
placed at Y

36 of 220
 9 Now join the heads of both
vectors with the intersection of
the arcs. Draw the heads
towards the intersection in the

d
same direction as of the
previous vectors.

hi
A vector parallelogram is
formed.

as
10 Join the point of “common tails”
to the point of “common

10 n R
heads”. This is the resultant
force vector!
Measure the length of vector.
Measure the angle of vector

84 ha
from the horizontal.

11 57 asUse scale to convert length back

to force. In this case,
1000 x 7.3 = 7300N
-2 K

Magnitude: 7300N
Direction: 2° anticlockwise from
42 ir

horizontal
S
by
03
cs
si
hy
P

37 of 220
 3. Newton’s Third Law of Motion
“To every acting force, there is an equal and opposite reacting force.”
A more detailed statement

d
“If body A exerts a force on body B, body B exerts an equal and opposite force on body

hi
A.”

as
The action and reaction force have the following characteristics
1. Equal magnitude
2. Opposite direction

10 n R
3. Same type of force
When a rocket is fired, the
burning gases that escape from

84 ha
the thrusters in the opposite
direction produce a forward
57 as
thrust force. This thrust force
drives the rocket forward. Ideally,
the thrust force is equal in
-2 K
magnitude to the force
generated by the exhaust gases
42 ir

released.
S

A few more examples are shown on

the diagram at the left.
by
03
cs
si
hy
P

38 of 220
 Friction
A resistive force that appears when bodies come in contact with one another and tends to slow
down moving objects.

d
This is a contact force and will not

hi
appear until the surfaces of the objects
don’t produce a relative motion against

as
one another.

10 n R
Advantages of Friction Disadvantages of Friction
1. Help is holding the objects 1. Causes wear and tear of machine parts

84 ha
2. Helps in walking 2. Causes energy loss
3. A source of heat generation 3. Reduces efficiency of machine parts
57 as
Methods to reduce friction:
-2 K
1. Lubricating the surface
2. Polishing the surface
3. Use of rolling objects like wheels and ball
42 ir

bearings
S

Friction always acts opposite to the direction of motion of the body. It tends to slow down or
by

stop a moving body. The friction force reduces the effect of the driving force so the resultant
force is of smaller magnitude.
Direction of friction forces on a wheel are shown below.
03
cs
si
hy
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39 of 220
 Thinking, Breaking and Stopping distance
When the brakes are applied, the distance covered by the body is distributed into two parts.

d
1. Thinking distance: This distance is covered by the body when the driver is thinking to stop.

hi
This distance is measured from the point when the driver sees a hazard till the point where the
brakes come into action. This distance has nothing to do with the road condition but is

as
determined by the condition of the driver (e.g. if he is drunk or drowsy)
2. Braking Distance: This distance is covered from the point where the brakes come into action

10 n R
till the point where the drives comes
to stop. It is governed by the condition
of the brakes as well the condition of
the road.

84 ha
If the brakes are worn out and
produce less friction, hence less
57 as
braking force, and the braking
distance will increase.
-2 K
Similarly if the road is wet, the friction
between the road and the tyres will be
42 ir

less, producing less braking force. This

results in a longer breaking distance.
S

The drive will skid due to less friction.

by

The same case goes with the tyres. If

they are worn out, they will generate
less friction with the road. Less braking force will be generated and the breaking distance will
03

increase.
cs

Stopping distance: It is the sum of thinking distance and breaking distance.

si
hy
P

40 of 220
 Circular Motion
When a body is moving in a circular path, a force exerts on that body that keeps it moving on
that path. If that force disappears, the circular motion of the body will cease to exist and the

d
body will follow a motion in a straight line.

hi
Centripetal Force
A resultant force that causes an object to move in a circle about a point.

as
This force is class of forces and includes all the forces that, during the motion of the body,
become the reason for its circular motion. The centripetal forces in various forces are given

10 n R
below.

Case # Centripetal force

1. Stone and string Tension in the string

84 ha
2. Car making a turn Friction force between tires and road
3. Planetary motion Gravitational force
4. Electrons around the nucleus
57 as Electrostatic force
5. Water in a rotating bucket Normal reaction force
-2 K
Remember that centripetal force always acts towards the
center of rotation.
42 ir

As resultant force and acceleration are both in the same

S

direction according to Newton’s 2nd Law, so centripetal

acceleration also acts towards the center of rotation.
by

Velocity acts tangent to the point on the circular path.

Centrifugal Force: The force produced in reaction of the

03
cs

centripetal force is called the centrifugal force. It is equal in

magnitude but opposite in direction.
When a body is moving in a circular motion, its velocity is tangential to the circular path at
si

every point. The acceleration is in the direction of force, i.e. towards the center of rotation.
hy
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41 of 220
 Deformation
It is produced due to the change in shape and size of the body by the application of force.

d
A force can

hi
1. Change the shape of an object
2. Change the size of an object

as
3. Accelerate or decelerate a moving object or a stationary object.

Elastic body

10 n R
A body that has the tendency to extend or compress on the application of force and then return
back to its original state is regarded as the elastic body.

Elasticity

84 ha
It is the property of a body to regain its original shape when deformed by the application of
57 as force.
A rubber band and a metal wire, both have different elasticities but it is of notice here that the
metal wire has a greater elasticity than a rubber band.
-2 K

As mentioned earlier, elasticity is the property to how much it resists deformation and return to
42 ir

its original shape. It is not the property of how much a body deforms when acted upon by a
force. Metal wire resists deformation more than a rubber band, hence it is more elastic in
S

nature. It returns to its original shape and size even after very large amount of forces. Whereas
on those forces, a rubber band would snap.
by
03
cs
si
hy
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42 of 220
 Hook’s Law
force - extension graph
According to Hook’s Law, 4

“Force applied is directional 3.5

d
proportional to extension, within limit
3

hi
of proportionality.”
2.5
𝐹∝𝑥

Force F/N

as
𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥 2

Where k is the spring constant or 1.5

10 n R
Hook’s constant. Its SI Unit is N/m. The
1
value of k highlights how elastic an
object is. 0.5

84 ha
Value of k can be calculated by 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
determining the ratio of force and
extension x/m
extension from the graph. 57 as
Example
-2 K
2
At F=2N, the spring constant is 𝑘 = 2 = 1𝑁/𝑚
3.5
At F=3.5N, the spring constant is 𝑘 = = 0.875𝑁/𝑚
42 ir

4
S

to check from graph, which line is of a spring with

greater spring constant, pick up any value of
extension and check the required force for both
by

graphs. The graph that needs greater force for

that extension is a stiffer spring and has a larger
spring constant.
03
cs

SPRING CONSTANT TELLS ABOUT

si

STIFFNESS OF SPRING. THE

GREATER THE VALUE OF SPRING
hy

CONSTANT, THE STIFFER IS THE

SPRING.
P

43 of 220
 Most of the cases involve graphs having force on the x-axis and extension on y-axis.

d
hi
as
10 n R
The two graphs above show that if the object is extended before elastic limit or till elastic limit,
it’ll return back to the initial length.

84 ha
57 as
-2 K
42 ir
S
by

This graph shows that if graph extends beyond elastic limit, permanent deformation would
occur and graph would turn towards extension axis, which in this case is on y-axis.
03
cs
si
hy
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44 of 220
 Elastic Limit
Elastic limit is the point beyond which the object undergoes permanent deformation.
Beyond this point, the molecular structure of Force - length graph

d
the body distorts and it cannot return back to
8

hi
its original position. On graph at right, point S is
7
the elastic limit.
6

as
NOTE: IN O LEVELS, IT CAN BE CONSIDERED 5

Force F/N
THAT ELASTIC LIMIT AND LIMIT OF 4

10 n R
PROPORTIONALITY ARE THE SAME POINTS ON 3
GRAPH. 2
1
After the elastic limit, the 0

84 ha
0 5 10 15
graph takes a turn. It becomes Length l/m

easier for the object to deform

57 as
after crossing the elastic limit.
-2 K
(In reality limit of proportionality and elastic limit are two different points. First comes the limit
of proportionality and then comes the elastic limit. Means even after losing the proportionality
42 ir

relationship, the object remains in the elastic region and can return back to its original state
when the force is removed.)
S

When the body crosses the elastic limit and the

application of force continues, the body moves into
by

the plastic region. Point T lies in the plastic region.

When the force is now removed, the object returns
back but not to its original length. This time, there
03
cs

remains a permanent elongation in the body which

is equal to RV region in the above graph.
si

A force length does not starts from 0 on the x axis

as there would be a specific length even when the
hy

force is zero.
P

45 of 220
 Experimental procedure to determine Hook’s Constant “k” of a spring
1. Hang a spring from one end and attach a mass hanger on the other

d
2. Determine the length of the spring with the mass hanger attached and note it as l 1.

hi
3. Add a known mass on the hanger and allow to spring to come to equilibrium.

as
4. Note the new length of the spring and note it as l2.
5. Subtract the l1 from l2 to determine the extension produced.

10 n R
6. Now hang another mass and repeat the same procedure.
7. Plot a graph of force and extension with force on the y-axis and extension on the x-axis.

84 ha
8. Determine the gradient of the graph to get the spring constant “k”.

Elastic Potential Energy 57 as

Energy stored in the body when stretched or compressed.
1 1
-2 K
𝐸= 𝐹𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝐸 = 𝑘𝑥 2
2 2
The energy stored can also be calculated by determining the area under the graph of F-x graph
42 ir

with force on the y-axis and extension on the x-axis.

S
by
03
cs
si
hy

After permanent deformation, the material

P

has some elastic potential energy

permanently stored in it.

46 of 220
 Springs in Series Springs in Parallel
Force All springs experience same Force is divided among springs
force
Extension Extension decreases when
Extension increases when

d
springs are combined in parallel
springs are attached in series 1 1 1 1

hi
𝑥𝑇 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 … = + + …
𝑥 𝑇 𝑥1 𝑥 2 𝑥 3
Spring constant Spring constant of the

as
Spring constant of combination
combination decreases
1 1 1 1 increases
= + + … 𝑘𝑇 = 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 …
𝑘 𝑇 𝑘1 𝑘 2 𝑘 3

10 n R
Combination acts a soft Combination acts a hard spring
spring

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57 as
-2 K
42 ir
S
by
03
cs
si
hy
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47 of 220
 Mass, Weight and Density
Mass Weight
1. It is defined as the amount of matter 2. It is the result of the effect of gravity in
present in a body mass.

d
2. It is a scalar quantity 2. It is a vector quantity
3. It is measured in kilograms (kg) 3. It is measured in Newton (N)

hi
4. It is measured using Electronic Balance 4. It is measured using Newton meter and
and Beam Balance Compression Balance

as
5. It stays constant at all points 5. It varies from place to place due to
change in gravity

10 n R
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57 as
Electronic balance Beam balance Spring balance Compression balance
-2 K

Inertia and mass

Inertia is based upon the mass present in the body. It is the property of a body to resist any
42 ir

sudden change in the state of rest or uniform motion. The greater the mass of the body
means greater the inertia. Hence the more resistance it will pose when changing the state.
S

Gravitational Field
by

A region in space around a mass where another mass experiences a gravitational force.
Note: This force exists around every single entity that
03
cs

has mass which includes human as well. The reason

why humans don’t come colliding one another from
different directions is that this force is very small in
si

magnitude. It requires a very large body, like a planet,

to produce enough force so that a force of attraction
hy

can be experienced.

Gravitational Field Strength

P

It is defined as the force per unit mass in a gravitational

field.
Remember, the gravitational field strength decreases as we move away from the centre of
the mass. This means the gravitational force experienced near the earth’s surface will be

48 of 220
 stronger than that experience about 7km above. But the reduction is not so large to be
experienced on small heights.
At about 6378km, the earth’s gravitational field drops to ¼ of what it is at the surface of the
earth but it doesn’t get zero. It’s not even zero at about 400,000 km which is why the moon
is still orbiting the earth!

d
hi
as
10 n R
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Calculating Weight
Weight is a force, so Newton’s second law of motion can be applied to calculate that force.
57 as
Using F=ma, Force can be replaced by the weight, mass remains mass, and acceleration is
replaced by the acceleration of freefall i.e. gravitational field strength (10 ms -2). Hence the
-2 K

formula for calculating weight becomes

W = mg
42 ir

It is of notice here that weight depends upon gravitational field strength. Planets that have
S

greater value of ‘g’ will cause the body to experience a greater force and vice versa. Places
where no gravity exists, no weight of the body exists as well.
by

However, mass of the body remains unaffected when the value of ‘g’ changes. As it is the
amount of matter present in a body, it remains the same.
03
cs

Conclusion. Weight changes when moved from one planet to another but mass doesn’t.
Instruments that measure weight will give a different reading on different planets but those
who measure mass will give the same reading.
si

Density
hy

Density is defined as mass per unit

volume.
P

It tells us that how compact an object

is. If it has large mass stuffed in a small
volume, it has a higher density. Like
lead, its density is very high. This is
because too much mass (lead atoms

49 of 220
 are heavy) is closely stuffed in a small volume.
Foam on the other hand has very low density. The reason is that in the same volume, foam
particles are light and are less crowded.
Another analogy to understand the concept of density is by considering a room of 5m x 5m.
On one occasion, that room contains 10 people and on the other, it contains 18 people. In

d
the second case, the density can of people can be considered greater as there are more

hi
people in the same volume room than before.
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔

as
Density =
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆
Its SI unit is either kg/m3 or g/cm3

10 n R
Density of Regular shaped objects
1. Calculate the mass of the object using an electronic balance.

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2. Measure the required dimensions of the object for calculating its volume e.g. length,
width, diameter, depth etc.
3. Now use the formula, mentioned above to calculate the density of that object.
57 as
Density of Irregular shaped objects
-2 K

The problem with irregular shaped objects is that its volume cannot be measured by using
the formula, as formulae for volumes
exist for only regular shaped objects.
42 ir

The procedure is therefore as under.

S

1. Calculate the mass of the body

using an electronic balance.
by

2. Pour water in a graduated

container (measuring cylinder)
and note the initial volume.
03
cs

3. Now dip the irregular shaped

object carefully to avoid
splashing of water outside the
si

container.
hy

4. Note the final volume after dipping.

5. Now subtract the initial volume from the final
volume to determine the volume of the irregular
P

shaped object. “Eureka Can” could be used too.

Remember: The mass needs to be measured first
because dipping the object in water will cause an
increase in mass as water droplets might stick on
the surface or get absorbed/adsorbed.
6. Use the formula mentioned above to calculate
the density of the object.

50 of 220
 Density of a liquid
1. Measure the mass of an empty measuring cylinder (m1).
2. Pour liquid in the cylinder and note the volume (V)
3. Note the new mass of the measuring cylinder and liquid (m2)
4. Subtract m1 from m2 to get the mass of liquid (m)

d
5. Use the formula d=m/V to get the density of the liquid.

hi
as
10 n R
84 ha
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Significance of the variation of densities
Things float or sink based upon their relative densities. If an object is placed on the surface
-2 K

of the liquid and it floats on it, this means its density is lower than that of the liquid. A gold
ring will sink in the water as its density is higher than that of water but a plastic sheet of the
size of a tank will float.
42 ir

Oil floats on water because oil is less dense than water. (Density of coconut oil is 0.925
S

g/cm3 and density of water is 1 g/cm3)

by
03
cs
si
hy
P

51 of 220
 Shape Formula for Volume
Cube

𝑉 = 𝑙3

d
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Cuboid

as
𝑉 =𝑙×𝑤×ℎ

10 n R
Cylinder

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57 as
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
-2 K
42 ir

Cone
S

1
by

𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
3
03
cs

Sphere
si
hy

4
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 3
P

52 of 220
 Moment of a force
To understand the idea of moment, imagine holding your school bag close to you and then
holding the same bag with your arms stretched. Even though the weight of the bag is same, it

d
appears heavier. That’s Moment of force! The weight of your bag is now causing your arm to

hi
turn about your shoulder joint.
It is defined as the product of force and perpendicular distance from the pivot to the line of

as
action of force.
Moment = force x perpendicular distance

10 n R
𝜏 = 𝐹 ×⊥ 𝑑
Pivot is the point about which a body rotates.

84 ha
Moment enhances the effect of a force. Opening a
bottle cap of a regular sized cold drink is difficult with
57 as
hand but using a bottle opener reduces the effort
required. Heavy objects can be lifted or displaced using
the function of moment.
-2 K
Opening the door from near the hinge is a
cumbersome task but when the door knob is placed
42 ir

away from the hinge, a turning effect in generated and

S

less effort is required to open the door.

A nutcracker also uses the principle of moments to
by

produce a greater effect of force, than applied.

03
cs
si
hy
P

𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 100 × 0.5 = 50𝑁𝑚 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 100 × 0.8 = 80𝑁𝑚

53 of 220
 Principle of Equilibrium
There are two conditions for equilibrium, sum of all the forces must be equal to zero and sum
of all the moments must be equal to zero. The second condition is highlighted as the principle

d
of equilibrium.

hi
The statement is written as under.
“For an object to be in rotational equilibrium, the sum of clockwise moment must be equal to

as
the sum of anticlockwise moment”
Mathematically,

10 n R
Σ Moment of clockwise = Σ Moment of anticlockwise
F1 x d1 = F2 x d2

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57 as
-2 K
42 ir
S

Example 1
by
03
cs
si

Solution 1
hy

∑ 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 = ∑ 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒

100 × 40 = (𝐹 × 10) + (20 × 40)
P

𝐹 = 320𝑁

54 of 220
 Example 2

d
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as
10 n R
Solution 2
∑ 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 = ∑ 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
(5 × 6) + (6 × 2) + (8 × 2) = (10 × 4) + (𝐹 × 4) + (2 × 6)

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𝐹 = 1.5𝑁

57 as
Experimental determination of Principle of Moments
1. Pivot the meter rule from its center. Make sure it is horizontal. If not, add Plasticine to
-2 K
balance the rule.
2. Hang unequal masses on either side of the pivot and adjust their distances until the
42 ir

meter rule balances again. Note the distance of both the masses
3. Convert the mass into weight by multiplying it by gravitational field strength.
S

4. Multiply the weight on the Right-hand side by its distance from the center.
5. Similarly multiply the weight on the Left-hand side by its distance from the center.
by

6. Both the answers will be same hence proving the principle of moment.

Centre of Mass
03
cs

It is the point in a body where the whole weight of it appears to act. It is specified as a point
around which the total mass of the body is distributed evenly. In a uniform gravitational field, it
si

is the point about which that body can be balanced.

Centre of gravity and center of mass are very interchangeably used. Centre of gravity is a point
hy

in a body about which the net torque of the body becomes zero. In a uniform gravitational field,
center of mass and center of gravity coincide, but if the body is taken in a region of non-
P

uniform gravitational field, the both will not coincide. Centre of gravity will shift to the side
where the gravitational field strength is stronger while the center of mass will remain at the
same position.

55 of 220
 Determining the center of mass of regular shaped object
Regular shaped objects have their center of
mass at the intersection of their diagonals

d
i.e. the geometric center of the body.

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as
10 n R
Determining the center of mass of irregular shaped objects (lamina)
For calculating the center of mass of a lamina, a plumb line experiment is carried out.

84 ha
1. Produce three holes in the lamina as far apart as possible.
57 as
2. Set up a pendulum hanging from a retort stand.
3. Hang the lamina from one of the holes behind the
-2 K
pendulum.
4. Hit it slowly to ensure it is hanging freely.
42 ir

5. Plot a line behind the pendulum string on the lamina

S

6. Repeat the same procedure for the rest of the holes.

by

7. The point where the lines intersect is the centre of

mass of that body.
03
cs
si
hy
P

56 of 220
 Stability
Stability in a body arrives when the center of mass stays inside the point of contact. There are
three cases of stability

d
1. Stable Equilibrium

hi
An object is said to be in stable equilibrium if it returns back to its original position when
slightly displaced. Stable Equilibrium exists on a body till its center of mass rises from its

as
original position and weight stays inside the base. If tilting is done to a large extent, the
weight would move out of base area and object would topple over.

10 n R
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57 as
-2 K
2. Unstable Equilibrium
An object is said to be in unstable equilibrium if it does not return back to its original
position when slightly displaced. Unstable Equilibrium exists on a body when its center
42 ir

of mass falls from its original position and weight move out of base.
S
by
03
cs
si
hy
P

57 of 220
 3. Neutral Equilibrium
An object is said to be in neutral equilibrium if it stays in the same position when
displaced. Neutral Equilibrium exists on a body when its center of mass does not rise not
fall when the body is displaced and weight stays within the base all the time.

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as
10 n R
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Movement of Center of Mass on displacement
57 as
-2 K
42 ir
S
by
03
cs
si
hy
P

58 of 220
 To improve the stability of a body
1. Increase the base area of the body
2. Lower the center of mass of the body

d
Formula racing cars have a very wide base area to increase their stability so that when they turn

hi
at very high speeds, they don’t get toppled over. Similarly, they are kept very close to the
ground to lower their center of mass.

as
Self-righting toys have a center of mass very close to the ground. So when they are hit and
toppled down, they again rise back by themselves. They have a very high stability.

10 n R
Note that the center of mass shifts to side where there is greater mass.

84 ha
57 as
-2 K
42 ir
S
by
03
cs
si
hy
P

59 of 220
 Work, Energy and Power

Work

d
It is the product of force and displacement paralle

hi
to force.
It can also be said that work is said to be done

as
when an object moves in the direction of applied
force.

10 n R
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 = 𝐹 × 𝑠
SI Unit: Joules (J) Scalar Quantity

84 ha
Work is done by a force when body moves in the direction of force.
57 as
Work is done against a force when body moves in direction opposite to force.
No work is done by that force if object moves perpendicular to direction of that force.
-2 K

A. Work is done by gravity when a ball rolls down a slope or fall under gravity
B. Work is done against gravity when the object rises upwards.
42 ir

C. Work is done against the friction force in restricting the flow of the object on the
slope.
S

D. Work is done by the driving force of the car when it travels along a road.
by
03
cs
si
hy
P

Work done by Gravity (Weight) Work done against Friction

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 = 𝐹 × 𝑠 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 = 𝐹 × 𝑠
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 = 100 × 0.05 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 = 50 × 0.13
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 = 5𝐽 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 = 6.5𝐽

60 of 220
 Energy
Energy is the ability of a body to do work.
SI Unit: Joules (J)
1. Renewable Energy Resources

d
Energy that can renewed or

hi
reused after once being
employed. Examples include

as
solar, tidal, wind, geothermal,
hydroelectric, wave and biogas.
2. Non-Renewable Energy

10 n R
Resources
Energy that can be used once.
Examples include chemical

84 ha
energy in coal and petroleum
products and nuclear energy.

Types of Energy
57 as
1. Mechanical Energy
-2 K

a. Kinetic Energy
b. Potential Energy
i. Gravitational Potential Energy
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ii. Elastic Potential Energy

S

iii. Electric Potential Energy

2. Sound Energy
3. Heat Energy
by

4. Light Energy
5. Chemical Energy
03

It is the energy possessed by a substance due to its chemical composition. Example,

cs

coal possess chemical energy that is used during combustion.

6. Internal Energy
si

It is the sum of microscopic kinetic and potential energy of molecules due to their
random motion. A specific mass of gas tends to have more internal energy than the
hy

same mass when it is in solid state. This is because molecules in solid have less
vibration compared to that of gas.
7. Nuclear Energy
P

It is the energy stored in the nucleus of an atom and is released during fission and
fusion reaction.

61 of 220
 Gravitational Potential Energy

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as
10 n R
It is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position/ elevation.

84 ha
𝐺. 𝑃. 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
This means that greater the mass, gravity or height of the object, the more would be the
57 as
gravitational potential energy stored in it. As the height of the body reduces, the potential
energy decreases.
-2 K

a. Gravitational Potential Energy is lost when object falls down (height decreases)
b. Gravitational Potential Energy is gained when object rises up (height increases)
42 ir

Elastic Potential Energy

S

Energy stored in the body when stretched or compressed.

1 1
by

𝐸 = 𝐹𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝐸 = 𝑘𝑥 2
2 2
The energy stored can also be calculated by determining the area under the graph of F-x
03

graph with force on the y-axis and extension on the x-axis. The gradient of the graph tells
cs

the value of spring constant ‘k’.

si
hy
P

62 of 220
 Kinetic Energy
Energy stored in the body by virtue of its motion.
1
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2

d
This shows that KE is directly proportional to the mass of the body and to the square of the
velocity. If the mass of the body is doubled, KE doubles. But if the velocity of the body is

hi
doubled, the KE increases 4 times (square of 2). Tripling the velocity would increase the
kinetic energy 9 times!

as
Example

10 n R
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57 as
Solution
-2 K
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S
by
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si
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63 of 220
 Law of Conservation of Energy
Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. It can only be converted from one form to
another.
Object falling under gravity (without air resistance)

d
The potential energy stored in the body would be converted into the kinetic energy

hi
throughout its motion. As there is no air resistance, there would be no energy lost while
motion. As the ball hits the ground, the kinetic energy gained during the fall will be partially

as
converted to the heat energy and elastic potential energy during collision. The remaining
energy will be utilized to raise the ball up again. The height gained by ball will now be less
than that from which it fell.

10 n R
P.E. → K.E. → Elastic potential + heat → K.E. → P.E
Object falling under gravity (with air resistance)

84 ha
Falling with air resistance will cause the energy loss in the form of heat during motion of the
ball to the ground. The rest of the pattern would be exactly the same as above. However,
the height regained by the ball will be lesser than that of the previous case.
57 as
P.E. → K.E. + heat → Elastic potential + heat → K.E. + heat → P.E.
-2 K

A similar analysis can be done on an object rolling down a plane with friction or without
friction. However there would be no P.E regained unless the track causes the ball to rise
again.
42 ir

Object falling at constant speed in air (always with air resistance)

S

If an object is falling with a constant speed, then the potential energy lost by it is not
by

converted to the kinetic energy. If it would have been the case, there would have been an
increase in the kinetic energy and the object would have speeded up. Then where is the
potential energy lost going? The lost potential energy is being converted to heat energy due
03
cs

to the air resistance.

Loss of P.E. → heat energy
si

For some time, during the start of the motion, there would have been conversion of
potential energy into the kinetic energy and heat energy as the ball will be speeding up. But
hy

as soon as the ball reaches its terminal speed (constant speed) no gain in kinetic energy
occurs.
P

Car traveling at a constant speed on a level road with air resistance

The same case can be applied on a car moving at a constant speed on a level road. The work
done by the driving force of the car is now equal to the work done against friction. The
chemical energy of the fuel in converted to heat energy because of air resistance and
friction. If this constant driving force is not provided (engine switched off or accelerator not
pressed) resistive forces would dominate and the car would began to slow down.

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 Chemical energy of fuel → heat energy
Similarly if a car is travelling up a hill at constant speed, the chemical energy in the fuel is
converted to potential energy of the car and heat energy due to air resistance.
Chemical energy → potential energy + heat energy

d
Pendulum

hi
In case of a pendulum oscillating, the energy conversion is from potential energy to kinetic
energy. At one extreme position, the

as
potential energy of the bob is maximum
and the kinetic energy is minimum. As the
ball starts to move down, the potential

10 n R
energy converts to kinetic and at the
minimum position, kinetic energy is
maximum and potential energy

84 ha
minimum. Now the bob starts to rise back
up again to the next extreme position.
Kinetic energy now converts to potential
57 as
and is maximum when the bob is at the extreme position.
Potential energy→Kinetic energy→Potential energy
-2 K

Power
42 ir

Power is the rate at which work is done or the rate at which energy is converted.
S

𝐸 𝑊
𝑃= 𝑜𝑟 𝑃 =
𝑡 𝑡
by

Scalar Quantity SI Unit: Watts (W)

A machine that converts more energy in the same or less amount of time is considered as
03
cs

more powerful. Similarly, 100W and 20W bulb are different in the sense that 100W bulb
converts 100J of electrical energy in 1 second whereas 20W bulb converts 20J of electrical
energy in 1 second.
si

Efficiency
hy

Efficiency tells what ratio of the input energy in converted to useful form.
It is the ratio of useful output to total input.
P

𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
No machine can be 100% efficient as some of the energy is lost in the form of heat due to
friction.
Total input = useful output + wasted energy

65 of 220
 Pressure
It is defined as the force per unit area exerted by the body on a surface.
It actually tells about the distribution of force on a surface where the force is applied and
this distribution is defined as per unit area.

d
Example can be taken as if a 10N force is placed on a surface of 5m2, then each m2 will be

hi
bearing a force of 2N. Such a distribution is defined as pressure.

as
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

10 n R
SI Unit: Pascal (Pa)
Basically, the unit is N/m2 but it is mentioned as Pascal (Pa)
Pressure is directly proportional to force and inversely proportional to area. Means if the

84 ha
force acting on the surface increases, the pressure exerted by that body also increases.
Similarly, if the area in contact decreases, the pressure increases.
57 as
For Example, the end of a nail is made sharp (very small area of contact) so that maximum
pressure is generated and the nail can penetrate through the wall.
-2 K

The shoe with a flat sole exerts less pressure due to large surface area where as stiletto
heels exert more pressure due to less surface area.
42 ir

Camels have flat feet to produces less pressure while walking on the sand in the deserts.
This help them from sinking into the sand.
S

Walnuts can be broken in hand by squeezing two together but not one. Why?
by

(A question taken from Cambridge IGCSE Physics (3rd Edition) by Tom Duncan and Heather
Kennett)
03

The objects on the right have the same

cs

weight but different surface areas.

Object A has an area of 6m2 where has
si

Object B has an area of 12m2. Hence he

pressure obtained for object A is 4 Pa
hy

whereas for Object B is 2 Pa, which is

less than that of A. So, quantitatively, it
is proven that increasing the surface
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area decreases the pressure.

66 of 220
 Atmospheric Pressure
Pressure exerted due to the collision of air molecules in atmosphere around us is regarded as
atmospheric pressure.
At sea level, the atmospheric pressure is determined to be 1.01 x 105 Pa or 1 x 105 Pa.

d
There are several ways of mentioning the atmospheric pressure.

hi
1.01 x 105 Pa = 760 mm Hg = 14.7 psi = 1 bar = 1 atm

as
Atmospheric Pressure decreases as height from the earth’s surface increases.
1. At higher altitudes, the density of air decreases. This results in less no of collisions of

10 n R
air molecules with the surface of body. Less force is produced and hence less
pressure exerted.
2. At higher altitudes, the temperature also decreases. This slows down the speed of
motion of air molecules. Now they collide with less force to the surface of body and

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hence pressure decreases.
To measure atmospheric pressure, a device called
57 as
“barometer” is used

Barometer
-2 K

Barometer is made up of a pan containing a liquid and a

test tube inverted in it. The liquid used in a barometer is
42 ir

basically mercury because of its high density. The length

S

of the mercury column above the surface of the mercury

in the pan is regarded as the atmospheric pressure. At
sea level, this length of column is equal to 760mm, hence
by

atmospheric pressure is also mentioned as 760mm Hg.

If manometer is taken to a higher altitude where
03
cs

atmospheric pressure is less, the liquid level in the tube

falls.
si

This is because
external pressure
hy

decreases and less

liquid is now needed
to balance reduced
P

atmospheric pressure.
Also, if tube is
inclined, there will be
no effect of the height
of liquid column.

67 of 220
 Pressure in Liquids
Pressure in a liquid depends upon the density of that liquid, the gravity of that planet and
the depth of the liquid column. The formula utilized for calculating the pressure of a liquid is
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ

d
Where ρ is the density, g is the gravitational

hi
acceleration and h is the depth of the liquid column.
1. Depth is measured from top surface of liquid

as
2. Height is measured from bottom surface of
container

10 n R
Note that the greater the depth of the column, the
higher the pressure exerted.
Similarly, the higher the density of the liquid, the

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greater will be the pressure exerted by that liquid. If
water (ρ = 1000kg/m3) and mercury (ρ ≈ 13600kg/m3) are considered, same column of
mercury will produce a greater pressure than that of water because of its higher density.
57 as
It is also to note that the formula of
pressure does not account for the
-2 K

significance of surface area or shape of the

liquid column. It does not matter how the
42 ir

shape of the container is or what is the base

area of the container, the pressure of the
S

liquid will be the same if the height of the

column is same.
by

Points A, B, C, D and E all have the same

pressure as all the columns have the same depth.
03
cs

Considering water (density = 1000 kg/m3)

filled in a 10m deep tank. Calculate
si

a. Pressure of liquid at X
hy

𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 1000 × 10 × 8
𝑃 = 80000 𝑃𝑎
b. Total Pressure at X
P

𝑷𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝑷𝒍𝒊𝒒 + 𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎

𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 80000 + 1 × 105
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 1.8 × 105 𝑃𝑎

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 Pascal’s Law
According to Blaise Pascal,
“liquid exerts equal pressure on all its surfaces. If a pressure is exerted from one end, the
liquid transmits the pressure equally and undiminished in all directions.”

d
This concept of Pascal’s law is effectively applied in hydraulics where liquid is used to

hi
transmit pressure from one end to another.
Liquid is incompressible in nature that’s why it

as
transmits pressure undiminished.
One end of a hydraulic system is made of a

10 n R
smaller surface area and the other. As
pressure is equally transmitted, the variation
in area will the variation in force. So,

84 ha
increasing the area will result in greater force
on that end.
This is because to achieve the same pressure,
57 as
increasing the area will cause an increase in
force as well.
-2 K

𝑷𝑨 = 𝑷 𝑩
42 ir

𝐹𝐴 𝐹𝐵
=
𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐵
S

The expression mentioned above can be used to calculate the area or force produced by a
hydraulic system.
by

Although force can be magnified using Hydraulic Systems, this doesn’t mean that more work
or more energy is produced! Work done is till the same!
03
cs

As 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡, increase in force results in decrease in displacement.

The larger piston moves out less compared to the amount that smaller piston moved in.
si
hy
P

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 Applications of Hydraulics
1. Hydraulic Lifts
It is used to lift cars or heavy objects.
Force is exerted on the end with the
smaller area from where the pressure is

d
transmitted to the larger area. Here the

hi
force is magnified several folds to cause
the object to lift.

as
2. Hydraulic Brakes

10 n R
84 ha
57 as
-2 K
42 ir

The pressing of the pedal forces the fluid in the master cylinder to flow to the slave
cylinders in the braking system. These slave cylinders force the pistons that are
S

connected to the brake shoes to move out. Hence the brake shoes touch the rotating
wheel and stop the motion with the help of friction.
by
03
cs
si
hy
P

Applying principle of Hydraulics,

𝐹𝑃 𝐹𝑄 20 𝐹𝑄
= 𝑠𝑜 = ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐹𝑄 = 100𝑁
𝐴𝑃 𝐴𝑄 5 25

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 3. Hydraulic Press
A system that works similar to a hydraulic lift but with the only difference that it
does not lift, rather presses the object to deform it or mold it in other shape.

d
hi
as
10 n R
84 ha
57 as
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42 ir
S
by

Pressure of a gas
03

Pressure of a gas is explained as following

cs

1. Particles of a gas are in continuous random motion.

2. They collide with each other and with the walls of the container.
si

3. This exerts a force on the walls of the container.

4. This force per unit area is called pressure of a gas.
hy

Pressure of a gas is directly proportional to temperature, at constant volume.

P

1. Increasing the temperature increases the kinetic energy of the molecules.

2. They start to vibrate more vigorously.
3. Hence, a greater force is exerted by the molecules, increasing the pressure.

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 Boyle’s Law
Pressure of gas is inversely proportional to volume, at constant temperature.
Decreasing the volume brings the molecules closer to one another and hence the rate of
collisions increases. This increases the force and hence the pressure.

d
𝟏
𝑷 ∝

hi
𝑽
𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐

as
10 n R
84 ha
57 as
-2 K
42 ir
S
by
03
cs
si
hy
P

72 of 220
 Manometer
A manometer measures relative pressure a source compared to atmospheric pressure. The
difference between the two levels of the liquid is used to measure the difference in
pressure.

d
The formula of liquid pressure P = ρgh is used where h is replaced by the difference in height
and ρ with the density of the liquid in the container. The answer obtained is then added

hi
with the atmospheric pressure to calculate the absolute pressure of the gas.

as
Conditions of Manometer

10 n R
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If the levels are equal, then If the level of the mercury If the level of the mercury
the pressure of the gas is connected to the gas is connected to the gas is
42 ir

equal to atmospheric lower than the side open to higher than the side open to
pressure atmosphere, than the gas atmosphere, than the gas
S

has a higher pressure. has a lower pressure.

by

Gas has pushed the liquid Atmosphere has pushed the

on its side down due to liquid on its side down due
greater pressure. to greater pressure.
03
cs

Liquid column between two Liquid column between two

levels on the right and levels on the left and gas
atmospheric pressure both pressure both combined are
si

combined are able to able to balance pressure of

balance pressure of gas. atmosphere.
hy
P

A. If the mercury in the tube is replaced with a liquid of lesser density, then the liquid
column generated will be more and vice versa.
B. Changing the thickness of the bore of the capillary tube will have no effect on the
liquid column. This is because liquid pressure only depends upon density,
gravitational acceleration and depth.

73 of 220