• I

�
L. Bostock and S· Chandler
TextCLBostocltandS,Chancller1964
Original �ustratioos c, Nelsoo Thomes ua 1984
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Unit9cl�

Acatalogue,eco«:l lorl!list>ooki savailablelrcmllleBri!istll.it>rary

ISBN0859501•18
Page ma�e-upby Tech-5"' Lia
Printed andbound in Spain by Graphycems
 CONTENTS

Nott1on Ure ofthe Book

Chapter I. lotrodudion
B:uicconcepts offorceandmotion.

Chapter 2 VKton. Componm11 and Resultant&.Moment 12

Vet,lo r rcprcKntatlon.Prope,tles ofvectors.Resolutlon.
Rnultamofcon,;urrent coplanarforcc:l.Vcctorcguation
ofaline Vectoreguatlon ofthcpath ofamovlngpanldc.
Posltiun vector ofthc poi n t ofintcnectionoftwollncs.
Momeotofafnrr:e Brsnhammomeol

Ch.JptcrJ. CopbnarForcesinEquilibrium.Friction 66
Equil ibrium oftluee copltnuforces.Triang]c offor«s.

�
Iawl's thrnrrm Co o1ac1 force< between soHd bodies
Laws offric1ion.Equilibrium ofmore than lhree

Oiapm 4. Vdocity and Accdcntlon 110

Motion lnallralght llne.Vcl0<;lty.Acc:elcra!lon.
Dispia«mcnt-t1mcandveloclty-timegraphs.Egu.ations
nfmntion fnrcomtanl l inear acrcterlfinn Yct1ic1l
motion undr1gravity.Motionwith co111tantvel ocity.
Motion l n a p!anc.Angulumotl on.Eguatinnsof
motionfor con1tantangularaccck1ation.

Chap1erS. Newton'1Uwso!Mo1kin 149

The effectofa const1ntforceon a body.Motlonof
conne<,tedparticle1.
Cl u.ptcr6. Work andPoVffl' 181

Chapter?. Hooke'1Ll\\·.E11my 199

Prnpenies ofelasticstringsand springs .Work doncln
1tretching1 11ring.Mcchanica.lenergy.Conscrvation of
mech1nk1lenergy.

Chapter 8. Momentvm. DirKt Impact 232

lmpulsc.lnelastic imP3ct.Conscrvationoflinear
momencum.EIHtic impact. Law of 1e1titution.

Chapter9. Projt(tiks
. 267
Genc1alequations ofmotionofa projcctilc.Equation
ofthe path ofa projectile.Special properties.

Chapter 10. Molion in I CiTcle 223

Ci"ular motion with con1tan1 il)C(!d. Conical
pendulum.Banke d tr;u;kl.Motion i n a verticalcirclc:.

Chapte r 11. General Motion of• J'utid., 338

Motion i n a straight line,o:ilh,·ariab!c aceekration.The
effect of a v:iriableforce on a body.G1aphicalmethods.
Forcesp1oducing mollonin1plane.Mo1 ionin three
dimcnsion1.Collisionofmoving particlu.Distance
between movingpmic le1. Scal u product of two vectors.
Work done by a constant force.W01k done by a vuUble
fo1C£.lmpulscofav:iriable force.

Chapter 12. Simple&nnonlcMotion 382

Buie equations of lineai and angular SHM. ,\$SOcl11ed
clrtul u motion.Slmplependulum.Movingparticle
attache d t o an e bsticllringor spring.lncomplete
""'"""""-

Chapter 13. Rtsulf.llnlMolion.Rcbtiw:Motion

Re1ultant velocity vectors.Resultant diJcctionof
motion.Fra= of reference.Relativevelocity .Relathe
pos ition.Une ofclosest approach.lntcrception.

vii
Chapter 14. Rtsuhanu of Coplanar fotffll.Eg11ivalt.nr Foree Syste111S 454
Coplanarforcnrcd11cingtoa single fo1cc.Reiulun1 0f
paralldforce1.Co11ple.Propertie,ofa co11p\e.
Rcsul11n1 offorces represen1c d bylinesegmen1S.
Replacernent forcesys1ems.

Chap!e1 \S. CcnlrcofGm·ity 498

�
Unif orm uiangular lamina. Composite bodies. Methods
usinginteption.Bodyhangingfreely.Bodyrc5tingon

Chapte, 16. Problems lnvolvinaRWdBodies

Eq11ilibriurnofa rigid body11ndcr the actionof
(a)three forces (b)morc than thrceforocs.Sllding
1ndovcn urnlng.Compos!tc bo dies.Mcavyjointcd 1ods.

Chap!" 17. Framework.I 570

Calculation ofmen in light rods. Bow's notation.
Method ofseclloos.

Chapter 18. Probability 587

Pouibilityspace.Ernpirlcalp10babili1y.Mu1ual]y
exclusiveev-ents.lndependent cvcnu.Conditional
prob1bili1y.Trttdia1m1ms.Sarnple polnls.Venn
diagr,mu.Expectation.

"'
 NOTES ON USE OF THE BOOK

1. Notation Uffd In oi.-ms

Force -----{>
Velocity -,.
Acceleration- -­
-
Dim,,woo,t----------- --1
Where components 1nd resultant arc: shown in one diagam the resultant is
denotedby• larger arrow•hnd thus: � ...._

a: '\_
2. Valueofg

Throughoutthisbookthe value of g, unlessstated otherwise,istakcn

as 9.Sms-2•

3Us.futPu,eM1th1me11ct

l,.,y,�gl,ABC

..
�
O

a �·- •
sinA
C

sinB
-=- = -
sinC
SineRule

Cotangent Rule (m+rr)cotB = m cotll!-ncot�

Compound Angle Formulae
11in(A±B) = sinA cosB:t co1A sinB
c0$(At8) = eosA cosB+ sin A s inB
 "'
Smallangles
A5 fl-0, --1
•
Integrals
f �dx = lnfk/(x)I
dx = ¾•rcsin�+k
f v'(111�b1 x')

4.lnrtruction1forAnsweringMultipleCholceExerelul
These exercises are at the end ofm05tcluipters.Thequestlom ue set in groups,
eachgroup repruentingoneofthevui1tlomthat m1yarise inexaminalion
p.iper1.The answeringte,;hniquesared.ifTerentfor each typeofquestion 1ndare
eluslf1ed as follOW$"

These questions consist of a problem followed by $1.:veral alternative answers,

onlyo11eofwhichlscorrect.
Write down 1he letter corresponding to the correct answer.

In this type of quenion 50me inf onnation is given and is followed by a number
ofpossible responsrs.Oneormoreofthe suggested1esponsesfoUow1 direc1ly
from the information given.
Wrice down the lener{s)corre5ponding to the conect response(s).
A responseis regar dedas correctonlyifitnumfoDowfiom the given data.
For example,ln a trianglc PQR
0
(a P+Q+R=1so •
(b) PQ + QR Is lns than PR.
(c)) If Pis obtuse, Qandft ml.15t bothbe acute.
(d) p,.90•, 6=-45", R=4S".
Thccorrect responware(a)and(c)
(b) bdefinitelyincomct
d mayormaynotbe truc ofthetriangle PQR s o i s no1 reprdedncorrcct.
( )

Each pmblerncontains two independent sta1cment1 (1)and(b).

1) If (a)irnplles(b but (b doesnotimply(a write A.
2) If(b)implies(a) ) but (1 )doerno1lmply(b) write B.
) )
3) If (1)lmplies (b) and (b)implies (1) writeC .
4 ) I f (1)denies(b) and (b)denies{a) writeD.
S) l fnonc oflhcfitst fourre!atlonlhlp11pply write£.

A problem is Introduced 1nd followed bya number of piecM of information.

Youareno1 required to solvetheproblembutto dccidewhether;
1) the total amount of Information given ls huufficient to solve the problem. If
so write I,
2 ) all the given information is needed to solve the probkm. In dllllcllf write A,
3) theproblemcan besoh'Cd1<·fthoutuslngoneormoreoflhegiven plece1 of
Information.In thiscue write down the letter(,)corresponding tolhc itcm(s)not
needed.

A single statement is made. Write T iflhe statement is alw1y1 true and F if

thestatcmentis false(o1 trueonlyincenalncascs).
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

This book isaboutMechanics and the !Ol\ing of mechanical problems with

thehelpofPureMathematics.
Mechanics, which dnlswi1h1he effeclsthat fo1ce1have on bodies,isa science.
So the lawsof Mechanicsare scientific laws. They come from oburvation and
experimen1sand so can never be considered asuniversallytr11e. The mostlh.at
can benid ofsevtralof theselawsisthatthey agruwith observed re1111ltsto
the extent that tlleyue accurate enough for most purposes.PureMathematics,
on the other hand, is an art and iH theoremsare universally uue. When Pure
Mathematiu is used to wlve •Mechanical problem it is important rn distinguish
dearly between the use of a scientific Jaw and a mathematical theorem.

Certaln factor1whichhavea negligible effe.:t on a problemueoften lgnored.

Thishas the advantage of simplifying the problem without �riflcing much
accuracy,and is best illu,tratcdbyan c11,mplc.
Consider a heavy bob suspended from I f1Xed point by meansof a thin wire.
The weight or the wire is negligible compared with the weight or the bob,
andi;anbc lgno1'1'<1.lnsuclla casei1would be described asa/1Kh1wlre.
If the d!menliom of the bob are small compared wit h the length of the wire,
thebobcanbe considered as a point andwlllbe describe d 1 1 1parr lcle.
If the bob is swinging Inllill air, thenalrreslmuicelo its motion willbe
negligible. In fact air resistance isignored in all problemsunless specific
mentionismadeofit
lfthebob isin t h e sh1peofaOat disc,wherethe 1urf�ceare1 islugeoompa1'1'<1
loitslhickness , t h e t hicknessisignoredandthe bobisdescribed asa circu\a,
IDmina.
 lfthebobh.tsa1phericalshapeand the1hicknessofthem•terialit ismade
from it small compared to i t ssurface area. thit thickness I sagain ignored and
thebob i s described asah ol lowsphereorsph erica/shell.
lf1hebob i s madetollideacross1tab\e, thenthere will b e somefricllonal
resistanceto iumotion.Ahhough itis rareto finda frictlonles ssurface1he
amount of friction Is often small enough 10 be Ignored and such a 1urface i s
describedaumoorh.

Summ1ryofConwtntion1

Light.. . .Considered weightless

Partick . . . . . . Object havingno dimensions(consi dere d a sa potnt)
Lamina ., . . . . . Fl.at ob�cl,havingdllmn slonsof arc:aonly
Hollow . .....3. dimensionalshellofno thickness
Smooth... .Friction�ss
Alr resis1ance .. lgnored,unlessmentioni smadeofit,

UNITS

Most quantllles u sNI In thll; book are meuured In the S.J. syitem of units.
Thethrecbuicquantities arema.1, s le11gthandtime.All theotherquantities are
derivNlfrom these threebutthei 1 defini1ion sare lef1 un1il 1heappropria1e
chapters.

Quantity Unit Symbol

mass kilogram kg

N
length

J
time second

w
force newton
work joule
po wer

Mechanicsdealswiththeeffectofforcesactingonbodies,an d o ne effect i s
that motion i spro duced.Beforetherelationship betwecn forceand theresuhing
motion l$ discumd we will consider them separately.

Thefollowingqu:intitiesuenecded to de!iCribethemotio n o f a body:

Dis1anct:i1thelenxthof11c/rtr,p111h.
The unit afdi.st11nct i s tile met re(m).
 D sip/ac,:m enr defines thepoJ itlon of one point relative to another point:
displacement includesboth the disTancebetween two points and the direction
ofthc fint pointfromthesteond point.
Spttdis the rue atwhicha movingbody cover11 its path,noaccountbeing
taken ofthe directionof motion.
Thtunitof spud .The unit of distance is the metre and the unit of tlme is the
second,hencethe uni t of speed is the meue per second(ms-1).
Vel o c ti y includes both the me of motion and the di rection of motion.
Acc el erution. When a vtlo,;;itychanges.lt isbccauseelther the speed changes.
or the direction ofmotion changes. orboth change. Acceleration me:uu,es
this changei11 either speed,or directio11 ofmotion orboth ,i.e.acceleration
involves directi ooas wellas a magnitude.
Theunl t o[11Cc lel'ration.The unitof speed isthe metre per second, sothe unit
of accele ration isthe metreper second !X'rsecond(m1-1).

:□
I) A particle moves round a squa1e ABCD in the sense indicitedbythe letters.
Bis duenorthof A and C il due west of B and the�de ofthesquire i5 IOm.
If the particle Slam from A , whit distance has it travelled when it is mid- way
between B and C , and v.·hal is Itsdi splacement then from A?

:1
Whenthepanicle i s at P, the di stance travel!ed = AB+PB "" 15m
Thedinancebetween P and A "" V(JOi + 51)m = 5V5m
LBAP "" arc tan Jb • 26.6°
4e
Theref ore the displace ment of P from A is sVs m in the direction 333.
 MotMfflM!ct- Mod!1nlco.ndPn>bobllhy

2 ) If the particle in Example I is CO>"Cring iu path at a con�tant rate of 2 m s-1 ,

what is the speed when t1ave\lingalong (a) AB, (b) BC?
State aboiu velocitywhentravellins aloog (a)AB, (b)BC.
Spced alongAB = 2 m ,-•
Speed along BC = 2 m s-•
Vclocity alongAB • 2 m s-1 duenorth
Vdoclty along BC "' 2 m s-'due wcst
Note that although the speed a ol ng AB is equallo the 1pud along BC, the
velocity along AB ill not equ:tl Ill the velocity alllng BC.
3) If the particle in Example I moves w that when moving from C to D its
spee d increases a t a r.ueof 2 m 1-2, and when moving from D to A iuspced
decreases 11 a rate of 2 m ,-1, what is itsac.:cle ration Ilona CD and along DA?
When theparticle is movina along CD (the direction of motion is gh·en by the
order of the!etters. l.e. C to D) thespeed isincreWns a1 a r11teof 2 m1-l
Theref ore the acceleration is 2 m,-1 in the direction CD.
When the p,trtlcleill moving along DA the s
p e,!dis decreasing at a me of 2 ms-•.
The1efore the accelerationis 2 m,-•, but inthe dhectlon AD because the
sp« d is dec1easing.

I) Aparticlemoves round the sidl'Sof a regularhcxagon ABCDEF ofside 3m.

The particle suru from A and movesin the serne ABC. What is the distance
travelled by the particle and its displacement from A when it is
(a)u C, (b)at the midpoint of DE?
2) If the particle in Quc11i011 I c01·er1 i1Spuhit the constant 111teof 2 mt-1 ,
whal i• its di,placement from A after 12 i?
3) Whatlsthe velocityoftheparcicle!n Question 2 aftcr·
(a)S1, (b)I01?

4) Aparcide mo>"CS with coruUnt �peed on the clrrumfcrence of a circle.h; the

velocityconstant7
S) A p,artidc moves with a constant speed along the track shown in the diagram.
For wltich �tions of iti joumey is the velocity constant1

C...,,._____,,.,.)
FORCE

Mostpeoplehaveanin1Uitiveideaofforce.Conside1. forinstance.abook lying

on a horii:on11I table. We know that force mustbe app!led to the book to move
it alongthe table.Foru maybe applied directly to thebookbypushingit, or
indirectlyby, fo1example. tying a string1o thebook andpullingthestring.
Obviously the movement of the book is ,elated to 1he amount of fo1ee used.
The directioninwhlch!he forcc i s applied al:;o affe<:tsthe movementofthe
book: with the stringho rizontal thebookwill movealongthe table:withthe
�Iringvertical thebook willbe lifted offthe !able. Thepoint at which the f o rce
ls app!iedto thebook also affe<:tsthe1esult.lfthe stringis allllched to one
cdge of1hebook andpulledvertically thebookwill tilt about the oppositeedge.
butifthestring is attached to themiddkof thebookandpulledvcrtlca!ly no
tilting wlll takeplace.
S o threefaclors determlne the effecl that a forcchason abody towhkhitis
applied·
(a) The amount,or the mqgnlrude,ofthe apptled force.Theunitofm:ignilude
is the newton(N).
(b) The direction inwhfch theforce is applied.
(c) Thepoin t o f applicationofthef orce.An alterna1ivewayofexpreWng the
directionand po!nt ofapplication of a f o rce i s ! o give i t sline o/acr
ionand
theu11s eof1he force a]ongthat linc
We also know that thebook will not mo¥e on its own account. From many such
obscmuions it is deduced that: force is nrct//Sllry to make<111 obi«t / Ngi11 10
mo�-e. Conversely,ifan objecc starts to mo1· e then a force must have cauied
that motionto st1rt.

WEIGHT

!fabody is d ropped it will Jta1t m fall.so we deduce that there mustbe a

fo rceactingon thatbody which auracuitto the ground.Thisforcciscalledthe
gravitational f01ce o r 1hc ..-tlg/r1 ofthcbody; thus thcweig]1 t ofabody is a f o1ce
and is measured in force un!ts(newtuns)
lfwc hold a heavy objectwecan still feel this gr:ivitationalputl, evcn though
the object Is not moving. illustrating th.11the weight ofibody acli on it at all
timcs, regardlessofwhethe1 theobject is moving or not.
 It is a well known phenomenon that 1heforce with which an object ls attracted
t o t h e surf aceof themoonis less than theforcewith which thesameobject is
attracted to thesurfaceofthc carth.It is also found that the weight ofan object
variet slightlyin differentplaces on thesurflceoftheearth.So,although the
amount of matter whichconstitutes a rt objectisanabsolutepropertyofthat
object,its weigh t i s no t absolu te.
Mau isa measure of t hematter contained in a n object.
Thcunlt ofmass i s thekilogram(kg).

Force, Anino on BodiH

Consideragainabook lying on a horizontal table.

Thebook is not moving,but there ii at kasl one forceacting on it ,i.e.its weight.

If the table was not there thebook would f all,so the table mustbe exerting an
upward force on thebook to countera c t i t s weight.Thisfo1ce is calledthe
,eaction.A ,eaction fo1ceac1S onabodywhenever thatbodyis in contact with
anotherbodywhich is supporting it.

Nowconsi der thebookbeing pulledalong thetablebya horiiontal string

atlached to thebook.
The weight and the reaction again act on the book, together with a pull fmm
lhe strina.The puU 1h.at 1hestrinsis exerling onlhebooki1 refe11ed to aslhe
lensioninthestring.lf thereis frlctionb<:tw«n 1hebook and the bble1here
will be some re1istance to lhe movement of the book alon8 the table. Thit
retlttance is callcd 1hefric tional force and it acuona body whencver thereis
a !endency for that body to move over 1 roughs11rface.

The force s which act on a body come mainly from three sources,
I ) Gravi1ationalpull(wciah1).
2) Contacl with anotherbody.
3) Anachment to anotherbody.
(There are o1hcrsources,such as wind forcc, engincs, e1c.. whichwe sh.all mcc1
later on.)

Beforea11empting 1hesolu1ionofany problcm concemedwilhlhc 1ctionof

forces o n a body,it isimp<.>rtanl 1o dr:aw a di•gram which shows tlearly all1he
forcu actina o n 1hat body.
The points lo rcmemb<:-1 ue·
(a) A body is always acted on by its weigh! unle� the body is described u light.
{b) lflhereis contact wlth another body there l s a rnc!lonand possibly somc
friction.
(c) lfthcre is attachment to ano1hcr body(by means ofa s1rina. hinge. pivo1,
etc .)theic is a fore<: acting on thebodya1 1he poin1 ofau1chment ,
(d) Check th1t thc1e are no o1hcr sourctsof force
(e) Only the forcei which are acting on the body iu.tlfne considered
A common fault is to include forces whkh are acting on an object with
which thebodyisin conuct.
(f) Do not make the diagram too small.

J ) Draw a diagram to show the f orces acting on a block which is sliding down a
smooth planeindined i t 20° to tltthodiontal.
 Moffl�<1 -Moch•ni<1•ndProNbillty

The plane isunoothso there isno friction.

2) Draw .i diag ram to show the forces acting on a block which is �ing pulled up
°
a rough planeb y a string uuched to theblock.Theplaneit inclined a1 15 to
°
1hehorizont al1nd thest ring is inclinedat 30 to the hori:zontal.

Astheplanei1 rough thereisa friclionalfo1ceacting on theb!ock downthe

plane(fric1ion opposumotion).

3) A panicle is suspendd fiom a fixed point by a st ring and It is swinging in a

horizontal cirde be low that point . Draw a diagram to .show the forces which are
acting on t heparticle.
4) Draw a dlagnm showing the fo,ces acting on a ladder which is standing wlth
oneendon rough horizontal ground andthe otherend against a rough,vertkal
..n.

The lower end of the ladder has a tendencyto slide awayfrom the wall ,50 the
frictional forc e acu. toWilrds the Wllll.The upper endoftheladder hasa tendency
to ilide down the wall, 50 the frictional f orce acts upwards.

151
S) A cylindrical tin stands on a smooth table and two smooth sphern rest inside
the tinu shoWll i n t h e sketch.

Draw diagrams to show(a) 1hef orc esac 1 ing on 1he large1phe1e (, b)the forces
acting on the smallsphere.(c) 1he forc es actingon 1he 1in.
 . .,..
Mlthlm•llco - MKhanlcsllldProbabillty

151
) ( )
li ..

,
"•

.,
'•-i,,.,

il
The forces ac ting on the large sphere. The forces acting on the small sphere.

'

w
Thc forc es actingon thc tin.

I) Dra w d!agrilllls lO show the forces that arc acting on II b!ock which is;
(a) at renon� smooth horizontal surface,
(b)a1rcst o n a rough horizontlllsu1face,
°
(e)a1 ie s t o n 11 rough surfac elnclinedat a.n a.nglc or 20 10 1 he horlzontal,
°
(d)iliding do wn 1 smooth surf1cc inclined11t11n 1nglc of 30 lo the horizontal,
°
(c) sHding down a rough su rfacc incUnc d at an angl c o f 30 to the horizontal,
(I) pullcd dow n a smooth surfaceinclinc d at an anglc of 10" to 1hc horizon1 al
by a string puallcl to thcplanc,
(g) pullcd down a1ough su1facc inclined atan ang]cof 20" tolhchorizontal
by a strlngparallclto thc plane,
°
(h)pullcd alonga smoothhorizontal suiface by a st1ing atan angle of 20 to
the horizontal,
°
(i) pullc d u p � rough surfacc inclined at an ang]c of 2 0 10 1he ho1ilonta l b y a
string int!lnc d at an ang]c of 40" to 1hc horizon1al
2) Draw 1di 11J1,11m to sho"'· 1he forces actlng on a ladderwhich is lcaningwith
oncend againn a smooth vcrt!c1l wall andthe othcrcnd 11andingon rough
horizontal ground.
3) Draw a di agram lO show the forcesacting on a particlewhich is .sui.p.-ndcd
froma fixed pointbya stringwhen
(a) i t ishMging atrest,
(b)it ii. mrning in a vertical ci1deabou1 the fi xed point,
(c) itismming in a horirontal circlebelow thc f oiedpoint,
(d)thestringhas broken a n d i t isfalli ng.
4) A ball is thrown into the air.Draw a diagram to show thefo1ces acting on it
at anypoint !n ltsflight.
5) A l adder restsin avertical planewithoneend against a roughverticalwall,
and theolherendon rough ho1izontalground. There is a block tie d to theladde,
bya st ring one•third ofthewayup theladder.Draw diagrams to show:
(a) theforcesacting<ln theladder,
(b)thef orcesactingon l h e block
6) A plank issupported in a horizontal position bytwo vertical string:s,one
a1tached at tach erid.A block restson the plank a quarttr of the way in from
one end. Dnw diagramsto show:
(a)theforcesactingon the plank,
(b)thef orcesactingon theblock.
7) Two bricks ,one on top of the other, ren on a horizontal surface. Draw
diagrams to show:
(a) thef orcesact i ng o n t l'ebouom brick,
(b)theforcesactingon thetop b rick,
8)

Thediagram$hows a rough plank 1esUng on a cyllnderwithoneendofthe

plankon rough g1ound.
Drawdi•gran11 l o 1how,
(a) theforces acting on theplank,
(b)theforces actingon thecylinder
 CHAPTER 2

VECTORS. COM PONENTS AND

RESULTANTS. MOM ENT

DEFINITIONS

Certain quanlitks are de5erib cd completely when their magnitudes are stated in
appropriate uni ts:
e.g. a 1pce d o f SOkmh-1
a massof 10kg
e
a t empcnturcof JO C
a time of )seconds;
Suchquanti ticsare calleds cafar quantilies.
Oilter quantities possess both magnitude and direction amJ are not completely
defincd unlcss ba1hofthcse a1c�cifkd:
e .g. a Yc]rx:ityof 5 ms-1 vertically upw3rd
a force of ION vertically downward
a displa�mcnt of 8km due East.
Thcnamcfor1his 1ypc ofqu1ntity is v ect or.

Because a vcctorquantity hasboth magnitudcand direction, i t canbe

represented by a segment of a line.The l ength ofthe line represents the
m,ignirude of !he vector quan1i1y and the dirtctio" of the line shows which way
thcqua.ntit y goes.
Thus the line AB can bcusedto rcprescnt
a dbpla,ement vector of3m North East
 Vto:1""'. Comporwnl1 and Rautt.onu. _,,.n,

To indicate that a linesegment 1epresenrs a vector, any or the 1•ector 1ymbo/J

AB, AB, t may be used. Jn the first rwo cases 1he s.ense of lhe vector is given by
theord er ofrhelenersbu1, a s thesinglesymbol r doellnotlndude:lfly
indiea1ionofsense,it mus1be aC(ompaniedbyan arrow onthe diagram

././ ./
EOUAL VECTORS

In the dlagiam. the lines AB and PQ are p�rallel and equal ln length hen,e
AD = PQ.
Although LM b equalln lcngth toAB,these lines arenot paralld so
AU * LM.

It ii, however , correct to write AB .. U.1 since AB and LM uescalar

1ymbo/s 1eferring onlyto themagnirudeof 1helines andnotto their direc1ion.
 Mathor"'"tle1 - M.c:ti.nle1 end l'roblblllty

PARALLEL VECTORS

Consider twopan1\1el vectors whic h are in tile same sense but ha,-e diffe1ent
nug:nitu de1,

of AB.
./
PQ is parallel to AB and tile lengtll (magni111de) of PQ is A: times the kngth

If weproduc e AB to C so thlt A C "' PQ then AC=kAB.

But AC and PQ are identical in magnitudc, di,ection ;and sense and therefore
rcpre scnt equalvecton.
AC = PQ
'"'
The.efore
tAB = PQ.

geoeral thc cquation mcan1that a and b arep.1r:illol ;cctor s , 1he

'""W,!ilude of a bem !. limes the m.igmmdr of b

EQUAL ANO OPPOSITE VECTORS

TwoparaUel vectorsofequal magnitude bu1oppo1ite scnse aresai d t o b e

equalandoppmite.
Considering a displacement vector AS and the equal and opposite vector BA
itis clur lhatthe$Ctwo tO@ether resultin zero displacement.
AB + iA = O
AD = -BA.
A negative sign in vectmwork thercf o1eindkatesa 1evena! of:.ense.
FREE VECTORS

The rep1csentation of a vcctorbya l ine segment include5 magnimde and

direction but not , ln genera!.theactual locatlon ofthevector.So ifallne AB
represent s a veclor , t henanylinc parallel and equal to AB rep1esen1S thesame
vector.
Vectors 1eprescnted in 1his wayare/rtt 1•ecton.
ln so� cl,cumsunce s it willbe; nece ssa yr toextend the lineariep1escnta1ionof
a vector1o includeit1po sition.
Jnthi s cuewe shall be deillingwilh a 1 i<'d rcr:10r

EQUIVALENT VECTORS
Consider a di5p bcement A8 of 2 m due E followed by a di1iplacement BC
of 2 m doeN.
The combined effect of these two displac ements is 1he same u a tlngle
displacement AC of 2./2 m NE.

Hence AB+BC "' AC

lnthis\·ector equation
+ means'wgethtrwith'

0
,. n1ean1 'i1 eq11i>'t1/tntl0'.

We say that AC is 1he r ewl umtof ABandiic', 0 1 that Aiiandiic uethe

romp,:men11 of AC. The triangle AOC is a veccor t ir angle.
lti5poss.ibletofind1he 1eiult ant (or equivalent)vectorofmorethantwo
compon e n u using a similar a,gument.
,: 0

Dap bc,moa"or Ali. iic, co

andOE ue equiYlllt�to the
_
lingled1splac en1ent AE
l.e. Af ., A B + B C + C D + DE. A c

In this ca5e the figure AB CDE is a v�ctor polygon.

Nole. A i sthe starting point and E i stheend poiot bothfor the set of
cornponent sand for the re sultant.
lnmostoflheillum11ion s so f1r. d i splacemen1 vector shave becn u sed because
1hey1re e u y t o vi$u1ll se.Othe r , e· c1or qu.tntities c.tu, however, be dcalt within
the same way. In fact ii was from the 1e sult s of experimenls with force vector s
that the concep1of vecto1geometiy and algebn1 firs1 110se,Againi1 willbc
no1iccd1hat1he vecton con1ide1ed sofar havc 1lway s been ln1he same plane
(coplanu vector s). The principles explained do, however, apply cqUJlly well to
vector s in 1hree dimension sbutat thl1 stage lt i s sufficltn1to undemand how to
addand subtract coplanar vccton u.Ung thc concept of equivalent v«:ton,and
to appreciate 1hat, in1hcveclor diagnimswedn1w,lin es reprcsent vectorsin
magnitudeand dlrection butnotnecessarUyin p05ltion.

I) What is the re sultant of di splacements 2 m E, 3 m N and 6 m W?

'SJ '.
'
'
AB + BC + cr5 = AD

.
ln MED,
AD1 = AE1 + ED'
AD = S

·. ' -
(
tanB = �

Therefore the rc sullant , AD, i s Sm in the direction N arc tan 1 W

2) A vector a of magnitude 8 units ha s two component s.One is perpendicular
to a and i s of magnitude 6 unit s .
What isthe magnitude ofthc other component?

Lct thegiven vectorbe. 1cp1esen1cdby

Ali a n d t h e givcn component by AC.
The sc:�ond component is thcn CB and

BC' = AB' + AC'

BC' "" 64 + 36

.v
' • '
BC = 10.

The magnitudeofthe o1hcrcomponent i.5 I O unit s.

3) In a quadrilateral ABCD, the sides AB, BC and OC represent vectors p, q
and r respeetivel y . Exprtssin terms of p.q and r the,·ectorsrcprcsentedby
AC, ADandoi.

In liABC
�- AC = AB + BC
AC= p + q
I nquadrilateral ABCD A D = A B +BC + ci3
AO : p + q - r
ln t.BCD 08 : 0C + CB

-0·
DB = r+(-q)
So DB = r - q
4) ABCDEF is a regular hexagon in whkh AB represent s a vector p and
BC rtprtsents a �ector q.
Exprcss intcrmsof p an d q thevcctorswhich 1hercmainingsi des1ep1csen1

ED is equal and parallel to AB so Ei5 = p

FE is equal and p111allel10 BC so fE "' q
AD istwlceaslongas, and paral l c lto, BC so AJ5 = 2q
ci3 = CB + BA + AD
Therefore ci5 '"' -q - p + 2q = q - p
A F isequal and parallel t o C D so A f = q - p
 M1111M,,..t1c,o - Mochenl"' ..... Probobllhy

S) In �pentagon ABCDE
(a) find the resultant of (i) AD, BC and CD (ii) iic and AR (Hi) AB-AE,
(b)flnd twosmofcomponents of AD.

(a) (i) ln ABCD A B + iic +CD = AU

(ii)ln ABC iic + AB . AB + BC
• ;:c
(iii)ln ABE AB - AE - AR +EA
- EA + AB
= Eli
(b)ln ABCD AD .. AB + iic + ffi
and in ADE AD = AE + ED
Thcsc- arebOth $\litable sc-uof componcn1s for AD.
(We could equally well have chosen the set Aii + iii5 or AC + ffi.)

J ) What isthe=ult.mt ofthe followingvectors: 5 mN. 3 m E and 2 m S?

2) In a quadrilater1l ABCD what is !he 1e$\l\tant of:
(a)AB +BC (b)BC + ffi (c)AB +BC + cB (d)AB + DA?
3) ABCDEF is a ,egular hexagon in which BC repre5enU a vectO/ b and FC
represents a vector 2a. Express in termsuf a:i.nd b thcvectors representdby
AB,CDand BE.
illus a °o n t e u s:
� �:_��� �; ���j;{; (� ¾f: � � ;� (d)a + b = -c.
) (
S) If AB = DC and BC + DA = 0, pro�e tlwt ABCD is aparallelogr:irn.
6) ABCD is a rectangle. Which of Thefollowing statements are true?
(a)BC = DA (b) BD=AC (c) AB + ffi = O (d)AB + BC .. CA
<e) AC + c6 = Ai5 m Aii + BC,,.Af> +OC.
7) In an isosceles triangle ABC in which AB = BC and D is the mid•polnt
of AC, lhow that BA + iic = 2BD.

RESOLVING A VECTOR

When a •�ctor is 1eplaced by an equivalent set ofcomponent s.i t h u been

r ewfred.One of the mml useful wayii in which lo resolve ii vector is to choose
only twocomponents which ue at righ! angles 10 each other.The magnitude of
lhesecomponentscan beevaluated veryeasilyusin gtrigonometry.

Thus in Fig.(i) AC • ABcos9 and CB = AB sin9

andin Fig.(ii) RO .. PQcoso and PR = PQ sino

Finding suc h componenu isreferrcd 1oas

nsoMng in a pair ofperpendicular diret:tiom.
Nore llut the components need not act along the actual Jines AC. CB or PR.
RQ. Theselines give the diredions of thecomponents but not necess:.rily their
position.

A
1) Resoh·e a weight of JON in two directions which are parallel and
°
perpendicular lo a slope inclined at 30 to the horizontal.

Thecomponent parallel tothes lopc

isof magnitudc l 0 sin30"N I.e. SN.
Thcmagnitudcof thecomponenl
"
.
perpendicu)ar l o t h c slopels
°
!Ocos30 N i.e. s.,jJ N .
 LJ·
2) Resolve horizonlally and,·ertically a fo1ce of 8N which makH an angle of
45° with the horizonl3I.

If Xand Y ue the magnit udes , i n

newtons, ofthe t wo componenu then
X = 8c01i4S =4</2
0

ff �·-·
3) A body is suppo!led on a rough plane inclined at 30" to the horizontal by a
°
string anached to the body and held at an angle of 30 tothe plane.Draw a
dfagramshowingthe f o,cesactingonthe bodyand ,esolve each o f theS<' forccs
(a)horizontallyand vertic31Jy,
(b)parallel andpc rpcndiculn tothe plane.

the tensionin t he string r

lhe rcactionwlththe plane R
the welght ofthebody It'
friction F

(a) Rewl•ing horizontally and vertlcally:

{7
... ro-
..J\ A,.,w f·

/\•"' ::.1,,·
,/ \ �-
u �
Troot,,)'
�-60•
(b)Rewlving para!lel and pcrpcndkular to the plane·

�
 Voctors. Com-u anllR•ulunia. Momfflt

(Note 1hat anyforce alrc1dyinoneofthc di1eclionsspccified is uochangedand

hasno componcn l p erpcndkulartoi111elf.)

S1meof R1solvedP11m

Jn the answer 10 Ex.ample 3 above it is worth noticing tha1, without diagrams,

the 11en11eofeach componcnt wou!dbe unknown.TI1isisbccaui.c 1hc
spccificationof 1hc 1cquircd componcnts wasnot prccisc cnough.Thede5eription
paral/e/ 101heplane docsnot diffcrcn1i.ate be1ween 1he uphill seme andthe
downhill sense.Thisambiguityisavoided if the posith·c i.cnse oft� required
componentsisHaled at the outset. ,\ component in the opposite 11et12 isthen
negative.Using Example 3 to dcmomtralc 1hisapp1oach,the answer couldbe
givcn u f oUows:
(a) Resolving horizontaUy and verticallyin the senses Ox and Oy 35 lhown,
thc componenuare:

Component..
Puallelio Ox P:l.raUcl to Oy
F -Fcos30 ° -Fsin30°
R -R cos60 ° R 5in60 °
T Tcos60" T5in60 °
w 0 -W

'V,
(b) Resolving parallel and perpendicular t o the plane in the 211Se$ Ox' and Oy'
as shown

Force Componcnu
Parallel to Ox' Paral!cl to Oy'
F -F 0
R 0 R
T Tcos30" Tsin 30"
w - Wsin30° - W co.30
°

CARTESIAN VECTOR NOTATION

Componentsin perpendicular directions nn be cxprcAed more simplyifwe

\lie the symbols i and j where
 LA
Thu s J i means a vector of magnitude J units in the direction Ox
and 4j means 1 vcctorofmagni11.1de 4 unltl lnthedlrtcUon Oy.

If a force vector F hal componcnts

J>ar:l!lel to Ox and Oy of m�gnitudes
J an d 4 unils reipcctfrcly thcnusing
Ulc S)'TTlbols i a11d j , we can say
F hncomponenu 3 i :rn d 4j.
As F is equivalcnt to the vcctorsum
of Its component s.

The magnitude, or modul u s , of F

whkh we dcno t c b y t F ! , hi
1cp1ucn1 c d b y Ulc lcng1hofthc
hypomu.1SC o f 1hce""c1or trian&Je ,
IFI • ✓(31 +42)
Jn gencr.J, thcmodulus ofa vcctor
T -=> a l + bj lsglven by

A vccto1ca11bc repres,en1 e d b y 1 1inc

$epncnt whicli i s d tfintdby thc
coordin11no f i t s c11 d polnts.For
c:umplc.thc forcc F In the diagram
1boY1: cou\d l>e reprncntcdby thc
llnc joining thcpolnt (J , l ) lo the
point (6.S). ln this c uc
F "' (6-3)i +( 5 - l }j
ln gene1al. 1 J sector � is rep,el qfed • ineJoining the point (r,.J•,) to lhe
point (xi ,)'i) then
• -" X x,)i• l •,)j
Note . This nolation isveryeasilyextended to deal withvectorsin ) dimensions.
A unit vector in the direction Oz, perpe11dicula1 to the xy plane, is represemed
byk.
Fore11ample, 2i+ 3j + 5k is a vector with three perpendku)ar co mponents,
parallel 10 Or,Oy a n d O:, ofmagni!udes 2,3 and 5 units respeccivclyand its
m1gnitudeis ./(22+31+52).

EXAMPLES 2b Ccontin....t)
4) Forces F , , F,,F,andf, have magnitudes 6 , 2 , 3 a n d 3./2 N respectively
and acl in directions as shown in the diagrambelow.By finding the components
ofeachforce lnthe directions Ox and Oy , expresseach force inthe form
ai+bj.

° °
F, = (6 coi;60 )i+(6 sin60 )j = 31+ )v3j
f2 ,. 2j
F, = - J i
°
F4 = (- 3./2 cos45 °)i+(-3v'2sin45 )j = -31-Jj
Note l hat.when forcevec1 orsare e11p1ess c d i n 1hisform.theunitis unde rstood
1obe the newton unleu o1herwise Jtated.Jtisno1 correc1,however, l o say
F=(2i + 3j)N, as 2i +Jj indudes both magnitude and dlmtion .

I ) Cakulate the rnagnitudeofthe horizontaland verticalcomponentsof•

°
(a) a f orceof 6 N inclined at 20 to the horizonlal,
°
(b)a vclocit yof 20 m s·' inclined at 30 to the vertical.
(c) a lension of SN i n 1 s1ringoflcngth I O m whkh h.uone e n d failene d to
the top of a flagpole ofheight 6 m and the oiher end fixe d to theg,ound.
°
2) Whatarethe components,parallel and perpendicular toaninclineof 30 , of
a weight of 4N?
J) An object of �ight W is fastened lo one end of a uring who� other end is
flxed andi spullcd sideways bya horizontalforce P untilthe string isinclined
°
at 20 10 1hevertical. Draw1 diagram showingthe f orce sactingonthe object
and 1esolveeach fo1cepu1llelandptipendicula1 to 1hestring,
4 Thc diagram shOWl lheforccsacting on a body. Expresscach force i n tcmu of
)
i and j where i isaunit vector in lhe direction AP and j isaunltveclorin
1he dlrection AQ.

5) Us.ing axes Ox and Oy, mark on a diagram the following forcevecton.

F1 .. i + j; F, • 2i-J: F, • -3i + 4j; F4 • - i - Jj .
6 ) A boatis stee1ing dueNor1hat 24kmh_, in a cu1rcn1 1unning11 6kmh-'
due West. A wind is blo wing the boat North Em at IOkmh-1 (see diagram
below).What u, the components of each velocity in the directions East and
Nonh?

Unit Vectors

Any vector of magnitude l unh is a unlt vector (I andj areunHvecton).

Cons.id er a line OPQ where 01' repreJCnts the l'l'Clor r and OQ is of length
J unit.Then 00 ttpre�nts a unitvectm in t he direction of r.

Such aun.itvector �WTi(ten ;.

Now OQ= 1 and, if or = d,

th.en OP = d0Q.

But d= lrl

This importantp1opcrtyapplics to all vectors. i.e.,

anyvectOT, v, canbe exprc$.$Cda$ thep1oduct ofits magrutude a n d a unit

vec1or in thc samc dir«tion,

v -.. lvlV.

A vectorwhich isuse d to $pecify the dircc1ionofanothervectorcanbe called

a d irt1:tionvec1or.
lf,forcxamplc,wc aretold thatavector v, ofmagnitude 26units, is in the
direction of the vector 5i + 12j then

The unit direction vector d is given by

d .. d/l d l .. -b{5i + l 2j)

Butweknowthat anyvector is 1heproduc1ofit$ magnitude a n d a unit di1ec1ion

v = lvl d = 26(/,(Si + 12m

= !Oi+ 24j
 I) A fo1ce f or magnitude 20N acts in the direction 4i-3j. Find F.
The direction vector for F is d = 4i - 3j
J "" d/ l d l = h4i - 3j)
But F = I F I J =: 20(l{4i - 3j))
F = 16i - 12j
_,
2) A particle wh�s�e d b 50mJ mO"o�ulong theline from A(2 , 1) to
8(9.25). Fln d iu velocityv�tor .
The direction of motion of thepallide is AH and this ii therefore the direction
vutor, d , for thevelocityof thepartide.
Now AS = 9i + 2Sj - (2i+j)"' 7i + 24j
and J .. AB11AB1 .. S(7i + 24j)
Thespeed o f 1hepar1icle isthe magnitude o f i u vdocity,so
v = lvld = 50fM7i + 24j)I
V "' 14i + 48j

Fin d i n thefonn ai+bj,

I) a v�tor ofmagnifude S uniu, i n the d.lr�tion 3i + 4j.
2) avecto1 ofmagnltude J9 unlts , Jnthe direction 5i- 12j .
3) a vecto1 ofm•gnitude 28 unlu. i n the di rectlon -l+✓3j.
4) A force of SON p.nalkl to the vector 24i - 7j.
5) A force of 2N parallel !o thevector -4i - 3j.
6) A fo1ceof 1 3 N actingalong theline from A( l , -3) to 8(13,2)
7) Thevelocityvecto1 ofaplane nying f10m A(I0,50) to 8( 130, - I IO)
a t a sp,eedof IOO m 1 -'.
8) A \'ector who� magnitude i s twice the magni tude of the vector 2i + j
andwhich i spar:illel tothevector 6i- 12j.
9) A forc e o f 20N parallel to the line PQ whert< P is (-1,7) and
0 is (1,5).
10) Thevelocityvector ofaboat n
r ov ing i n thedire,;tlon 24i - 7j wi,ha
spee d o f l S rn s·'.
Po1ition Vector

Cartesianvector noution,whichwe havea.Jready used to describefreevectors

(e.g.velocity, accelcration) canabobeused to de$<:ribe thcpl»ition of a point.

lfa poin1 P liascoordin1tes (2.J) then

1hc displaccment of P /ro111 1lle oli8i11
luscomponenis 2i and3j.
Thus r : 2i+Jj

r iscallcd thcpmilio11 1"<'f:lor ofthe poinc P.

Slmila,ly, in th,ee dimensions, a point with coordinates( J , 2. 3) hat a poi,ition
vector r w�re
r = i + 2j + Jk

The VectorEqu.tionof1 line

Eachpoint on a line hu a position vector relative to an origin 0. If we.an

lind awayofdescriblng thepositinnYecto r o f a g enerol point o n t h e !ine we ue
then deflning 1he completelet ofpointson that line.
Comider a line in the xy plane whose direction ,·ec!nr is d and which pa=
1h1ough a po\nt A with pmllion vcctor a.

lf P is any otherpoint onthelinethen

Al' is paralle l to d • AP = Ad
ciP = OA+AP ,.. r a< a +Ad
Eachvalue of A (positi1·eor negative)gives the position vectorofone poin1 on
the specified line.
 �-tlco - '"""""'nlco •ncl ,.,_lllty

For e1tamp!e,thc,·ector equa1ion of1he line which i sparal1el 101hevector

i-4j and whichpwes 1h1011gh the point ( - S, 7) i1
r = -5i + 7j + A(i-4j)
Similarly. a Uncwith dhcction vecl or i -j + k �nd which pa5Ses thrnugh
(5. 1.J), has a ve<:tor equation
r = Si + j + Jk t A(i-j + k)

A Li.,.Through TwaPaint s

If we now consider a line which is known top.iss through two points A and
B w!lhposit!onvecton a and b respectively we see that
either A o r B canbc u sed u a ftxedpol�on Ui!.!,.Ule
(
the directionvectorofthe line i1 either AD or BA.
S o 1he vec10r equation ofthe line th10ugh A and B can be given as
r = a + A(b~•)
r "' b+A(b ~ a)
For example , 1he vcctor cquatlonofthc Unepassing th to11gh thepoU11swlth
positionvecton 2i + Sj and 4i-Jj c1nbegiveni11 any of1he following
forms.
r • 2i + 5j + A(2i - 8j)
r = 2i + 5j + X(-2i + Bj)
r = 4i-Jj+ A(2i-8j)
r = 4i-3j + A(-2i + Sj)

Rea:,gnldng Dlreetion and Finding Point, from tha Vietor Equation of I Une

If r = a+Ad is avector cquation ofa llne,then d islts dhcctionvector

1nd 1 i1thepo is1ionvectorofonepoint on thc line.
Funhcr poinu o n t h c linccanbcfoundby giving A various numerical valut$,

A line h.u ,-ccto1 equation r = 2i + 6j + A(i -Jj). State iu direction vector

and1he coordlna1esof threepoint5on the llne.Findt�positionvector s o f the
poU1uwhere thi'lline c10 sses eachof1he coordinate axcs.
The dhec tionvectoris i - 3j
One poln1on thelineis (2,6)
Anothtrpolnt on 1 he llneis given by A • I, Le. (3,3)
A third po!nt on the line isgivenby A=- \ , i e.. (1,9)
The line crosses the x axi5 whue y= 0. i.e. where the cotfficienl of j ii

• 6 - 3;1. = 0 • ;1. - 2
When :\ = 2 , r = 4i
The line cro1se1 1he y axis where x=0

Whfn :\=-2, r=!2j.

Find a \'CC!orequationfo1 a line passing through thegi1�n point and with the
gi1·e n dlie,tlon \'CCl0<:
I) a point with position vector Ji; a direction vector 2i+4j,
2) a point with po!itionve.:tor i-j; a dhection,·ector Si,
3) a point wilh po!ilion vl'{;tor 5j; a di 1e.:tionvector i-Sj,
4) theorigin; a di1"tion vector 3i+4j+2k
S) a point with positlonvector -41-j + k ; parallel to a line withvector
equation r • 2i + Jj+ :\(i +j-k).

Writc down avecto1cquationfor thcline th10ugh A and B where 1he p0$ltion

•�cton of A and B are
6) A{2i + Jj), B(l - 7j) 7) A(Ji), B(71-9j)
8) A(i-J), B(Jj) 9) A(Si -7j + k), B(2i +j - 2 k)
JO) A(-j + 2k), B(i-3k)

Wri1c d01>on the dir«tio n 1e· cto1 and name 1hc coo,dlnate1 0f1hc specifie d po!n1,
on eachufthe followlngllnts
11) r=4i +j + :\(3i + 7j); points ofin1 mec1ion with Ox and Oy.
12) r"' (I + ).)i + ()- S:\)j; poinl for which x = J.
IJ) , .. :\(i- 7j); any two points.
14) r = 2i + :\j; pointsof intencction ...,ith thelines y= l and y = 4.
15) r= 2i + 2j + ;1.(1-j); point of intersection with Qy �nd the poinl
where y • 4.
 "'°11,.....1ic1 - Mld,1nlcs 1nd Probobillty

THE LINE Of ACTION Of A FORCE

lfa force isgiven invectorfo,m, ai + bj, then ai + bj isthedlrection

vector ofthe fo,ce. Tofind the equ3tion ofthe line ofac1ion ofthe force wt:
need alw a location - usually a point through which the force is known to pan
Thiiposition vecior, l\>ge1lm with the direction vec\01, 1Pves the equation of
1he line ofaction.For e:umple, if1 force 3i-4j + k acts through a point
wi1h poiition vecto1 i + j + 2k, itiline ofac tion h u a vector equation
r = i + j + 2k + ).(Ji - 4j + k)
No1e. The equation ofthe !ine ofaction ofa forcep1ovidei the d/rection of1he
force butthi s must not be taken asthe actualforce vector(although 11.ome1ime s
it maybe).lnadditionto the equa1ion ofthe line ofaction weneedtnknow 1he
magnitude of rhe forc e i n order to findtheforce,·ectm.

Aforce, f, ac t s alongthe line r = l - 3j + A( J i + 4j) and its magnitude i s

20N. Find F.
We du not knoww hich wuy the forceactsalong the line , 11.o the direction
vector, d, ofthc force l• t.(Ji+4j)
(Ji + 4i)
d = .t

i +4j
Hence F ., IFIJ = .tiO(� ) "' :t{l2i+ !6j)

Write downthe equuinn ofthe line ofactionofeach ofthefollowing forces.

I) F .,, 8i - 7j andpasscsthrough thepoint withpo.sition vector (2i-3j).
2) F = 4i andp u5e s throug.h the ori!Pn.
J) F passes through thepointswithpositionvectors i+j and Si + l lj.
4) F isparaUel to i - 2j 3ndpasse s throush (7,8).
5) F acuthrough the or igin3nd through ( 1 1 ,-7.3).

Find the positionvector ofthe point where the line ofactibnofthefollowing

force intersecu (•) the:,c axis(b) theyaxis
6) Theforcein Queuion 1.
7) Theforce in Question J .
8) Theforcein Questlon 4.
9) Detennlne whether the Une of adion ofthe force in Question I puus
through the point (10.-4).
10) Does the line of action of the force in Question 3 pan through the point
with po:!'ition vcctor 6i+ 12j?

Fiodin the fo1m 11i+bj. a force

11) ofmagnitudc 6SN acting alongthcline r = i + ;1..(Si - 12j).
12) ofmagnitude 4 N acting alongthe line r=7i-Sj + Af.
13) ofmtgnitude s✓2 N acting along the line r = Ji - j + ).(i + j ) .
14) ofmagnltudc 2 0 N pusingthroughthe points (1,2) a n d (2,5).
JS) ofmagnitude I J N parallelto !heline wi1hequation
r=2i +Sj + ;l.. (4i- 7j).

THE EQUATION OF THE PATH OF A PARTICLE MOVING WITH

CONSTANT VELOCITY

A puticle whose constant velocity i s v mo,·e s in !he direc1ion ofthis velocity

,·ector so v isalwa direction vector fortheline1longwhichthc partide moves.
lftheparticlc pa�11hrough a par1icular point withposition vector a, the
equation ofthepathofthe particleis
r = a + ;l..v

A p;irtidc starts moving frornthe point (2.7,1) with a,·eloci ty 6i-5j+Jk.

Find thcequationofthtline alongwhich the particle rno,·e:s.
The particlc mo,·e1 inthc di1cction ofits •·elocity,i.e. 6i-Sj +Jk is t ht
di1ectlon,·e.:10 1 of1he line ofmotion.
Now 2i + 7j+ k ii the position vector ofa point on this line Ml the equation
ofthe line is
r = 21+ 7j + k + X(6i -Sj + Jk)

Find the equ.1tionof1he path ofa partkle

I) panlng through (4,- l ) with •·eloclty i + 7j .
2 ) !)ll$lng through 3 l - 2j - k with velodty - 5 i + 6j +8k
3) paulng through i+j with�peed S m J_ , in the direction 4i - 3j.
 MatNm.t1.. - "'°"""nla - Probilbillty

4) wilh ve!ocity 8i - 7j and passing lhrough the polnt where the line
r = 31-j + ).(i + 6j meets the y•a>;is.
)
5) passlng 1hmugh 1he point ofin1erstttion ofthe lines y .a 4 and
r • 3i + Sj + A(i - j), wilh velocity 9i- 2j.

DETERMINATION OF RESULTANT VECTORS

A single vector R eguivalent to a setofvectors isthe resullanl of those

vecton (which are. themselvts. the components of R). The method of
evaluating R depends upon thenumber and typeof vectors inthe given set.

The Re,sulunt of Two Pupendiculer Veetors

If Xand Y arethe magnitudesofthe

vectors then the magnitude. R, of the
ruuluntls givenby

The direction of the resultant ls givenby

Therefore the resultant is of the magnitude ,JxT'+'yi and makes arcun f

withthecomponent ofmagnitude X.

The R esultant of Two Non•perpendlcu1er Vectors

At this point it be(:omu important to undentand what is meantby the angle
betw�n two vectors. Suppose llut, from a point 0, two line 11egmenn are
drawn representing the vectors Pand Q. Then ifboth vecto sr point away from
0 asin F!g.(i), orboth veclors point towards O u i n Fig.(li), the angle 8
between the lines11 0 is the angle between the vectors.But if one vector points
towards O and the: other points1w1y from O IS in Fig. (iii) then the angle
betweenthe lines at O Is (180°-9) whc,c 9 isthe ang]cbetwecn the
Wearenow readytocalcul31 elheresultan1oftwo suchvec10rs.

Theresultant isrepresenled,in magnitudeand direc1ion but no1 neceuarily

position,by 1hethird1idc of a t ri,mgk formcdby drawing a lint represenling
thevectorofmagnitude P followed by a linerepresentingthe v.-ctorof
magnitude Q (ootelhat (I isan n:terior angleofthis triangle).Then the
magnitude R ofthe resultant canbc found usingthe eoJineformula,
R2 = ,o2 + Q1 - 2PQcOJ(l80"-0)

At :. p1:+,�� ¥. 2f(2:001s
 -.. �:.-
r
T11edirection of the resultant can nex t be detc,mined by uililg the Mc rule,
PsinO
or slna = -

These formulae for tJlculating the values of R and a are valid whether 8 is
acute or obtuse.

'u!c that 1f Jn areequa . the resu tant b1se<t5 the angl e between the fo1<;-c>
nd thevalufof R ,s 2Pco,6/2.

' •"'
,,,
'

(L
) A
EXAMl'LES2t

l) Find the 1esultant of twovectorsof magni1Udcs g units and !Ounits if thc

. . .
anglc bctwccn thcmis (a)60° (b)90° (c) 120°.

� 10
, ---� v""""
-------
10 "i¥9o
°
Bytheco,.incrule Ri = J01 + 81 - 2 x !O x8cos 120
= 164-160 ( - i)
= 244
R "" 15.6
°
sin 8 sin l 20
By the sinerule
8 R
S x 0.866
Therefore sin8 : -- "" 0 444
.
IS.6
°
8 = 26.4
Thc re1ultant isofmagnltudc 1 5 6. units atan il!lgle 26.4° with the vector of
magnitude ]O units.
 11..
1on. Co<npc>ntnU•ndA..,l-b.Mofflffl1 36

Using Py t hJgor u' Theorem R1 = 81 + JO' = 164

R = 12.8
rnn/J = �
°
8 = 38.7
°
Tht rtsult1111 isofm1gni111de 12. Sunils �Ian angle 38.7 with theveetor of
magnitude !O units.

(,)

°
By thC' cosine rule R1 = !01 + 81 - 2 x 8x l 0 co,60
: 84
R • 9.17

sin (J sin60"
Bylhe sinerule =
8 �

5 x 0.866
Therefore sin /J = "' 0 .756
9.17
(J zz 49.J 0
°
The tesultantisofm1gnitude 9.17units at an angle 49.1 with the'"ectorof
magnitude \Ounits.
 Mo-dco - Mec:'-laand P,obablll1y

2) When t wo vectors of rnagnitudu P and Q a1e inclined at an angle 6. the

magnit u de of t lleir resullant is 2P. When the inclinat ion is changd 10
°
{l80 - 6) the magnitude of the 1uultan1 is halved. Find the ratio of p to Q.

lndiagram (a) (1.P)' "' I"'+Q' + 2/'Q co,1'

ln d i�gram(b) (P)1 = P+Q1 - 21'Q cos6
Timefore 2PQcos6 = Jpl - Q'-
21'Qcos0 = Q:
Timefore Q1 = 3/>1 - Q1
2Q1 = Jpl
P : Q = .J2 : .J3

3) Findthemagni1udc and t heinclination10 Qr of a forceYect o r F if

(1) F "' J i + 4 j (b) F .. - i +j

(•)

Since F has componenn of J an d

4uni1s in pcrpcndic11far di1ections
t he magnit ude of F isgivt:n by
I F I = .J(31 + 4 1) = S
Theindinatlon of F to Qr i$ 0
where tan lJ ,0 4/3
(b)
The magnit udeof F i1 glvenby
I F I = v'(I ' + 1 1)= .,J2
The inclination of F to Ox i s 8
where
°
e = 180 -arctan(J/!)
Le. 6 "' 1so•-45• - 135•

EXEACISE :Z,

\ ) The followingpair,. offo1ce1i .ire , in each casc,ptrptn dicul u t o each othn.

Fin d the magnitudeand dl1ectionof the resultant force.
(a)JN and 4 N (b)24 N a n d I O N (c)SN and S N
(d)2N and 6 N (e)7 N a n d 24N
2) If i and j 1'present forcesof magnitude ! N in the directions Ox and Oy
res
pectively,lindthe magniwdeand inclination to Oxofeachofthe followlng
force vectOJS.
(a) 12i + Sj (b) 21 + 2j (c) 24i - 7j
(d) -4i + 3j (e) -7i-j.
3) Find themagnitude ofthe re sultan1ofe.ichof1he followlngpairsofforces
°
(a) 10Nan d 6 N inclined at 60 t o cachother
°
(b) J N 1nd SN inclined at 150 to each other
(c) 2 N and 7 N in theume dire,;tion
(d) 2Nand 7 N l n opposite directions
(e) 4N a n d 6 N inclined at 45 ° to each other.
4) A force 1•e.:,tor f a. p i + l2j hasa magnitlldeof ] ) units. Find 1he two
possb
i le valuesof p and 1 he cor1esponding inclinationsof F to Ox.
5) Anaircran is nyingwi1han engine �edof 400kmh-' on a course due
North ina wind of speed 60kmh_, from the South West.At what speed ii the
aircrift cove ringthe ground?
6) Two v«torshive magni1udesof 4uni tsan d 6 unit s. Find the angle between
them if their re$Ullant isof magnitude (a)8units (b) 4 units.
7) A force of SN and a force P tui1·ea !"e$ultant ofmagnitude 17N.
° °
Find P ifthe angle between the two forces is (a)90 (b)60 .
8) Two forcesof magnitudes P and 2P are inclined at an angle fJ. Find fJ if
the resulunt b ofmagnitude (a)2P (b)JP (c)P.
(ltshould notbe necessary to u:s.e the cosinerule in allthrttca:s.es.)
 Moit..mMI.. - Mlch,,.ic:, Ol>d Ptoblbillly

TIie Rtsulunt of Mort fhan Two Copl•nu Vtctors

Consider a se1 or four vecton wh� magnitudes and directions a,eshown in

diagram (i). The resultant can be foundby drawing cOn$ttUlivc Jin« representing
thegiven vectorsin magnitudean d d iiec1ion; thelinewhkh completesthe
polygon1ep1esents t heresultant (diag1am(ii)).

Careful drawing to i.cale and measurement give nlucs for the magnitude R and
the direction 6 of Che resultant.The v;ilues obtained in thit W"I-Y howner are
onlyas accuratcas 1he drawing:moreprecisevalues w i \ l b cgivenbycalcu!.cion
as follows

Suppose 1h11 the components of R in 1he directions Ox and Oy are X and Y.

The ,'lllue of X is the sum of the componenu of the original vo:cto� io the
direction Ox and the \".tlue of Y is their mm in the dire<:tion Oy.
 X = -2co130"+4cos60 ° +J = 3.27
Y = 2 si n 30 ° +4sin60° - l = 3.46
Now the rew.ltint of X aml Y (two perpen dicula, component s) cin bt' found
using
R = � = ../ffJ:i = 4.16
y J.46
tane = - = - = 1.06
X 3.27
The1efo1c the m;ultant of the given vectois ii a �ect or of magnitude 4.76 units
°
inclined at 46.7 10 Ox.
Xand Y arcvcry easi lyfound ifthe fo rce1a,e exprened i n thc fom1
F = pi+qj
since p and q 1eprfftnt t he magnitudesof the component sof F in the
dlrcctions Ox and Oy.
Sui:ipose.fo r instance , thafforces F i,F1. F,andF• act ona pnticle P a s
shown in the diagram.and
F, .. 2i+ j
Fi = i - 3j
F1 = - Ji + 4j
r. .. 4i+ j

Their resultant canbe expressed in

the form Xi+ Yj where
x - (2+ 1 - 3+4)
and Y "' ( 1 - 3 + 4 + I)
The resultant fo1cccanhcncebt'
reprc�nted by4i + Jj
!) Findthe resultan1 offive coplanar f orces of magnilud es S,4.3,2
and \ newton, 1 he anglebe1ween consecut ive pair,being 30".

Let the result:mt have components X �nd Y newlons par•llel to Ox and Oy :is
shown.Resolv ing allforces along Ox and Oy we have:
° ° °
X ., 5 + 4cos30 + 3 cos60 - l c os60 m 9.46
Y ,. 4 s i n J 0 " + J sin60 °+ 2 + ! sin60 ° ., 7.46
Then R ., �
R ., 12.1

tan!f = - = 0.789
°
Timefore t he resultant h a force of 1 2 . 1 N making an angle of 38.3 wilh
theforce of SN.
2) A river i s flowing due East at a speed of 3 m s -1. Aboy i n a rowing boal,
who canrow a t S m s-1 i n st i ll water,start5from1point O on t he south bank
and steers the boat at right anglu t o the �uk.Theboat i s also being blown by
thewindat 4 m s- 1 South West.Taking axes Ox a n d O,Y i n t he directiom East
and North respc<:tivelyfind the velocity oft heboat In the form pi + qj and
henceftn d iu resultantspeed.
Thevelocityof the river can be wriuenas 3;
Thevelocitydue to rowing c an be written u Sj
Thevelocilyoft he wind c an be writtenas - 4 c m4S" i - 4 c os 4S"j
- 2V2; - 2V2J

The ruultantvelocity v is 1 h e n givenby

v = J i + Sj +(-2V2i - 2-/2j)
i.e. Y = (3- 2V2)i+(S - 2./2)j

The 1esultant speed U the magni1 ude of the resultant \'elocity, i.e. lvl, where
lvl ... J(J - 2V2)1 + (s - 2V2J1 = Jso- J2V2

3) Three tugsnepulllnga liner due North into a harbour. The ropes auaching
the liner 10 1he tugsare in 1 he direction1 NE, N I O " E and NJO"W. Jfthe
tensions in the nm two ropes ne 2 x 10s N and 10' N, find the 1ensi011 in
the thi1d 10pe andthe resuhan1pullon theliner.

Slnce thelincris being mo ,·cd dueNo1th ,the re1ultantpu1J, R newton, isln

that direction (i.e.thereis nooverall componeRt in t he East - Weu direction).
Let the tcruion i n the third rnpebe Fnewton.
Resolv insallforci:slnlhe direc tions Ea11 and Northwe ha,·e
0 - 2 x lO'sin4S"+ 10"sin l0° - Fsin30" II)
R = 2 x \Ql cos45" + J06 coslO" + F cos30" [21
l °
Frnm ( I ] !F= JQ (2sin4S"+ JO sin 1 0 )
F • 2 x \Ql (L414+ 1.736) = lo'x6.3
°
Frnm 121 R = I0'(2 c os 45"+ JOcos10 +6.3coJ30")
.. IO'(l.414+9.848 + 5 456)
. • 1 01 x l 6.71 8
Theref orethe tcnsion in1he thfrd 1ope is 6 J x 1o• N andthe 1esultant p ull
onthelineris l.6 7 x lO'N.
 Ma1Nmo1k:o - Mechonlc:IW P,obebllh�

4) AB�EF !s�e�ar hellagon. Fo,ccs of magnitu des 3F,4F.2F,6F act

along AB, AC,EA,AF, res�tively.Find the magnitudeand direction or
thci,rnuham.

Nole. Only th t dir «1 io11 of the f orces is denoted by AB etc. The magni tudes
are givensepa1a1cly and arcno1 N'presen1td by t r h ln
e gt sh of thelims AB, etc.

' " "/1<0

' '
' '

.
.

I
L{_J
A Jf B A X B

Let the resultant have components X and Y parallel to AB and AE au shown.

ResolvingaU forcesalong AB and AE we have:
X = 3F+ 4Fcos30"- 6Fcos60" "' 2,,/JF
°
Y = 4FsinJ0 - 2F + 6F sin60� = J,/JF

R = � • F.JJffe+Ji
R "' F./39

X "' "iJj =
Y 3,/3
tan8 = LS

The1efo1e the r,isultant is a force of magnitude F../39 which is inclined at an

:ingle arctan l .S to AB.
In Questions l-4, flnd 1 he magni1ude and direc1ion ofthe resuhant oftl>egiven
set of\"ectors.
I) Fourforces, in newtons. represented by J i - j , i + 7j, 5j and i + j.
2) Three velocities, in metres per second. rep1esen1 ed by 4i- 7j, - Ji + 8j
and 2l + Jj
3) Theforces 1hown in the following diagrams

(b)

( )
° ° 4''
60 41
60' Hi H" o• I
l 4!'

, �
' l✓lN " �' ·

4) Forces ofniagmiudes 3 N , 4 N and S N acting re specti'"elyalongthe lines

AS, AC 1md DA where ABCI) is a 1cc1angle in which AB "' 4 m and
BC .. Jm.
S) Find t h e 1esuh1nt offo1(:CSOfmagnitudes 4, 3 an d 6 newton acting in the
directions AD.BC and CA 1espec1i�ly, where ADC Is an equilateral triangle.
6) Starting from 0, a point P traces ou1 consecu1ive di1placemen1 vectorsof
2i + 3j. -i + 4j, 7i -Sj and i + 3j.
What isthe final displacement ofP f,om 01
7) Threeboys are pullinga hcavyt1olleybymcans ofthree ropes.TI1e boyin
the middle ls exerting a pull of IOON. The other two boy•. wh0$e ropes both
°
make an angle of 30 wi1h thecen11erope ,arepullingwith f orces of SO N
and 140N. What is the resuhant pull on the 110\leyand in what direc1ion will ii
move?
8) A surveyor start sfrom a point O and ""alh 200 m due North. !le ihrn
cumsclockwise thrnugh 120" and walks 1 0 0 m after which he walks JOOm
due West. What is his resultant di1placemen1 from O?
9) An object A i1 subjected to cop bnufn1ces or SN. 2 N and 3 N inclined at
°
30 , 90" and 150" rtspectively to 1he line AD. Taking AD as the x axis.
expren their result3nt intheform ai + bj.
10) Asmallb o atistravcllingthrough t hcwa1crwi1han enginespeed o f Skm h-1.
J t is bclnsstetred dueEa11bu1 t hcrcisacurm11 runningSouthat 2kmh-1 and
wind is blowing the bo�t S o uth West at 4kmh-''. Find the,esultant \'Clocily
o f thcboot.
I !) Rilin.whlc h is fallingvcrtkally,malr:;cs strcalu o n thevcrtlc al s!dcso f a van
travcllingat SO km h -1 . l f t h c mnks ar c a t 30 10 1 hc vertical, calculatc thc
°

spee d o f theraindrops.
12) Fo rces o f magnitu des 2P,3P. 4Pand SP, act alons AU, AC. AD and AE ,
rcspcctivcly.Findthc m;ignitudeand dircctio n o f their rcJul1ant if:
(a) ABCDEF is a regular hCXllS{)O ,
(b) ABCDE is made up o f a squa,c ABCE 1oge1hcrwith an equilateral triangle
COE (D i1 o u t sidethesquare).

THE POSITION OF A RESULTANT FORCE

When a number of forces act on a parride, their lines o f action ;tllpus

th,ough thepoint where thep11tic\c islocated.Clearly,in this cue, the ruultant
of1hesct o f forcc s also acts o 1 1 1 h c par1iclc and 1hercforcpass.es through the
point o fintcncction o f 1hcsc forccs. Thi1pcopettyapplics 1o any5et o f
conc u1rent forccswhethcr thcy act o n a p111iclc o r abiggcr objcc t . i.e.,

(Whcn thc forc csa1eno t c o ncurrent thelocati o n o f their 1csu!tantis no t obvious

andmcthods for dcterminingit arcgivenlatcrin Chapter 14.)
Wewi U n o w coruidcr thclo catio n o f theresultant o f t w o n o n•parallclforce1
11,·hose line• o f �c ti o n a1egiven in v e c t o r form .
11,epoint thmugh which thercsultant p1ss.e1 has a position\"CCto1 whk:h satlsflcs
1be ,·cc t o r equatio n s o f bo t h lincsofaction.
We now need a method fm detenniningsucb a point.

lnttr1tetion ofTwo Ur>es in• Plm1

Considcr two linu whose\·ec t o r cquationsare

t, = 1, + ;I. di
ti = •i +;sd,
Unless d 1 =- d1 (i.e.theline1 arcparallcl} the1inc1intcrscct at apoint
where r, = r,.
When allthc\"ec t o rsinvoll·edaresi\"eninCarte1ian fonn,this equatio n ca n b e
so lved and1hcpo int o f interscction dctcrmlned.
l) Find thepositionvector of1hepoint of interscctlonoftheline1whose

r1 : i + j + >.(2i - j)
ood r1 "' 3 i + 4j + µ(2i - 5j)

Weseethat d 1 'F d1 socheline!i meet at a point where r1=r1

i + j H(2i - j) "' 3i+4j+µ(2i - Sj)
( 1 + 2A)i +(l - >.)j = (3+ 2µ)i+(4-Sµ)j
lfonce l +2A = 3+2;.r
) .. A = l, µ : J
1 - A = 4 -S;.r
Using either A = 2 in r, or ;.r = l in r2 weseetha! the position vector
ofthe point ofintersection ofthe given lines i!i
r = Si-j

2) Two forces, F 1 m i + Sj and F2 ,. Ji - 2j, acl through poinis with

position \'eClors i and -Ji+ 1 4j respecth·ely.Find thepoint wheretheir
linesofaction mcet andhence writedown theequationof thelineofaction of
their resultant.
The �ecto1 equation oflhelineofaction of F, is
r, = i + A(i +Sj)
and.for Fi , it is
r2 - - 3i + l4j + ;.r(Ji - 2j)
These linesmttl at a poin t gi>·en by

(1 + A)i + 5Aj = (-J+3µ)i + ( l 4 - 2;.r)j

I + >. = -J + 3;.r
) .. >. = l, µ = l
S>. "' 1 4 - 2µ
S o 1 hc poi11 1 o f intersec1ion has f)O§ition vector 3i+ IOj.
Now the ruultant of F, and Fi is F, + F1 and it passes through the point
where F, �nd F1 meet.S 0 1heequa1ion ofthelineofa,;tio n oftheresulunt is
r = 3i+ 1 0j + A.(4i + 3i)
Find1hcpo1itionvectonof thcpoint sofintersectionofthe p,airsof!inc1 given
inQue5tions 1 -7.
1) r1 = i + j + A(3i-4j) and r1 = 2i-4j +µ(i+ 6j).
2) r 1 = i + 4j + A(3i-j) and rt = 2j + µ(-7i).
3) r, = 6j + A(i-j) and the line through (1.0) and (9,2).
4) The linesthrough (4,2) and (7,-4), and through (3,0) and (-3,4).
5) Theline5of ac1ion oftwo for«s F,and F1 if F , = 3 i + 4 j andpa!>.\C5
through (-2,-3), F1 = 2i-j and pa5$eS!hrough (-3,3).
6) The lines ofactionof F 1 and F1 if F 1 passes thr
ough (-2,-3) and
(4,S) and F1 p ukes through (- 3,3} and (3,0). Canyou stal e thcmagnitudes
of F 1 a n d F1?
7) The line5 ofactionof F1 andFi if F 1 pa=tluough (5,2) and ispara llel
totheUne whose equatlonis r = A(l-j) and F1 pwi:s throughthe origin
an d hu directionvector 61+j.
8) A force F 1 humagnimde SON, actsinthe di1ection 24i - 7j and
passes through 0. A Hecond furce, F2, is -2i + J and passesthrough
(S.O).
(1) Fin d 1he equa1ions ofthc lines ofactionof F 1 an d F1.
(b) Find the ,csultant of F 1 and f,.
(c) Findtheeq11ation of 1 he lineof action <1fthe ,csultant

(a) Consider two equal and opposite fo,cesuch of magnitude F acting at the

L
ccntreofa rod AB

We know fmm cxperien« t h.al the rod will nor move and this isc<1nsist cnt with
thc rcsult1ofruolving the force1puallc\andpcrpcm dicular t o l hc rod.
RcsoMng parallel Jo AB gives ,"( = 0
Rcsolvingperpcndicu!ar to AB gives Y = O
So the r�sul1an1force i szero.
 V....,,., CompoMnto _,,,1 R_,lllnH. M-1

(b) Now consider the same two forces, one acting at A and the other at B.

Resolving parallel to AB gh·es X a= O.

Rcso!Ying pe1pendicula1to AB gives Y • O.
So unce again thercsul1an1 fu,ceiszero.
But this time we no1icethat the rod will rota1c, so cleuly the turning
cfTcct,ifany, o f a set offorces cannotbcfoun d b y 1hcmethodof1ewlving
in two perpendic u b r directions.
lnordcrto ai5esscompletely thc cffect 1hata set offorccshas on1heobject
to "''hich they ue 1ppl!ed, ii is now dear thu we must evaluate·
(a) thcmagnitudeanddi rcction ofthe rcsultant force,
(b) thcmagnitudcofthc tuming cffcct oftheset offorces.
The methods used for dealing with (a) ha
,·c been c�plored in this chapter
sowewil!now investigatcthc tuming cffectofse1Sofforccs.
Most readers will, at some time, have attempted to loosen a tight nut by using
a spanner . 1 f t h e spanncr i s a short onci1maybc difficult toundothcnutal3
11m auempt.In this case we can eithc, a) exeft a glCllter pullingforce on the
short spanncr 01 b) use t h e o riginalpull on a longe1 spanne1.
Thlssimp!e cJ<amplc shows thatthc sizc ofthelurning cffcct. 0 1 momem,ofa
forcc depends bot h oo th c sizc ofthefor,c andon itsdistancc from 1he ccn11c,
o r u.is,ofrotation.

This propc1ty leads tothe tlcflnition of11le moment ofa fo1cc.

 M•d•-•lcl - -lcl •Ad ,._IHty

MOMENT OF FORCE

The turning effect C of a force F is c.tlculatedbymultiplying together the

magnir ude of the fo1ce and its pc,pcndicu\ar distance, d, from the axis of

Le.

C i s calle d the moment of1he force about the specifie d axis and the unit in
which it is measured is the newton metre, Nm.

Torque
We Juve just ll'!en that one of\� wayi; In which rotation canbe c;iuscdis to
apply a force 11 some distance from the ax.15. 01 pivot. But there are other means
of producing rotation.To turn a door knob, for instance,we slmply like hold of
it and twist it.The generalname gi,<en to any turning effect is torque. The
magnitude of a torque of anytype is meuured in newton metres.

Oi,ectionof Torque
Theangular directionofa torque isthe scnse ofthe rotationit would cause.
Consider a lamina that U free to rotate in tu own plane about an axis
perpcndicular to thclamina and passing through a point A on thelamina.

In the diagram the moment about the uis of rot,tion of the force F,
is F,d, anticlockwise �nd the momenl of the force F1 Is F1d1 clockwise.
A convenient way to differen1ia1ebetween clockwliie and anticlockwise torquei
is to alloc.a1e apositive sign t o onc sense(usually,but no1 invariably, thisis
amiclockwise)an d a negative slgn to theother
Wlth t h i i com·ention. thc moment s o f F, and F1 are + F,d, and �Fi(J2.
(When usinga signconvention inanyproblemit i s a dvisable to spccifythe
chosen positive sense.)
GJ11phi,:al Representation of Torque

A force F, disw1 d from an axis through A , can be rep�sen1ed in

magnitude, direction and position(i.e.completely) by a line l'Q

The magnitude ofthe 1orque about the axis Is IF I )(d which is represented by
PQKd. But }KJ>QKd i s !hearea ofiriangle PAO.

The maguitude o!'the 1110111c11t about an axis !l11ough A

ofa f01ce 1ep1esen1 ed eompletely by a hne PO
i; rerresemedbytwicetheareaofmangle l'AO.

lfthe line ofae1 ion ofa for� passcs through 1 hc1xisof rotation,its
pe rpendicular distan� from the axis is zero. Therefore its moment about 1h11
axis is also zero.

Terminology

Whenever we refe, to the moment of a sel of coplanar forcesabout Ill axis.

at thisstage itisimplicit th.at theaili is perpendicular to theplanein which thc
forces act.ln a di1gram ofthe for�s in 1heir plane ofactlon, 1he1xisofrotation,
belng perpendiculu to thatplanc,c1nbe indicatedonlyby1poin1 (its pointof
lnterRction withthe pl1ne).
Because of1hisit i1common to 1Cfer tothe momen1 ofa force about a point.
Thls is,ofeou sr e , inaccurate. because forces dono1 causeluming about a point,
bu1abouta Jine.JtshouldalwaY$be appreciued thcrefore tha1an cxprusion
suchas 'thc moment offorce F abou1 A' reallymeans 'themoment offorce
F about an ax!s1 h1ough A and perpendkular tu theplanein whkh F acts'.
 □.
Example12i

ABCD iusquare ofside 2m and 0

Hi islUcent re.ForceJ 1ct along the sidc1
asJhown inthc diag1arn.Ca.lculatc the

"
. .
JN e
rnome111 ofnch fo1ce about:
H <
(1) anaxi.s 1hrough A ,

,.,
(b)an axiJ lhrough O.

Taking anticlo,;;k:wiu- moments as pusillw we have:

(a) Magnitude offorce 2N SN •N JN

DiJtan�from A 2m 2m 0
Moment about A - I ONm +8Nm

(b) Magnitude offorce 2N SN <N JN

DiJtancefrom 0 Im Im Im Im

Moment 1bou1 0 +2Nm - S Nm +4Nm -3Nm

� ·:" "' ''"'

2) Forces act as indicat c d o n a rod A B

f
"-"hkhis pivotcdat A . Find t h e

,.-·-·t=-"- ,.
anticlockwiM, momcnt ofeachfor�

. .� .
Magn.itude offorce 2F F 3F
°
DiJtancc from A 74 4asin30
Anticlockwiu- moment about A + 2Fa - 2Fa + 6Fa
 Vecton. Components ond Rauttonts. Mo....,t

J) ABC isanequilateral t riangleofslde 2m. Forces ofmagnltudu P, Q and R

act along t he sides AB, BC and CA respectively.lf the an1iclockwisemoments
about ues perpendicular to the triangle through A , B and C are + 2./J Nm,
-4../JNm and +./JNm mpectivcly, cakulate P, Q and R.

°
The altitude d ofthe triang!eii 2 s in60 i.e. d=./3.
The anticlockwise torque about A is Qd
Therefore Qd = + 2./3
Q= +2
About B 1he anticlockwii;c to1que is Rd
Therefore Rd = - 4 ,,/3
... R = -4
(the negatiYC sign shows that R is in the direction AC and not CA).
Similarly about C Pd = +./3
p = +I

I N i n t h e direction AB
Therefore the forces are I 2 N '.n the direction BC
4 N m the dil''11on AC

Jn Questions I 10 4 , calcu!ate t he antic oc

l kwise toiqueofeach ofthe forces
acting inthe planeofthe laminashown inthe diagram, about an axis
pe1pendicular t o 1he lamina,through A.

C3.
" ABCD is a rectanglein which
9S •s AB = 2 m and BC= I m

'
.
<
52 Mo.,,.,,..tiCI - MochoniClolld Ptoboblllty

<D'
2)

ABCDEF isa 1egul�r hexagonof1idc 211'.

' '
'

4)
BC ls a rodpi,·oted about its
midpoint A

l,
r
------------,-1-,•,--.....
BM c MA ., AN=NC = a

5)

c �;m �
m
�;���t
,:����
i:I I Nm clockwise.
B
is

If AB=BC= l m fin d the

moment of r about C.

6)

...
AR isa sce-sawoflength 4m, pi,·otedat its midpoint C. Cakula1e1he
anticlockwiscmoment ,abou 1 a horizon1alaxlsthrough C. of a chll d of..,,•eight
BON "'' ho siu.
a) at A b) O.S m faom A c) 31 B d) at C.
RESULTANT TORQUE

When severii coplanar fm,;:cs net on an object, their result.am lurning effect
abou1a specificdaxl s i s thca!gt"braic sumofthc moment s ofthe individual
forceiabout that axis {i.e. the sum of the separllc moments taking Int o account
the 1ign which indicatcsthc 11ense) ,

e.g.the ,csul11n t momcnt about thcaxis tl1rough A offorces F, and F1 as

Jhown in the d!agram, is the sum of + F1d1 md -F,41.
i.e. !he torque about A ls F1d1 -f.,d1.
This imponant principle formulates the following pmperty of forces

A proof of 1hls uatcmcnt i s ginn �low but re.tdcrs who have not yet done much
trigonometrymay prefer to !cave this 11ection until they are familiar with the
fact o r f onnulac.
Consider two forces F 1 and F1 which meet at a point O. cnclosingm ang!e 9.
and whosc,esultantis F,.
Using thesi n.e ru)e ghes

(II

Now consider any point A i n the pl:tne of the f orces, whOMperptndicular

distances from t h e l i nesof actionof F 1 , F1 and F3 are J1 , d1 and d,
1npc:c tively. AO is of length I and i , i ncllned atan ang)e ll to the line of
:ictionof F 1,

' , , /� - - - - - -/
/ /

______ _,,
'

'
/ 0
/
/

0 ,,

At>out a n a x i � t hrnug)i A, pc:1pc:ndlcula1 to lhepla11C ofthefo1ces ,the result3nt

moment of F 1 and Fi is F,d,+Fid1 anticlockwi5e,i.e.
F 1/ s i n 1l + F1/ sinl0+/I)
F,sin(0-a) . F3 sina
= � (/smll)+ � ( l s i n {H/1)) (frnm I l l )

.,,
= � (sinJhin(8 -a)+ sinasln(l1 +1l)l

= � (cO!i(/1-0+a) - � + "'5-{� - cos(a+O+ji)l

lsmO

= � (lsin(a+/l)sinO)
2sin9

This i$ also the anticlockwi� moment of F3 about the same axis.

Therefore, for two f orces, the 1 orque about A of the 1esult11n1 fo, ce ls equal to
thecomblned torqueof thesepnatef orces.
This argument can be applied succe51.h-ely to further fo1cu i n ordN to ntabli!h
thegencral Pri ncipleof Moments.
 i
I) � �sofmagnitodes 2 N , J N , I N an d 5 N act along the rides AJi, c,OC

"D
and AD ,espectlvcly of a square ABCD of side I m. Wlm is their resultant
moment about (1) an axis through A (b) an axis through C?

"
Giving a positivesign to a torqueinthc
H i JS
sense ABC (i.e. 1nticlockwtse In the

,,
diagrun)we have:

' "

(a) Aboutan ax.lsthrough A:

Theindividual moments are +JNm and - ] Nm (the for�s of SN and
2 N pass through A so their moment iszeio).
The1cforc the 1esoltant momcn1 is ( + 3 - 1) Nm : + 2 N m
i.e. 2 Nm in the Knie ABC

(b) About an .ixis through C

TheindivlduaJ moments arc + 2 Nm and - S Nm
Therefore the resultant moment is - 3 Nm
i.e. 3 Nm in the sense CBA.

No1e. In this problem the dlagnm can be lettered conectly in several different
ways . A force which in one diagram has an anticlockwise moment may cause
clockwise rotation In another as the fol!o"·ing example shows.

This ambiguityis avoided when the positive sense is SP<'cified byleuer,mkr.

In either of the above diagrams the torque is 3 Nm in the sense ABC.
 r===rl
_ ,. _ Modu,nla..ct �ll!y

LJ
2) Two f orcesof magnitudes P and -./31'
ac1inthe p!:t11e o f a square ABCD as
shown in the figure. If AB = a find the
resultant momen1 about an axispcrpend!cuh1r
1o t h e squue,1hrough A.

' .
In thisp1oblem theperpendicular distance from A 10 the f orce P it not
immedia1elyob1ious.On suchoccasionsit isoftenbeucr to rnolvc t h e f orcc
into c omponemswhose distancesfrom the axisare mo,e easilyoblllned.
Resolving the force P along CD and CB
andthe fo1ce -./3P a]ong 8AandBC
w e se e 1hat, about an axisth1ough A,

"
theindividual m=ntsarc·

.,/Jr 1

(antidockwi1e m=nu are pOliitive).

Theref ore the resultant moment is jPa(,/3- 1 + 3)
!(2+ ,/J)Pa anticlockwise.

3) ABCD isI rectangle in which AB • 2 m and BC• I m. A force of

2 N act, along BC. If the magnitude of the iesultant 10 1que about A isto be
6 Nm in the sense ABC find the ex1ra f orces needed if:
(a) onlyonemore forceacli along CD,
(b) 1wo more f o1CH, ofequal magnltude,act along BCandCD.

"EEJ' "CJ'
A
,.
,.
,
B A

(a) If the one extra force along CD isof magnitude P newton then the
'
0

individu,lmomentsabout A in the sense ABC are + 4 Nm and

+ P newton mcnc.But the resultant moment is +6 Nm
Theref ore 4+/'=6 - I'=2.
tlencea furce of 2 N ls1cquired along CD.
(b) lfthe two extraforcesalong BC and CD arerach of magnitudc Qncwtoo.
the individualmoments a,e + 2Qnewionmetre and + Q newton metre.
Therefore 2 Q + 4 + Q = 6 • Q • j.
l·lence forces of magnitude } N ile 1equired along BC and C D .
4) F!nd the resultant torque ofthe following for1:es,about an axis th1oug h t h e
point wlth posltionvector i+j,
F 1 = 4i+7j acting through the point r, = -4i+3j
F2 = - i - 2j acting th,ough t hepoint r1 = i - j
F3 • 6j acting through thepoint r3= Si

L_ ,

Taking the clockwise sense u positive, the moment of each force ■bout the axis
through (1,1) is
for f, 7 x 5 + 4x2 • +43 units
for F2 lx2 = + 2 units
for f, -6x4 = -24 units

· · - ·
Theresultan t t orque i s t hercfore 21 units clockwise.

, ISJ · - ..
Jn Qu"tion• 1 -4 all forces act in theplane of the lamina.Calculate the
resultant torque ahout an axis through A perpendkubr to the lamina , staling
the sensein which it acts.
 /��Cl\
\____W"
2) ABCDEF is a rcgular hexagon ofdde 2a.

' .
ABC isa me1al 1odben1at B
. t o a rightangle
AB = 4a and BC.:a.
M i s the mid•pointof AB.

4) LMN i s an equllateralutangl e o f
dde I m a n d A blsecu L N .
,/\,
/ -�,
5) Forces representedby S i , -1i+2j , -3j, i-6j act rcspccti�ly1hro11gh
pointswith posilionvectors i+j. i-j, 3j, 4i. Findtheir rcsultant
momentabou1anaxis thro11gh (a) the origin (b)thepoint ( - 2 , - 1)

6) C.dc11!ate 1he antidock.wise mornent ofeachofthe foUo"ingforce$about

anax.isthrough 0.
F1 : 4 i + 2j andacts through a point r, = i+j
F1=3i-5j andacts througha point r1=2i-j
F, "" -1i andacu through a po!nt r1 • 3j
f4 : - 6j andacuthrough a point r4 = i - 6j.

7) 0 is the centre of a square ABCI) of side I m. Calculate the magnitlldes

of three f orces which act along AB, BC and CD such that the result.anI
moment, in the sense ABC. about A is - l Nm, about B !s + 3 Nm and
about O is + 5 Nm.
 V.c1011. Compc:1r,ontt•ndReS11lllnt._Mc,m.,I

J) When li nes 1cpresenting vecton in magnitude and dim:1ion are diawn

consecut ivcly, th e l i ne which comp el tes thepol y gon reprcsentsthe ,esuhant
vectorin magnitude and d i rec!ionbrn no1 necessa1i ly i n position.
2) The resu]tant oftwo vectors P and Q inclined at an angle O has magnitude
R given by R1 = 1'2 + Q1 +2PQc0$ 0 .
J) Theresultant ofmore than two coplanar vectouil calcul31edby resolving i n
twoptrpendkul a r d i rections
4) The moment ofa force of magnitude F about an axis distant d from the
line of action of F i s given by Fd.
5) Twovecton a and b are parallel if a = }..b.
6) A vec!or of magnitude V in a direction d i s give11 by vd.
7) A l i ne throug
h apoint withposi!ion vec101 a and in a direction d has a
\'ector equa1ion r = 1 + }.. d .

MULTIPLE CHOICE EXERCISE 2

(The m
l truC'lions for amwering these quest o
i m are gfrcn on page x.j

I) The resultant of displacements 2 m South, 4 m West, 5 m North is of

magnitude:
(a) J m (b) 7 m (c) S m (d)V65m {e) l l m
2) If ABCD is a quadrilateral whose si des represent 1·ectou, AB i s equiv�ent
to:

...
(a)CA + CB (b)ci5 (c) Ai5 + DC + CB (d)AD + iio (e)AC-fii.
3) Thehoriwntal compnnent ofaforceof ION incline,Jat 30° to thever1ical

(a) SN (b)5v'J N (c) JN (d)fN (e) i N

4) Two ,·ecto1s inclined a t a n angle O have magnitudes J N and S N w<J their

1Csultant is ofmagnitude 4N. The angle O is
° °
(a) 90 (b) a,ecos f (c) arccosf (d) arccos -j (e) 60 .
S) Two forces F1 andF1 ha, ·ea resultant F 1. If F 1 = 2i-Jj and
F, = 5i + 4j then F1 is;
(a)7i + j (b)- 3i-7j (t)3i + 7j (d)7i + 7j.
 'l 'O
, '" J.
·-- i".. l
The forcc1in the dl1gramhne1
rnultam antidockwl sc torque about
ana:tislhrough B of:
(1) 2Nm (b) 22Nm
(c) - 2 Nm (d} - 4 Nm.

- - 11

7) A light md.piv otedat A,

lw forctsapplied 1o i1u

8)
indic11ed.The rod will:
(1) romeeluckwise.
(b) muteant iclockwi5e,
(c) remain horizonta.l.

7
Themomcnt oftheforce
- - - shown inthe diagram, about a
,- >• -
10• ��ndkul.ir axls th,ough A,
is ofmagnirnde:
(a) 8Nm (b)-8Nm
(c) - 4 N m (d) 4Nm.
�s

9) AB and PQ are two vec t o r ssuch that AB .. 2PQ.

(1) AB i spa.rallelto PQ.
(b) PQ i stwice a slong a s AD.
(c) A , B . P a n d Q mu s1 be collinear.

10) The vec10, equation AC• Ai+ � applies directly10:

 oc
11) ABCD is a parallelogram.
(a) AD - CD (b ;w .. (c) A B + OC - C O + DA
)
(d) BC+CD = M + AD.
12) A force F • 3i+4j.
(a) The magnitude oftheforce is S units.
(b Thc forcc am through tlleo rigin.
(c)) The direction oftheforceisatarctanJ to the x axis.
13 A force F, .. 2i-Jj :tel$ through a point i-2j and a force
F1 )• 4i+Sj acts through a point 2i+j.
a The magnitude of F 1 is v'IJ units.
( ) The moment of F 1 •bout 1he origio isofmagnitude I unit.
(b)
(c) The magnitude of Fi ll J units.

14) (a) Themomcnt ofaforce ofmagnltudc I. newtons , aboutan axis through

A, llzero,
(b) A force ofmagnitude I. newtons acts through A.
IS) (a) A force F = 2i + 3j .
(b A f orce h.ai. pcrpendlculn components o f magnitudes 2 and J units.
)
16) AD and PQ are 1wo lines in the same plane:
(a) AB = 3PQ.
(b) AB=JPO.
17) ABC is a 1riang]e:
(a) AC- AB+g.
(b) AB=AC+ ce.

18) Cakulate the magnitudeofthe resultant oftwo forccs F , an d F i.

(a) F , - 3 i + 7j.
(b) F1 = i - 4j.
(c) Both forces aclata point with position vcctor 2i+j.
19) ABCDEF l l a hexagon. Find.in tCTTns of a and b, the vectors which t he
remainlns sldes represcnc.
(a) Aii=1.
(b The heugonis regular.
(c)) fC ,,, b ,
 M.ot1,er111tlco -Mechlnlcl- Problbllity

20) Six forces actlng o n a particlehavedlrectionspa1allel to thesides AB,BC,

CD. DE, EF, FA ora hexagon.Find themagnitude and direction of their
resultant.
(a) The forces havemagnitudes F, 2F, JF, 2F, 2F, F respectively.
(b) The sense of each force is indicated bythe 01der of the letters.
(c) Thehexagonis regular.

21) Exprcn a forcc F in the form ai + bj

(a) Themagnitudeof theforceis S N
°
(b) The forcei s inclined a t 60 t o the horizontal.
(c) j lsinthe directionof theupward vertk:il .

22) Calcu\a1 e thcmomen t o f a forceabout an wi.is through a point A:

(a) themagnitude ofthefo rcei5 \ 0 N ,
(b) thesenseof ,otation is clockwise,
{c) thcaxisis pcrpendicular to theforcc.

ABCD i1 a squarcofsidc 2m. Find the

positionufthepolnt X through which a
perpcndicubr axl1 passe1 lf, aboutlha1 axls:
(a) themoment of the 3 N force Is 4.S Nm,
{b) themomen t o f the 4 N forceis 2Nm.
(c) theresul!an t moment is4Nm

24) The multant of Ali and BC is CA.

25) Two veclon of equ.111 magnitude and which are io the i.ame direction .ne
equ:il vectors.

26) A particleofweight W is on a planeindined at a to the horizontal.

The component of theweight paral!el 10 the plane Is W cos a.
°
27) The resultant of two v...:tonofmagnitudes Pand Q and inclined at 60
is -JF + Q' - PQ.

28) If F, ... 2; + Jj and F1 • 2 i - 3j then F , an d F1 are equal and

opposite.

29) A sq113re ABCD can be 1otated in a ve1tical plane about the side AB.

JO) Theresul1an1 momen 1 o f a s e t o f forces aboutan ax!s bindependen1 or1tr.e

axis.
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE 2

I ) A force of 30N il inclined at an angle B to the horlzontal.lf\Uvertlcal

component ls 18N. fin d t he horizontalcomponent and thevalue or B.

2) Resoh·e avector intotwo perpendicular components !iO that:

(a) the componenuare ofcqual magnitudcs,
(b) themagnitudeofone component istwi� thatofthe other.

3) Forccs ofmagnitudes 2 , 3 , 2 a n d 5 new1on acl at a polnt.Theangles

° ° °
between them are 30 ,60 and30 ,espectively. Cakula t c t heir resultan t a n d
verify your 1esults by d1awing a sui1ab!escale diagram.

4) For«srep,esented by Ji + Sl i - 2j and Ji+ j together with a

fourth force F act o n a particle.lf 1he re1ulta111 fo1ceis representedby 4 l + j ,
f i n d F.

S) ABCDEF i1 a regular hexagon.Forces acting along CB, CA, CF aod CD are

of magnitudes 2, 4, S and 6 newton rnpectively. What ii the inclifl3tion of
their rcrultanl lO Cf?

6) If • represcmsavelocity of 4rns-' Not!h East and b repreM:nlli a velocity

of 6 m s- 1 West, what velocitiesare ,epresentedby
(a) -2a (b) a + b (c) 3b-a'

7) Jn a regular pentagon ABCDE·

(a) what is the resultant of: (i) Ai+ BC (ii)EA -BA,
(b) prove that AO+OC=AB-CB

8) ABCD is a parallelogram . What reprHcnts the re!rnltant of forces represented

by Ali, OC, iii5and CA?

9) ABC is an equilateral trfangle and l:_!s � mid-�nt of BC. Forces of

I. 2, 4 and J..,/3 newton act along BC.BA, CA and AD respccti,·ely.Resolve
each of the fo1c� in the dlrectioM BC and DA and verify that the sum of the
compontntsin each direction i!lzero.

10) A force of 2V2 N acts along the diagonal AC ofa square ABCO and
§
another force P actsa!ong AD. If the resul tant forceis inclined at 60 to AB
find thtvaluc of P.

I I) Forces of magnitudes 2P, 4P, 3Pand P act on a particle in directions

par:i!kl to the sides AD, BC,cr5 and DE of a regular hexagon. Find the
magnitudeand dircction of thei1 1esultan1.
 12) Forces 2i- Jj, Si+j. -4i + 7j act th1ough pointswith po sition
,·ectors i+j. - 2i + 2j, Ji-4j respcetively. Find their ruultant m oment
about
(a)the origin.
(b) thepointwith position vector i-j.

JJ) Forcesofmagnitudu 2N,J N, 4 N an d 5 N act :ilong thelincs AD.BC,

ffi and Al) respectively where ABCDEF isa regulu heJU1gon ofside 2 m.
Find 1 h e1esulum1 momcn1 about
(a) thecentreofthehexagon,
(b)thevertex F.

14) Forccsofmagnitude11 7 N ,4 N , 5 N a n d X N ac1 respec1 ively along 1 he

si des AB.cii. ci3 a n d Ai5 ofa rectangle ABCD in which AB "' 2AD. ir
lhe 1eiuhant moment about the midpoint of AD istwice the resultant moment
aboutthe midpoint ofAB, find X.

15) Forcuof9,2,S and I newton act along the sides OA ,AB,BC and CO of
a rectangle OABC and a f o1ceof 15 newtons acualung AC. 0A=4a and
AB • Ja. Taking OA and OC as x andy axes rupulively find an cxpreuion
for theresuhant f orcev«ctor intheform Xi + Yj.

16) A quadrilateral ABCD hasopprn;ite sides AB and DC parallel.

G
Ang]eABC ,. !50� and 1ng]eBAD = 60 . Forces2P,P,P. 2P ac1 along
AB, 'iic, CD, AI) respectively. PrO\'C that the resultant hu magnilude
P(8+ 3,/3)1 and find the tangent of the angleit makes with AB.
(U ofL)

17) Two forces, F , and F1 , act through A( l,J)andB{l,-2) respectively

F,=2i - j and F1 isof magnitudc 10 andactsina di1cction 4i+Jj.
Find
(a) a vector equatioo f or the line ofaction of each force,
(b) theresultam of f 1 and f1,
(c) a ,·ector equatiooforthelioeofaction ofthercrnltant force.

18) Forces P and Q acl along lines OA and 08 respectively and 1 h eir 1csulta11t
isafo1ce of magnitude P, If theforce P aloog OA isreplaced by a force 2P
along OA, tlic re,uhant of 2Pand Q isalso a force of magnitude P. Find:
(a) themagni tudcofQ in tc1msof P,
(b) theangle between OA andOB.
(c) the angle, which the lwo ruulu.nt• mah with OA. (0)
19) A plane lamina hasperptndkularaxes Ox and Oy mark.ed o n i t , andls
acteduponbythe following forces:
SP in the direction Oy,
4P i n t h e d i rectlon Ox,
6P in 1he direc tion OA where A i s the poim (3a,4a),
BP i n the direction AB where B b t he poinl ( - 11, 11).
Express each f orce in the fonn pi + qj ;md hence calculate the magnitude
anddlrectlonof1he resultant ofthese forces.
20) The diagonals of the plane quadrilateral ABCD intersect at O.
and X, Y a ie the mid•points of the diagonals AC,BD rtspec tively. Show that:
(a) BA + iic = 2iix
(b) BA + iic + M + 0C = 4YX
(c) 2AB + 2BC+ 2CJ\ .. o
If 0A + oii + OC + 00 = 40M, find the location of M. (AEB)
21) Given two vectors OP and OQ show how to consuuct geometricallythe
sum (OP+ 00) and the difference (OP- 00).
If X, Y. Z are the mid•poin1s ofthe lines BC,CA,AB respectively and O is
anypointln the plane ofthe tri:lngle ABC, show that
O A + O B + OC .. OX+OY + OZ
andfind the positionofthe point D such that OA +OB-OC=®.
(UofL)
22) Forces ofmagnitudes l . 2,3,6,S and 4 N act respectivelyalongthesides
AB,cii,ffi,El.l, ff andAf ofa regular hexason ofside 11. Find their multant
moment about axesperptndicular t o the hexagonthrough
(a)A (b)B (c) 1he c entre ofthe hexagon.
23) Forces of magnitudes F. 2F,pF, N2Fand q../2F act along AB, BC, OC,
AC and BD respectively, where ABCD is a square of side 2a (the order of the
Jetteisindicatesthedi rec1ion ofe11eh force).
lfthemagnitudeof1he 1ernhant t orque, in the sense DCB, about an axis
through A peipendicular to ABCD is 4F11 and the resultant fo1cc is of
11U1gnitude JOF, find pandq.
 CHAPTER 3

COPLANAR FORCES
IN EQU ILIBRIUM. FRICTION

THE STATE OF EQUILIBRIUM

A m orcoplanar forccs acting o n a n object canbe reducd (usingmethods

di!ieussed in Chapter 2) to a sing.leresuhant force. The effcctofthis linea1
re sultan1 011 1he object wouldbe1 o move it i n a straight line.lnaddition,the se1
uffor<:to mayha,·ea rc•ultan1 1urnlng effect whichwouldcause theobjec110
rotate.Forces which have u ro linear 1esultantand zero t uming effec1 will no1
causeanychangein the motionoftheobject to whkh1 heya1e applied
Such fo1ce s (andthe ohject)a1es.iid t o beinequ ilibr i u m.
A set ofconcurren1 fo1ce s h u 1.c10 tuming cffoc1 about thepoimof

conci:irrent f o«:esa'ie lnequijibrlunJ iC theif, futea,- re:-ial�t

. i s:,,.ero. '

It i s important to remember, howe,·er. that non-concurrent forces with zero

Iinear rcsuJ1 .;mt a1c not necessarilyin equilibrium.

Equilibrium ofConcurrentCopl1na, Forces

Wehavealreadyscen 1 h a t t herea1ebasically1wo ways of lindingthe !inear

resultanl ofa set of fo,ces:
(a) byd1awing a vector diag1am in whichlines representingthe given forces
form allbutone 1ide ofa polygon.Thelast sidc 1hen rep,esen1 s thc
ruultant,
(b) byresolving andcollecting theforcesin eachof twopeipendkular
directions.
 Coplan•f-ln l:q"llibli�m. frictlon

When thefo1cesareinequilibrium 1heir resuhant i1 ze1oand theaboveme1hod1

canbeadapted u follows:
(a) The1iderepresentingthe1esuhant is now ofzero length. i.e.1hegiven f orcu
them11elve11:anberepresentedby 1he sides of a clo11ed polygon,
e.g.if t hefurcesindiagr�m (i)arein equilibrium, the corrcsponding vecwr
diag1am willbeas in diagram (ii).

{b) Whcnthc given f orcesare resolvedand col!ec tedin two perpendicular

d!rKtiom. the magnitude of the resultant, F, is normally calculated u1ing
P = .J(X' + V").

Neithu X' nor Y1 can eve,be negative.

So F is zero only if
X = 0 and Y = O .

E .g.in diagram(i)above,resolvlng parallel and perpend icular to theforce Q

wehave:
X "' Q + P cosa- Scos!) = 0
Y = Psina +Ssin,(l�R = 0
These two equations give the condition f or P.Q.R andS tobe in equilibrium.
Eithcrofthemethodsabovecan beu1edto so!veproblemswherethe forces arc
in equilibrium.

I) ABCDEF is a rcgular hexagonand O is its centre.Forcesof 1,2, 3,4 ,P,

Q newton act at O in the dhections OA, 08, OC, OD, OE, OF respecUvely .
Jfthesix forcesarc i n equilibrium find thevalues of PandQ.
 Mothom•tica - Madw,nicl•nd ProlMblllty

Resolving all forces inthe directions

Ox and Oy and using X,. 0 and
Y=O we have

➔ X = P+ Qcos60 + 4 co s60 - J co160 - 2 - 3cos60 • 0

° ° ° °
Ill
I Y = Qsin60" + I sin60° -4sin60° - 3sin60° = 0 121
From ( ] ]
From [21
Th�rcfore che required v.ilues are P = -I and Q = 6.
(P .. -- 1 indicates a force of I N along E O )
.
2) Four forces of magnitudes 4N,3N, I N and 3../2 N act on a panide as
shown in the diagram. Pruve. using a polygon of forces,1ha1 the particle is in
equillhrium.

The polygon ABCDE i s constrocted so that AB, BC, CD and DE represent the

" ,�,, '

forces 4N, 3N, I N and J,,/2N respectively in magnitude and direction.
0
But DF = J../2cos4S "" 3 units

.
0
and EF '=' 3../2sin4S = 3uniu
ll1erefore DF = CB
J�nio,
Therefore E and F are both on AB.
.

' .
Also E F + DC = AB
Theref ore E coincides with A.
Thefourgiv en conc1urent fmces theTefore f orm, closedvector polygonand
so are in equilibrium.
 CopllM< Fa,.. ln Equlllbtkrm. Ftlctlon

Equilibr1nt

A set of forc e s which is not in equilibrium may be reduced t o equilibrium

. . ,�.,
by t h e inlroduction ofoneextra fo1ce. This force i s t hen called t h e equil b
i ront

'LE
ofthe o1iginal :;e t . S inceit counteract s 1he resuhan1 effect of1he originalset of
forces,

3) Four forceiacting on a pulicle are reprcscnt ed by 2i + Jj. 4i - 7j,

-5i+4j and i - j . Findthe resultant forcevector F. A fift h fo1ce
pi + qj � added 10 t he system which is 1hen in equilih1ium.Find pand q
and che<:k t hat pi + q j =: -F.

21• !)

1 -j .\1

41- 7j

() I () I

F • Xi + Yj = (4 + ! + 2 - S)i+(- 7 - 1 + 3 + 4)j
F : 2i-j.
Now considering the stt of five forces which are in equilibrium and hence have
a resultant rcprestnt c d by Oi + Oj weh:Jve:
(2i + Jj)+ (4i - 7j)+(-5 i +4j) + (i - j)+(pi+qj) "' 0i + Oj
2 + 4 - 5 + 1 +p "' 0 - P "" - 2
3-7+4- l +q = O • q = +!
The fifth force fatherefore - 2 i + j = -(2i-j) "" - F

l ) ABCD is a square.A force of 2 N acts along AB. Find the magnllude of

forcesacting along AC and AD ifthe three forces are in equilibrium.
2) In a regular hexagon AIJCDEF, forces ofmagnit udes 2 N , 4 N,3 N an d 2 N
act along t he lines AB, AC,AD and AF respec 1 ive!y. Find the equ!!ibrant o fthe
give n forcesand verifyt hat it is equal and oppositc t o their rerult ant.
 Mau,emulca - Mechanlca •nd Pr..t>abm,v

3) Forces 2i + Jj, i - 7j, 4i + j anti -Ji - j act on a pa,ticle.Find

thercsultant force. What isits magnitude? What e:<:traforcewould kcep thc
particle in equiliblium?
4) Fh·e forces are in equilibrium.Four of the forcn are 9i-j, 4i + 6j,
- Si - 2j and 2i+j. What i s thefifth force?
5) Thm: forces, 2i+j. 7 i - 2j and 3 i + 4j act on a par!ide.A fourth
force f is introduced to keep thepartide in equOibrium.Find F.
6) A ring of weight 2 N isthreaded on to a mingwhoseendsare fi:<:ed to two
point.s A and B in a horizontal line .Theringis pulkd asidebya horlzootal
force Pnewton parallel to AB. When the ring is in C'qUil!brlum the two sections
° °
ofthe string aieinclinedto the,·ertica!at angles of 40 and 20 . Find the two
possible values of P
7) ABCDEF ls a ,egularhc:,:agon.Fo,ces represented by AB. FA. BC and 2fil
act on a particle.Prove1 hat theparticle isin C'quilihrium.

THREE FORCES IN EQUILIBRIUM

The methods ahead)· discussed cao be appl!ed to problem&an anynumberof

forcC$, including thrce.Thesitu.ation "·hereju.srthree forces are in equilibrium,
ho"•cvcr, lsofparticularlntere>1 and speci.al m e1 h o ds ue appllcablc.
Con1ider three forces P, Q and R which are in equilibrium. Lines rep1csenting.
in magnitudeand dircction. a set ofvcctoBin equilibrium,form a closed
polygon.ln thi s ,asethe polygon isa triangleandis often referre d ! o a s the
1/1Qng/t, offorcei.
The formal statement of thisproperty is:
Ince fo1cc1 ,..hich are in equilibrium Can be te]Jre.ented i n maiinilude.di rect1ot,
nd 1enseh}the,1<le1 of a t rian letaken in orJe,

Conversely.
�fa m:in- -
co
=
, b< fo~ M~•
=
,, ,-
-h~ i�� m-
�,.� md, ha_
,, -
-- "_,h_r_
nm- ,-,;,- �oo�-­
oc, os ,s
.
th,�cconcurrent forces Ill eqmlibnum, thc11 tl,e mag11itude, of 1he fo"es are
10 011 ional io 1 h e s1dcsofthe tnangle.
 �111rFon:•ln Eq11lllbrl11m.FtJctlon

I ) Onc cnd ofa string 0.Sm long isfixcd toa point A 3ndthc o1her endis
fastened 10 a S!llall object of weight 8 N. The ubjcc! is pulled aside by a
horizontal force, P. until it is OJ m fiom the vertical 1h1ough A. Find the
magnitudesofthc tcnsion, T, in thc wing andthc forcc P.

Triangle ADC isa suitablc triangkof forccssincc

AB isin thcsamedirection a11hc wcight
BC isin thc ,:unc directiona• P
CA i1in thc!.3mc di1ccliona1 T
8 P T
Then
Ali "' BC ,,. CA
But 1hc !cngd1 of AB is 0.4m (Pythagoras).
8 P T
0 .4 0.3 05
Hence - = - = -

Thc!cnsioninthcstringis 1hc1cforc ION andthe horizontal force is 6N.

72 Mott>.melkl -�ic:tffld l'robeblUry

LAMl'S THEOREM

Consider agai� three o d R which are in equilibrium, and the

� ;::C:\';:;�

A
ooncsponding tna.ngle o

c
:
'
:

--.'
,

. .
',
),,

If the angl�1 betw ndH. :arc a,/Jand,' ,u shown lnthc diagr.im,lhcn

::�;; �:
Q. !l and 1' are ext n s of triangle ABC.
.
Applying thes , '"'""h"�'°' lrimgl, ABC we h��e
m _
P R
= . �" •
sin(l80"-o) sm( l O -_lj) sin (l80" - )
y
.
Butsin,c sin(l80" - o) : sino, a simpler form IS
-,-- o-
 Coplon1r f<1rffl lft EquHibrlum.Frlctlon

·� �
,..:�,��-·
llO" I'
llO"

' -·".. .
Applying Lami's Theorem we have
:

8 P T
= ,.
sin l'.!o" sin l50° sin90°

Theref ore the tern.ion is

1
6(3 N and the ho rizont;i.l force ls ¥ N.

No1e the Wllilarity between Examples I and 2.

The lengths given in Ex.ample I suggested using the t ri.:ingle of forces method
where!l.!I t h ea11g/ esgiven in E:itample 2 suggested the use of La.mi's Theorem.
lt is also inte1estingto observethat eithe1problem could havebeen so lvedby
1esolvingthe forceshorizontally and vertical!yas !ntheearlicr examples.

Concurrence Property
-"
f 1!11�e no11-paralld force, are 1n eq'u imi11Uff'J 1heir !me� o acti<m mm! be

ltis easy tosee thal this must betrueby considering three forces P,Q and R
which are known to be !n equilibrium.
If PandQ meet at apoint A. then their resultant, S, alsopasses through A.
Theorlgin;i.l 1h1eeforces:have now bten
reduccd to two and thesetwo.shown
in diagram(l),11eto bein equilibrium.
R andS thercforeha�uro linnr
resultant and iero tuming effect.
 Motllamatica - MachlnicaandProtN,t»llty

Hence R an d S areequal i n magnitude

and in oppo1llc dilcctions.
lfthepositionsof R andS areas
show n i n diagram (ii)however. they
ha\"e a tuming effect

This tuming effcctwil! bezcroonly

•••hen R andS arerolllnear, u i n
diagram(iii)and inthis case R also
passcs through A.
Therefo,e In order 1ha1 P, Q and R
shall be i n equilibrium,all three forces
mus1pass 1hrough A.

This propert y i s ofconsi de11blevalue ln solv!ngproblcms where oneof1 hree

forces i n equilibriumwoul d otherwise h.a,·e anunknown di1ection.

EXAMPLES 3b (conlin1111:U
3) A unifo1m ,od AD of weight 1 2 N is hinged to a vcnical wall at A. The
end B i s pulled asidebya hori1.on1al force un1il i1 i s i n equilibrium incHne d a t
°
60 1o thewaU.Fin d themagnitudeof 1he horizon1a l force and 1he di1ect ionof
lheforce actingat the hinge.

" ____>{1 - - --- • "

'
-
TI1e rod i 1 i n equilibriumundcrtheactionof three f01ces only, so thescthrce
forces must be concurrent .The weight and the horizontal fo1ce P meet at C so
the hinge force must also pass th,ough C. But the hinge f orce acts at A so ill
directionmunbe CA produced.
 Coi>t-rFon:eoin Equilibrium,Fric:tion

First w e deal wilh the menrnration ofthe generaldiagram.

G ls the midpoint of AB and GC is parallel to AD so C i s the midpoint of
DB.

Now 1an8 = � = � = J 1an60 = �

°

Hence 8 = 40.9°

Applying .Lami's Thcorern weha

,·e
12 I' R
- - • - ° - (� -° which is not needed)
sin(8 + 90j sin( l80 -8) sin90
12sin l39.l"
P • - --· = JOA
sin lJ0.9°

Therefore 1he horizontal fo1c e i sofrnagnitude 10.4N and the hinge force is
°
inclined at 4 09. to the wall.

Problem Solving

The methodsso far available for solving problems involving three concurrent
forces i n equilibriurn , use
(a) the 'triangleoff orces' ,
(b) Larni'sTheorern.
(c) resolu!ion i n two p erpendicu!ar directi ons.
ln a11emptingto selectthebes1 approac h t o a particular problcm thefoUowing
poin1sd1ouid be noted.

I) A di agram includlng a suitablelriang]e whosesi desaTC given(orare simpleto

Qlcu!a1e) suggem the use of method (a). It lsnot. however. worth introducing
sp ecial construction to c1ea1e a suitabletriang]e.

2) When the angksbetween pairs of force, are known,Laml's TI1eorem i s often

1hebes1method.

J) lftwoofthethreeforces arein perpendiculardirections. resolrin g i n t hese

directionsgivesaquick and easysolution.

It i s important in all cases 10 TCmember that 1

h 1et 110 n-poral /tl for�J in
equ li ibrium mus 1beco nci,rnmt.
EXAMPLES3b (con1i,.ued)
4) A sma.llb!od of weigh! 20N !ssuspended by twostrinp oflenglhs 0 6. m
and 0.8m from two point s I m apart on a horizontal beam. Find the tension
in eacl! strins.

' ·· ,. ,. . .. . -,�,.
'
Y 20
G,ne,aldiAg,-
!O fo,ce,octing
o,, blocl,;

Triangle ABC i s easily recognised asbeing right-angled 1 1 C.

Rcsolvinginthe directionsof T, and T1 give,

r, -20sin0 = o - r, = 0.6 >l 20
T1 - 20 cos0 ., 0 - Ti .. 0.8 x 2 0
Sothc tcm;ionsinthc mings arc 1 2 N and l 6 N .

S) A particle ofweight W restson a smooth planc inclincd at 30° t o the

°
horizomaland ishcldin cquilibrium bya string incllned at 30 c o i h c planc.
Find. intcrms of W, 1he 1ension inthestring.

"\V
�- G......, d..,,...,,
 Coploll1t FoN:n ln E11ulllbrlum,Frictlon

Applying Lami's Theorem we have:

W T ( R
- ° • - °-
• - - which is not needed
sin60 sin l 5 0 sin ISO" )
°

Therefore r - -k' sin l 500 - • -

W../3
sin 60 3

6) A uniform rod AB of weight ION i s hinged to a fixed point at A and

main1ainedin;i hori1.onta! posi!ionby a string atuched to B and to a point C
verticallyabove A. If AC .. AB=I. find the magnitude and direction of
theforceu thchingeandthe t ension inthc string.

'�
,· ' t>
.,. ,
0

,
A B H
G

'"
Thellnes ofaction oftheweight oftherod3ndthe tension inthe string meet
at D. Therefore thethir d f orceal1opa!>SesthroughD.
D is the midpoint of CB (Wlce AG"' GB and DG is p:11allel to CA).
Therefore A6c,,, 90•.
In triangle CAD. CA is parallel to 1hc weight
AD is parallel tothehinge force
OC isparallel tothetemion.

""'
Therefore

°
AD= DC "" l cos45
The1cf orc R ; 10co s 4 5° "' T
Theten sion inthe string isofmagnitudc 7.07N and1hc 1caction a1thehinge,
°
also ofm�gnitude 7 0. 7 N , is inclined at 45 to the vertical.
w·
Motll...,01ict -Moci..nico•nd Probobillty

7) A point A o n a sphere ofrddios a, weight W and cent,e 0, ,ens in

comaet with a 1.mooth vertical wall and f s supported by a string oflength a
joining a point B on the p
s he,eto apoint C 011 thewalLFind the tension in
1he stringin term sof W.

Thereactiona1 the,,,all and1he

weight bothpau through O , so
thelineofactlon ofthe tensloni11

�
the strin g a l sopasscs th1ough 0 .
Thus OBC i s a straight line a11d
O C = 2a.
' I
Hence cos8 = - = -
:,, l
°
8 = 60

Q.....,.ld;t<,,.,.

Uslng Lami's Theorem glve•

T W R
H ° = ° (= °)
----- Un90 1i11 l20 sin 150
lW
T=-
,/3
.

I) Ap.11tideofweight 24N l!l at tached toone endof a s tring 1.3m !ong

whosc orherelldis fastened toa point on a verticalpo!e.A horizonta! force
actingon theparticlekeepsit in equilibrlum (a) 0.5 m from thepole
°
(b) so that the st ring i s incline d a t 20 tothe vertical.Calculate the tensionin
t/1e stringand the magnitudeof the hori:zon11J forcein each c a se.

2) A small object of weight 10 N ,eus in equilibrium on a rough plane inclined

°
at 30 tothe horUontal.Calc u!atethe magnitudeofthe frictional foree.

3) A weight of 26 N ls tupported bytwo strings AB 811d AC oflengths O.Sm

and 1 2 m respe ctively.If BC it horizonlaland of length 1.3 m , c:1.kufote the
tension in AC 3nd the angle BCA.
4) A small block ofweight W rntson a smooth plane ofinclination O to the
horizontal.Find theva!ue of O if:
(a) a force of jW paiallel to the planeis required to kcep theblock!n
equilibrium,
(b) a horizontal force of � W keeps the block in equilibrium.

5) A uniform rod AB ofweight 20N is hingcd 1o a fixcdpointa1 A. A force

°
acts at B holding the rod in equilibrium at 30 tothe1·crtlcal througll A.
Find the magnltudeofth!sfor,eif
(a) it isptrpendicular to AB.
(b) it is horizomal.

6) A uniform ,od AB ofweight W rests in equilibrium with theend A in

contact whh a smoo1h verticalwalland the end 8 in cont�ctwith a smooth
plane incli ned at 4S IO the wall.Find the reactions at A and B in terms of W.
0

7) Three forces P , Q a n d R act on a particle. P a n d Q are pe rpendicular to

eachotherand the anglebe1ween Q an d R is ISO". lfthe magnitude of P is
1 2 N find the magnitudes of Q andR.

8) A uniform rod AB, hinged to a fixed point at A i!i held in a horizontal

position bya 11tring attached to B and to a point C vertical y
l above A sothal
°
ang)ei\CB is45 . Find chemagnirnde and directionofthe forceacting at the
hinge.

Two sofid ubjectsin contact cxeriequal andopposltc force supon cach other.
The twoforces due t o frictionless contact areeach perpendicula r t o thecommon
surface ofcontact and are known a snomu,lconl(1Ct/tm.:1tt , o r nomwl ret1C1iom,
or simply11orm11/s.
lfhowever the objectsarein roug]i con1ac\ and havc a tendencyto movere!ative
to eachothe1(without lwing contact) then fric1ional fo1cesarise which oppose
�uch potentialmotion.Agatn eachobjc,,;t exeru a frlctlonal forceonthe other
and 1hctwo forccsarc cqualandopposite.
 __I3-
Consider two wooden blocks A and B being rubbed against uch other.

.-EJ
In the di agram, A is being movd l o
► the ir ght whUe B isbeing moved
lcOw ud

ln order to sec mmecle1rlywhich forcn a c t o n A and which on B, a second

diagr1m is d rawn showing1spacebc1ween thcblock sbut l heyarestiU supposed
tobeln eontao::t.

--�· IT::3-
The two nonnal contact forcn, eao::h
.......
- .v ... ormagnitud,c N, are perpendicular
tothe surfaee orcontact between thc
i:<J blocks.
Thctwo rrlctlonal forces,uchor
magnll ude I', act along that surface.
cachin a di rection oppo$ingthc
motion or the block upon which i t

Nowconsldcr oneblockbcing pushed

lll o ng thc groond as shown. Agai n cach
$Olid ob_iect rxcru1 normal fo1cc and
a f ril:liunal forceon the other and
lhtse a,cmuknl scparatcly on t hc
second diagram.In Ihis cast however,
the ground bfixtt/ and lhc two fo1cn
whkh1ct upon i 1 d o not ha�1ny
cakulablecffcct on i t.Consequently
thcyarerarclyi nduded i n thcdilrgrams
drawn to illustrate problems. The
fixNsU1faceisoOcn indica1ed by
, o [J:3-. shading.

'l?l?????l?J??J?J
 Coplan1t FON:nl"E<l"illbri11m.Fri�ion

Fix�ObjKU

The earth isour/rrim eofrtfer encf. i .e. ii is lreated u absolutely uationary

(fixed)and mo1·emen1 isobserved relatil'C to it.Other objecu which arc
immovablyattached lo theeJrth becomevirtuallypa r t o f i t s surf,<.:<: andare
thcreforealso f i xed.e.g.a w.illbuilt on thcground o r a polewith itsfoot
bedded ln theground.
Afx i cd objectcannotbemoved reJa1ive10 1heearth.
Contact between a movuble objec t and a fixed one isdesc,ibed asuumo/
contact and the contact force acting on the moveable objec t is an externalforu.
Contact between two moveable objec h isinumal and 1he contac t f orcesacting
onboth objectsarcintema//orc(J.

EXAMPLES )<=

1) A block rem on a smooth horizontal plane and a smooth 1od isplaced

ag::i!nst the block with one end on the ground. Draw diagrams Wowing the forces
acting on theblock andon therod, i ndicatingwhichcontactsarc intcrnaland
whkh arco;tcrnal.

Theforces acting on therodare

theweigh t W1 ,
the nonnal ,eaction. S. with the p bne (ex1cmal contact),
the normal 1cac1ion, N, with the block (internal contact).
Thefor�sacting on thc block�re
theweight WJ ,
the no1mal reac1ion , R, wi1h theplanc(extemal contac t),
the nonn,il ,uction, N. with the rod (in ternal contact),
Forces R ' and SI which act on thef x
i edplaneared si regarded.
Nolelhat thelineofactionof N isperpendicu!ar to therod.
 Mo-icl- Mao:hon!a•ndPr-billlY

FRICTION

Frictlo n i.s a prope:rty ofcontactbetween objects.

Two surfaces which can move one across the other without encountering any
resistance are infrictionlessconuc t , o r smoo1h contact.
Corwcrsely two objects whose relative surface moYement is resisted have friction
be1ween them and 1heir contact iuou g l,.
Jtisnow appreciatcd thu 1 he existenceoffrictionbetween su1facesdoesnot
depend on their roughneu or smoothner.s in the everyday sense of these words.
lnfac11her e c a n be very large frictionalforcesbetween two highl y pofahed
flat metal surfaces.Consequentlyit isimportant , in mechanics, t o interpret
smooth asfrictio11/e:cr rather than fret fromproject iom.
The resultsofexperiment alinves1igation into thebehaviour offrlctional forcn
confi rm that:

(a) friction opposesthe movemen1 of an object acrossthe surface o fanother

withwhic h l t i.s i n roughconlact.

(b) the direction of!hefrictional force is opposite to thepotential direclionof

motion.

(c) the magnitude ofthe fr!ctionalforce isonly just sufficie n t t o prevent

movement and intieasesasthetendency to moveincreases, u p t o a limitlng
value.Whenthe limltingvalueisreached , t he frictionalforce cannot increase
any fu,ther and motion i.5 about to begin(l mi iting equilibrium).When the
f rictional force, F,reachesitslimit, itsvalue theo i.'l relate d t o 1he no1ma\
reaction N in the following way;

F = v.N

The constant v. iscalled the co f

efici entoffricfion and each pair of surfaceshas
itsown value for thisconstant.

n lim,qng e uililinum
ln gene ral F < A.
 Coplon• F.,,_ In Equilibrium. Friction

ThtA119l e ofFrietion

At a poin t ofroughcontact , where slipplng isabout to occur. thetwo forces

acting o n eachobjectare the normal reaction N and frictionalforu µ.N.

The resultant of thesetwo forces is S, and S makes an angle A with the

normal, where

The angle A i.s called the angle of friction.

A t a poim of1011ghcontact when slipping isabout to occur wc can therefore use
either

S at an angle A to the normal

where S isthe rern!tantcontact
components NandµN at right angles force or total rt'llctionand A is
to each other. thea11gle offriction.
Note.The use of S imtnd of N and µ.N reduces the number of fo1ces in a
problem andcan often lea d t o a 1h ,u/orceprob/ em.

]) When the surfoces oftwoobjec!S in rough conlact tendtomove 1elative to

cach othcr,equal and opposite frictional forcesact ontheobjccu. opposing1hc
potential movement.
2) Up10a limitins value.1hemagnitudc ofa frktional force. F. i s just
mfficient to prevent motion.
)) Whcn the limi t i s reached F a µN where N isthe normalreaction
and µ. isthe coefficicnt offriclion for thetwo surfacesin contact.
4) At all time s F <: µN.
 --- - - •ndPtoblblllty

5) The resultant of N and µN makes an angle A with the normal, where

tan). = µ and ). is the angleof friction.

EXAMPLES 3c Ccantinuodl

X
2) A particle of weight I O N rem in rough cont.act with a plane inclined at
30° tothe horizont:il andi.sjust about to slip.Find tlle coefncien1offdction
between the plane andthe p.:irticle .

The particle tends t o !.lide down the

plane sothe f1ictiona.l for c e o n t h e
particle acts uplheplane.Frictlon ls
il miting so F = µR.

'
Resolving in the directions of µR and R we have
.,. µ.R- l0sio30° ,. 0
\ R - l0cos30° c O
°
µ ::.
;�:::: .. 1an30
I
µ=
Jj
3 ) ,\'particle ofweight W resu o n a horizontal plane w ith which theangleof
friction is A.
A f orce P inclined at an angle O to the plane is applie d to the partkle untilit is
on the point ofmoving.Fln d t he value of O for which theva!ueof P will be
least .

Using thc total contact force S inclined at ). tothe nom1l.]. only threeforctt
act on t h e p:irtide
 Cop10,..,. forcmin t:q1>illbr!um. Fricflon

Then Lami'sTheorem gives

, °
si n(l80 - >..)
p
"'

"'
•
sin(90"- e + >..)
w
"'

[ s °
sin(90 +0) l
� cos(B ->..)
Wsin>.. -
P• -
cos(B ->..)
P will be leau when cos(O - >..) isgreatest,1ince W and si n ). ueconstant,
Le.when cos(O - >..) = I and 9 - ), = 0.
Therefore P i sle.ist when (J = ). and iu ,·aluethen i s Wsin>...
4) A uniform ladder 1est1 apinn a smooth vettkal wall and on rough horizontal
ground.Theweightoftheladderis JON a n d i t isjustabou t 1o slip when
inclined at 30° to theve1tical. Cakulate1he coc:fficlent offri ction.

T111ee force& keep 1 heladder i n equilibrium.

the normal ,eaction R with tile smooth wall,
the11o·eight W.
the toL:,J reaction S with the rough ground.
The threeforcesmust beconcurrent ,
so S pmesthrough C, thepointof
intersection of R and W.

CD
S is inclined at ). ro the normal BO and tan). =-.
DB
But the coc:fficient o f friction µ isequa l t o tan>.. .
CD !AD
Hence µ,,, _ _ _ (since CG is parallel to DB and AG = GB)
DB DB
°
µ = ½ tanJ0 ca: �

Tl1e coc:ffici ent offriction istherefore -./J/6

 -la - MecNnleo ond P,oboblllty

S) A smallblock ofwelght I O N rem ona rougll planeinclined at 30° tothe

horizontal.Thecotff icient offriction is ½• Find the horizontal force required
{a) toprewnt thcblockfrom slipplng down ,
(b) to make i t j u s t aboutto slideup theplane.

"''
r• In thi,r, case, as the b�ock is �bout to
sllp downward, fricuon on theblrn:k
.

�
actsup theplaneandis liminng.

) ..
,
',

Ruolving parallel and perpendicular to theplane,

° °
,. }R, + P,coi30 - \0s.in30 = 0
° °
\ R 1 -P,sin30 - ! 0 cos30 = 0
° ° °
Hence 20s.in30 - 2P1 c o s 3 0 = P1 sin30 + l 0 cos30"
10 - J.7JP1 = 0.5P1 + 8.66
1.34 = 2.23P,
S o the rcquired horirontal for� is ofmagnitude 0.6 N.

(b)

Thistime theblock isabout 10 1\ide

upwardand thelimi tingfrictional force
ach downward.

Re.solving as before:
° °
,. P,cosJ0 - JR,- lOlinJ0 : 0
°
\ R,-P,sin J0"-!Ocos30 = 0
Hence J.7JP1 - I 0 .. 0.SP, + 8.66
l.2JP1 = 18.66
Thistimcthe magnitud e of thehorizontalforce is 15.2 N.
 Copl•Mr forc• lnEquilib<l11m.Frk:'lion

Nott. ln examples J an d 4 , a phrase Frequentlyencoun1ere d in examination

quest ionsls used, viz.'abo dyrests o n a rough plane .. .'.
This implic11,incorrectly, that friction is a property or o n enu/ace.
TI1tdesc ription'a bodyrest s in roughcontact with a p!ane ...' is better
because it conveys the idea of friction b ewr un1w o Sl.lf[acn,

I) A small block ofweight W isplace d o n a p!aneinclined at an ang]e e to

the hol'Uontal.The coefficient offriction between theblockand theplaneis µ.
v
(a) When !} =- 20 the block is in limiling equilibrium.Find µ.
°
(b) When µ .: � and 9 = 30 a horizontal forceof6N is require d to
p1even1 thcblockfrom11ipping down theplanc. Whatisthe wcight ofthis
block?
(c) A force of I O N up thcplane causes the block t o be on thepoint ofslidlng
up.If k' • 20 N and µ • J find e.
(d) If 6 a±40 and µ = ! find thc magnitudeand dhcctlon ofthc least
°

forcc requi1ed to p rcvent the blockFrom s!idlng down theplanewhen

II' "' 1 2 N.
°
2) A block ofwcigh t 2 0 N 1ests on a rough plane ofincllnation 30 , the
coefficicnlof friction being 0.25. Find whathoriwntalf orcewillbe required
(a) just toprevent it from slipping down ,
(b) tomakeitjust begin to slide up.

3) A sledge whose weight is 4000 N is pulled at conJIant speed along level

°
ground by a rope heldat 30 1 o thc ground.lf /.! "' ! fin d the pulling force
required.

4) A uniform laddcr res1son rough horizontalgroun d with its 1opag.iinst a

°
smooth vertinl wall. If the angle of flic1ion is 15 find the least possible
inclination oflhe ladder to thc horizonta!.

5) A small block of weight 8 N is st,nding nn rnugh horii.onul gcound.A

ho riiontal f on:t P is applied to the block.lf!he coefficien t o f frictlon between
b!ock and groundis 0.5, what is theva!ueofthefrictional force when:
(a) P "- I N (b) P � 4 N (c) P ,. 5 N
St a1e ln each casewhe1ht1 or not the block moves.

6) A cute ofweight 4000N is placed on a rampincline d at 20° to the

horizontal, and is just on thepoint of slipping down the ramp, A workman then
attaches a ,ope lo the crale , t o haul i 1 straight up 1he ramp.lfthe rope isparal1el
to the ramp ,what is the least force with which the workman must pull the rope?
 Mo<hemalia - Mochania - ProblbUlty

RESULTANT MOMENT OF COPLANAR FORCES IN EQUILIBRIUM

Considcra ttationaiyobjcct upon which a number off orces begin to act.

If. about a ccnain axis, the f o1cn have a resultant anticlockw� moment ,the
ubjcct willb<,gin 1orotatean1iclockwiiC about that axis.
Similarlythe objectwill begin to1otatcc ol ckwise ifthc forccs acting u n i t h.ave
a ,c,ultant dockwisemorncnt
l f, huwever ,the object docs not begin to ro1a1ea1 aU,therecan beno resul1ant
torque indther scnseabou1 any axls.
Butoneoftheconditions nece.t5aiy f o1 1 set o f forcn to bein equilibriumi1
tl1at iheycause no changein rota1ion.lt the1ef orefollows 1ha1

Thlspropcrtyc.an often beuscdto cvah.1a 1csomeofthc unknown f orces acting

onan objcct in equilibrium.

I ) A uniform rod AB of length 2 m and weight 20N rests huriwntally on

smooth supports at A and B. A loa d o f ION i s a t t ached t o thc rod at a
distance 0 .4 m from A. Find the fmcu c:,;ertcd on !he rod by the supporll,

Let X and Y be the magnitudes(in newtons) of the supporting f orces al A

and B respccli�ly.
Because the rod is al rest. !he resuhan! moment of the forcn acting on ii is iero
about anyu:ll.
Using the symbol A) 10 indicate that the resultant moment about an a:,;is
thmugh A is to be use5$Cd in lhe sense indicated by 1he ar1ow ,we have
A) l 0 x 0.4 + 20 x l .0 - Yx2.0 = 0 fl)
B) X:t2.0 - !0 x t.6 - 20 x l.0 = 0 [21
X => 18 and Y = 12
The1cfme thesupportingf o,ces are 1 8 N at A and 12N at B.
Thesum ofthesupportingf orccsis equal tu!hesum ofthe loads, confirming
1hat 1hercsullant ofthever1lcalfo1ces actlng on therodbzc10.
 Copt.nn Forca lnEq\lillbrium.Frlctlon

2) A uniform plank AB ofweight ! OO N and length 4 m \iei; on a horizontal

roof,pcrpcndicu!ar t o the e dge ofthe 1oofand ove1hangingby I.S m. l f a load
of 200N i st obe a11ache d 10 theovc1hangingend A, what force mu st be
applie d at theopposi teend B ju st to pre\-ent the plank from overtuming7

�r $1'
. §ff

1 00 2 00

When the pla.nk i sj11st onthe point of ove11 urnin g i t i sin contact with the 1oof
onlyat the edge E. Then01mal 1eaction therefore act sat E.
Let the normal reactionbe Q and the force req11i1cda1 B be P (both in
newton s).
Then, E) 2 0 0 x l . S - 1 0 0 x 0.5 -Px 2.S = 0
Hence P = 100.
Therefore a forceof J OO N is needed at 8
No1e.The unknown force Q, which i snot required, i s avoided by choosing to
take moments about an axis through which Q pa�se s.

J) A uniform rod AB ofweight W i s hinged to a lixed point at A. lt ishdd

in a horizuntal positionby ast ring.one endofwhich i sattache d t o 8 and the
other end to a fixed poim C such that angle ABC i s JO". Find. in tcnns of
W. the 1ension in the string

Let the kngth ofthe1od be 2a.

�l.,; .
, ' �c AJ Wo - Tx 2a sin30" = 0
T
� O
H
, (The unknown for:: � :t :e hinge
' ::__ • A irnoide d by,,bog mom.m,
-• ,
about an alti sthrough A.)

Theref orethe ten.sionin thc string isofmagnitude W

 MothemotlQ - - ic:o - PT-blll,y

4) A non•unifonn rod AB of length 2 m is suspended in a horizontalposition

by two \'Crtical strinp, one at each end.The weight of the rod acts at G where
AG = l.l m andisofmagnitudc 60N. A load of 20N isplace d onthcrod
at a variable point P. lfe!thcr strlng snaps when thc tens!ooinit cxcccds 42N,
fin dthe scction of thc r o d in which P can lie.

lf thc tensionsat A and B are T1 and T1 newtons and AP = x mcues, then:

A) 20x + 60 x l .l -2T1 = 0
B) 2T, -20(2 -x)-60x0.9 = 0

'"'
Therefore T1 = 47-!0x

'"'
T2 = !Ox+JJ
T, � 42 and T2 <; 42

'"'
Thcrcf01e 47- IOx <; 42
!Ox+J3 � 42
giving x ;;;. o.s and x � 0.9
Thc!o.adcan thercforcbcplaccd anywhcrc within thc scc1ion P,P2 without
breaking either string. where AP 1 = O.Sm and P1B =' I .I m.

�. ,,
--- 0.S :::ir !.I -,-
A ///////C:::: a

I) A uniform beam AB of \ength l.6 m andwcighl 4 0 N rests ontwo

smooth supports at C and D where AC=DD= 0.3 m. A load is attached
to A sothatthc supporting forcc at C is twiccthc supportingforceat D.
Findthe magnirnde of the!oad.
2) A non-uniform rod of weight 40N and length 1 m is suspended byaling]c
ming a11ached tothc mid11oint of 1he rod.lf 1hcrod is horizontal whcna weight
of JON is anached to onecndof1hc1od,fin d t h e s upportingforcc which
wouldbc requircd a1 1hc oppositccnd 1 o ki:ep 1 h c rOO horizpntal when!hc JON
wcight is removtd.
 Coplan..-F-ln E'lulllbrium.Frlcllon

3) A uniform beam 3 m long Im weights 20 N and 30 N attache d t o Its e nds.

If the weight of the beam is SON find the point on the bc.1m where a support
shoul d b e place d so that the b e am wlU 1esthoriiontally.

In Que stions 4-8 e ach diagram shows 1in object in equilibrium.Using the
principle ofmoment seaku\a1e 1he f orccsm di.11ances ind!cat e d (unilsa1e
newtum, andmelieslhroughout).

4) -o. l --- o.• -- o.J -

f,
C,k,lu, hd Y.

f * r

S) A rod i shingedat A. Calculate the

distance AB ifthc smooth support at
B ucma forcc 2 5 N on the rod

6)

r r Calculate X and Y.

7)A plank AB wcighs lOON. Findthe ·

least for�e F required to prevent the plank 16 __ , _
ove uurnmg. �
,.. 8

100 70

Find It/ so that the

!e ns.ions are equal and
fm d thc tcns!on.
 Mot11•m11la -�c:o ond Probobllhy

THE EFFECT OF COPLANAR FORCES

Wearenowgoing to conside11hc general effut of a sel ofnon concurrcnt

coplanar fo1ce5 •cting on an objcct (the simplest objec1 ro visualise is a lamina
! n t h e plane of 1he fo1ce<1).
For reference pu1po,es Jet O be some point in the lamina and Ox, Oy be
perpendic ulu lines through O in rhe plane ofthelamina.

The movement of t he lamina in it s own plane c.an then be made up only of·
(a) linur movement parallel 10 Ox,
(b) Unar mo\-ement paraUelto Oy,
(c) rotacionabout some axisperpcndiculu to thc l:imina.
These t hm•.independent factors in the pos5iblc movemcn1 of t he lamina ue
cau se d respectively by;
(a) t he algeb1aic su m o f chefo1ce componcms pa1allel to Ox,
(b) t he a]�b1a i c sum of all the force components parallel t o Oy,
(c) 1he rcsult an1momcnt ofaUt hcforce sabout 1he aKisof ro1a1ion,
The abili1y of a set of coplanar fori;:e$ lo genera1e movement malie upoft h,ee
independent fact or s i s rdcucd to a s thet hreedesrccsof f
r«dom of lhe force
system.

Coptanu Forc11 inEquilibrium

When a st ationary object i sinequillbrium under t he acrion of a set of

coplanar fo1ecs, each of1hc t hrecindcpcndcnt factors which comprise the
possible mo1"emen1of 1 hc objec1mu s1be uro,
i.e. t hc objcct h a s
( a ) no lincar movcmcnrparallcl t o O x ,
(b) no lineu movemen1pa13Jlcl t o Oy,
(c) no ro1 ation abo11t any axis
 � Forceo ln Equilibrium. Frictl..,

The set offorccs must t he1cfo1cbc such 1hat·

(a) t he algebraic sum of the componcnu parallel t o Ox is uro,
(b) t h c :i lgebraic sumofthe componenuparallel t o Oy iszero,
(c) the rcsultant moment about anyspecified axisis zcro.
The use in a particular probkm oft his sctofconditionsfor equilib riumlcadsto
the formation of notmorethanthr� m l leptnden
tequutiom relating t h e forces
in the system.

1) A rod AB rests wit h the end A on rough horizunt al groundand the end B
against asmooth,-enical wall.The rod is uniform and or weight kl. A mass
als o o f wcight kl isanachcdat B. lf1hecocfficientof friction a1 A is j
findthc ang]c 11which 1hc rodis inclincd t o 1hcvcrlicalwhenit isjust about
toslip.

Whcnthc 1od is about1o slip thc f1ictional

force a t A is ¾R.
Let t h e length ofthe rodbe 2u andits
inclination t o the wallbe 6.
Then, resolving parallel 1o thc gmundand
t o thewalland taking momcnt s aboui an
axis th1ough A. "·chave:

S-jR = 0 [i i
R - 2kl = 0 [21
A) Wxasin8 + ll'x2uW16 - S x 2ucos8 = 0 [JJ
Fromj2J R = 211'
Fwm [ i ] s = l<2WJ = 1111
Fmm [JJ S • fWtan6
Therefore jk'= fw1an8
tan8 = 1
°
The rod is therefore inclined at 45 to t he vertical.
 MatMmalkl - �ti.,,l,:s •nd Probability

Al1em,11lv1 Cond ti lonl for Equ li ibrium of Copl1nu Foru1

When a s!ationaryobject !sln equilibrium it isnot 1ota1ingabou1a11y axi.lor

moving linearly in ,my direction. There are coiuequentlymanymore equJtions
which couldbefonned byequating to zero theresuhant moment about various
different axesor1heco!lected force componen1s invariou1 diffe1ent directions.
But. as thet or al ,ru mba ofindepmdentequ at iom is limi1 ed to 1huc, the ,;irious
groupsofequationswhichmaybe us.cd are based on:
(a) resoMng in any two dJrecUons and taking momenu about one axis,
(b) rewlving in one direction and taking moments about two air.es.
(c) taking momenu about th1cc axcs(which must not be collinear or tl1e third
resultant moment would simply be the combination of thefirst two, giving
no e1ttra information).

EXAMPLES3e (conllnuad)

2) A uniform ,od AB of length 2.t and weight k' is smoothlypi•oted to a

fixed point al A. A load ofwclght 2k' is attached to the end B. The rod is
kept horizoma l b y a 1trlng at1achedto 1hemldpolnt G ofthc rod an d to a
point C vcr!ical!yabovc A. If the length of the string is 2.t fin d.in terms of
k', 1he teni.ion inthe ming a n d t h e m11gnitu d e o f t h c 1uctionat thepivot

The given length$ of AG and CG show

that

COISAGC = ; .. 1

°
AGC = 60

Morethan thrceforeesk« p t h c r o d l n equilibrium,so thcydo not haietobe

concurren1.ConsequcntlywehaV'l'no wayof deciding uponthe di1e1:tion of thc
hinge force. The easiest way of dealing with a force which is unknown both in
magnitudc andin dircction istoinuoducc i t u apairof pcrpcndicular
components.
U$ing this technique for the hinge force, we have components X u,d Y acting
horizontal!yand vcrticallyat A .
 Copl■,.., F-in Equllibrillm, Fri,:iion

Then, resolving horizontally and vtrtkally and taking momenu about a n a)W
through A, w e h ave:
°
X- Tcos60 "" 0 [I[
°
Y+ Tlin60 -JIII = 0 [2)
A) k'u+2k'{2'1) - Tasin60° = 0 [3[

IOW 10.,/.l
From [J] T = - = -W
../J 3

From [ \ ] x = (10; w) (f) = ¥w

From [2] y = w- (10;'3w)(1) =
3 -2w

Thc rcaction a 1 1hc hingc is ofmagnltudc R whc,c

R = � • ✓(ijwi+41\13) = w✓J/
10,JJ
Thctcnsion in t h e stringis -w
3

3) A laddcrrestsin limi1ing cquilibrium agains1 a roughvertica!wall andwlth its

foot on rough horizomal ground, 1hc cocffidem offrictiona1 both poin1s of
contact being ½, The ladder is uniform and weighs 300 N. Find the normal
rcaetlon atlhc "' ali and t he :mgle O whichthe faddcr makes w i t h t h e horlzontal.

The ro d ls in limltinB cquilibrium, s o t h e frlc1ional forcesat A and B are

!R and !S where R and S respective!yarethe norma!reaction5,
Let 2'r bt tht!ensth ofthc 1od.
 Mo,h..,,•tlca - M-nlca•nd Probllbillty

Takingmomen1 sabout1wo axes,lh rough A and B, andresolving horizontally

we have:
Al 301ha cos8-Sx2a sin B-!Sx2acos8 ,. 0 [I[
Bl R x 2a c os O - ! R x 2asin8- 31Xhacos8 = 0 121
S-½R "' 0 131
From [ I ] and [ 2 ] , fi r st dividing cach by acosO, we get
300 = S(2 t a n 9 + I ) = R(2-tan0)
Bm R : 2S
Therefore (2tan tl + I) o: 2(2-tan9)
tanO = ¾
°
Thc,efore the !adder i s inclined al an angle 36.9 to the horizontal.
00 300
From equation ( l l S a - 3 - a -
21an9+] 2.S
Therefore the nmmal reaction u the wall i5 120N.

4) 0 i sthc cemre ofa circular di sc ofwei ght W which 1nts in a ve1tical plane
ontwo 1ough P'&S A and B. thc coeffidentof frictionwith each beingO.S.
°
AO makes 60 and BO makes 30� w ith the,-enical.Find, in t e1msof W,
the maximum force which canbe applk:d !angen tiallya11he highC'St point ofthe
discwithout causingroutionin Lhescnscfrom A to B.

.T?
,�
!�
'
'

�,,
When P has its maximum value the frictional fo1ccsat A andB arc !R
and fs. Let lheracliu.s oflhe di sc b e a.
.
 Coplon•r Fo,
.. l" Eq11ijibrium, Frktion

Taking momems about axes Through A, B am! 0 (which are not colli11ear) we
h,�

A) Px� + Sa - }Sa - w¥ "' 0 I ll

B) P(a+a f) + W� - Ra - jRa = 0 121

0)
From (!]
Pa - !Ra - �Sa=
O ,,,
S "' ✓31\1-JP
From [21 3R "" W+P(2+✓3)
From [JJ 2P "' R +S
Therefore 2P = HW+2P+✓3PJ +✓3W-3P
(13-../3)P "' (I + 3✓3JW

p . (-
I + 3✓3
13-✓3
-) h' = � ==--=iv
(I + 3..J3X l 3 + ✓3)
166
( 1 1 + 20✓3)
The gre;itest force is t herefore - - - k'.
83
Note: The limitation to three !ndepcndentequations i svital.lf,mistakenly,a
four1h cquation is in1roduced (e.g. b y1esolvingtwiceand taking momcntstwice)
1hen, in 1he sub$Cquent wmking, i1 willbe found 1hat everything canccbou1and
wme 1.15Cles5 result such as P "' P will emerge. If, in a problem, there seem tn
befonr unknownquantities,so 1hat 1h1ce eqna1ionsare no1 suff d i ent, the
four1h neccuary equ1tion mus1 comefroma differen1source,e.g.111eruuration.

In Questions 1-4 a unifonn rod AB whose midpoint is M, i1 in equilibrium

Jna vcrliea l p bneas shown i n each diagram

The rodrests o n a roughpcgat C

and a force F acuat A as shown .
If B C : C M and fan a : ;
f m d the coeff di ent offrictionat C
ai1 d 1 he fo1ce F.
2)

Sm,.;nh
....u

..
Jf t hecoefficient of friction at t he
� ground Is j, calculate the normal
reactionsat A and B and find the
angle (}
KoUJhJfound

l80N

Avertical mingis anached t o A.

Find T in t erms of I\! and
cakulatethevalueof I,(, t h e
coefficicnt offrlc t i o n u B.

4) •
:: :'!r:�ho;; ;�uf peg at A

MC = CB
Find t hecoefficient off riction at A

'
and thenormalreaction at C (in
tennsof 11').

S) Adilcof ma� m and r adius a is freeto t um in ave11 ic1\ planeabout a

smooth pivot through � point P on t hecircumference.A particle, aim of
mas.s m is att:1clied t o thepoin1 Q onthc rim ofthedUC diametricallyopposite
10 1 h e pivot. What forcelhoul d b e applied 1 0 1helowestpoin1 0 f t h e dlsc10 keep
PO horizonial if·
(a) thefo,ce is tangentlal.
(b) theforce isvcrtical.
Find, innch cue, themagnltudeofthereactionat thepivot.
Questlons 6-8 show :ms of coplanar forces which arc in equilibrium.

6)

r r
7)

Calculate X, Y.

8)

Calculate X, Y, a.

9) A uniform rod AB of length 2a and weight II' is inclined at 30° 10 the

horizonlalwlthits lowcrcnd A on rough horizontal ground,the angl e o f
°
friction being 30 . The r o d re�ts i n contact With I smooth peg C ( A C < AB).
Calcula1c thc hcight of1hcpeg abovc thc ground andthc reaction atthcpegif
therod is in !imitingequilibrlum.

10) A uniformladder illplacedwith its foot onhorizontal ground and t i s uppcr

°
cnd aga!nst avcrtlcalwaU.The anglc offriction at both points ofcontact ill 30 .
Find the greuest J>O$Slble incllnatJon of the ladder to the vertical. (The ladde1
willnotllipumillimitingfric1ionha1 bccn reachcd atbothcnds. )

11) A uniform rod AB ofwe!ght 200N islyingon rough horizontal ground

when a ming atl3ched to B beginsto lift that end ofthe rod. When AB ill
°
lnclincd11 30 tothe ground theend A isabout toslip . lfat this instant thc
°
strlngis lncllned tothc vertical at 30 calculat c t hc tcmion in t h c string andthc
angle offrictlonbetwecn t h e r o d andthe ground.
MULTIPLE CHOICE EXERCISE 3
(The imtmctW ni forannwring there q11eJt/Q1u aregiven 011pagex.)

\) Twoperpendicular forces havemagnitudes SN and 4 N. The magnitude of

their r1:Su!tant i s:
(a) 3 N (b) ,/J l N (c) ,/41 N (d) I N .

t
2 ) Ablockof weight 12N ,estsin roughcontact wit h a horizontalplane and
µ= A force of 3 N is .ipplied horil.ont,tlly to the block. The frictional
forceacting ontheblock i s:
(a) 4 N (b) JN (c) -4N (d) uro becau� theh lock does not move.
3) Fo rces repre�medby 2i + Sj . l - 8j aml pi +qj arein equllibrium.
therefore·
(a) p=3 and q =- 3 (b)p= -3 and q » J
(c) p=-2 and q ; J (d)p=2 and q = -40.
4) A light st ringi sattad1ed at one en d t o a poin t o n a,·enical wallanda1 the
other end t o a smoo1h phere.Whenthe
s sphererest sin equilibrium agai,ut the
wall the direction ofthe string i s·
°
(a) at 45 to thewal! (b) horizontal (c) 1angential 10thei;phcre
(d) through the cent,eofthe sphere.
°
S) Aparticleiest sin equilibrium on.i roughplaneinclined at 30 to the
horizonta l t htrefo,e
l I I I
(a) µ = 2 (b) JJ = ✓3 (c) JJ.;;; 2 (d) 1.1 -'
✓3

6) Three forces F,,F, and F• are in equilibrium. therefore.

(a) F1 = F,+F1
(b) F , + F1 + F1 = 0
(c F , - F1 - F1 = 0
) -F, = F, + F,.
(d)
7) Threeconcuirent f o1ces rcpre�nte d b y 2i + 3j, i - 4j and -Ji+j:
(a) arein equilibrium.
(b) havczero lincar 1esultant.
(c) ha,·c an equilibrant,
(d) exer! a t urning effect.
8) ABCD is a rectangle.Forces represented in magnitude and direc!ion by
AB. BC, 65 and DA­
M arcin cquilibrium,
(b) obey Lami's Theorcm.
(c) hJve ze1olinear 1e�tan1,
(d) ha,·ea ,esu hant 2AC.
 CoplanarFa«•in Equlllb<lum.F,ic1ion

°
9) A ladderis re1,1 ing3t 30 To a rough ver!icalwa!l wi1hit s foo1 on a
horizontal plane .
(a) Friction acts o n t h e laddcr
(b Thcplane is smooth .
)
(c) Thc ladderls about to slip.
(d) Friction acts o n t h e wall.

10) (a) T11 1" non-parallel forces a1e concurrcnt.

(h) Threcnon-par.1llel forcesarein equilibrium.
1 1 ) (a) The resultant uf� set of fo1ces is F.
(b) An el(!faforce �F added to a set of forcesproduces a stateof
equilibrium.
12) (a) Two object s arein roughcontact with each other.
(h) Twoobject s ar e i n contact andeach exert s a frictional f orce on the
other.
13) (a) A f orce of 2 N is applicd t o a blockofweight 4N inan memp t t o
moveit across a rough table.
(b) Thecocfficient of friction bc1wecn a blockand a 1ableis J .
14) (a) A supporting force just prevents a par!icle from slipping down a rough
inclined plane.
b) A partide isin a stateof!imiting equilibrium on an indinedplane.
( Thcresultant torque o f a set offorce1, is zero.
15 (a)
)
b) A m of f orcesisin equilibrium.
(
16) (a) A 1od AB '-'' hose midpoint is M is in equilibrium.
(b) Theforces;icting on a rod AB have1.ero resultant to1quc aboutaxes
through each of the poinu A. 8 and the midpoint M of AB.
1 7 a The moment of a fo1ce F about an al(is through A is ze10.
) )
( b) A force F acts through a point A
(

18) Thr« fo ,ces P, Q and R Jct on a particle.Find the magnitude of P.

(a) P is inclined at 120 to R.
°

(b) P is inclined at 150 10 Q.

°

(c Themagni1udeof Q is !ON.
)
19) A block 1cm o n a roughinclinedplane.Findthe cocfficien1 0f fric11on
between block and plane
(a) the weight ofthe block is 8N,
°
(b)che eleva1ion ofthe planeis J0 .
(c frict ionis limitlns
)
 MatN...,l>CO -Mffh..,la•MI ProMblllty

20) Determine whether or not three forces are in equilibrium·

(a) the magnitudes ofthcforces are P -" 3, Q >= 4, R == 5 .
9
(b) the anglebetween P a n d Q i 1 60 ,
9
(c) theanglebetween Q an d R is 150 •
2 1 ) Aladdcris placedwith its footon horizontalgroun d an d thcotherend
leaning again!! a smooth \"ertical wall.Find the angle betw«n the lad der and
thewa!l whentheladder is aboutto slip:
(a) theweight oftheladderis SOON.
(b) 1hcground is 10ugh and ll "' J.
(c) thelength ofthe ladderis Sm.
2 2 ) A n on,uniform,od AB Teits horizon1ally ontwompportsa1 poln11 C
and D. Calculatetheforce:s atthe supports if:
(a) AC=0.4 m ,
(b) DB:0.7m,
(c) theweight ofthc ro d is 40 N .
( d ) thelength of thero d i s 2 m
2 3 ) A uniform rod AB is hinged t o a vertical wall a t A. The midpoint ii
a11achedbyan inelastic uring 1o a pointon thewal] above A. Findthetension
in the string if:
(a) thc wcight ofthero d i s 20N.
(b) thcrodandthe string havetheumelength,
(c) therodishorizomal,
°
(d) thcstring ls inclincdat 30 to the wall.

24) Thrcc forces acting along thc sides o f a trbnglc a r c i n equilibrium.

25) Lami's Theorem state!> that when three force!> act on a J),lrticlc each force
is proportional to thesine ofthc anglebetween theother two forces.
26) lfa frictionalforceactson abody,it isnot ncceiSarily ofvalue µR where
R is 1henom1al contact force.
27) Tile �ngleoffrktionis the anglebetween the frictional f o rce and the
normal reJction.
28) Thruforces in equllibrium mustbeconcurrcnt.
29) Ifa set of forces is in equilibrium theresultant moment about any two �xes

30) lfJbody iskcptin equilibriumby foUJ unknown forces , theseforces canbc

foundby 1c50]vingin two perpcndicular directions and 1aking momcnL!abou1
two diffoJent axes.
 Coplo...,, f....,.lnEqulllb,lum.Frlcilon

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE 3

I) ABCD is a squa1e. CD is produced to E w thai DE= CD. Forces of

magnitudes 2, 3V2. 4 and 2V2units act along AB, AC, DA and AE
respectively. Findthe magnitl.lde anddirectionof thei! resultant.A fifth force
acting at A is added w that the system is in equilibrium . What is the magnitude
and direction ofthe extra force?
2) 0 isany point inthe plane ofa regular hexagon ABCDEF. Pro,-e that
forces OA. OE, CD, CB and 2ffi are in equilibrium.
3) A uniform rod AB ofweight II' i1 freely hinged at A. The rod is in
equilib1ium at an angle 8 to the vertical when a horizontal force � W acts at B.
Calculate O andthe 1cac1ion ofthe hinge on the 1od.
4) A small object ofweight 4W in rough contact with a horizonlal plane is
°
acted upon bya forci,indined at 30 tothe plane. When the forcelliof
magnitude 2W the object ls about to slip. Calcul:ue the nuignitudc of the
nonnalreactionand the coefficient offrktion between the object and 1hcplane.
5) Three1elegraphcables are auached tothetopofa telegraph pole.Their
tensions, ln order, are 2500, 3000 and 3500 N and the c1ble1 are separat�d by
°
angles of 20 . A fourthcable istobe a1tached 101he samcpoint onthepostin
01derto ensure thatthe post isin equilibrium.Assumingth.at all thec.ablcsare
horiiontal find the rension which the fourth cable must take.
6) ABCDEF isa regul11 hexagon. Forces of 2, 4..,JJ, I0 and 6N act along
AB, AC, DA and AF respectively. Show that these forces are in equilibrium.
7) A spherc of radlus 9cm rests o n a smooth inclined plane(angle 30°). h is
attached b y a st,ingfixed to a pointoniu surface toa pointon theplane 12cm
from the poi.l!l ofconuct andon the same lincof greatest slope. Flnd1he
tension inthe string ifthe weight ofthe sphereis IOON.
8) Findthc values ofthe unknownforces ineachofthe followingcases.E:ich
setof forC('S isin cquilih1ium
(b)

I' .V

,. 60"

120•

''\Y
20N "
� llN
(,) (d)

.
,o•
101< �

�
" '"
ln each case11se calculation1o wlvc 1hcproblcmbut inaddition sketch the
�ctorpolygoo.
a 0
9) A weight W is susp ended by two 10pcs which make 30 and 6() with the
horizontal.lf thc tension inthe flm ropeis 20N, flnd tlic tension in1he other
and t he valueof W.

JO) A unifonn bar AB , I m !ongcanbebalallU d about apoint 0 2. m from A

by hanging• weight of 5 N at A. Find the weight of t 1l c bat.What ad ditional
weight should behung ffom A lfthe point of support is moved 0,l m nearer
to A1

11) A unif�rm rod BC. nf leng1h 0. 6 m and weight 2 N, is hinged to a fixed

point al B. Jtis supporte d in equilibriumby a st ring 0.8m long attached to C
and to apoint A Vl:rtically abo� B. If AB • I m cakulate t h e t ension in
the ming.

12) A unifom1 plank AB relils on a hori1.on1al 1oohnd B ove,hangsby 2 m.

lfthe lenglh of the plank is !Orn and ih; weight U S60N, find how far a man of
"' eight 1400N canwalk alongthc overhanging 11ection withou1 c ausingthe
pl�nk t o tip up.Find alw whit weight should beplaced at A t o allow t he man
tu walk !Uthe end B in �fe1y.

13) A loft door OA of weight I OO N

e
ispropped open a t 60 t o t h e
horizontalbya lightstmt AB.
The dooris hinge d at 0.
lf OA : OB = l.2m and t he
weight ofthe door actsthrough
apoint C on1he duorwhere
QC .. 0.4 m , flnd the force
in t h e s11u1.
 Copl•ner F-in Equilibri�m. frktio11

14) A uniformbcam AB, 5 111 long andof weight 60N issupportdina

horizontal posltionat A andat oneother point .A loa d of ION is suspended
from B and loads of 50 N and 40 N are $uspended from points distant 1.8 m
and 3 m respectivelyfrom B. If Che supponing force at A is 40 N find the
position oftheother support

15) A divingboa r d o f mass 150kg isclampcdat oneend.Adiverofmas<J

75kg wa!ks gentlyalong theboar dwhkhis Jm long.What torqueisexertcd
onthc clamp whcn t he diV1:ris·
(a) l m from thefrec e n d ,
(b) at the fiee end.

16) A rod XY is of length (x +y) and its weight acts through a point
distant x from X. 1t rests on two supports equidistant from X and Y and
dis1an1 : apart.Pro,·e 1hli11he forcesexertedby 1hesupportsare i n t h e 1atio
(x-y +z):(y - x +z).

17) A uniform rod AB of weight 1 2 N isfree to 1urninavertica l p laneabout a

smooth hinge at its upperend A. ltis hddatan anglc O tothe verticalby a
f orce P actlngat B .
(a) P is 5 N appliedhorizontally . What is the forceat the hinge?
(b) P is horb:ontaland O is arctanj. What istheforceatthe hinge?
(c) P isat fight angles to AB and of magnitude J N . Yt'ha t i s the forceal the
hinge?
(d) P isat rightangbto AB and O is a1c1anj. Find P a n d 1 h e hingcfo1ce.

J S) A cylinder of weight IOON rests in the angle between a smooth vertical

°
w:iJlanda smooth plane inclinedat 30 101he wall.Fin d thc 1hrusuofthe
cylinder on the wall and lhe plane.

19) Wi1h reference to perpendicu al r ax(S Ox and Oy, A and B are poinll with
coor dinates (2a,O) and (2a,4a). A force with component$ X and Y paro.Jlel to
Ox and Oy pllSCs through a point P on the x axis. Its anticlockwise moments
about axeJ perpendiw!ar 10 1he xy plane 1hrough 0, A and B are respectiV1:ly
+ 4Fa, - 4Faand + I OFa. Find.in temuof Fanda. the magnitude and
dirtttion oftheforceand t he distance OP.

20) A unif o r m rod AB. 2m !ong a n d o fweighl 200N. is suspended

horizontallybytwo,-ertical ropes oneanached 0.2m from A andthe othe,
03 m from e: If the first rope Jnaps when Its tension exceeds 140N and the
second snapswhen its tensionexceeds l60N find whereon thetoda load of
(OON c.aobe placed withou1 snapping eilhc1rope.
 Mlthffllllla - Mtdlonia end Proboblllly

21) A non uniform beam AB rest s on two suppor1s in a horizont al line, one at
A andone at a point C. AB=5m, AC .. 4m andthe wc,ight ofthebcam
ls 350 N. If the supportsexert equal fmas on the beam find the point on the
beam wheK the we!glll act s.If an extra weight W is then attached to B find
tlle ,.,Jue of II' if:
(a) the supporting force at C i stwke the supporting f orceat A,
(b) the hcam i sjus!about to rotate.

22) A unifonn plank ofrnass 80kg and length 4 m overhangsa horiwntal

,oofby l.5rn. A rnan can walk t o within 0.Sm ofthe o\·erhanging endwhen
a man of 12kg i splaced on the opposite end. What i sthe man of the man
and how rnuchbigger alodmusthc placed at the cnd ofthc plank to enable
t h c m a n t o w alk righ1 t o th c m c· rhanging cnd.

23) The foot ofa unifonn ladder , oflength / and weight W, Km on roush
ho1izontal ground. and the top of the fadder r e st s.ipln,t a smooth ve,tkal wall.
°
The laddc r i s inclincd at 30 toth e ve rtical.Find the magnitudcof the forcc
exerted by the ladder on the wall.
Giventhat the coefficient offrictionbctwecnthe laddc1 andthc ground is
J\1'3, sh ow that a man ofweight 411' cannot dimb to the top of the ladder
wit hout the ladder slipping, and flnd 1he Inst weight which when placed on the
foot of1he ladder would cnable themanto c!imb to 1hc to p o f t h e ladder.
(UofL)

24) A uniformrod AH, of lenglh 2a and weight W, ishinged to a vertkal

post at A andis supported i n a horiiontal po sitionbya mingattachcdto B
and to a point C �crtical!yabove A , where LABC = IJ . A load ofweight
2W t1hungfrom H. Find thc tcn si onln the mingand t he horizontal and
vertica! resolvcd pan softhe forcc exerted bythe hingc on 1hc rod.Show that,
ifthe reaclionofthe hinge at A isat right anglcs to BC, then
AC : 'laVs (UofL)

25)
" The diagram sh ow s a uniform rod AB
[>
re sting I" ,h, '"•� between a vert ical
°
t planc wd a plane mcUnedat 60• 10
· .
thcverhcal.Fmd the angle O if
B 1 (a) hothplanesare smoo1h,
.
(b) themclinedplane
. .l s smooth but
1he vcrm:a l p lanc 1srough.
.
A ison t he point of sl1pplngdown
60,
and µ : ! .
 Copl•r,uforc•ln E11u�ibrivm. Frictlon

26) A uniform rod AB,of length 21 and weight W, isin equilibriumwi1h the
end ,I on a rough horiron1alfloor and1he end B againu a i;moo1h vertkal
wall, Therod makesan angle tan·'2 with1he horizontal and isin a vertical
plane which is perpendicular to the wall. Find the least pauib le value of µ , the
coefficien1of frictionbetw�n 1he tloor and t h e rod.
Given that µ "' S/16, findthe disunce from A of thehighest point ofthe
rodat which a partfcleof weight W canbe atrnchedwithout di11urbing
equillbrium . (Uof L)

27) A unlform ladder of weight W rem on rough horizontal ground against a

smooth vertical wall. T11 e,·ertical plane containing the ladder is perpendicular
to thewall andthe \adderis incline d a t an angle a to the vertical.Prnvethat,ir
t h e ladderis on th e point of slippingand µ isthe coefficicnt o f frictionbetween
it and theground,then tana=2µ. (0)

28) A unif orm rod AB of weight W isin limiting cquilibrium at an anglcof

°
45 to th e h orizontal withilsend A o n a rough horizonta l p bneandwitha
point C in its length against a horizontal rail. This rail isat right angles 10 t h e
vertica l p bnecon tainlng AB. The coefficientof fric1ionbe1wce n t h e 1o d and
the plane is ½ andbetween thcrodand the rail i s �. Cakulate the magnitude
and direc1io n o f t h e r esuhant reaction a1 A. (AEB)

29) A!adderrests withitsfoo1on smooth horizont al g roundand its upper end

against a smoothvertical wall.The ladder is unifomi, weighs 300 N and is
inclined to the wallat an angle 9. What horizonta! f orce mustbe applie d t o t he
foot ofthe ladder to prevent it slippingif
°
(a) 0 .., 30
(b) fJ=a1ctan¾,

JO) A uniform rod AB of length 2" and weight W his its lower end A on
rough horizontal ground.It is supported at 60° to the horizontalby a string
attach e d t o it s upper end B and at right angle& to 1 h e 1o d . Fi n d t h e tcnslonin
the string andthe frictionaland normal forces atthe groun d .

3 1 ) A uniform ladder of we!ght W rens inclined a t a n angle (J t o t h e

ver1kal. with o n e e n d against a smooth vertical wall a n d the other e n d o n
rnugh horizontal ground.Find, in terms o f W , the magnitude of the frictional
forcewhen (J = uctanlj. l f 1 h e angleof frictionbe1ween 1heladderandthe
ground is arctani, ftn d t h e valucof () when theladder is about to slip.
 ""'tMfflltlco -MtehMlla•nd P.-llity

32) A hca,-yun fi orm sphere ofrad ui s a has a !ight inextenYblesttin g a ttached

t o a point onits surface. Theotherend ofthestringis fixed to a point on a rough
vertical wall.The sphere rtst'l in equUiblium touching thewall at a point distant
h below thc fixc d p o int.lf thc point ofthc sphercin contact withthcwallls
abou1 1o slip downwar dsand thccoefficient of fric1ionbetwet11 the sphere and
thewallis µ, fin d thc inclination ofthestring to thcvertical.
I,
If µ = :i;;: andthc weight ofthcsphucis kl, !how that thetensionin

(UofL)

33) Thefigmc sl10wsa unifom1rod AB ofweight W resting with one end A

against a rouglivertical w:all.Oneend ofalight inextcnsiblest,ing isaltachedat
B and the other en d is attached al a point C, vertically above A. The points
A, B and C liein the same vertical planewith AB= B C • 4a and A C = a.
Jfequilibriumis limitlng, calculate:
(a) the tcnsion i n t hestring.
(b) theangle offriction betwecn t h c r o d a n d t hcwall.
(c) themagnitudeofthc rcsultant forcc.icting at A.

(AEB)

34) A pa1ticlc rcsts on a roughplaneinclinc d a t an angle O 10 1hehorizontal.

The coefficient offriction between the particle and the plane is µ. When the
wcightofthep;irticle is IV. a horizontal force of magnitude P just p1cvcnts
the particle from slipping down the plane.If however a force of magnitude 2P
acu parallcl to thc planc, thc partid e i s o n thepoint ofslippin g u p the plane.
The same force acting on a particle of weight 2W just prevents it from slipping
downthesarneplane.Findthcvaluesof O and µ, andcxprtu P inlerr n sof W .
 Cop1an1, For<=• ln Equillbrluin. Fflc:'llon

35) A uniform rod AB, ofweight IV and length 21, rests n i equilibrium with
the end A on rough horizonta l g 10und and with lhe end B !n contact with a
smooth vertical wall, which is perpendicular to the vertical plane containing !he
rod. If AB makes an angle a with the horizontal, where tan 01=4/3, find
1he lea11 ll(}Mible valuc of 1,1, thccocfficicn1of frictionbe1weenthc rodandthc
ground, for equilibrium to beprese"'td.
If 1,1 = !, find the distance from A ofthehighcst point ofthc 1od at which
a load ofweight k' canbeattachedwithout equi!ibriumbeing disturbed.
(U ofL)
36) ABCDEF isa regula r hexag o n , lettered i n an anticlockwisedi rection.
A sys1cm offorcesin the plane ofthe hcngon h.as total anticlockwise moment
M1 about A. M1 ab01Jt B and M3 about C. Showthat themomentofthe
system about D is M1 - 2/tf2 + 2,1f3, and find the moments about lo and F.
37) A uniform rod AB of weight IV h u itsend A on rough horizontal
°
groundandrestsal 45 to lhe vcrtical against 1 i;mall1mooth pega1 C, where
AC .e jAB. Ifthe rod Is on the point of slipping in the vertical plane containing
the rod, calcu\ate µ, thecoefficient offrictionbe1wecn the 1odand the ground.
If 1,1 = ¾, calculatelhe largestvcrtical downward force whkh canbc applied
to the rod at C without disturb ing the equilibrium. (AEB)
 CHAPTER 4

VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE

When a par!icle movesin a straight line its displacement , velocity and

acceleration can hav c o n e of onlytwo poss.ible directions.Positiveand negative
signsare us.ed to distinguish between thetwo dlrections bytaklng onesenseas
posit iv e andthc other asneg:itive.

In Chapter 1 ,s()<'ed was definc d a s the rateat which a movingbodycovers its

path andvelocitywas dcfined as thcspttd oflhc bodyloget herwith the
direction in which t h e body is moving . So a particle moving with uniform
•·l'loci1y has a romtam ipeed n i a fixed d irl!clio11,
Consid e r a particle movi11g "' ith uniform ,·clocityalong a llneas shown in 1he
diagram, 0 being a fL,ed point on lhatlinc.

- - 2 m -­
O '

(a) lfa1 some instant t he partide i.! at A a n d 2 secondslat erit is at B, it hu

cove red a diuance of 4 met res in 2 secon ds.So iis spee d is 2 m s-'.
lt is moving in t he posit ive direct ionso itsvelocit yis + 2 m s-'
Alurnutively the displacement from O has increased by + 4 metres ln
2 seconds.
Therefore iu displacement from O is increasing al the ra1e of + 2 m s-•
and t h i s l s iuvelocity.
(b) lfat somc i n stan1 thcpa1ti c l e i s a t 8 and 2 secondslater i t isat A, it has
againcm·ercd a distanceof4 mclrcsin 2 scconds and its speed i s therefore
again 2 m s-•.
This time it i s moving in the neg:ltive direction so i l s i·elocity ls - 2 m 1-1 .
Alrtmtit ri <'ly the displacement from O has dec,easedby 4 m, or increased
by - 4 m, in 21.
Therefore its displacement from O is increasing at the rate of -2 ms-'
and this i s i 1S velocity.
Inboth examples velocity istirerote of u i cr ease ofd si ploceme111and the
veloc i t yof anymovi ng objc<:t, whether uniform or not. ls defined in the same
way,

Oispl1cem,nt- T im, Graph

Whena parlicle i s moving i n a s!raight line. a graph o f i t s displacement, 1.

from afixedpoint o n t h e li neplotted against time, 1, i s oflen a useful wiy
ofrepresenting t h e motion.When the velocityisuniform, equal distancesare
cover e d i n equa l i nt e valsof
r time,so the graph i s i strai ght line.

This is a dlsp!acement-time graph for the motion discussed ln example (1).

The gradient ofthe\incis +2 and t hi s i s theveloc i t yof theparticJe.

Th.is i s a displacement-time graph for the motion dll<:ussed in e:itamplc (b).

 Moth6fflatk:I - Machanlco ar>d l'<obability

The gradient of t h is line is -2 and this is the •�locily of t h eparticle.

Thus in both ex.amples thegradient ofthelinerepresentstheveloclty.
ln general, for unif ormnhxit y.

Aver age Velocity

,\ cydis1 uartingfrom apoi111 A t ravels 200m dueNur thto apoint B at

a constant speed of 5 m s-'. Herestsat B fo r 30 sccondsand then travels
300m ducSouth t o apoint C at a consta n t speed of l 0 m s- 1 •

ll0>pl.,«.,,.n1from A(m)

Thelimetakenfor thc wholejourney is JOOs.

Thetotaldis1ance1ravelled is 500m.
Theav,.nzg e speed for the wholejourney islhe conmmt speed that would M
rcqu i1cd 1o covcr lhc101al distancein 1hesametime.
Thustheaveragc speed for thejoumeyis � m s-1 • i.e. S m s-1 •

The average velocity for the wholejourney is the unifom, 1·elocity that would
b(' required 10 achieve t he final increase In dis.placement from A in 100 seconds.
The increase In displacement from A after I OO sccondsis - IOOm.
Thus1he �verige velocity for thejourney is �: m s-•. i e.. - I ms-•.

On the disp!acement-time graph for thejourney, thisaveragevclocity is

reprei.ented by tl1egradient ofthechord AR.
 Volodty 1nd/u;ollor1lic>n

ln general, for aoy typeof motion,ovcra givcn i nterval oftime,

Distance oovered in1 hat inten·a lof time
lnten·aloftimc

lncrease i n displaccmem i n that i merval oftime

Average velocity
Interval of time
In a disp!acement-!ime graph

I) A c yclist ridcs hisbi cycle along a straight road for JOminutcsat I O m s -1

and then gets offandpushes his bicycle for JO minutes at 1 .5 ms-1. Draw a
displacement-time graph andfindhis average velocityfor the who!ejoumey.
2) Aman walks u p a h i l l a t constantspecd taking l O minutesto cover a dlstance
of goo m. tie rem for 2 mi nutes and then walks down again at constant speed
i n 6 minu1es.Draw a displacement-timegraphandfindhis avcrage spced for
the whole journey.
3) Aballis rollcdalong a line on the floorat a conslant specd of J m s·',
rnwards a wall which is 5 m from its starti ng point. It bounces on the wall and
returns at a constant spud of 2 ms·' along the same line and is caught when it
is 7 m from the wall. Draw a displacement-time gmph showing the displacement
of the ball from itsstartingpoint andfind the average specdand the average
velocityoftheball for iu completejoumey.
4) Aparticleis made t o movealonga s1raight line at constamspeeds insucha
waytha1. mosuring from a fixedpoint O on the !ine.it gocs forward a disiance
of 12m at l . S rns·', then backwardsa distance o f S m at 2.S ms·1 and then
forward agaln a distance o f 3m at l m s·' . Dra w a gr.1php!o1ting the
displacement of theparticle from O against time and find the average speed
and the a1-erage velocityof thepartlclefor i!s complete joumey.
5) A part!c!cls movingaloug a straigtu !ineand O isa fixedpoin1on tha1line.

I I ' I ' I ' I :I I

The table shows the displacement (s) ofthe particle from O at given i nstant�
oftime (1)
S 6
' '"'""d)
s (rnetre) O
0 2 4 6 2 -2
A�uming thal 1hcparticle hasconstan1speeds overthei nte1Valsoftime r=O
to r= 3, t = 3 to r = 4. 1 = 4 to 1 = 6, draw a displacement - time graph
andfind the average 1·elocityofthep;11tideover 1he i nte1Val of tin1e
(a) t = O lo 1 = 3, (b) I "' I to r = S. (c) t=2 10 1 = 6.
 Mlthemotla - "'-dl,nia ond f',ob•blllty

VELOCITY AT AN INSTANT

A particle is moving along a straigln line where O is a fixed poin1 on that

line.The table below gives the displacement of the particle from O at given
inuants of timc.

/ (second) 0 I 2 J 4 S
J (mctre) 0 I 4 9 16 25

Thc displaccmcnt -timc graph isnot a !itrtight lincas varying distanccs arc
coverc d in cqual inte vr alsof time.

Thc grddicn t of thc chord AB is 6 sothc a1·eragc vclocit y ovcrthc interval of

time from r= 2 to t = 4 is 6 m c'.
Thiscanbetaken asan appmximatevaluefor thc actualvclocit y at the instant
when 1 = 2. It is clearly not a very good approximatiOn but better
approximationscan befoundby taking !imaller intcrvalsoftime.
Thcactual >"eloci1yat thc !mtant whcn /=2 isrcprcsente d b y the gradicnt
of t hc1angcmto thc cu vr cat . A andthis can beestimatcd from thc graph.
From thegraph,thegr:idient of AT is app1oximatcly 4 m s-1.
Therefore the,·elocity at the i1mant when 1= 2 is approximately 4 m s- 1 .

n �en�r.fl', th,· velocity at JI\ mstant CJI\ be found by d�tcm1ming the gr.idien1
ul tbe tJngcnt 1 0 1hc displaccmcn1-umc grnph a1 thatn1 s1ant.
 A p artklc moves alonga stralght lineand O is a fixedpolnt on thatHne .
Thc disp!acemenl smetres oftheparticle from O al time 1�conds isglvenby
s = (t-lXt-S).
Draw a displacement-t ime grnph for the inte rval of time from t = 0 to t = 6.
From the graph find:
(a) theaverage ve!ocily overthe interval from 1=0 to t = 4,
(b) 1he distancecove1edin theinle rval f1om t = O to 1=4,
(c) 1he1imeal whichthe veloci1y is ze10

, (�'""') I 'I 'I 'I 'I 'I 'I '

Using s=(1 - IX1-S) and taking 1= 0, 1 , 2,3,4,S,6, the following
table can be completed·

s(metre) 5 0 -3 - 4 -3 0

The displacemenl-lime graph can then be drawn.

(a) the gradient ofthechord AB is -2

So the average velocity over t he interval frorn 1=0 to 1 = 4 is - 2 m s-'.
(b) From t = O to 1 = 3 the particlc is mo,ing inthene gativesense
along lhcli ne.
When 1 ""0, ils displacement from O i� S n,.
When r = 3, its displacemem from O is -4 m
Thercfore t he diJta11ce covered be1ween t • O and 1 • 3 is 9 m.
 Moth•""tlco - M..twonico•ndPtClbabHIIY

From I = 3 to r= 4 theparticle mov e $ In thepositive smse along the line.

When / "' ) indisplaccment from O i s - 4 m.
\\-'hen 1 = 4 its displacement from O is -Jm.
Thcreforc thedi s tancecm-eredbetwccn 1=3 and r= 4 is J ui .
So thc dilitancecm-crcdfrom r=O to 1 = 4 is IOm.
(c) Thegradient ofthetangent tothecur��presen� t hevelocity at an ini;tant.
From thegraph weseethal thegrad!en t of thetangcnt is zero at thepoint C
where 1=-J. Therefo r e thevelocityis zero when 1 ccc ],

1) Aparticleis moving along a straight lineand O is apoint onthat line. The

, (. ,,," I O I ' I 'I' 1 • I 'I '

displacements, s, of theparticle from O atgivcn lns1antsoft ime. r, are
shown in the table

s(metre) 0 3 4 J O -5 -1 2
D1awa di1placement-ti111egraph and find 1heaveragevelocity over the in1erval
ofUme
(a) from 1 = 0 to t = 2, (b) from r: 0 to 1 = 6

,(,orn,.d) I O I ' I ' I I '

2 ) Aparticleismoving along a straight lineand O i s a f xi ed poin1011 the!i11e.
Thc displacemcnt, s, ofihep;,r!idefr om O a1 giveni1mants of time, 1. is
shown in the table.

3
s (mem) 0 2 2 0 -4

Draw a displacement-timegraph.
Find the average 1· e lodty over the interval of time from 1 = I 1 0 1 "' 2 and
estima tethe1·eloci1 y at the instant when t = I.

, (,ornod) I O I ' I ' I I ' I

3) A particlernovesalong a straight linc and O i1 a fixedpoin t o n tl1at line.
The displacemcnu from O at given iostanU of time are shoWTI in the table.
3 S
s (met�) 0 J 8 9 0 - 25

Draw a displacemeni.time graph and find, over the in ten,al of time from r= I
!O I = 4 .
(a) t h e incrcas.l' in displacement. {b) the distance covered.
(c) theaveragcspeed, (d) 1hea1·erage vdoclty,
Estimalethevelocity when 1 = 4.
4) A particle is rnoving along a straightline.Jt5 di$placernent, 1, from a fixed
1
point O on t h e line , at time t, is given by s =t- 5t •
Draw a displacemcnt�tln1e graph for the interval t=0 to r=6.
Measuring s inmetrcsand t in seconds , use your graph tofind
(a) the averagc velocityoverthe interval r=2 to t=S,
(b) the velocitywhen t = 4 ,
(c) 1hetimeat which the,·elodtyis zero
5) A particleis moving along a straight line and O is a fixed point on that line.
Ju displacement Jmetres from O at time f�onds is givcn b y t=6 +1-1l.
Drnw a dispLlcement•time graph for the interval of time from 1= - l 10 I e5.
Use your graph to find:
(a) the dis1ance 1rnvelle d in lh e interval from r = O lo t = 2,
(b) the displacement oftheparticlefrom O when t = O.
(c) t h e ,"elocitywhen t = O,
(d) the lime at which the,·clocityis zero.

MOTION OF A PARTICLE WITH CONSTANT VELOCITY

Consider a par1ide mo,·ing with constant velocity v, which passes through a

point A wilh position,·eclor p when the time I is zero.
Because v i1con1tan t the pa11icle i1travelling a!ong a maig)n linc through A.

l f thcparticlcis at a poin1 r. withgencrJl posi!ion ,·«10, r. al a time 1. then

AP "' rv
DP = OA + AP

Thisi.lthc equ utiono/mo1iou of1he particlc.

No1eitis al!othe equa1ion ofthepathofthe par1icle,eachvalueof I gh'Cl the
m:wal position ofthe /Hlflide at that time and not just any point on the line.
 Moil>ern1tlc:o- �hoonic:o 1nd P,ol,.a,llity

A partide tra,·els with sped 50ms-1 from the point (J,-7) ina direction
7i- 24j. Findlts po:iition ,·ector after
(a) r scconds
(b) ] seconds.
Thevelocity vecto1ofthe par1iclei$given by
(7; - 24;)
v = 50 -- = \4i-48j
lS
Soafter tsecom.15 1he prn1ition 1·ector ofche partideis
r = Ji - 7j + r(l4i - 48j)
,\fter J seconds, 1 = 3, so
r = J i - 7 j + J(14i- 48j)
= 4Si - 1 5lj

Find 1he pmitionvectorofan ohjectwi1h constant spttd V ina di,ectlon d

fmm a point with position vector p. (a) at time 1 (b) when 1 = 2, if
I) V = JO, d = 2i + j, p = 4i
2) V = S, d = i + j, p = J i + j
3 ) V : 40, d = i - 3j, p =j
4) V = S. d = 4i, p = 2j
S) V = 13, d =- l0i- 24j. p = i - j

ACCELERATION

[fa puticlcrnoving i n a maightlinehasa velocityof 2ms-1 at one instant,

and4 seconds latc1 ithasa vclocityof lOms-1 , lttveloc!ty hasinc1easedby
8ms-1 in4 scconds.
Jfthc veloci1y Ls increasi11g s1eadUy,itsra1eofincrease is 2rns-1 eachsecond
(written 2 m s- 1) and the p:nticle Ls $.lid to have a constant acceleration
of 2 rn :i-i.
lf, onthe otherhand,the parlic!e has a ve]ocityof \Oms-1 atone instant
and4 secondslater ithasa veloclty of 2ms-1 , 1ts velocl1y has dec,eased
by 8 1111-1 in4 seconds,or hu increased by -8m1-1 in4 seconds.
[fthis incrcase issteadythen the rateof increasc ofvelocityis - 2 m s-1 each
second, so the accclcration ls - 2 ms-2•

Jn general Kcelerat�n
. is 1hcrate of increase ofvet�\):,.

A p;ntlcle moving in a straight line has a constant ac c ele ation

r of - 2 ms-2•
lfithas avelocityof - 4 m s-• atone instant,flnd !tsvelocityJ secondslater.
2
Theac celerationis - 2 m s- •
Therefo1e the vclocityisinc reasingat a rdt e of - 2 m s-1 eachsecond.
Therefore the increase invelocityafter 3 secondsis - 6 mS-1.
The initial velocityis - 4 ms-1.
S o t h e , ·elocityaftcrJ secondsis - IO m s-1 •

I) A partide moving in a s1raigl11 linc wi1h constamac celcrationhasaVl!\ocity

of Sm,-• atone instantand 3 secondslatcr i t ha savelocityof 2 m s-1 • Find
its accderation.
2) A puticle is moving in a straightline with a c on stant acceleratiun of 3 m s-2
3ndhasa velocilyof 2 m s-1 at one lnstant.Fin ditsvelocity2 seconds later.
J) A particle moving in a maight line with a c onstant acceleration of - J m s-2
hasa ve\ocity of IS m s-1 atonc instant .Findits velocity
(a) 4 sec ondsla1e1,
(b) S secondslater,
(c)6 sec,;,ndsla1e1
4) A partick movingina st1aight line witl1 const an1acceleration has avelocity
o f - 8 m 1-1 atone n
i staut.lf1he acceleralion of1hepar1icle is 2 m , -2 , fmd
itsvelocltyafterS seconds.
S) Apartlde lsmoving ln a straight Une with constantacceleratlon.Atone
instantits velocityis - J 0 m 5-I and 4 scc ondslatcr itsvelocityis 2 m s-1.
Find it s a ccelcratiun.

Velocity-Time Graph

A graph ofvelocity ploued againSI timei5 a useful way of representing

motion in a 5tr.iight line.When the accekratiou is c onuant the Increase In
velocity isthe same for equal intemtlsof time so the graph I s a straight line.
 Consider a particlc,movingina straight !inewithconstantacceleration, which
has avclocity of 2 m s-• at one instant a n d 3 seconds late1h:uave!ocity
of S m s-1.

Theaccderationis l m s-1 i.e. ! m s-1.

ThiJ i• represented on the 8'"r>h by the f,action � whicl1 Is the gradient of

the linc AB.

l n general,lhegradlent orlheveJocity-tlmegraph rep1esentsthe aixele1atlon.

As the graph isa siraight !inetheaveragevelocity over the interval ofthree

secondsisthe nume rica]a\·eragc ofthe lnitial\"elOClty ! m s -1 andthe fina!
,-docity, 8 m s·1.
S o the average ,·elocityin the interv-�l from , ,,, o to / : 3
i s !(2+ 8)m 11-• = S m s -1 .

Consider again the definition

Increase in displacement
Average velocity "'
Time
On the graph, the a�ragc velocity is represented by j(AO + BD)
andthe interval oftimeis represcntedby OD.
Uence the inc,use in dhplace1nen1 is 1epresen1e.J by !(AO+ BD)OD.
But this is the area of the trapezium OABD.
ln gcncr.il,1he a1ea bounded by 1he1�lor:ity•tilllr graph,1he timeaxi sand1he
ordi natesat 1 1 and 1 1 , represents thc incrcuc i n di splacement ovcr theinterval
oftin1ef1orn t = t , to 1 = 11.

I) Acart'i mo,"i ngaionga straight line.lt t'i t akcnfrom rul !o a veloclt y of

2 0 m s-1 by a conslant accelcrali on of 5 m s- 1. It maintai ns a con stam ,�locity
of 2 0 m s·1 for 5 seconds andthen i sbrough1 t o r u t agai n by aconstant
acccleration of -2m1·1• Draw ave!ocity - timegraph andfind thedUtance
covered by the car.

When �eloci t y decrea sc s, a.s happen s in thiscaie between 1 = 9 and I = 19.

the acceleration i snegati,·e and is somelimes referred to a� a dealcrution or a
retardation.
The incrusein displacement while the cu is acce!eiating is rep1esen1edby the
arl'a oftriangle OAD.
Theincrease i n d i splaccment at uniform,·elocity i srepresented by thearea of
rectangle ABED.
Th e inctuH in displacement while the car is decelerating !s 1epresented by lhe
ar�a oflriangle BEC.
Thcrefore thc total inc1casc i n di splacemen t i srep1cscntcdbythc uc a o f t hc
uapezium DABC
i.e.by j(AB +OC)(AO) = f(5 + 19)x20 = 240
So 1heincreneindi splacemen1 i s 240m.
As thc car i s nave!ling i n thesame sen se along thelineuall 1imes, 1hedi11ance
covered i11 equa l 1 o t h e i ncrea seindi splacement.
Hencethedistancec01'Cred is also 240m.
 MIIMfn-11<:a - MAehanlm - Ptobabllltv

2) A partklc i s tra,·ell ingina straight line.lthasavelo,::ityof ! O m i -1 11,hen

i t i s subjectedtoanacceleration of - 2 m s-1 for 8 K"cond1.
IJraw a velo,::ity-timegraphforthis inter..-a lofeight secondsand find·
(a) theinc reaseindisp!acemcm,
(b) thcdi stance co,1:rcd for theimel\"a lofeightK"COnds.

F,om / "' O to 1=S thcvelo,::ity i s positlve. so theparticlcistravelling

i n a p ooith-e sc:nsc: alongthellne.
So thearea of1 riangleOAB repreRntsan incre1.1ein disp\acernentof 25m.
From t=S to t=S thevt"]o,::it y i s negative, sothc particle i s travelling
ina negativelenK'alons cheUne
This time thearea of t r iangle BCD represents a de<:ieasc in displacement of 9 rn,
oran increase in displacernent of - 9 m.
Thcreforc thcincrcaseindi splaccmcnt from f "' O to I"' 8 1 s
(2S-9)m = 16 m
Thedist.mce covered from t= O to rc S is 2S m.
The distance covered from r : S to 1=8 is 9 m.
So the di stance co,·ered from t: 0 to 1: 8 is (25 + 9)m = 34 m.
 Veloc!tv•nd Acc•l•ntion

EXERCISE••
I) A c ar accelerates unifonnlyfrom avelocityof I O m s -1 to a \·elocityof
40 ms-• in a time of 10 s, Draw a \>e[ocity- time graph and find the acce!e,a•
tlunand the di1tance covercd bythe carin 1his timeof !Os.

2) A tralois b1ought to rest from a velocityof 24ms-1 byac unstaot

ac celeration of - 0.8 m s -2• Draw a velocity-time graph and find the di1tance
cm-eredbythe train whilc it i s d ecelenitiog.

3) A particle moving in a i;\1aight line moves from ,est wi1h a uniform

ac celeration of 4 m s-1 for 4 seconds.lt is then brought to restagalnbya
uniform acceleration of -2 m s-1. Draw a velocity-time graph and fin d the
total dbtance covered bythe partic le.

4) A panicle mo1u from rest in a straight line with an acceleration of 4 m ,-2

forJ sct:onds . lt maintains a uniform Y1:!ocityfu r 6 seconds •ndi1 then brnught
to rest again in a time of 4 second, with a uniform retardation. Draw a velocity­
time graph and find thc final acccleration and the final dispfacemcru of 1hc
partic\c from its startingpoint.

5) A particlemoves in a maight line wi1h a comtant 1·e)ocityof 5 ms -1 for

2 sec onds . I t then moves w!th a constall! acc\erallon of - 2 m ,- 2 for 8 sec onds.
D,aw avelocity-time graph for the interva l o f \ 0 1ccon d1and find
(a) the final 1-e]oc ity.
(b) thc total distaoce covered bythepmicle,
(c) 1heinc1ease in displacement oftheparticle.

6) A partic\e mo1-ei in a str�ight line.Jt ha$ avelocityof 6 m s-1 when it is

subjectcd toan accelcr.itionof - 3 m,-1 f o r 3 sccond,.lt maintain, a uniform
•elocityf o r 2 seconds andis thenbmught 10 1eu i n a tlmeof2 sccoods.
Draw aveloci1y-time graph a11d fin d, f or the 7-«cond interval:
(a) 1hc final accelcratio11.
(b) the dis11n c e co•e1cd,
{c) the lncreascin di�plaament,

EOUATIONS OF MOTION FOR A PARTICLE MOVING IN A STRAIGHT

LINE WITH CONSTANT ACCELERATION

Motion in a maight linew!thcon s1ant accelerJlion occuTJ f1equentlye110ugh

tojus1ifyobtaining gcncra!cquations which can thcnbc applic d to a particular
prob!cm, rcmoving thcnccdtogobJckto first principle, eac h time.
 M11th..,..tlao - M..:honl.. ond Ptobmillty

Comider a panidewhich is mo ,ing in a straight linewith aconstant accderation

<1 andwhich hasan initial,-elocity u and a final velocity v after an interval of
time 1.

,-,
l n t h e ,·elocity-timegraph theac celerationisrep1esemedbythe gradierllofthe

line BC so
r

[II

The increase in displacemen1 , 1, in time I is represented by the area of ABCD.

} -•·it !�
[2]

;ij_�
Eliminating v f10 m equations [ I ] and [2] gives J = ½[u +(u + 111)]1

[JI

Eliminating u f10 m equations (l] and [21 gives J = ! [(v-a1) + v ] 1

Eliminating t from equation:; ( l ] and [2J gi,-e, s= !(u+v)(v-u)

v' - u1+2aJ (S]

1
Equations [ I ] . [21, (J], [4], (51 c an now be used fo r sohing any p10blem
inv0Mngmotlo n in a 1traight line,..·ithconstant acce!erationand thcy !ihould
be memorised.
When de<:iding which of these equuions to use in solving a particular problem it
h.e]psifali:stis madeof1heinfo1mationgivcnand1ha1 1equired.
I ) A particle is moving along a straight linc"ith a constant retard:itionof
J m 11-i. Jfinitiallyit ha s a vclocityof J O m s -' find thctime whenthcv clocity
isicro.
lnformatlonglven u = 10 Usmg the cq\lllt1on v = u +at
V= 0 a,. 0 = J 0 - )1
l
/l = -3 "" I = 31
lnfonnat!on required r
lienccthenlocityiszero aftcr 3� seconds.
2) A partick i1 moving along a straight!inewitha cons1ant acceleration of
- 2 m s - 1. It panes thro11gl1 a point A on 1he line w!th a,�loclty of 6 m s-1•
Findthe di1pl3cement from A ofthe particle after 5 seconds andthe distance
travclledbythe partidci n this timc.
, - 6 l u,,,, ,h"''"'"" , • " + j,,,'
a = -2 • s = 30-25
t "' 5 - 1 = S
Required·
Therefore the displacement of the particle from A afm 5 s i1 5 m.
A vclocity- timcgraph for a p1oblem often lead1 10 aq11kk solution, especially
whendistances or dlsplacement11 arein•olved. so a ske1ch graph 1hould always
be drawn.

:�'
O r
B o

-•
C

From 1he skc1ch wecan see 1h:it thedistancecoveredin Ss i1representcdby

arn of60AB + area of!I.BOC
The1cfmc1hc dis!llnce co,·eredin Ss is (9+4)m or 13m.
(The increaseIn displacemrot is representedby area of llOAB- area ofbBCD)
3) A t rain uave!ling along a nraightlinc"' ilh constant accclcrat!on is obse r v e d
1 0 travd consecu ti\'e diuances o f I k m in t i m e s o f 30 s and 6 0 s re spe cti\'ely.
Findthe initialve \ocityof t h e t rain.

J f we le t u m e t r e /se cond be the initialvelocit y t he n, u unitsmustbe consistent.

l
the distance mmtbe measured in me tres.
Required:
w h e n J = 1000, I= 30
w h e n s = 2000. 1 = 90
2
Using s "' ut+ ¥1r twice , w e ha\'C
\000 = 3�+ 45Cb [I[
2000 = 90u+405Gi [2[
Eliminatlng a from cquations ! J J and [21 gives
200-9u = 9(100-Ju)
u : 38.9
The initial vclocityof 1hc t rain l s 38.9 m s-•.
Altcmatiwly:
V<'°'1ty
 VtlOCIIY and Acalemlon

Forthe first 1000m the average velocity is � m s-•

llencethe velocity ii .lfmc' when T = IS.

Fo1 the second 1000m the average velocity is � m s-•

Hence the velocity is 'ms-1 when T= 60.

Forthe interval oftime from T = l5 to T = 60,

r = 45, u = � and v = Ef

Forthe interval oftime from T : 0 to T = IS.

t = 15, 11 = � and v = lf
Uting v : r,+111 gives 'l' , · - �
u = 38.9
Therefore the inlllal veloclty oftheuainis 38.9 ms-1 .
4) A particle mns from a point O w!th an initial velocity of 2 m ,-1 and
travels alons astralght line wltha constantaccelerationof 2 m s-1. Two
seconds late r a second particles1uru from rest at O and tr11ve\s alongthe unie
l!ne withan accelerationof 6m,-1. Find how fu from O the 1econd par!lde
overtakes the first.
When the second particlc overtakcs thefirst theywillbothhavethe sainc
displacement from O. Let that dispbcement be d metre.
lfthefim parlide takes Tseconds to reach thispoin1 the secondparticletakes
(T-2) seconds to reach the same point.
 .: :�
MIIIMml,tlco - MecNnia - Problbilltv

..
For thl.'filst partidc

" d • ,2T+T1 PI
] "' ' , . . .,. •'"
1 • T
11 =l
For thesecond puticlc

: : : ] "'"' , . ,.+�•· .�,

t = T-2
II "" 6
Eliminating d from l'qUat ions [ I ] and 12] gives
d = 3(T-2)1 /2/

1T+Ti = J(T-2)1
Tl -1T+6 ., 0
(T-6)(T-I ) = 0
(T?' l D<'cau5e this isbeforethe51.'condpar1 ic\e st�rts)
Therefore T •6
and d = 48

Therefore the second particle o1·ertake1the tirst 48m from 0 .

S ) A 1rain tak�sS minute s to c over a ilistance of 3 k m between two st ations

P and Q. Staningfrom rest al P, it acceleraies at a con stant rate to a speedof
40kmh-' andmalntainsthlsspeed unti l lt i sbroughtunlfo1mlyto rcs1 at Q .
lfthe 1raintakcs 1h1ee timesa slong to decelerat e a sit docs1o accekn11e, Ond
lhctime 1akcnbythe tT11 in1o acceler.11e .

A s the time involved is fairly small we will use second s and, for consUtency of
units ,mctrcspcr i.ccond.So we c onvert 40kmh-1 to �m,-1.
 v..ocity ond Aco:ll•Uion

Let thetimetakento acceleraiebe T seconds mthatthe time!aken to

decelerate is JT seconds.
Then the timefor which the speed is eons1am is (300-47) seconds.
The area ofirapezium ABCD represents 1he diuancc travelfo d bythe t1ain, !O
thearea orABCD = !(300+P00- 4r))(¥)
3000 = j(600-4TX�)
540 = 600-4T
T = IS
Theref orethc timetakento 3cce!erate i s !S s

I ) A particle with an initial,·clocityof 2 ms·' moves in a straight line with 3

constant acceleration of J m s- 2 forS s«onds. F in d 1 he finalvelocityandthe
distance covered.

2) A particle i!i mo,'ing in a straight line with a constant acceleration of -4 m s -1.

lf thc initial v clocityi!i ] O m s·' find thc incrcasc i n d isplacemcnt after
(a) 2 s (b)4s.

3) A panicle m01ing in a straig

ht line with constant ac celerat ion has a \'CJoci1y
of S m s-1 at one in11an1and 4 secondslatcr i1 hasa,·elocityof ! S rn s·1.
F!ndthe acccleratlonand thc distance covcrc d bythc paniclcinthe 4 seconds.

4) A particlels movingina !it raig htllnewith constam accderatlon.lnitilllyitls

a1 rest and af1e16 secondsils l"eloc ilyls ! S m1·1 • Flndthe acceleralionand the
dis1anceco,·cre d in the6 scconds.

S) Aparticle which is moving!n a straight line wilh c onmnt acceleration 2 m ,-i

is initla\lyat rest . Find the distance covered bythe particle ln the thirdsecond of
il s motion.

6) A p utide movingin a straight line with a constant accelemion - Sm s· 1

haJan initialvelocityof ! S m s·'. Findwhen the ,·elocityis iero.
 MlltMffllltico -MM:h•nia•nc! Probab!llty

7) A particle mo,1ng In a malght line with a connant retardatioo of 3 m s-2

h u an initial velocityof IOms-1 . Find after what time it retums t o itsstarting
point.

8) A particle which is moving in a maight line with constant acceleration co�en

distances of \Orn and I Sm intwo succeni�e seconds.Find the acceleration.

9) A particle moving i n a st raight line with conttant ac,elcration t akes J seconds

andS scconds to cover two successive di1tances of I m. Find the acceleration.

1 0 ) A particle moving in a straight line with constant acceleration of - 3 m s -1

has an initial velocity of IS m 1-1. Find the time at which !ts displacementfrom
thestarting point is (a)!Sm (b)-ISm.

I I ) A particle uam fmm resl U a point O on a straight line and m,"·es along
thelinewitha constant accelerationof 2ms-1. Threc sccond1late11 second
particle starts from rest at O and moves along the line with con5tam
acceleration 4 m s-i. Find when the second panicle o,·ertakes the first �de.

12) Two panicles are lra1·eUing along a �traight line AB oflength 20 m. At

the 5ame Instant one pa1ticle srnrtsfrom 1e11 at A and mwels wwards B with
a constant acceleration of 2 m s-l and the othcr particlc startsfrom rest at B
and travels towardli A with a constant acceleration of 5 m �-i. Find howfa,
from A the partides co\lide.

13) A partic!e ,ta,tsf1omrestand moves along a s traight line wit h a constant

accclcration untilit rnches a velocityof JS m s-1 . ltis thenbroughtto rest
again bya constant reta1da1ionof J m s-a. lfthe pnlicleisthen 60m from
ius1a11ingpoint, fin d thctime for which the partkleis moving.

14) A car takes 60 se,ond1to travelbetweentwo sets oftrafficlights, starting

fromres1a11hc first set and coming 101est again at the secon d set.lt
accderatesuniformlytoaspecdof 12ms- 1 an d 1 hen unifo1mly de.:elerates
to test. Find the distance �tween the two sets oflighu.

lS) A train stops at two stations P and O which are 2km apart.It accelerates
onifonnlyfrom P at I m1-i for JS seconds and maintalns a constantspeed
for a time before dccek1ating unifo1mly to rest at Q. If the dectleration is
O.S m s-1 f1nd the t1mefor whk:h the 1ralnis travclling at a constantspeed.
 Vlloclty and Acc.ler•llon

VERTICAL MOTION UNDER GRAVITY

Before the time of Galileo it w u thought that if 1wo objects of different

masses weredroppedthehel'oicr objcct would fall faster thun thelight one.ln
a f amous !i<:riCS of experiment s Galileo showed that this was not true.(He
allcgedly dropped obje,:ts from thetop ofthc !eaningt owerof l'isa andtimcd
1heir dC'SCCntby theCathedral c!oclr: opposite.)
The results that Galileo observed are thal ifair res!uance ii igoo1edall bodies
(what e�w thl'irman)ha••f' h r e Slime cons
tantacceleratio ntowardJ the cen tre
o/ the earth whe11 theyarc mo�ing undertheac1fo11 of their we{8ht o nly.
This accdeTlltionis denoted by thelener g, anda!oodapproxlmatlon to its
�alucis 9.8 m s•J_
When a body is tluown vertically upwud. or is dropped, it moves in a vertical
maight line.Theonly forceac!!ng o n i t i s itswe!ght, causinga constantvertical
accdcration g , so thecquations formotion ina straight lincwit h constant
acceleration apply. In someproblems ii is convenieni to takethe downward
directio11 aspositlve. in which case the acceleration is +g , but in otherproblems
i t i s con11:nieo11o t:;iketheopwarddirectioni1Spositivc ,in which casctJ1 c
accdera1ion is -g .

EXAMPLES 4g
I ) A stone ls 1hrown vertically upward from the top ofa tower and hit5 the
ground l O seconds later witha 5pced of S ! m s·1 • Find thc hcigh1of1hc

Taking the downwa,d dir�ction as p06ith·c

we have,

'""]
gh"en-
Q '"' 9.&

'
r = IO
required·

Using s= VI -�,� gives

s= 20
Thereforc1hetower is 20m high.
 Mothematla - M.chiftla•r>11 Problbllll'f'

I,.
2) A ball is thrown vertically upward from � point O.S m above ground level
with a speed of 7 m s -1. Filld t he hclght above this poin1 reached bytheball
andthc speedwith which ithits the ground.

···---- i - - ----
or

.. , l
This lime we will take 1he upward direction a.Ipositive. The velocity of the ball
i1 zerowhcnft rcachesilsgrea1es1 height abovcits initial position.So wehave,

• • 0

:
C - 9 8.
0 "' 49- l9 6s
s = 2.5
.

. -, l
required:

Thc1cfor e thc stone reachcs a hcigh1 of 2.Sm aboveits inilial position

When1he slonehits1he groundi1 is O.S m be!ow itsinitla]po,i!ion.

s = -o.s Using v' • u ' + 2as gives

'
a = -9.8 v' .. 49 +9.8
Required· V "' ±7.66

Whcn thc ston e r eaches the ground i t i s 1rave\Hng do11,•nwards,so � - - 7 .66;

but t he spee d i s t h c magnitudcof thcwlocity,
1herefore the s1one hi1stheground with a speed of 7.66 m c1
 Velocity1nd Acclll-lon

3) Abal! i s thrownverticaUyupwa1dwith a specd of 14ms- 1 • Two seconds

later a secondball is dropped from the same point.Find where the two balls

The balls will meet "'' hen they have 1hc same displacement (d met1e) from t h e
Sllrtiogpolnt.
Jfthe time t akenbythe f lrst ballto achie\-e thisdisp!acement is T sccond. the
timetakenbythe$Ccondballis (T-2)sccond.
Taking t h e upward direction asposith·e .wc have,
fo1thefirst ball:
: : �:.8 Using J = ur+ !ar1
]
1=T d = 14T-4.9T' [I J

: : �''] u,;"' ' . "+!"'

J =d
fo1the $Ccond ball:

t "" T-1 ,. d = - 4 9(T-2)

. 1 [2[
' •d
Eliminating d fiom equations [I ] and [2] gives
2T- 0.7T1 = - 0.7(T-2f
T = J. 5
which gi,·es d = - 1 1.0
The1efore1heballsmeet I I O. rn below!heirinitialposition.

EXERCISE't

I) A stoneis droppedfroma cliff !OOm abo1-e thesea. Find t h e s

peed w!th
which it hitsthe sea.
2) A stone is th1own \l'flkally upward with a speed of !Oms-'. Find the
grea1est heigh 1 1eache d b y t h e stone.
3) A ball isth,own vertkally upwa1d to a height of 10m. Find the time taken
to reac h t h isheight a n d t he inltial speed of the ball
4) Aparticle isprojected ve11lcaUyupwardfrom ground tevelwith a speedof
2 0 m s-1. Fin d t h e t !mefor which 1hc par1icle isin the air.
S) A stone, ls th,own wuic-•llY upward with a speed of 7 m s-1 from 1he top of
a cliffwhich is 70 m above sea level.Find the time at which the st one hiu the
 M•lham•lico - M-.nic:s •ndProbabillty

6) A stone !s projected vertically upwi11d wit h a speed of 21 m s-1 • Find t he

distancetra,·ellcdby the stone inthe flnt 3 seconds ofittmolion.
7) Aball is t hrown vert ically upward wit h a speed of l S m s-1 from a point
which b, 0.7 m abo\"e giound level. Find the speed with which theball hiu the
ground
8) A puticle is projected vertically upward fiom ground lei'\'! with a !ipeed of
SOm,-1• Forhow long willit be more than 70m abo\"e t he ground?
9) A falling none takes 0.2 seconds to fa]J past a window which is J m high.
F tom how far abo1-e the top of 1he window was the Hone dropped?
10) A stoneis project ed \"ertically upward with a speed of 7 m s-1 and one
second lat e r a secondstoneis projected \"ertically upwa rd from the=e
point 1•dt h the i.amc speed. Find w here the t w o nones meet.
J I ) Ast oneis droppcd fiom thetopofabuilding andatthe ume timca
second stone is thrown 1·ertically upward fiom t he bonom ofthe building wit h
a speed of 20 ms-1. They pass each other 3 seconds !ater.Find the height of
the building.

INTRODUCTION TO MOTION IN A PLANE

Consi<le, a part icle P movingalonga curve;the cur>•e iscalled the p.at h of

t he particle.

lfthc particle is at a point with coo,dinates (x,y) at t i me 1, its <lisplacement

Jx in the <lirection of Ox
from O !s OP or r.

OP has components
\Y in t h e di1ection of Oy

S o w c cani.ay
 lE
Vlloclty •ndAa:el«•tion

The ,· c locity component in the <lirection Ox b � (<lenoted by .i) and

the vclocity cornponcnt in 1hc direction Oy is t or y.

S o , i f v i s t h c 1d
· oclt y ofthe partk:le at time I we can say

V "' ii +jj

¥, ¥,
Further , the componenuofthe acceleration. a, ofthepartide at t imc r arc
{denoted by X) in the di1ection Ox and or y , in the
direction Oy, so that
a "' Xi+Yi

Notethat,if II is thcanglcbetwecn thcdireetionof v an<lthe x axis. then

j, dy l"" dy
tan II .. - • - - .. - = gradient of tangent at P
X d1 dr dx

Theie forc 1hcdir�c11on of I is the direction fthe taugent JI I' lO tl1e path of
lhc f)!rticlc.Ttu.:. 1s the directio11 o f motionof1hc J)!lllicle.
A particle movu in the xy plane such that.at time 1. its displacement from a
fixed point O is given by r = 2ti + llj . Show that its accelcra1ion a is
always 2j and find iis dirc
ction ofmotion when t = I .
I f r = 2ti + 1 'j , the velocity v is given by
d,
V ""
dr = 2i + 21j

ThisdOl"s not depc,nd on the value of t so the accelerationis a!ways 2j .

F1orn V WC !>CC that,when l • I , :f - 2 and S, = 2.
The anglebetween the direc tion of motion am! the x axis ls therefore
°
arctanl, i.c. 45 .

In Quc!liuns l -4 find ,. and a (a) at 1ime 1 (b) when 1 - J.

Find also rhcdirecrion of motion when
I ) r=r'i+ r'j
2) r = 3i - r•j
3) r = (1 +2)i + ( l - 1 1 ):j
4) r = 12 i-r2j
5) A paniclc mo, ·uln thc xy planc s.o 1ha1. at time r. its displacement from �
fixedpoint O is given by r = 4 1 i + (Jr-S1')j. Find its velocity vector at
time r and hence find the ,·elocity componenu when 1 =0 Show that the
acceleration isconstant.
Doyounotice anything significant about this acce!eration!

ANGULAR VELOCITY

Consider a particle P which is moving 10und the circumference of aci1dc.

h can 10\ale about O in only two senses,clockwise or anticlockwi:r.c.Positive
and negati•-e signs arcu!iCdto differentiatebetwce n t hesctwo i;emes anditis
customary to takcthe anticlockwi se i;enseas posith·c.
 Velocity•nd Acc.t«nlDII

lf.initially, thc particle isat Q and after an interva] of time i t i s a t R, then if

angle QOR is 0 ,

1 1!.e angli)Y" �oclty or P is deflqed as tilt rate oflm;rc� or 6�.,.

Angularvclocity is usually denotedby w.

lf O isinneuing a1 a cons1aot ra1 e 1 hen1hc angular ,elocity
· w i s uniform.
Ang]es arc measuredin r.idians s o theunit ofangular velocity is theradianper
second(rad,- 1 ).

Thehourand minutehands ofa clockcoincidc a t cxaclly !2.00 houu.Find

when they next coincide.
Thehour hand rotates through
l revolution in l2 hours,
i.c.2,rrad in l2 hours.
S o the angularvdocity or 1 he
hour hand is Jii rad/min.
(This i s a moreconvenientunlt
than the rads-• in this prnb]em.)
Theminu1e hand rotates a t thc
sicady raic of 2r.radper hour
Tht1efo1c the angular,-clocity of
the minute hand is :ii rad/min.
lf theynext coincide after t rninules whcn thcy make 3n angle O radians "'ith
their initialpoJition, thcnthchour hand willhavctumedthroughan ang]e of
0 radians and1he minute hand th1ough anangle of (21T+9) radi�ns.

For the hour hand ..!!..., = 8 Ill

360

For the minute hand JO' • 8 + 211 121

 Mllh.,,..,lla - Mldl•nla•nd Probablll1y

(!J and(2] glvc jo t • � t + 2rr

121 = 1 + 720
I = 65.45
Thereforethchand,ncxt coinddc 65 .S minulcs after 12.00 hours
Le.at l 3.0S hours

f\l"
Rel11ionthip BetwffnAngul•r Veloelt y uld Lh,.., Veloeit v

\_t7
Coruider a point P which isrntating in a circleof radim r with a comtant
angular �elocity "-'· Its direction of motion at any !nstant ls tangcntial,
as1>·euw on p.135.
If P mrn, 1h1ough an angle O fromiu initfa! position Q in a time t then
0 = wt {I ]
Thc lcngth of thc aic P Q is r lJ , whe1e O is rncasured in radians, a n d t liliisthe

,,'
distanceco�1cd by P in this time.

Thc1cfore thc.1peedof P is ]2]

Substituting for O fmm cquation [ I ] Ylowsthat thespced of P is rw,

thercfo,e

Thus 3 poim which is ro!.illngin a cilcl� of radius 2 m with ao angu!a, velocity

of 4 rads-1 has a spccd of S m s-1 •
 I) F!n d theangul:irvelocity, ln mlc1 , ofa record whichis 1otating a1 1 rate
of:
(1) 33 rel'O]utions per minute,
(b) 45 revolutionsperminute.
2) F!n d 1he angularvelocity,in rads-1 , ofthe:,,:condhandofa clock.
3) Awheel of rad!us 2m is rotating al the constant rate of 20rad1-1. Find
thc speed o f a poin t on lts circumfe1encein m s -1•
4) Find thespeed, in km h-1 , of a point on the equatorof the u11 h ,auuming
il tobc a circle ofradius 6400km.
5) The minu1eandhourhan d ofa clockcoincideexactly a1 12 o'clocJ,;.fin(j 1he
timebetwe<:nJ o'clock and4 o'clock when they coincidc.

Con,u,n1 An91Jlu A�leratlan

' 1nsul�r •cccleratigh lsdeflned aslherate of lncreaseof �ngu]_ar

_ �10fllf.
,
. _
Theu11/1ofangufaraccclc1ation i s t h e radian persecon d pcr!iCCOt1d (rads-1)
When theangularvelocityincreasnat a steady ntetheangufaraccelerationh
eonstant . lnthis ca!iC ifangularveloci!y isplotted againn timethe graph i i a
maight linc.
Considcra particlc dc!iCribing a circlc.,.d1h cons1an1 angular1ccclcratio11 Q.

lf,!niclally,theparticlc isat Q with an angularvelocity n and,afteran

inten'a l o f t lme r. it !sot P with angularvelocit y w then
theincrea!iC in angu br\'elocit y is w - n

So thc ratcofincrea!iC ofangular "elocity is

 M11Mm11ico - Mtchffia andP,ot»bllity

w n
a = � • w = n + ru [!]

As1he angularacceJeration is constan t the u·erageangular vclocityforlhis

intervalof timeis fcn+w).
So,if 8 isthe ang]e tumed through bythepartidein time r
,
8 = j(n+ w)r [21
Eliminaling w fiom [ I ] and l2l gives o -= n1+}a11 [3]
Eliminating fl fiom [ ! ] andj2) givi:s (J = wr-!ru1 [4[
Eliminating I from [I I and [21 gives w: • n2+2ao [5]
These five equatiom1arethe equa tions for cin:ular motionwith constan1angular
accclcr3tion andcanbequotedinanyproblcmin,·o!ving circuJar motion with
constant acceleration.
(Note the !iimila1itytothc equations for motion l n a straight line with constant
acceleratlon.This shou] d bea helpln recalllng them.)

IEXA,..LIE4J

A wheel 101a1cs with constant angular accderation and, starting from rest ,it is
observed to makeS comple1c revolu1ionsin ) seconds. What isthe angular
veloci t y i n r a diansper seconda1 thecnd of1he J seconds?
Thewhcel makes S revolutions in ) seconds, s o i t t ums through anangleof
J01rn1diaM i n t his t ime.

8 = �(n+w)I gives
!On= ! w x J
Required
Therefore theangularve\ocltyof the"'heelis 1f1Trad1-1 •

IEXERCISE4j

I) ,\ whccl rotatcswitha constant angular accelerationof J rads-1. lfit starts

fromrest find ils angular vclocily 2 seconds lam.
2) A pan icle describes a circle with conuantangular acceleration.lt makes one
completc rcvolutionln 2 i.econd1 starting from 1es1.What ls itsangular
acceleration?
 Veloeityand Acal••·tlon

3) Theangulat \·ehx:it y o f a rotating whcc! changes from lrads-1 to 4 r::a d s-1

in S second$, AS$uming that the angular acceleration is constantfind the angle
the whee l t um s t hrough inthlstimcand thc angula, acceleration.
4) A flywheel rotate$ with constant 3Jll!Ular acceleration. If its angular velocity
changesfrom J O re1·0Jutions p e r second to 4 1evolutions pe r s econd in one
,evolutionofthe flywheelfind t h e angulaiacceleration.
5) A wheel makes 4 completerevolutions in 3 seconds. If at the end of the
3 se conds i1hasan angular 1-elocit yof 1r ra d s -1 . find iuangular acccle ra1ion
a.ssuming this to be constant.
6) A particle starting from rest moves !n a circle with a conuant angular
acceleration of J rads-�. Find the angle lt turns lhrough in the third second
of its motion.

V e/ociry i$the ra1eoflncreaseof linear displacemen1.

Acc elera1ioni$lh e r a t e ofincreaseofvelocity.
Ang ular ft!lociry is the rate of increase of angular di$p]a�men1.
A1igu/araca/erarioni s t h e rateof incrcase ofangular \ c· locity.
Equatioru of Motionwith Connant Acceleration
Motion i n a maight \ine: v = u +at
s .. j(u+v)t
s = ur + !at1
S = •·1- ¥111
v1 = u • + 2a.s
Circular molion: w = n+at
(J = !(w+.Q)I
(J = nt+ ½at:
0 = wt- !a,:

,,
w: = ni + 2a0

General motion ¥ = fu

a = -
,,,,
lfthe,·elocityis cons1an1and 1hcpaniclcpasse-s through p when t = O,
r = p + l¥
MULTIPLE CHOICE EXERCISE 4

(17ui imtmc1iom for a11s

weri11g these qu estiom are gfren011 p,ige x.)

I
)
a..,emm,o< <m�
,,

! 1imd1)
-!O

The diagr.un shows the dlsphiccment -timcgr;iph for apanidcmo�ins in a

straigh11ine.Theav,:ragcvclo,;ityforlhe ime,..,alfrom / "' O 10 t "" S ls
(a) 0 (b) 6 m s -1 ( c ) - 2 m s -1 (d)2ms-1 (e) - 4 nu-1

2)

• •"•-< <m•fv+=
"

-,
, """h)

The diagram show s the displacement-time graph for a particle moving Jn a

straight line.The di stance cm·ered by theparticlc in the lnte1val from t = O
t o t=S ls:
(a) 20m (b) 25 m (c) ! S m (d) S m (e) l O m
The diagram shows 1he 1·elodt y -time gr;iph for a particle moving in a maight
line.Thesum of1he two shaded areas rcprcscnts
(a) the increase in displacement ofthe particle,
(b) theaverage velocity of che partkle,
(c) tne avcrage accelcrationof thc pallic lc,
(d) the disuncemoved by the partic\e,
(e) t he averagespeed of the particle,
4) A partklemovin g i n a straight linewith aconslant acceleration of Jms- l
has an initial �elocity of - 1 m s-'. lts veloclty 2 seconds !ateris:
(a)Sms-1 (b)6ms-1 (c) 4 m s-1 (d) 0 (e) - 7 ms-1 .
5) A partic!c moves i n a straight line and passes through 0, a fixed poin t on
1heline,with a velocity of 6 m s-'. The particle moves with aconstant
retardation of 2n1 s-2 for 4 seconds and thereafter moves withconstant
velocity.
How long after leaving O docs the particle return t'l O?
(a) J s (b) Ss (c) never (d) 4 s (e) 6 s.

6) Whe n a nW11ber of particles, allof differen1 weights,are dropped, 1he

acceleration ofeachparticle:
(a) ls constant b 111 differcnt for eacl1 partide,depending o n i t s weight,
(b) iscons1am and the 11ame foreach p uticle ,
(e) increases a s t hep:irticle falls.
7) lf a particle is moving i n a straight line withconstant accelerationand a
veloclty�time sraph is drawn for the motion. the gradient of the gnph
repri:5ents:
(a) the �ccele,at lon,
(b) the1ateof increaseof vcloci1y,
(c) therateof decrcase ofvelocity.
8) Apartidc i s rotallng i n a circlewi1h cons1an1 angular accclera1ion. With 1he
usua! no1ation, thcspced of1hc panidc at any 1imc I is:
(a) ,(n + at) ,

(b) � .

(c) rw.

9 Apalliclepa= 1hrough a point with position vcctm i + j when t"" 0

)
andmoves wi t h velocity 3i-j
(a) lupmitlon vector .it time I is 3J-j+1(i+j),
(b) i t s spced isconstant.
(c) i t i s accderati ng.

10) (a) Apani clc ismoving in a st raigh 1 line with constan111cceleration.

(b) Thc avcragevelocity ofapartic]c movingi n a straight line i s the
avcrageoftheinitialand finalvelocit ie!i.

I I ) (a) A partic]e i 1 movi ngina11traightlinewith a constantaccelerationof

l m s-1.
(b) Aparticle moving in a siraight line with a constant acceleration has
a velocity of 211111-1 a1 011ei nstan 1 and a veloci 1y of B m s-• three
!iCConds later.

12) Usingthe standardnotationfor a panic\e movingin astraight line with

constant acceleration:
2
(a) Theparticle co\"er! a dlstance J intlme twhere J=Ul+fat •
(b) u > O and ii<O.

13) Aparticle is moving in a maight li ne. Find when the puticlc 1et ums to its
initialposition.
(a) Thepaniclc is thrown venica!ly upwards.
(b) Thc i n i t iaJvc[oci t y oftheparticlei$ ! O m s -2.
(c) The...,·eight of thepar t i d e i s 20N.

14) Apartic\cis movingi n a circle. Find thespeed oftheparticlewhen it returns

to it$ i nitla] po$ilion.
(a) Theaccelerationis constant and equal to o,
(b) The i n itial angular v,.:loci t y i s n.
(t) Theradius of 1hecirclels r.
 Vtloclty-Accel•.ilon

15) Two particles A and B aremoving along a st111ight llneand initially B is

behind A. Oc1cnninc whether R ovcr1akes A.
(a) B moves with. a constant velocityof 6 m s - 1 •
(b) B is 4m behind A initially.
(c) A moves w i t h a cons1ant accelera1ion of J m s -1•
16)

Thediagram shows a sketch ofa

,·eloci1y-1imegraph fo r a particle
mo\ing i n a straight \ine.Findthe
value of T.

(a) Thc distanccco,·c rcd i1 !OOm

(b) The maximum velocity reached is \0rns-1 and is maintained for five
seconds
(c) Theaccclc111tion is twicc thc recarda1ion.

17) Velocityis ther.iteuf increaseof distance.

18) A partklemoving in a stfaigh t linewith a constant accelerationof
- 2 m s -1 has a ,-elocityof J m s-1 at onc instant anda vclocit yof - J m s - 1
1hree5econds !a1er
19) A particle moving under the action of its weigh t only has a comtanT
acceleration g vertically downwards.
20) A particleis n1ovingwl1h cons1a111 accelera1ion i n a ma!ght l!ne.A1 one
ins1ant i t hasa velocit y 11 and 1seconds later i t hasave!ocity v.
11' accelerationis (11-v)fr.
21) A particlc is mo•ing inthepositivc scnse on thecircumfcrenceofi circle
of radiw 2 m. The particle has a conslant angular acceleration of 3 rad s-1. At
unelnsum11hc1pec d o f 1hc puliclc is 2 m s-• and onesccond late1itis 8 m s-•.
22) A particle is mo,ing in a straight line. A displacemen t -lime graph is drawn
for its motion.Thegradient of the tangent to tile graph at time T rcp1eK0ll
thevelocity of the �rtidc at time T.
23) J\cartravclsfrom A to B a t a consiant spec d of 30kmh-' and returns
to A imrncdia1clyata cons1ant spced of 40kmh- 1 • Thc avcrage spccd forthc
journey is J5krn h-1 .
24) lfa p.irUde mo
,ingin a maight line has a neg:iti\•eaccelcratlon then this
a!ways meansthat thcspecdis dcc1easing.
 Mllhltfflltleo - Moc:h•nlaMdProbobility

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE 4

I ) A stoneisdf0ppedfrom1hetopofa building 20m high.A secon d stoneis

droppcd from half- wayup thesarnc building.Find the timcthatshould elapse
between the release of the two stonn if theyarc 10 reach the g1ound at the same

2) A panicle is deseribing a cirdcof radius 4m with a constant angular

acceleration.A t onc instant i t hasaspeedof 2 m s-1 an d 4 secondslatcrit has
a spced of J 0 m s-1. Fin d i t s angularaccelcration and thc dinam:cit has
travelled in t h i s time.
3) A panidc is deKribing a vc,tical circle of radius 2 m with a constant angular
accclcruionof grads-'. Ifit islnitiallyat rcs\at lhe lowest point ofthe circle
fln d itss.pce d 2 s.econds laterandits displaccment from ltsor!ginal posit!on.
4) A toytrainis movingalonga straight lcngth ofuack. l t accelera1es unifonn!y
from 1cst 1oa >"d0Ci!yof 0.S m s-1 and maintainsthis vclocityfo r a t i m c beforc
decelera1ing uniformlyto res1 again.lf1he time takcn for1hisjourneyis
2 seconds and it moves a distance of 0.8 m a ol ng the track, find the time for
which thc sp«d ofthc train isunif orm.
5) A car has a maximum accclc,ation of 6 m t-2 and a maJ<imum deceleration
of S m s-2. Find thc lcast time in whichitcancovcra diSTanceof 0.2km
starting from reit and stopping again.What is the maJ<inmm speed reached by
t h e c arin t his timc?
6) A particlemoving in a st raight linecoYCrs dlstancesof 90m and 240m in
successive times of 2 seconds and 4 sccon ds. Showthat t h c partidc hasa
cunstant lccelera!iunim d find it.
7) A partic el P moves alung the x axis and a panicle Q moves along the
y axis. P stalls from rest al the origin and mo,· c swith a constant acceleration
of 2 m s-1. At the same time Q is at the point (0,3) withavc!ocityof
2 m c1 and ismovins witha constant acceleration of - J m s -1. Find the
distance between P and Q 4 scconds la ter.
8) A particle P starts from rest from a point A and moves along a suaight line
wi1h cons1ant accelcration 2 m s-'. At t h c s.amc timea second panicle Q is
5 m behind A and is moving in the same direction as P with a speed uf
S m s-1 • If Q has a constant acceleration of J m s 1- flnd huwfarfmm A it
ovcrtakes P.
9) A particle I' whichill moving alonga straight lincwitha constant
acceleration of 0.J m s-• passes a point A on t h e linewitha velocityof
20ms-1. Acthe time when P passes A a second particle Q ls 20m behind
,\ andis moving witha constant vclocityof 30m1-1 . Prove that thepartides
collide.
10) A bus mo\lC'S away from ,est at abus stop with an acceleration of I m s -1•
As the bus starts to move a man who is 4 m bcltind the stop rons with a constant
speed afler thebw.lfhcjust managc s t o catch thcbus fin d his speed.

J I ) A partide movn so that its position vec1o r a ftc1 1suonds is glvenby

1
r = (3t - 213) i - 2t
j
Find the acceleration ofthe partidewhen 1'"2.

12) A model acrop\anc i s constrainc d to flyina circ]ebya guidelinewhichis

3m long.lt acccleratcs frorn a spccdof 2 m s-1 with a constan1 1ngular
acceleration of i1j rads-1 for 2f revolutions. Theg11ideline"thenb1eaks. Find
the spee d ofthc aeroplane when thcguidcline breaks.

13) A stoneis thrown vertica!lyupwa1d with a speed of u meue s per s.econd.

A s,:,cond s1onc is thrown verticallyupward from the same point with the same
;,;u,l 'P'"d b(��.7:_�;�d),lu« """ "" fio< '"'· p,,,, ,hu <hoy rnllide u ,
dist:inceof -- metres above the point of projecUon.
,,

14) A stone is dropped from the top ofa tower.In the Jut second ofIts motion
it falls through a dutanccwhich is a fifth ofthe height of1hc tower.Find the
height of the tower.

IS) A p;11tkle moving in a straight line OD with unifo1m retardation leaves

point O at lime 1=0 , and comes to instantaneous rest at D. On its way 10
D the part icle passes points A. B, C at times 1= T, 2T. 4T, respectively
after leaving 0, where AB = BC = I. Find, in terms of /, (ii) the knglh of
CD and (b) the length of OA. (1MB)

16) Three points A, B, C o n a motor radng lrack are such that B i s 1 k m

beyond A a n d C i s 2 k m beyond B. A c a r X , moving with unifonn
aci:cle a
r tion takes I minute to travel from A to B and t½ minutes to travel
fiorn B to C. Find i1s accclcra1ion in km/h/min a11 d show that its spee d at
C is 92 km/h. Ano1he1 car Y, which ls moving wllh uniform acceleral!on of
8 k m/h/min . panes C 15 seconds earlier than X, and its speed is then
7Skm/h. Find wherc X passes Y. (C)

17) Jn a motor race ,acar /\ is ! km from the finishing post,and!s t ravelllng

�t JS ms-1 with a unifonn acceleration of j m s -2 . At the same instant a
second car Jl is 200m behind A and is travelling at 44 m s -1 with a unifonn
acce!er:nio n o f ! m s-1 • Show that B passes A 220 m before the finish.
Show also that,if these accelerations arc maintained, B arrives at the finidting
posl I s�ond befo,e A (C)
 18) A flywheel isbrought to rest by a eonstant re1ar ding to1que. F1om the
instant thu toiqueis applied , the flywheel is observed to make 200 revolutions
in 1 he fiut minute and 120 revolutions in the nei11 minute, Ctku\ate how many
moie1evo]utions the wheel makes before eomi!lfl to 1es1 and the time laken to
nop thewhet:l. (AEB)
19) A flywheel starts fiom ren and is uniformly accelera1ed to an angular
speed of 120 rcvolutionsper minuie. lt maintains 1 his speed until it is uniformly
retarded to rest again.Themagnit udeoftheretardationis three t!mes thevalue
ofthc starting acce!eration.Between starting a n d c omlng to rcst agai n t h e
flywh eel completes N revolu tions i nfive minutes.
Ske1c h theangula1speed- timegiaph a n d h encefin d , ln term s o f N, the time
for which the flywheel i1. tra�elling at the mai1imum speed,
Show that JOO < N < 600.
I f N • 480 , find the startingacc eleratlonand thenumber of r e\'Olutions
comple1ed in the first two minutes (AEB)
20) Two trahu, I' and Q , tra1·cl by the =e route from ,est al station A
1 0 ,est at sliltion B . Train P has constant acceleration / forthefirlt thir d of
1hetime, c onstant speed for the5e1;ond thir d and eonstantretardation / for
thc!ast thir d or the !imc. Train Q hasc011stant 1cceleration / for thefiist
thir d of the distanee,constant speed for the secon dt hi r d and constant 1e1ardati01:
/ for the last third of the diuance.Show that the limes taken by the two trains
arc in thc ratio J-13 : 5 . ( U o f L)
21) The brakes ofa lfain ,whic h i s t ravellingat JOms-1 , a1eapplied a s t h e
uain passespoint A. Thebrakes produce a constant rclardation of magnltude
J).,ms-2 until the speed of the traini1 reduced to \ O m i.-1 . The 1 rain tra�ets
at 1hisspec d f or a dis1anceandi1 ihen uniformly aceelerated at ). m s-2 until it
again rcachc,s a spcc d of JO m s-1 as it passes point B. Thetimetakcn by the
train i n t ravcl\ing frorn A to B, a distariceof 4km, is 4 minutes. Sketch the
speed- timc graph for this motlon a n d henc c c alculate
(a) theval u cof ).,
(b) 1hc dis1anc e 11avclled it ! O m s-•.
22) A partide is unifonnly accelented from A to B, a distanceof 192 m,
and is then uniformly 1c1udcd from B to C, a distance of 60 m. The speeds
of thepartickat A and B are 4 m/s and Vm/s respec tively andthc paniclc
comes to rMt at C. hpress, in terms of V onl y , the times taken by the
p:,rtick to move fiom A t o B and from B to C.
Gi\"cn that the to1al time taken by theparticle to move from A to C is
22 St"condr. , find:
(a) thevalueof V ,
(b) thc accclc1ation a n d t h e retardationof1heparticle.
 CHAPTER 5

NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION

The 11tudy of mechanics i11 b.ised on three laws which were first formulated by
Newton
I. E�ery body will remai11 at rest or continue to mo,·e with u11iform felot:ity
unleu an exurna/fo,ce is applied w it.
2. 11!he11 an e.xumal force isapplied 10 a body ofcomtant maSJ 1he force
produce1 an acce/erruion which is direcrly prvpurtio1,a/ w 1he forcr.
3. Whe11 a body A exerts aforce oua body B, B exens anequa/andopposire
fo� on A.

NEWTON'S FIRST LAW

This lawin effect definesforce:i1 states that ifa bodyi1 travelllng with
UJ1iform velocity the1e lsno ex1emal fo1ce acting onthe body; com't'rselyif
1here is�n extcma!forcc ai;-ting onthebodyiu vc!od1y change11: i.e. force is
thequan1itywhich, whenactingona body,changes 1he ,·elocity of1ha1 body.
There b often more thanone extcrnalforce acting ona body so,to caUSt'the
hodyto ael;e!erate, thue mmtbea rcsultant forcc acting onit. Conversc!y the1e
wlll beno acc<'leration!fthe rcsolt�nt force actlng on the botly ls zc10.
Summing up:

lfa body has1.croaccekration i1 caneither beat rest ormo1ingwith uniform

velocity. Tltis sho11]d dispel thenotion 1ha1 because a botly i$ mOving with
11niform 1·elocity thcrc isa forceresponsible for thc maintenance ofthat
velocity: thNe isnot.
I) The diagram !ihows the f orces that ue acting on a particle.Has the P3rticle
anJccckrati on?

°
➔ 4cos30°- 4 c05J0 = O
°
f 4sin30° +41in30 -6 .:. - 2

We iiee th;i1 there !s a re1ultam force acting onthe p3rticle .

Thercfore ithHan accck111tion.

2) A particle of we ight 4 N is attache d to the e nd of a 1�1tical ,uing . If the

particle i!I moving upwards with a uniform ve locity find the te nsion in the string.
A, the P3rtidc is moving with unifo•m
ve loci1ythe fon:e s acting o n i t a1e in
equilibrium
f T-4 = 0
T= 4
The ref ore the te nsion is 4 N

The diagram show1 the forces acting o n a particle.In Que stions I� 4 determine
whether or not the particle h u an aece lcrat!on

t
°
l ) P • Q • R=6. 9 = 120

,�,
2) p ... Q - R � 4, 0 = 150
°

3) P=8,Q=R = 4, 0 = 120°
4) P a: Q � 3. R � 4, 0 = 135°
S) The diagram show sthe fo1cesacting on aparticle

Find R and O ifthepaitkl e i smoving

with uniform 1,.,!oc!ty.

NEWTON'S SECOND LAW

T h i slaw gives the 1dation ship between fo1ce, massand acceleration.It

state sthatwhena forceli; applied to abody c.iusing lt to acce\erate, 1he
accelerationi sdirectlyproportionalto thcforce.Experimental ev:idence al so
show stha11he acceleration i sin1·enc l y p ropor 1iond 10 1hcmu-ofthebody so,
ifth e f orce i s F the massi s m and the accelerat!on i s 11,

Q O !. or F o ma

Jntrodudng a constant ofproportion, k . t h i srelation!.hip becomes

F = kma
Now if m ; J and a "' I then F"' k so the amount of force n�ded
togive 1 kg an acceleration of l m s-2 i sequal to k
Jfwe choose thi samount offorce 1obe thcunit offorce,1hcn k'-' l and
the relation ship above take sthe simple form

F =- ma

The cql.13tion F "' ma i s 1heba sic equation ofmotion and i t i soffund;11nental

importance to the st udy of the motion of a body with conatanl mau. It sh ould
be noted that, a sforce and acce!eration areboth vectorquantities, thcequation
F = ma i s a 1-ector cqualion: the,efo,e a swcU a sthe magnitudesofboth 5ides
beingequal,forccand aei:elera1ionhavethe same direction.lftlleforceb
con stanl the acceleration .,.·i llal sobeconstant and, conve r sc ly, ifthe force
varie s so doe sthe acceleration . There i softenmo1ethan one force acting on a
body and in thi, ca se F represent sthe rei;ultantforceactingon thebody.
 Mot-tics- Mkhanlcs..,d Proboblllty

Summing up:

I . Thc1esu!tan t f orceacting on a bodyof consun1 mass is equal 10 themusof

thebodymultiplied byits acceleraHon:
f-"(new1on) = m(kilogr:un) x a(mctre/second1)
2.Tiieresul!amforceacting on a bodyandtheaccele,ation ofthebodyare both
inthc !.llmedircction.
3. A consiant forceacting on aconnaru massp1oduces a constant accelera1ion.

I I
Weight •ndMHJ

Cons!de, a body of man m which ls falling under the action of its weight
only.[t hasan acceleration g m s -2 downwards.

Wei1h1 Mnl<u1k,,, of1m•·•

Using F=ma gives

weight = mgnewton

(lt isintcrcsting to notethanan avcragcsized applchas a m us of about 0.1kg,

so it has a weight of about I N!)

Problem SoM119

When using Newton's Laws to solve a problem it is helpful to draw a diagram

showing thc forccs th11 a1eacting on t hebodyunder consideratio n , and the
acceleratio n of 1hebo dy.l1 must also be rcmembercd that ·
(a) thc rcsultant forcc and thc accclerationarcbothinthesame direclion.
(b) lf ther e i s n o acce]eratlontheforces areinequilib1ium.
ln problcmswhlch involvc a largc body(asopposc d to aparticlc)thc bodyis,
atp1esent , t ruted as apartideof equal mass.
I) A panide of mass S kg slides down a smooth plane inclined at 30° to the
horizon1a!.F ind t he acce!eration ofthe partic l e a n d t h e reacrion be1"'eenthe
partide andt heplane.

As the �cCt'!eration is down the plan e ,the resultant f01ce is also down the
plane.(his 1he rcsultan1 force that cames the acccleration.)
°
The rcsultant forte downthcplaneis 5Ksin30
°
Using F = ma gi1·es 5Ksin30 .. Sa

Q = jg
Thercf orethe accclcrat ion o f t hcparticlc is !g ms-1 dowo t heplane.
There isno comp,oncnt ofJcc elerationperpendic ular t o theplanc, so thereis
no comp,olK'nt offorceperpendkula1 to theplane
Resolvingperpendicular to theplane gi�e1,
°
R - 5gcos30 = 0
Sg ..,/3
R .,,

Sg J
Theref01e the ruct ion between 1he part icle �nd the plane i s : N.

2) A hlock of mau 2 kg 1ettJ on the floor of a lift whkh hn an acceleration of

5 m s-2 upwnds. Find the re�ction betw�n the block md the lift.
 M111homat1.. - Mlch_,i.. •nd Probablllty

Theresultant upward forceon the block ls R - 'lg

Using F = ma gives R -2g • 2 � 5
Hence R • l 0 + 2g
R = 29.6
Therefore. the reaction betweentheblockand thc llft is 29.6N.
J) A pa1Uc !eofmass 5kglspulled along a rousJihoritonta!surfaceby a s tring
°
which i s inclined at 60 to the horiiontal. lfthc accclerationofthc partideis
µ-m s-1 and the coefficien1offrictionbetweenthe particle and1he p!aneis J,
find theten sioninthe ming.

As thereb no vertkal component ofacceleration,the vertical componentof

lhe resultant fo1cehzero.
Resolving vtrtic ally gives
°
R + Tsin60 - Sg = o Ill
The frictionis limiting,so
F = }R [21
°
Theresuhant horizontalforcc to the left is Tcos60 -F
Using F "" ma gi�e11
°
Tc0fi60 -F = Jg [31
Eliminating F �nd R from equations [ I ] , {21 and \31 gives,
°
Tcos60"- \(Sg - Tsin60 ) a. Jg
T = IOgv'3(2-.jJ).
4) A car ofrna.u 1000kg is brought to ,e,t flom a speed of 40m s-' in a
distance of 80 rn. Find thebrllklngforce of the car auwning that i t is constant
and thatthcrc i s a constant resi stanceto motionof IOON.
M t hebrakingf orcels constant the acce!erati o n o f thecaris corutanl.Taklng
the direct ionofmotionas positl\-e wehave
U = 40. V = 0. s : 80
Using v1 - ri + 2us gives O • 1600 + 160a
a = - 10
Therefore 1he car h u an accelerat ionof - l O m s -1.

� """�

�
lOOOJN
"'-·�
l n t h e d i agram F lr. thebrakingforceand R ir. thc rcsiuancc.
Sothe rcsuhant horizontal forcc is F+R.
UsingNewton"s l..aw gives F+R = !OOO x lO
But R "' \00 so F = ! 0 000- 100
= 9900
The,dore the buking f o,ce ofthe car is 9900 N.

I) A partidc ofmus 2kg h u an accclcrati onof S m s·'. Find the magnitude

ofthe resuh,mt force acti ngon 1he pntkk
2) A parti cle has a resuharll force of magnitude 8 N acting on it. Ifthe mass
ofthc partide i s 3 kg. find 1hemagnitudcofi1s accclcrati o n .
3) A particleofmass 5 k g ispullcd along asmooth horizomal rnrfacebya
horizon1alstri ng.lf1hc accclcra1ion of1hcpar1icleis 3 rns-1 find the tension in
thc s1ring.
G
4) A particleofmass 1 0 kg i s p ulled up a smooth slopeincli ned at 60 to the
horizonul by a ming parallcl to theslope. lfthc accclcrat ion ofthepart iclc i s
fil ms-' lind the lensioninthc string.
5) A parti cle of man 8 kg is pulled along a smooth horizon tal surface by a
°
string inclined�! 30 t o 1he ho1izontal. [fth• tensi on i n thestringis I O N
find 1he act-elera1ion ofthe particle
6) A particl e o fma:i.i; 4kg ls pu!le d alonga rough horizontalsu1fac e b y a
mingpaiallc! tothe surface.l f t h c t ensionin thc stringis 2 0 N a n d the
coefficicnt o f friction betwecn1he pa11icle a n d t h e p bnets j find the
accderatlon ofthe particle.
7) A partic l e o f mass 8kg slides down a 1oughplane whichts inclined at
aicsi n! tothe hoii.wntal.lfthe acccleratlon o f t h e p,a11icle is ,& find the
coefficient o f frictionbetwcen the partide and thc plane.
8) A b lock ofmass I S k g remon 1he floor ofa lift.Find the rcaction
bc1ween lheblockand 1hcfloo1 o f t h e !lft ifthe lifl is accclerating do11m a1
4 m s-2.
9) A block of mass 12kg rests o n the floor ofa lif1.lfthc reactionbe111,ecn
theblockand tlie lift floor is 20N flnd the accelerationofthe lift.
10) A bullet ofmass 0.02kg is lircdi111o a wall wi1h a,·eloci1yof 400 m s -1.
lfihe bullelpcnetrates t h e waUto a dept h o f 0. l m flnd thc ,esistance ofthe
wall assuming it t o be uniform.
I I ) A lift of rna:i.i; 500kg is drawn upbya cable.ll nakes anascent in three
stages: it is b1011gh1 from 1cs1 10 its maximum speed by a consunt aculeration
of Is- it then rnovn with ils maximum speed f or an interval of time and is
1hen brougl1t 10 1cst bya dccclc1ation of g . Find the t ension in the eablein
nchofthe three stagcs.
12) A car of mass 300kg is brought to rest in a time of 4 seconds from a
speed of 20m s-'. l f 1here !sno res!stanceto mo1ion flnd t h e f orc<'exerted b y
ihe brak,:s :usumingit tobe constant.
13) A car ofmass 500kg is cap:,bl e o f braking wlth a dcceleration o f i . If
thcresistanceto motion is constam and equaf lo 50N fln d the brakingfo,ce

4
a�uming this t o bc const ant.
14) The diagram shows t h e forces that are acting on a wedge which is in oontac1
with a ioughhorizontal tablc.

,,.

If the ma� of the wedge is 10kg. R • 6g and 111c cocrflcient of friction

bctween thc wedge andthe tableis ! flndthe accelcration ofthe wedge.
NEWTON'S THIRD LAW

Thili stale$ that action and reaction are equal and oppw.ite:

i.e.if a body A exem a fo,ce on a body B then B exerts a n equaland

opposite fo1cc on A. Thisis !rucwhcthcr A and B arcin contact withcach
other or if they are some distance aput; it is also true whe1her A and B arc
moving or ares1ationary.H=·evcr , w c are mainly concemedwi1h the forces
between two bodies which are in contact and the statements in Chapter J on
contact andinternal forccs arc ba.sedon thislaw.A rigid body may be considered
as a collection ofpankles chat are held together by fmces of att raction between
thepa rtkles . Ncwton's Third Law statcs that t hescf orces occurin equaland
opposite pairs ; thus their net effect onthe wholc bodyis zcro.Thisjuuifiesthc
fact that only the cxternalforces acting on a body arc ronsldered.
Nole. Most ofus havean intuitiveidea nfwhat a force i s a n d t h e effl'ct thatil
produces but it required Ncwton's geniu1 1o express 1hese idl'as insuchbasicaUy
simple terms. Under normal conditions h t e ,emits that are obtained from the
1.IS(" Of Newton'sLaws agrccvery closcly indeed w i t h observed resu\ts andthls
isju1 1ification enough f or their use.Although i t i s now known thatthey do not
1epresen11hewholetruth ,signlficanterrors arising fromthelr use c�not be
found unless conditions are extreme {>'Cry high temperatures, very small m�s
such u atomic particles,etc.).

MOTION OF CONNECTED PARTICLES

Consider two part ides. of unequal ma.u, connected by a !ight stringpassing

o>'Cr a fucdpulley as shownin the diagram.
 Mnt......1l<t - Medl1ni<t1nd ,.,obablll1y

lfth.epuUeyism1ooththe tension inthe stringis 1hesame throug houtits

length.
lf1he pulleyis mugh the1eruions in the portions ofthe string on eithe r s i d e o f
the pulley are different.
lfthe stringi1 inelutic (i.e. iulength doesnot alteru11der1enUon)the
acceleration ofthe particles 3ttached t o i t have the same magnitude.Also,at a
gj,-tn insunt oftimc, theparticles ha,'C equal speedsand have cO\·crcd cqual
dis1ances.
To analyse the motion of the system the forces acting on each particle must be
cons!dered separatel y a n d t h e cquation F = ma app!ic d to each particle in

I ) Twoparticlesof mass 5kg and 3kg are connectedbya llght inelastic

string passing over a smoothfixed pulley. Findthe accc\eratiotu ofthe partkles
and the tension in thc string whenthe systemis mo,ing free]y.

Forthc 3kg mass thercsultantupwardforceis T-Jg

Applying F = ma to the 3 kg mass gives T-Jg =-Ju [I)
Fo, the 5 kg ma ss the resultant downward force is Si-T
Applying F = nw to the 5 kg massgives Sg - T = Sa 12)
[ I I + 121 ... 2g = &­
a = jg
Th.en,frnm (I J ,
Th.erefore the acceleration o fthe sy!lem is U" m ,�1
and thctensio n i n the stringis lJgN.
2) A pa rticleof mas.s 2 kg resL! onthe surfaceofa rough plane which is
inclinedat 30° totheho riwntaL l t i s connecte.J bya light inelanic tt lr ng
pauingove r a llghtsmooth pullcyat thc topoftheplanc, to a pa rticlc of mass
3kg whichis hanging freely. lf thecoefflcientoffrktion between the 2kg
mass and the pi.toe is � find the acceleration of the syst em when it is released
f rom rest andfind thetension i n thcst ring.Findabothef orceexe!led bythe
ming on thepu\ley.

Considc r the 2kg mass.

Thereisno component of acceleration perpendicula r to 1heplane.
Therefore resolving perpendiculu totheplanegives
N-2gcos30° = 0 .. N = g ../3
There is an acceleration a up the plane.
°
The resultant force parallel to the plane is T-\N-2g sinJ0
So app!ying F = ma gives
°
T-\N-2gsin30 = 2a
T - �(../J + J) m 2a [I]
For the 3 kg mass the resultant force is Jg-T vertically downwards.
SoJpplying F = ma gives Jg-T = Ja [2]
Adding j l / and (2J • Jg -1:(../3+ 3)= Sa
Mcnee (I "' n ( 6 - .JJ)g
and.from [2],
Therefo,e the acceleration of the system is &(6- ../J)g rn s-2 and the tension
in the stringis ¼{9 + ../J)g N.
 Metl>tmolQ- MtcNnlcoolld l'rot,.i,illry

The forcesactlngon the puUeyare

T acting down the pl:ine and T
actingve,tleally downward.

A
. It
Thesetwo fnrc esare equa l s o thcir
resultant, R, bisects the angle
be1wecn 1hem. w
R acts al an angle of 30" t o the
vertical.

Resolving in the direction of R gives 2Tcos3rf "' R

R = T../3 "' j(3../3 + 1)g
°
So 1hc fora: actin g o n thcpu!leyis �(3../3 + i)gN acting at 30 co the
vertical

3)

TI1c di3gramshows a particleofmus 8kg cunnccted to a lightscale panby

a light incxtcnloible stringwhichpJ.SSCs ovtra smooth fixed p uUcy.Thcscalc
pan holds two blocks A and B of muses 3kg and 4kg respecilvely,
wi1h B rutins on 1op of A. find the acceleration of the system and the
reactionbetween A and B.
The reaction forces between A and B and between A and the scale pan 11re
intemalforces when considering the scalepa n a n d i t s contents asone unlt.
Forlhe scakpan and iucon1en 1s 1he 1esultan1fo1ce upwardsis T-1t
F '= mD - T-7g = 1a (l)
Forthe 8kg mass t h e resultant force do".-nwardsis 81- T
F = ma .. 8g -T = 8a 121
From [ J I and (2\ we get

Tofind the reactionbetween A and B, let u s con5ider 1heforces tha1 aclOll B.

The upward accele1ation of B is

flg m s -1 and the upward iesultant
force i s R-4g

F = ma "' R -4g = "Bg

R = �g

Therefore the reaction between A and B is �g N.

4) Twoparticles of ma.sses 5 kg and 8kg areconnectedbya Ught inel.utic

stringpassing over af ixedpulley. The system isreleasedfrom ,ut withboth
portio,u o f t he string vcrticalandbothparticles at a he!ghtof 3m above the
ground. Jnthe subsequent motion the 8kg mass hlts thegrou n d a n d doesnot
rebound.Findthe greates 1 heigh1 reachedby1he 5kg massif thepuUeyi s of
such height !hat themass nevcr reaches lhepulley.
 Motl,-!Mtla - MKh1r,la 1nd Proboblllry

Before the 8 kg mai.s reaches the ground the two pastic les are moving as a
connected system ,but when the Skgmau hits theground there isa sudden
change in the conditions of the system. After I.he 8 kg man has hit the ground
the S kg mass is mo,ing on its ownwith the string llack.These two conditlons
munbe considered separately.

Using F • ma we have.
for 5kg mass: t T-Sg = Sa
for 8 kg m�u: .t. 8g- T = &
a = 3g{)3
,U the 8 kg mllM mo,·es 3 m down
the S kg mus moves thesame
distance up.

- - i -�:;.. Therefore considering the motion of

the 5kg mas.s wehave:

'" a a 3g/13, u=O, p,J

Using v1= u 1 +2us gives
% l v" = !8gfl3
77))///777?
Sothe 5kg mass hasan upward
veloc ityof ../"iSiTiJ m s -1 at the
lnsuntwhenthe 8kg mass hiti; the
ground.

After that the string goes slackand

the 5kg mau moves unde r the action
ofits weight alone, soithasa
downward acceleration of g. When it

_ :::,��::,\�'
reaches iishighu1 position i1svelocity
lszc,o sowe have
v=O. u=,,tisili3 , a=- g 8 kJ m ,.. h<t lh<
J'O"nd
Using v1 = u 1 + 2a.s g:h-es

i.e the S kg massrises a distance -fl m

after the 8kg mass h ih the g1ound.
Therefore it ftaches a helgh1 of 6/3 m
above the ground.
I) Two partkles of mass 5 kg and 10kg are connected bya llght inex1ensib]e
string which puses over a smooihfixed pulley.Find ihe aC(:elera1!onofthe
system and the t ension i n 1hestring.
2) Two particles ofmas.s 9 kg and 10kg are connectedbya light i llelutic
strlngwhich passes o�ra smooth fixed pulley.Find the accelerati o n o f t h e
system and t h e t ension i n thcstring.
3) Two panicles of mass m and M are connected by a light inelastic string
which passesover a smooth fixed pulley. Find the a"elerati o n ofthe system
andthe tensi on i n thc strlng.
4) A particle ofmass 4kg 1ests on a smoo1h plane which is inclinedat (If to
the horizontal.Thepartidc is connccted bya ligh1 i nclastk string passing over a
smooth pulleyat thetop ofthe plane t o a particleofmas.s 2kg which is hanging
freely.Find the accelerationofthcsys1em andthe tensi on i n thestring.
5) A particle ofmass 4kg rests on a smooth ho1izontal1able.lt i s connected
bya lightinextensibleHringpassingonra !imooth pulleyat the edge ofthe
table to a particleofmass 2kg which i5 hanglngfreely. Find the accelerat ion
ofthe system and the tension i n the str
i ng.
6) A particle ofmass 5kg rests on a rough horizontaltable.lt i1 connectedby
a light i nextensibles1rlngpassing over a smoo1h pu!leyatthe edge: ofthe table
to a pmide ofmus 6 kg, which i !i hanging freely.Thecoef fldent of friction
between the 5kg mass and!het.ableis l- Find the acceleration ofthc system
and1he tenl.ion i n the s1ri ng.
7)

Jn the diagram particles A and B are ofmass 10kg and 8kg respectively and
rest on planes as shown.Thcyare connected bya light inexiensibleslring
passing m-er a smooth fixed pulley at C. Find the acceleration of the syuem
andthe tension ln t h e stringif:
(a) the plane1 the particles are i n contact 11,i thue smooth.
(b) the planes are rough andthe coefflci ent offriction between each particle
and the plane ls!.
 MatMrnotlc:I -MoeMnia•nd Pro!Mblllty

A
8) Two particles A and B of mm
!Okg and 5 kg arc connectedbya
ligh t inextcnsibk string pauingovcra
511100th fixed pulley C and rest on
inclined planes asshowninthe

l_ -1
diagram.Findthe accelcration ofthe
system andthe tensioninthe stringff:
(a) bothplane,are smooth,
(b) both plann are rough andthe
cocfficicnt of frictionis � for
both particles.
9)
A particle A ofmas:s 5 kg is
connectedby a light inextensib!e
string passing over a smooth flxed ligh1
pulley to a light scalepan C asshown
in the diagram. C holdsa block B of
mass 8 kg. Find the tension i n the
string and the reactionbetween B and
c.

JO) Two particles A and B rest on

theincline d facesof a fix e d t riangufar
wedge as shown inthe diagram.
A and B are connected b y a light
inextensible string which paues over
a light unooth pulley at C. The faces
ofthe wedge are smoothand A and
B arcboth ofmMS 7kg. Find the
forctexertedby the string onthe
pulley at C when the system is
movingfreely withboth partic!esin
con1ac1wi1 h 1he wedge.
I I ) A particle of ma§S 10kg lics on a rough horizon t a l t able and is connected
bya light inextensibk string pasiing o,'tr a fixe d smooth llght pulley atthe edge
ofthe t able to a particle ofmass 8kg 113nging fieely.The coefficient of friction
between the 10 kg mau and the table is ¼- The system is released from rest
with the 10kg mass a distanceof J.S m from theedgeofthetable.Find:
(a) the accekrationofthe system.
(h) 1 he 1esultan1forct o n t h e edgeofthe1able.
(c) t h e speedofthe 10kg mass as it reach.esth.e pulley.
12) Twopartlc!es ofman 31:g and 4kg are connected bya light inextensible
string passing over a smooth fixed pulley. The system is released from rest wlth
the string tautand bolh particJes at a height oF 2m above theground. Find lhe
,selo,:ityof the 3 kg mass when the 4kg mass1eaches 1he ground.

13) Two particles of mass 5kg and 7kg are connected by a light inelastic
string pasi;ing over a smooth fixed pulley. The syslem is ,eleased from rest with
theslringtautand both paniclesata height of O.Sm above the ground. Find
thegrutestheigh1reachedby the 5 1:g mass,assuming th.at the pul]ey isof
suchheight thatthe 5 kg massdoes notreachthe pulley.and that the 7kg
ma.ssdoesnot rebound when it hitsthe ground.

/4 &
14) T"·opanides A and B of

C
i::{;:!�:::·::::•,::::,
m the d1agum.Theyare
cormected byaligltt lnextens!ble
stringpa.ssingovera smooth
� pu!leyat C and are released
from rest
. from the position
shown m the diagram.Jn the
subsequent motion B hhsthe
ground anddoesnot rebound,
Find:
(a) thespeedof the particles when B hits the ground,
(b) the acceleration of A after B hits the ground,
(c) the distance of A from C when A first comes to rest.

ln problems concemed with connected particles and moveable pulleys or

bodiei lncontact where each b<x:t is f1ee to mo\'e , the accelerationsof different
parts of the system will not necesurily ha\'C the ume magnitude. llo11osever, a
relarionship bc1w«n 1he acceler11ions can befound byconsidering the physic.al
properties of the system. As before, Newton's L:iw must be applied to each body
of the syslem. However, i! is nol always con\'enient 10 apply the law in the
direction ofthe accderation.
As ,.· = ma • Fcos6 so mac0$8, 1he equatioo caobc applied inany
dircction in thisfo1m: l.e. the componentof1he 1esullan1 force ina chosen
dlrectlon llequal to lhema'5 multipledby thc compooeot ofthe aeceleration
inthe iame direction.
 Mot
.......tlot - Mech•niot mdProbabillty

The diagram shows two particles

l) Fw
A and B, ofmams 3kg and 5 kg,
connected by a llght inexmuible
string passingo,·er twofixedsmooth
pulleysand under a llghtsmooth
movubla pulley C, which canies a
panicle D of mass 6 kg. The symm
isrele:ised from 1est.Find:

,. .
'- (a) theaccelerationoftheparticle A,
(b) theaccelera1lon ofthe pulley C,
(c) thetensionln the strlng.

:f\f1
•, ,· :
0

,,
,,

Jf A moves up with an acceleralion a and B moves up with an acceleration f

then theportlon ofthestring PQ moves down with acceleration a
and theportion of the string RS moves down with acceleration /.
So the pulley C mo'"es down with an acceleratlon which is equal to the average
of a an d /. i.e. j(a+D
(lfwe a,ewrongabout thedirectlons wehavechosen forthevarious acceleratlons,
theanswen w e obtain w!llbe ntgatl\"e.)
Applying F: ma to each pan of the system we have
for A: f T-Jg "' 3a Ill
for B: t T-Sg = Sf 121
fo1 C: i (ir-2T : 3(a+D [JJ
5x [I] + 3 x [2] • 8T-J0g = I S(a+D [4 }
Eliminating T from (3] and [4] -� = 27(a+n
!(o+l) a -jg 15 1
Therefore thepulley C moves up with an acceleration of b m s -1
Substitutlng[SI !n [J] �

{61
Thereforethc teni.ionin thestringis )fg N.
Suhstituting [6] in [ l ] - J¥g-3g = 3a
a =
h
Thereforechema5.'I A has an upward accelerat ion of !gms-2
2) A particle A ofmass 6kg llconnected by a light inextcnsiblcstringpas.sing
O'o'l:r a fixed smoothpulley to a light smooth mo�ablepulley B. T.,.-o particles
C and O ofmasses 2 k g and 1kg areconnectcd by a light incxtcmiblestring
pusing over thepulley B . When the system is moving freely find theac«!eration
ofl hc l kg manand thc tensionsin thestrings

(Therearc two stringslnV-O\vcd in thisproblem: their tensions a1enot neccss.arl\y

the same.)
If A moves down with an acceleration a , B moves up with an ac«leration a.
IfB werestationary, C would acceleratedownwuds and D would have an
equal acce!eration upwards.Buias B ha1 an accelera1ion a upwardsthen
D has an acceleration (/+a) upward and
C an accelcralion (/-a) downwards .
 Mlthtm11ia - MMh1nla and Probability

App y
l ing F= ma t o nch part ofthe syst e m. we have
for A: � 68-T .. 6a (I]
for B t T-1T' = 0 (B haszero m:1SS) (2]
f o1 C ! 2g-T' = 2(1-a) /JI
f or D: i T'-g • (f+a) ]4]
[ I ) + [2\ .. (;e-2T' = 6a
r' = Jg-Ja ]5]
[SJ in (3] - -g = 2/-Sa ]6]
[SJ in [4] • '2g = f+4a ]7]
Now frum [6J and (7] a = f,g and / "" fJS,
Then [ I ] and [21 give T = fl:8' and r' = :S,
There fo,e D mo��s up w i t h accekration Hgms-1 .
The te nsion in CD is A,N andthe t e nsion i n AD is ffg-N.

3) A par tide of mass m is in contact with a smooth !loping face ofa w e dge

. '
which isitse lfstanding on a smooth horizontal1urface.lfthe mass ofthewe dsc
is M a n d t h e stoping f ace ofthe w e dge isincline d at an angle of 30° rnthe

�4
horizontal f in d the 1 tttk1ationofthe we dge in te 10uof m and M.

/ / /

"'
Fortttoc1ing0<1 V,epartO:lt

fo.,,....,m;..... ,howedp

The we dge will move ho1izontaUy, so l e t i1 hu'ta hor

izontal ac«leration a.
The particle will move down the slope AB, so if the wedge were stational)' it
would have an accelention in the direction AB. Bui as ii remains in contact
with t� wedge 3S the wedge moves , the panide has
an accderation of a horizontally
a11dan acceleratiooof / iothe direction AB.
Applying F : ma 1oeachpa11 o f t h e s y11tcm

Fo r theparticle. in the directionperpendicu!ar to AB,

°
mgcos30 -N = masin Ja° [JJ

For the wedge, alon g t heplane,

[2[
°
Nsin30 = Ma

Eliminating N gi>·cs
I ("'' "")
- ....:_:...;3 --- = Ma
2 2 2

mg.,/3
Thcrefore the accelcrationofthe wedgcis - - horizontally.
(m+4M)
Nole.Newton·s Law can be applied in any dim:1ion: 1hc directionperpendicular
to AB was chosen s o 1ha1 f, which is not requirc d,doesnot appear io an y
equation.

4) Twoparticles A and B of milSses 3 kg and 2kg are conncctcdbya !ight

inexten11iblc string.The p a r t icles are in contact with the smooth facu of a wedge
OCE of mau 10 kg resting on a smooth horizontalplane.When the sy,tcm ii;
movingfreelyfind the accele1ationofthe wedge and the accelcratioo of B.
 Moth.,,..tJ.. - Modl.ni.. •ncl Prablblllry

"
'>
1J 45' .'i. K �

DI
�
, '� , �ii

lf1he wedgcwc1c na1ionary. A wouldha,·ean accele1ationdown CD and. u

A and B a1e connected by1 str ing, B would ha�-can equal acceleration up EC.
Butthewcdgehnan accc!cration a horizonu.lly, therefore thc acceleratioru of
A and B are made up ofcomponenu as iliown in diagram (W).
Applying f"=ma to cach put of1hesysttmwe ha,-e
for A,
0
..., 3g cos45°-N = 3acos4S Jg - N.,/2 = 3a [!J
0 ° °
l Jg-Ncos4S - Tcos45 = 3/cos45 • Jg.,/2-N-T = 3/ [2]
for B,
0 °
,,. R - 2g cos4S = 2acos45 R.,/2-2g = 2a [JJ
° 0 °
I Tcos45 + R cos4S - 2g = 2[cos45 .. T + R- 7.g .,/2 = 2f [4J
for the"·edge,
° ° ° 0
-+ Ncos45 + Tcos45 -Tcos45 -Rcos4S = HU
• N-R • 10:,.,/2 [SJ
Addin11 [I] and [JJ g-(N-R).,/1 = Sa
Substituting from [SJ g - ( J 0a.,/2).,/2 = Sa
Hence . . !,,
Therefore the acceleration of the wedge is � g m s-•.
Adding [2) and [4] g✓l-(N-R) = Sf
Substitutingfrom {SJ g,/2 - IO;r,/2 • Sf
2
g,/2- 1�1 = Sf

I = g�
3 2
2
The acceleration of B is compostd of two components as shown.

Rcsolving tofind !he magnitudc and

dircction ofthe resultan t w e ha\·e

- !_ _ � = -�
25 25 25

f �!
25

g J
So B h u an acccleration of magnitudc � ms-1 in a direction makins
arctan } with ED.

" TT5' �
For al! qucstions in this exercise: a l l mingsue light an<linextensiblc. all

.
9 J trr ·,�
puUeys arc Ught a.n d smooth,all surfaces uc frictionless,1he wedgcs arefreeto

Find,in each casc,thc accelcration of A and the tens.ions in the strings,

H1
i91 H1 6kg l k,l
2) Aparticle of mm J kg slides down 3 smooth plane inclined at arcsin i to
thehorizontt1l.Theaccelerationofthepartideis:
(a) b m s-2 (b) g ms-2 (c) l m s-2 (d) Jt ms-2 (e) O.
J) A block of mass 10kg rests on thefloor ofa lift whichis accckrating
upwards at 4 m s-2• Thereaction o f thefloorofthe lifl on the block is:
(a) 104N (b) 96N (c) 60N (d) JON (e) 140N.
4) Thcpullcy in 1hediagra m is smooth
and light.The masses of A and B
a,e 5kg and 2 kg. The acceleration
ofthesystemis:
Ff (a) g (b) ig
(c) 4g (d) �g
A (e) Jg

R
5) £..£.�.c.<..c.<..c.<.LL.,U...'-'. Thepulleys in the diagram are all
smoothand light.Theacceleration
of A is a upwards,theacccteration
of C is fdownwards. The
acceleration of B is
(a) !(a-[J up
(b) }(a+fJ up
(c) ½(a+[J down
(d) h{-a)up.

6) Thc twopu!leysin the diagram are

smoothand light.Theacceleration of
B is a dO"-"fl"'3tds. Theacceleratlon
of A is:
(a)aup
(b)1aup
(c) a down
(d) 2ado1,1m
(e) O.
 Math..,..tia -Mochanlaand Prob1bUlty

7) A particle is moving with uniform velocit y.

(a) Theforctsacting onthe partidc are i n equilibrium.
(b) The particlc h:u a zcro accekration.
(c) There is a icsuhant force acting on thebodyinthe directionofthe veloclty.
8) A puticlc ismovinghorizontally11,ith constant acceleration.
(a) Thesum ofthc horizontal components ofthe forces actingon the particle
is not zero.
(b) Thesum of1he \·ertical components ofthe forces actingis notzero.
(c) Theforcesact i n g on t he panicle a1e not in equilibrium.
9) A body of mus ]Olcg h a s a resultant forceof 20N acting on it.
(a) Thc wcight ofthe bodyis !OgN.
(b) Theaccelcrat!onof the bodyis 2 mi-'.
(c) Thehodyis moving in a str.iight line.
JO) Two particles A and B of mas.�s 3 and 4 lcg are connecte d bya light
inelastic ming paMingover a srnoothfixed pulley.
(a) The acceleration of A is h m s-1 upwards.
(b) The tension in the string is �gN.
(c) Theacce!eiationof B is -h m s-: upwuds.

11) (a) A partidels moving wit h constant acce]cration .

(b) The resultant force acting on a partic!e ls consunt.
12) (a) A partlde ofm.a55 2kg has a result a n t forceof 5N acting on it.
(b) A particlc is moving with a const ant accelerationof S m s- 1.
13) (a) A panicle is moviug •'<=rticallydo"'nwards with a constant
acceleration g m s-7•
(b) Theonlyfo1ce acting on a particleisits weight.
14) (a) A partklei1movln g wi t h a conmn1 .-elocity.
(b) Thc forccs acting on a particlearein equilibrium.

15) Two particles A and B ueconnectedbya light!nelas1ic string passing

over 1 srnall smooth light fixed pulley. The particlesare 1eleascd from rcst when
bo1h are at the same heightabove t he ground.F l n d 1he speed ofthe puticlcs
when the heavlcr onehits t he ground.
(a) Theinitial posilion ofthepartic!csis I .S m above the ground.
(b) Thern=esof A and B are 8 k8 and 10kg respect lvdy
(c) Tlle lengthofthestringis greater than 3 m .
 16) A ringi5freeto dide down a ro ugh suaightwhe. Find theacceteration o f
the1ing .
(a) The co efficient o f frictio n between the wire and the ring is µ.
(b Thewireis lncUned a t a n angle 11 tothehorirontal.
(c)) Them=of the ring is m.
17) A particleisp\aced o n theinclined face ofa wedgewhich i s i w:lfresting o n
a ho rizo nta! surface.l'ind thc accclcrationofthepartidewhen thesystem is
moving freely.
(a) Thesloping faceofthewedgeis inc!ined at a" to the ho rizontal.
(b) Thecontact between 1 hewedgeand theho rizo ntal surfacei1 smooth
(c) The ma ss o f the particleis m .
18) A particleslides down a rough plane.Find theco efficient offric tion
betwecn thepartlcleandtheplane.
(a) Theplaneis inclined at o0 tothehorirontal.
{b) Themass ofthe particle is m.
(c) Theaccelerationofthc particleis a .
19) Two particles A and B are connectedb ya ligl1t inelastic suing p.ining
over a smooth puUey. Find the acceleration of A if the pulleyls mming upw:ards
with an acceleration of 2 ms-'.
(a) Themanof A is 5kg.
(b) Theffill&S of B i!i 4kg
(c) Thepulleyis light.
20) A ca r isbrouglu to rest bytheacti o n ofits b1akes whichare anumed to
exert a constant fo1ceon1hecu.Findthedis1ancemovedbythecarbefo1e
corning to rest.
(a) Themass ofthe car is 750kg
(b) The initiaJ 1·elo cityof1hecaris 40m,-1 •
(c) The time taken is Sseco nds.
21) A particle ispro jected up a 1oogh plane.Find ho w farit moves up theplane.
(a) Themass ofthepartic leis 2kg.
(b) Theco efficien t o f frictionbetween thepartideand theplaneis �­
(c) The initia\ ve]oci1yoftheparticleis lOm,-1

22) One newton is the force which will give abody of mass I kg an
acceleration of l m ,-1.
23) lfabodyhasa rernhantfo1ceacting o n it thebodywi!laccekrate inthe
direction o f theforce.
24) Twobo dies A and B are in contact. A exerts a force F on B and B
exerts a for� R on A. F and R ueequal only if thebodies A and B are
s1a1 ionary.
25) A block A rests on a smooth horiiontaltable.l! ispushed horizontallyby
another block B. B exens a force F on A. By Newton's Thi1d Law the hlock
A exerts an equal a n d oppositeforceon B, sothetotilho rizontalforce acling
on A iszern.
26) Aparticle ishangingfreelyanached t o a l ight inextensiblestring.The
string is made to accelerateverticallyupward.The tem.ion in the string is
greater thantheweigh t o f t hepartide.
27) Twoparticle1ofmasses 3kg and 5kg areconnected b y a light
!nex1ensiblestringpassingover a fixed 10 ughpulley. Theacceleration of1he
systcmis jg.

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE 5

I ) A bullet of ma.s.s 2m is fired horizontallyinto a fixed block ofwood which

offers a oonnant resistance R tothe motion of the bul!et. Find thedecelera1lon
of the bullet.
°
2) A ir ngofmus 2kg slides dow n a wirewhichis inclined at 30 1 0 1he
horizontal. If the ring hu an accelemion of magnitude h find the ooefficient
of friction between thering and the"·irc.
3) Apnlicleofmas.s 5 kg isprojected up a roughplaneinclinedat 45° to the
horiiontal.The coeffident offriction bet"·een theparticleand thepbneis !­
lf theinitia! s�ed of theparticleis 7 m s·1 , flnd how far it travrls up t heplane
andthe timei1 takes t o return 1oits ini1ialposition.
4) A bullet of mass m is fired horizontallyinto a block of wood of mass Af
whichis rcsting on a smooth ho ir zontalsurface.lf the blockoffer s a oonstan1
relistan.e R to the motion of the bullel , find the accelc1ation of the bullet and
theacttlcrationofthc block.
S) TwopmicleJ ofmas:s 3kg and S kg are connectedbyalightinextensible
stringpassi ng over a smoothpulleywhicl! U flxe d t o the ceilingofalift.Find
the1ension in thc stringwhen thc system is movingfreely a n d t helift has a
downward acceleration g m c1.
6) Aparticle r i.Jides from rest down the10ugh su1faceofaplaneinclined at
°
30 to the horizontal. If r travels a distanceof 3.8m down 1heplanein 2s,
findthe cocfficicntoffriction betwcen P and 1heplane.
7) A heavyparticle is suspended by a spring balancefrom thcccilingof alift.
When thelift moves up with constant acceleration / m/s1 the balance shows a
,eading 1 8. kg. When thelift descen ds with com; tant acceleration lfm/s' the
balance shows a reading 1 kg. Find themus oftheparticleand thevalue of /.
{U of L)p
 A partide A ofmass m rests ona
smoothhori1.ontal table and is
connected bya light inextensible
string passing o1-e1 a smoo1hfixed
pulleyat theedge ofthe table and
under a smooth light pulley C toa
fixedpoint onthe ceiling u shown in
the diagram.The pulley C canies a
panide B ofmass on. Find the
acceleration of C and the ten�onin
1he s1ring

9)

1f
Particles A and B ofmass 5 kg
aml 3kg 11rc connectcd by111ight
incxtcnsiblestring pusing under a
smooth light pulley C which carries
a particle D ofmass 4kg. A and B
rcst onhoriiontal rough surface1 u
shown i n t h e diagram.The cocfficlent
of friction is the same for both A
and B an d isjustsufficient to
prevent A, but not B, from
moving. Fin d the cocflkiemof
friction.

10) Twoparticlcsofmass 8 k g and 3kg ue connected by a light inelastic

string passing m�r a smooth fixed pulley.The system is held at rest with the
string Taut and the 8kg mass at a heightof O.ls m abo1·c1he giound.The
system isthen relcasedand the 8kg masshitsthegroundand docs not rebound.
Find thetimcfor which 1he string issluck.
I I ) A man of mass M carries in his hand a parcel of mass m. lie stands in a lift
ufmaH X whichis descending withan accelerJtiun u (< g ).
Find
(a) the reaction R , bc1wecn his ha11dandthe pucel;
(b) the reaction R, betweenhis feet andthe lift;
(c) the tenUon T inthe cable supportingthe lift.
lfthcman d10ps 1he parcel, fl11d1he value!iOf R1 and T during the period
when the parcel i:s in the �ir,and also duringthe period after the parcel has hit
theinel utic floor ofthe lift, assumlngthatthe acceleration ofthe lift remalns
unchanged throughou1 1he:.e period5. (C)
 Mltll1.,,.1ial- Mod>oni011 orw:I ProbMllhy

12)

�
lnihe diagnun, ABC i s t he right sectlon ofa prism; the angle BAC is 6(<45")
°
:md the angle ABC ill Y0 . T wo panides, each of mass m, are on the smooth
sloping facesof 1he prism andare connec1ed b y a ligh1 inextensible stringwhJch
p;i!iSCsove r a smooth pulleyon the topedge of the prism.
The prism stands on a ho1izontaJ plane which b rough enough to prevent the
prism moving. The system lsrelea�d from rest when the st ring isIn the plane
ABC. Findtheaccelerationofihe paniclesand ihe temion inthestring when
the particles are moving freely. If the prism is of mau M, find the 1·ertkal
component of!he reaction between the prism and the horiwntal plane. (U ofL)

13) A panide A of mas.1 2m isintiallyal rest on a smooth plane inclined at

anangle « to the horizomal.lti! supportedbya light inextensible litringwhJch
passesover a smoothlight pulley P a t the topedgeofthe plane.The otherend
of the Slling supportli a particle 8, of mau m, which hang, freely. Gi,·en that
the 1ystemisin equUib ir um.find «, and the magnitudcand direction ofthe
resultam fo,ce cxerted bythe string on ihe pulley.
A further particle ofmass m isnow attached to R and the liystem isreleased.
Find. for the ensuing motion, the tension in the strlng,the acceleration ofB,
and the magnitude and direction ofihe resultant forceexer!ed by the nrin g o n
the puUey (U ofL)

14) A light inextens!hle suing passts ovcr a smooth fixedpuUeyand has a

particle of mass Sm attached to one end and a second smooth pulleyof m:w m
attached to the other end.Anothcr lightinextensible string pas5C'soverthc
second pullcyand carries a mass Jm at oneen<Jand a mass m attheo therend.
Jfthesys1em mo1·es freelyunder gravity,findthe accele1a1ion ofthe heaviest
par1ideandihe tension in eachming. (U ofL)

!S) Oneend ofa light inexteruible u ring isaUached 1o a ceiling.The siring

p.ilsstsunder a smooth light pulleycarrying a weight C and then 01·er a fixed
smooth ligh1 pulley.To the f1ee end ofthe s1 ir ng is attached a light scale pan in
which two weights ,\ and (I are placed with A on top of B as sho1•,n. The
portions ofthe stringno1i11 contact wi1h 1he pulleys a ei ,·ertical.
 N1w10n•1 Low10I M01ion

Each ofthe wcights A and 8 has a m ass

M and thc wcight C has a mass kM. Jf
the system is rtleased from rest fm d the
accelerat ionofthe moveable pulleyand
ofthe sc:ile pan and lhow that theieale
pan will asccnd if k > 4 . When thc
system is moving freelyfind:
(a) the tcnsion inthe string,
(b) the reactionbctwcenthc
weights A and B.
( U o f L)

!6) An aeroplane is travellinghorizonta!lyat heigh1 1200m above horizontal

ground when a parachutlst ofmass 8 0 kg step:5 out of t he aerop!ane andf alls
freclyunder gravitywfth negligfb!eair 1esistance.Aftcr falling xm, he opens
his parachutc, and ls then subje,,;t to a \'ertical reshtive forc e o f l l2 0 N.When
the parachutlst reaches the poun d , t h c vertical componentofhis velocityis
zero.Show that x :co 360. Find also1he total time taken for the f all.
°
17) A smoo1h plane an d a 1ough plane.both incline d a1 45 to the horizontal,
intersect in a fixed horizontal ridge.A particle P of mass m is held on the
smooth plane by a light string which p�s over a small smooth pulley A on
theridge, and is auachcdto a partick Q ofmass3m which rest s o n the rough
plane, The plane containing P, Q and A is perpendicular IQ the ridge.The
system is released from rnt with the string taut.Given that the acceleration of
each panicle is of magnitude g /(5-./2). find
(a) 1he tension in the string,
(b) 1he coeff icient offrictionbetween Q and the rough plane.
(c) 1hc n,agnit udeand directinn ofthe for� exer1cdby thest ir ng on the pul1ey.
(UofL)
18) Twowooden discs X and Y o f t hickness 2a and 4o respeclivdy are
fixed at a small distance apart with their plane faces vertical ,m d puallel. A
small bullet of mass m is fired horizontally into X wich initial sp�d II at
right angles t o t he plane f ace11.ll cmcrges from X withspeed v and then
enters Y intowhicbit peneua1es a distan� a befo1ebeingbrough1 t o rest.
lftbe mo1ion of abu!kt tb10ugh X and Y is oppo1cdbyconstant forces
R,, R, respectively, fin d e xp1esi;ions for R 1 and R1 in tern11 of 11, II, a
and 111
A second bullel of ma!iS III is nowfired horizomally into Y with initial
s�d u at rightangles to the plane face s i n a direction towards X.Show that
lhisbullet will eme,gefiom Y if u < fu.
If V '"' iu and thesccon dbullet enteis X afle,emergingf,om Y, find the
d!stance which lt penetrates into X beforebcingbroughtto ,nt.
(The effec t of gravilymaybc ignored.) (C)
19) Two points A and B on a rough ho,izontaltable are at a distance a
apan.A partideis projecte d alongthe tablefrom A towards B with speed u,
an d simultaneously ano1her particle is projectedfrom B towards A wilh
SJ)'ed Ju. The c�fficient of friction between each particle and the uble Is µ.
By considering the diHance tra ,·elled bynch puticle before coming to 1es1 ,
show that the particles collide if u1;;. J µag .
,
If 11' : ; µag, show that the collision occurs after a time (a/(7µg))1 and
at a distance f.la from ,\. (C)
20) A smooth wedge of mass 6m has a normal cron-scction ABC such that
AB = AC and the angle BAC is a right angle.The face rontilining BC hi ln

=
con1.ict witha horizontalplllne,1nd a light taul slringjoiningtwopar1icles of
lm , m lies in the plane ABC sothat each particle i s i n rontact withone
inclined face of the wedge. The centroid of the wedge lies in the plane ABC.
ffthe systemls relcase d from reu , de1ermine the acce!erationofthewedge.
(U of l)
21) Three particles A. B. C are of masses 4, 4. 2kg respecth"<"ly.They lie at
rest on a hori1.0ntal table in a straight llne,with partlcle B attached to the
mid.point of a light inextensible mlng.The string has particle A attached at
one end and particle C at thc other , a n d istaut.Aforce of 60N is applied to
A in the direction CA produce d , an d a force of IS N is applied to C in the
opposi te direction.Find thc accefora1ionoflhe partlcles and 1he tension in cach
part of the string
(a) if the 1ahl� i s smoolh,
(b) ifthe coefficient offrlction hetween ea,h particle and the tableis J
[Take g a s !O rn/s1.] (UofL)
 CHAPTER 6

WORK AND POWER

WORK

When a body mm·es under 1he;,ctio n o f a forceit is usefulto siudy 1he

combination of theforceand thediilancc moved by 1hebody andf1om 1hls
study arises thefollowingconcept ofwork.

So when aparticleis mo\'ed from A 10 B by a consm11 force F

1he work done by F Is given by (F cosBXAB)

Note, This ddinition appBes only 1 0 the work <loneby a co11.11a111 force. The
workdoneby\'2riable forcoisdca\twithin thenext volume.

Th,Uni1of Work

Theunit offorcei1thenewton and thc uni1of distanceis themetre sothatthe

unitofworkdoneby a f o1ceis 1henewton metreandis called thejo11/e. (J)
 Mothematl.,. - Mad!1nl.,. and Proi,.bmtv

When abody moves under the action of se,'tral f orces, 1he work donebyeach
fo1ce acling on 1hebo dycanbe found separa1ely,

Consider ablock which ispulled a distance s along a roug h h o rizontal surface

byastringincline d at an angle (J to the horitontal.

Thcpoinc ofapplication ofcach forcc movcsa distancc s

.

Thework donebythetension inthe string = Tcos(Jxs = Tscos6

Thcwork donebythefrictionalforce "' - Fxs = -Fs

Thework donebythe weiglit = Ox1 = 0

The work doncbythenormal ,caction = Oxs = 0

These cquations show that whcnan objcct movesun der the actio n o f several
fo1ccs, no1allof thesefo1cesdo positivc wo1k. Those forces that have no
componcn1inthe direction ofmo1ion(the weiglu and 1he nonnalreactionin
thisexample) dono work.

WJ1enthe wo1k doncbya fo1ceisnegative, wo1kis1aid tobc done og,i/rurtha1

force , i .e . i n thisexamplc, FI is thework done again11 1he frictional force.
Work Done apinn Gravity

•-- -r -----
Consider a body of mass m which is rai�da,-erticaldistance h.

�---1 ____ _
The wo,k done by the weight is - mgh.

mgh •is called the work done against gravity

lfan agent, such as a crane, i s icsponsible forlifting the body, then mgh i s
refer1ed t o u theworkdoneby1he craneagainst gravi1y.

Si milarly i f a vehicle of mass m climbs a hill.and in doing so nises itself a

verti c a l dhitancc h, then mgh i s called thewo1k done bythe vehicle agaim,t
gravity.

Work Done by I Moving Vehicle

The diagram shows the forces that commonly act on a moving vehicle.
R i s the resistance to mocion(1hisis always in t he directi on opposi t e t o the
d.lrectionof molion)and F i s the driving fon:e ofthe engine.
The work done by F is referred to as the work done by the \'ehide.
Note . lfthe vehicle i s not accclerating. the forces acting on i t arcin equilibrium.
 Mathlfflltk:o -Mechanlco1nd Probd>ility

J) A manlifts 20boxeseach of mass 15kg to a height of l,S m . Findthe

"'Ork done by 1he man against gravity.

Theworkdone ag ainstg
mityin liftingonebox = 15g x I .S J
= 22.5g J
Thework done agaimtgravityin lifting20boxe1 = 20x 22.5gJ
= 450gJ.
2) A light tank,of mas.s 9 tonne, travels a distance of I0 m upabank which is
indineda! a,csin � tothe hor!tontal.lf the a\'CTlge resi"anceto motionis
200N. find the totalwork doneby the tank ag:iinst themistanceandgravit y .

Repre5enlingthe resistance by R and the weightb y W w e have

R - 200
S o thework done against R = 200 x l0 J ., 20001
W = 9000g
Height risenby tank = ! 0 x j m
S0 1heworkdone ag ainst gravi1y = 900Cgx I 0 x j J "" 2940001
Therefore !he total work done by the tank = 2960001
3) A carof mus 1500kg climbsahillata constant spced of 20 m s -1. lfthe
hillis indineda1 arcsin � 101he horiiontal,find1he work doneby 1he car
against g1a,ityinone minu1e.lf lhe101a!"· o rk doneby 1hecarin 1his timcis
24 x ! 01 J , find the ,esistance to motion.
ln oneminute 1hedistancemol'l! dup theslopc by the caris 20x60m
Therefore 1he vertical distance railiCd in one minute is 1200x km "' 120 m
So the work done againu gr:l\ity in one minute = I 500g- x 120 I
= J 764000J

As the carisnot accele1ating,the forces acting onitarein equilibriumso.

resolving paral!el10 1he hill,we ha\·c
P = R + l500gxJb = R + l410
The work dOlle by the car in one rninute, i.e. the wo1k done by P in one
minute.i5given by P x !200J
• (R + l470) x l200J
24x l0' = \200(R + !470)
R = 530
S01he resistance to tl1emotion ofthecaris 530N

I) A block ispulleda distance x along a roughhori1.ontal lable b y a horizonu.!

string,lfthe tension inthe 11tringis T, theweightoC theblockis W. the
normal reaction is R and the frictional force is F. write down expres.sioiu for
theworkdonebyeachof these forces.
2) A partieleis puUcd a distance / down a rough planeinclinedatan angle a
to the horizontal bya minginclined atan angle /J to the horizontal
°
(a+�< 90 ). If the tension in the string is T, the normal reaction between
the particle andlheplaneis R, the frictional force is F and the weighlof the
particle b Ii', write do""" expre$Sions fm the work done by each of these
forces.
J) A block of mass 500 kg is raised a height of JO m by a crane. Find the
work done by the eraneagain�I gravity.
4) A hlock ofmas.s 1 0 kg is pulled a distance Sm upa p\ane whichis inclined
at 15° to the horizontal. Findthe wo,k doneagainstgravity.
5) A train travels 6 km between 1wo stations. If the resistance to motion
a,-era�s SOON. find thework done ag:iinst this rcsistance,
6) A force 2i-j acu on a panicle which undergoes a di splacement of 3i.
Find the.,,.·ork doneby theforce.
7) Two forces F I and F1 act on a particle P causing i t to mo�e 1hrough a
di stance of 2m. Fin d t hework doneby 1he1esultant f o1ceif F, = i -j
and F1 i�ofmagnitude JON and acts in the di rection 4i+Jj.

°
8) A cable car \Ta\'Clling al a sieady 1peed mmu a di stance of 2 km up a slope
inclined at 20 to thehorizontal.lfthemus ofthecablecar i s 1200kg and
the resi stance to motion is 400 N, find the work done by the 1emion in the
cable.
9) A man climb s a mountainofheight 2000m. If the weight of the man is
700N, find the work hedoes agaimt gmity.
10) A man pushes hi s bicycle a distance of 200m up a hill which i s inclined at
arcsinh to thehorlzon1al.lfthernan a n d h i s bicycle1ogetherweigh 850N.
find the w01k � does against gravity.If the average resisunce to motion i1
JON, fin d thetotal work doneby theman.
I I) A b!ock i s puUedalonga rough horizontal surfaceby a horizontal string. lf
the siring pull11he block a 1 a steady speed a n d d o c s work of IOOJ in moving
theblock a di stanceof Sm, findthe tenslon i n the string.
12) A block i s pulled at a con'1ant speed of S n, ,-, along a horizontal surface
by a horizon1al s1ring.lfthete115ionin theuring i s S N , fin d t he wo1k doneby
1hemingin t en 1econds.
13) A block i s puUed upan inclineof arcsin� to thehorizomalat a stcady
sp«d of 6m ,-1. If the work done againsl gravity in onei.ccond i s 4001, find
lheweight ofthe block.
14) A particlc ofman 5kg i s pulled up a toughplanebr a string puallel tothe
plane.lftheplanc i s inciineda1 30° 101hehorizontal,andif1hework doneby
1he ten s i o n i n thestringin movingthc blo,::k a dis11nce of Jm at a steady speed
is 90J, find thecocfficlent offriction betwecnthe block and theplane.

POWER

POY{tl is the na1e 1twhlcha f01ce dOC1work.

If a force does IOJ of work in fi,·e stcon d s , theaveragerateat which it i s

woikingis 2 J s-1.

Unit of Power
The unit ofpowcri s thejoulcper second and thi s i s called 1hewatt (W). S o the
power of the force in tlle example above i s 2 W. When large amounts of power
are involved. a more convenient unit i s the kilowau(kW) whcie I k W = I OOO W .
ThePow•r ofa Mowing Vehlcle

The power of a vehicle is dellned u the rue at which the drMng force is working,
Consider a wlticle moving at a constant speed v met1es per i.ccond. The driving
force is Fnewtons.
The di'llance moved in l s.ccond is v metres
The w01k done by the d1Mng force Jn I second is Fvjoules
Hence thepowerof the vchicle is Fv11,• am.

So.if P is the power, �P .,... FtJ

i.e.1hepowerofa vehide lsgivenby multip!ylng1he drivingforce bythe

vtlocity.

Whenthe vcloci1y isno1 constan1 1his relationship gives lhepower atthe instant
when the velocity is v .

I) A train hasa 1naximum spcedof 40ms-• on the lcvcl ag;r,inst resistive

forces of magnitude 30 000 N. Find 1he maximum power of the engine.

At the maximum speed there isno acceleraiion,so the forces actingon the train
arc in equilibrium.
Therefore F = R
f." =- 30000N
At maximum !ipeed the train is working at maximum po"·er, so using P = Fv
we ha,·e
maximum powu = 30000 x40W =- 1200kW
2) A train ofmass 200 tonne has a maximum speed of 20ms-1 up a hill
inclined at arcsin i/ii 10 1he horiwntal whenthe engine i s w orking a1 SOO k W .
Findthe reslstance lo the motion ofthe traln .

P 800 )( 1 03
Since P= F11, F = - "" � - = 40 000.
11 20
At maximum speed, the fo1ces acting on the train are in equilibrium.
Re so!ving parallel to 1he hill,
F � R+20(hla3g x fl
40000 = R + 39200
Therefore the resistance is SOON.

3) A cyclist moves againn a resistance to motion which is proportional to his

speed.A1 a power ou1pu1 of 7SW h e h u a maximum speed of S m s-1 on a
level road.If the cyclist and his machine together weigh SOON, fin d the
maximum speedhe reaches ,,,hentra , e· llingdown ahillinclined at arcsin ah
tothehoriz.ontal when heis working a! the rate of 2SW.

='
V.�1en 1ra,·elling at any speed 11. F "' - and R = kv

Whenua
,·ellingon the le11Cl F
A� there is no acceleration F = R
But R = k )( 5
Therefore 15 = k • S - k = J
R = Jv alany,'tlOCily V
When trnelling down the hillat maximum speed V,
p '5
F = V "" � and R = JV

There is no acceleration so, resolving parallel to the hill, we have

F + 800x,l:! .. R

25
v + 20 = J V

J V1 -20V-25 = 0
llence V= 7.7 (the negative rootis noi applicable).
The maximum spced do,,mhillis 7.7 m s-•

4) A carof mass 1500kg hasa maximum speed of 150kmh-1 on the leve\

when wo1kins at its maximum power aga.inH resistances of 60 N. Find 1he
ac�lna1ion of1he car when it is tra�\ling at 60km 11-1 on the k1'Cl with the
engine working al maximum ?0"'" assuming 1ha1 the resisunce to mocion
remairn1 cons1an1.

At maximum $petd t hcre isnoaccelcration.

F "' R = 60
P = Fv
= 6 0 x l S 0 x fl = 2500
 Mot"-m1tie1 - Moc:h1nle1 md Prob.t>lllty

Whenthe speedis 60kmh-1 , i . e . 60x,\ms-1 , we have

P 2500 x l8
F = -=- - = 150
V 60x5
As the caris accelera1 ing,1 herc isa 1esu!tar11 force inthe directio n o f this
accelerationof rnagnitude F-R where
F-R = 90
lfthe accelerationis a m s - 1 , Newton'sLaw gi\'CS
F-R = ma
90
Therefore a = = 0 06
.
1500
The accelera1ionis 0.06 m s -l.

5) An engine ofmas.s IOOtonne pulls a tr.i.i n ofmass 400tonne, The resistance

1 0 motion of the engine is 1000 N and the resistance to motion of the train is
20000N. Find the tension lnthe couplingbetween the engin e a n d the trainat
thelnstant whenthe speed ofthe train is S0krnh-1 and the engineis exerting a
power of 4000kW.

P 4000 x !0J x l8
F = - .. F = -- - = 180000
V 80x5
Byc011sideringthe forces actiug on 1he engineand traintogether, T isno1
brought into the caku!ationsasitisan intcmalforce.
The resultant force in !he direction of motion is given by F-(R, + R2)
i.e. (180000 -21 000)N= 159000N
The1efore the trainis accderaling,
Jf this acce]eration is a m s -1, Newton•, Law gives
!59000 "' 500x iol xa
159000
· • - - -- 0.3 18
500x 10'
Now that theacce)eration ofthe engineand trai n i s known, T can be found b y
considcringthe fo1cnactingon either 1he1rai nor t h e enginc.
Comidering1he forces ac1ing on thetrnin.the result;int fo1ce i n thcdirectionof
motion is T-R1
So T-R1 : (401 h !03 x 0.J 18) (Newton's Law)
T = 400 x l0'x 0318 + 20000
Hence the tension i n thecoupling is !47200N.

6) The resis1 ance tomotionofacaris propo11ional tothcsqua1e ofits s�ed.

The car has I mass of 1000 kg and can mai ntain a steady speed of 30 m s-1
when uaYClling up a hill inclined a! ;ncsin ji 10 the horizontal withthe engine
working at 60 kW. Find the acceleration of the c.u when it i s travelling down
the ume hill with 1he engine working at 40 kW at the instant when the s�ed
is 20ms-1
The re!Jstan_.ct� mut!unat any s�ed v is given by R=kil.

p
Whcn thecar is tra\"elli ng up the hil! /•' = ;

--
• 60x l0
• ,ooo
3

JO
The forcu acting onthecar are i n cquilib1 i u m so
F = R + IOOOgxji

R = 2000-490 = 1510
But R=k.V" so I S I O = k x900
lSI
k • -
90
 Mottl..,.11co- MKll1nlco- P,ot>abillty

�
p
Wilen 1hecarls ua
,·ellingdown 1he ltill F= ;

40x J 03
e-- • 2000
20
The,uul!ant force dow n t h e ltill =- F+ IOOOg x,\i-R

"' 2()()()+490 - �· x2Q1

90
= !8 1 9
lftheaca,kruionofthecar i!i a, 1819 "' !000,i (Newton's Law)
S o 1 h e acceleration is 1.82 m c1

I) A uain h35 a maximum speed of 80 kmh-' on 1he level again,t ,e,i51ance of

50000N. Find thepower of 1heengine.
2) A car hasa maximum 5peedof IOOkmh-1 on t helevel with theenginc
working al 50kW. Findthe resistance t o m otion.
3) A t rain ofmass SOOtonnehas a maximum speed of 90kmh- 1 u p a n
incline o f arcsin � 1gainst fric1ional rcsi11ancc of !OOIXJON. Find1hc powe1
of the engine.
4) A cydist wo,kingat 20W ha1a maximum speed of30kmh-1 dow n a n
inclineof a1csin t) 10 1he horimntal . Find thefrictionalresist:ince1o motion
if1hemassof 1hecyclist and ltismachineis 100kg.
5) Acar ofmass 750kg ha, a maximumpowerof 30kW and moves against a
constant resist.anee to motion of 800 N. Find the maximum speed of the car:
(a) onthe kvel.
(b) up aninclineof arcsinJb 10 1he horiiontal,
(c) down the lameincline.
6) An engineof mus 75 tonne mo,·es against a resistana, to motion which is
proportional to its speed.lt has a maximum i;pttd of 40m1- 1 on 1helevel with
1hc enginewo1king at JSOOkW. Findthemilximum speed oftheengineup an
incline of a resin ii, to the ho,izontal wilh the engine working at the same power.
7) A hoist with a power input of 220 W can lift a blockof weight 600 N to a
height of I O m in JOseconds at a steady sp«d.Fintl the reslstance to the
motion of the hoist.
8) A constant force of 6N move, a particle of mass 12kg fiom 1ut 1hrougha
distance of JO m . Find the work done by the force and themarjmum powei
achie1·ed.

9) Acar ofmass 2000kg h a s a constant frictional resistanceto motion of

2000 N. Find the acceleration of the car 1<·hen it has a speed of 20 km h-1 on
a le1·e! rw.d with the engine working at 100 kW.

10) A car of mass 1000 kg has a constant resinance m motion of 3000 N.

If the maximum power of the car is 50 kW find the acceleration when travelling
at 20kmh-1 u p a hillinclined at arcsinilJ to1hehorizontal.

1 I ) A trilin of mass 400tonne is t ravelling down an incline of a,csin Jb 10 the

hori�ontal against resistances of JOOOO N. Find the acceleration of the t rain
when it is travellingat 20ms-1 andthepower output oftheengineis SO kW.

12) A carofmass 2000kg pulls a cara,·a n ofmau 400kg. The1eJJ.stance10

motion of the car is IOOON and the resistance rn motion of the cara1·an is
IOON. Find the accelerationofthecarand the caravana1 1heinstan1when
their speed is 40kmh-1 with thepower output of the engineequal 10 JOO kW.
Find also thetension inthe co11plingbe1ween theca1 and 1hecaravan at thb

13) A c yclist mo,·es against JCsistance to motionof (J+kvl ) N where k is a

constant and his speed ls vms-1 . lfhismaldmum speed on 1helevel b I O m s -1
when hei1working at thera1e of 7SW, findhi1iacceleration on the!evel at the
instant when his speed is S m s-• and he is working at the same rate.The mass
of the cydin and his machineis 90 kg.

14) A car of mass \SOO kg to1<·s another car of mass 1000 kg up a hill inclined
at arcsin-r\i tothehorizontaJ.Theresis!anceto motion ofthecarsis
O.S N per kg. Find the tension in the tow1opeat 1heinstan1 wht'n 1heir speed
is ! O m s-' and thepoweroutput ofthetowing caris ISOkW.

Work: Thework done b y a constant f orceis theproduc t o f t hecomponent of

1he forcein1he directionof mo1ion and1hedbtancemo ,·e dby 1he
poim of applicationof the force.
Pow«: Power is the 1ate at which a force does work.
The power of a vehicle b the rate at which the driving force works.
i.e.thepower ofa \'ehicle= drivingfurceKvelocity.
 Mld1erno1ico - Moch•nlco•n<I Proboblllty

MULTIPLE CHOICE EXERCISE 6

(/1mruc1iomfor a1uweri11g thl'se quf'Jlions a,,. gil'en on page x.J

Thework doneagainst gravit y in

moving theblock a distance J up
the siopeis:
(a) mh (b) mgs
(c) ms (d) mgh
(e) gh.

2) Ablockofweight Ill ispulled a distance I along a horizon t a l table.

Thcworkdonebythe weight is:
WI
(a) WI (b O (c) Ilg/ d) - (e) W.
) (
3) A child buUds a t ower from three blocks.The blocksa,e uniform cubes of
side 2 cm . Theblocksa1e lnitiallyall lying on thesamehorizontalrnrface and
eachblock has a m a ss o f 0 . 1 kg. Theworkdone b y t h e childis
(a) 4 J (b) 0.04J (e) 6 l (d) 0.6 1 (e) 0 0. 61.
4) A caris moving witha coostant speedof 20ms-1 against a resistance of
JOON. The power exerted by the ear is
(a) 2kW (b) S W (c) 200W (d) I k W (e) 20kW.
S) A particleof mass m mm·e, from rest undu t heaction ofa const ant force
F which acts for t wo seconds. The maximum power att ained is:
F2 2F 2F' F1
(a) 21-"m (b) �--;- (c) ;;- (d) -;- {e) �

6) (a) A uain is moving with it s engine working at constant power.

(b) A train is mo,ing wlthits englneexerting a constant drlving force.
7) A parl!cle ispulledbya stringa distance r alonga horizon1a! 1urface.
The tensioninthestringis T .
( �) Thewmk doneby the tension i n t hestringis Ts.
(b) The strin g i s i nclined at an angle () to theho,izonu.l.

8) Find the wo1k done bya forklift truckin lift lng t wo unifo1m boxes which
are stacked vertically.
(a) Theboxe�are cubes of side 0.6 m .
(b) Themusofeach boxis 20 kg.
(c) Theboxes arc liftcd \·crticallya distanccof 3m.
9) A car tows a carann.Find the tension in the coupling betwe1:n the carand
carann a 1 t h c instan1 when 1hcir spced is 15m1- 1.
(a) Thema.ssof thecar i!i 900kg.
(b) Thecar lsworking at a steady rat c o f 5 0 kW.
(c) The resistance to motion of1he car and carann is IOOON.
10) A caris climbinga hill against a resistancc to motionwhichis proponiona!
to its speed . Find the nuximum power of thec:u.
(a) The car hasa maximum speed of 20ms- 1 up the hill and a maximum
spced of 4 0 m s -1 onthc le,·cl.
(b) Thc inclinationofthc hillis 3rcsi n i\i to the horizontal.
(c) Thcma.ssofthecaris 1000kg.
I I) Find the maximum powc1 at which a cyclist can work.
(a) The cyclis t ha s a maximum spced of 70kmh-' onthe lc�l.
{b) The resistance to the motion of the cydiu is oons1an1 at I 0 OOO N.
(c) Thc ma§S ofthecycli s l a n d h i s machincis 90kg.

12) Wo1k i s a s ca!arquan1!1y.

13) ]ftheengine ofa car i s w 0 1king a1 constant power theaccelcra1ion of1he
car must be constant.
14) The unit ofwo,k is the newton mcue per second.
15) Acaris towing avanat constant spced. The resistance to thcmotionofthe
car is R andthedrivingforceofthecuis F. F and R areln equilibrium.
16) A ca r i s towingavanan4is a,celcrating.Thetcnsionin the tow ,opcis
greater than the rcsistancc to themotion ofthe,-an.
17) A train covers3 distanceof 20m in two seconds at a constant speed ,with
the engine exerting a dri,ing f orce of 2000 N . The engine is working at the
rate of 20kW.

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE 6

I) A carofma§S 900kg accelcrates uniformly from re, t to a spced of 60km/h

in a tlmeoftwosecondswhen tra�lling on a lc,-el roa4.Jfthere i $ a oonstant
resistance to motion of 20 N find the maximum po"·er of the engine.
2) A ca r o f ma§S 1500kg hasa maximum speed of 150 km/h on a level toad
when theenginels exerting its maximum power of 200 kW. Find the resistance
c o m o t ion a 1 1 h i s speed.lf thi s resist ancc i sproportlon1l t o t h e ,pecd of1heca1
fin d the maximum speed of the ea, up a 10ad incli ned at aresi n k to the
horizontal.
3) A carofmass lOOOkg has a maximum $peed of90km/h up a slope
inclined at a resin � to the ho rizontal and a maximum speed of 180 km/h
do11o·n the$:1.mtslope. lfthe resistanceto mot!on varies as t h e specdofthecar
find the maximumpower of the car.
4) A cycllst a n d h i s machinehavea total. mass of 100kg. When uavelling up a
hill i nclincdat arcsi n Jh to thc horizon1a.l against a 1esistance to moti011 of 20N
t h e c ycli stcanmaintaina speed of 1 2 km/h. Find t h e ratc atwhich hc i s
wo1king.1fthem.i stancc to motion i s unchanged,fi n dthe accclcrat i o n o f the
cyclist when travelling u 10 km/h 011 a levd roa d and working at the same rate.
S) A carhas a maximumpower of 200 kW. Its maximum speed o n a !c,·cl
road is t11o· i c c i t s maximum specd up a hi ll inclineda1 arcsi n � to thc horizontal
against a resistance co motion of 1600N !n each care. Find the mass of the
car.Find alsothe accclc1ation of1he cara1 thci nnant when i t s specdi1 30km/h
on thc lcvclwlthTheenginc work.ing at fuU powcr, assumi n g t h c rcsistanccto
motion is unchanged.
6) A carofmm 1000kg is travelling on a )c-.·e] road against a resistance to
motion which nries as the square ofits speed. Ifthe maximum po"'"CI ofthe
engineis 60kW andthecarhasa maxi mumspeed of ISOkm/h, find an
expressionfor t h c resistancc 1omoti011at anyspa d . F i n d also the 1cceleratlon
when thcengineis working a t thrtt-{Juarte1s full powcr andthesp ec d i s 30km/h.
7) An engine ofmass S tonncs pu!J� a t1ai 1 1 ofmass SOconnes against a
constant resistance to motion of R newtonsper tonne. The train has a maximum
maximum speed of 1 1 0 km/h on the horizontal when the engine is working at
itsmaximumpowcr of ISOOkW. Find R.
Find also thetcnsi on i n the coup!ing between theengineandthe train a t the
instant when i t is ua,elli n g a t 30km/h on thc horizonul w i t h the engine
,,.-orki ngat halfpower.
8) A ca r ofmus 1200kg cows anothcrcar ofmass 800 kg. the fr i ctional
rcsi stanccs being 120N and SON respec1ively.lf the tow rope ha:i abreaking
tension of 2000 N fin d the maximum acceleration possible, and the maximum
powerthe 1owi ng carcan use at thc instantwhcn the spce d i s !Okm/h.
9) A c a r ofmass 1000kg has a maximumspccd of I S m/s up a slopc i nclincd
at an angle IJ to the horizontal where sinB a: 0.2. Tlme is a cons1ant
fri ctlonalresi1tance equal 1oone1cnthofthc wei ght of1hecar. Find the
maximum speed ofthe car o n a level road.
If the car descends the same slope w i t h i1s engine working at half its maximum
Jl(IWCr, fi n d the acceleration ofthe car at the moment when iu speed i s JO m/t.
(U ofl)
10) A \orry ofmus 1 0 000kg hasa maximumspeed of 24km/h up a dopc
of ] in I0 against a resistanceof 1200newtons. Find theeffectil·epower ofthe
enginein kilowatts.
lf1he resistanceva1iesasthesquareof 1he1peed. flnd the maximumspeedon
the!evel to the nearest km/h. (UofL)

II) Acar of mass 1000kg whoi,e maximumpower iscon11an1 a1 allspceds

expcriences acon11ant 1esistance R n ewtons. lflhe maximumspeed ofthecar
on thehorizontal is 120 km/h and the maximum speed up a ilope of angle (J
where sinB = 1/100 h 60km/h, calculate thepov,er of1he cu. Calculate
a!so the maximum spced of thecar (a)on thehorizontal and (b) up theslope
when it ispulling a caravan oflllllSS 1000kg if the total resistance to the
motion of the car and the caravan is JR newtons. (U of L)

12) At theinstanta carof mass 840kg passts a sigopost on a level road its
speed is90 km/h and itsengine isworking a1 70 kW. If the total rci.istance ill
constant and equal to 2100N. flnd theacceleration oftheC;1r in m/s2 at the
instant it passes thesigop0$1.Calculate the maximum speed in km/h at which
thiscarcould travel up an indineof arcsin(l/10) agains1 1he$3me1uistance
with the engineworking at the same rate. (AEB)

13) A ca1 of mass 1000kg is moving on a le,·el road at a ueadyspeed of

!OOkm/h withits engine working at 6 0 kW. Caku btein newtonsthe total
resistance co motion. which maybe assumed to be constant.
Theengineisnowdis.connec1ed, 1hebrakesareapplied, and1hecar comesto

i
rest In JOO metres. Assuming that the total resistance remainsthe same, show
that the retarding force ofthebrakesisabout 1700 newtons.
lftheengineisstill dis.connected, find 1hedistance1hecu would runup a hill
of Inclination arcsin before coming to rest, starting ac JOO km/h when the
samer esistanceand braking forceareoperating. (C)

14) A car ofweight W has maximumpowe1 H. In all circumsrnnces there isa

corutant resiuance R dueto f1iction.When the carismov ing up a slopeof
I in n(a1csio �) its maxi mum speed is v and when it is mo,ing do,.·n thesame
:slope lt.s maximum speed is 2v, Find R In terms of W and n.
The maximum speed of the car on level road is 11. Find the maximum
accekra1ionof thecarwhen it ill moving withspeed ½u up thegivcn slope.
(AEB)

15) The engine of a car , o f mass Mkg. worksat a constant rate of HkW. The
non,gravitational resistance to the motion of the ,ar is constant. The maximum
speed on level ground is V m/s.Find,in 1ermsof M, V, H. o- and g ,
expressio,u for the accelerations of the car when it istra•clling at speed ½V m/5
(a)direc 1 l y up a road ofinclination o, (b) direc1lydown this1oad.
Gi,-en that the accelcmion in case (b) is twice that in case(a), find $U111: in
1crn1S of M, V, H and g, Find also, in terms of V alone,the greatest steady
spec d which lhecar canmai ntainwhen trave\Jing directly up theroad. (U ofL)
16) A car of mass 1000kg moves with its engine shut off down a slope of
inclination 11:, where sina - 1/20, at a ueady speedof IS m s·'. Find the
rui s1 ancc, in newtons, to the motion of the car.Calculate the power delivered
by theenginewhen thecarascends the sameinclination at the sameiteady
speed , assumingthat resistanceto motion i s unchanged.
[Take g as I 0 m s-2) (U ofL)
17) A locomotive of mass 20 000 kg is connec1ed to carriages of to1al mau
130 000kg by means ofa coupling.The train climbs a straight track inclined at
sin- 1 (1/200) tothe horizontalwith theengineofthe locomotis-e working at
350 kW.Thenon-gravitati onal resistances oppo1ing 1hismotion a1econstan1 and
total 2000 N for the locomoti� and 8000 N for the carriages. G!>·en that, at a
particular instant,thetrain i s movingat IS m/s, calculate
(a) the dri"ing force produced by theengloeofthe lOc<lmoth·e,
(b) theacce!erat!on ofthe train,
(c) the te111ion i n thecoupling b-e 1ween 1helocomotivean d thecaniages.
Showthatthe greate,t steady speedthatthetrain can achleveupthisinc!ine
under thegi•·en conditionsis 20m/s.lf1he train sustainsthis speed for 2 km,
measured along 1he1 rack, calcufate, i n joules, 1hetotalwork doneby theengine
ofthe locornotivein co�ering this diu:ince,
(Takethc accelcration dueto gravity tobe !Om/!i1J (AEB)
18) A car has an engine capable of de1·eloping 15 kW. The maximum speed of
the car on a le�t road is 120 km/h.Calculate the total re!.l!it:incc i n newtons at
this speed.
Given tha1 the massof the car is 1000kg lnd that the re!Utance to motion is
proportionalto thesqua1e of1he speed, obtain the!'llteofworking, in kW to
two decimal places, ofthe engine when 1hecar is moving at a comtant speed of
4 0 km/h up a road ofinclination (J, where sin /J = !/25, ( U o f L)
 CHAPTER 7

HOOKE'S LAW. ENERGY

ELASTIC STRINGS

A ming whose length change s when fo1ccs are applied to its en ds is laid to be
el,mir.
Theleng th ofthestringwhen no f orces areacting on it i s it s namro/length.
lnorderto metc h an elast ic st ring, equal a n d oppositeextending forcesmu.st
beapplied outwards to theends ofthestring. Theming i s t h en in tension an d
e;,i:eruan inwardpull (tension) at each end,cqual inmagnit u d e t o t h e extending
force.
Thediffe1encebttwecn thenatural lengt h of t h e string and i t s s t retched !ength
istheeX/1'111iOII.

5,,;ng., ,..,.,..11tn11,�•
Na ,.., v · ,.,:

<I---+------+-<,-.-;:, :;::c•.:--i•oon
Suir,gin ,_on

J1canbeshown experimentallythat,up 10 apoint ,lhetension in the string i s

di1ec1Jyproportional 1o theext ension
T a .r
This relationship , discovered in 1heseven1eenth cenmry, byllooke, isknownas
Hooke'J law and is used in the form
�·here Ti!ithe ten5ion in thes1ring,
a isthe natur a l length,
x is1he ex1ension,
and J.. is the modu lus of e/anicity of the ming.

El,nic Limit

If x isprogressive!yinc1eased ,the1e comesa stage when thes1ringbecomes

Ol'entretch ed and will not n:111m 10 itsnuural length when rckascd. The string
hasthenexelcdd its,i/aJtic limi1andno longe1 obeysHooke'sLaw. ln this
s1atc the string isno ]onge1 ofanymathematicalin1ernt to 11sas,a1 1his level,
w e study only lho»e stringswluchhavcnot reached 1heirelastic limitand which
do therefore obeyHooke'5Law.

Modulusof Ela1t ici1y

for an e]ast k stringof nat11rallcngth a, Hooke'sl.aw canbearranged lnthe

form

If x "'a, i e. .1he length ofthcs1ring isdoubled, 1hen

mmth swe e hat �- although a on;tant o propomon, hasthe dirnenilon

of force and 1sequal to the tension 111 an ctasuc string whose length ha� been

llcca11Se J.. hasthe dimensionsof force i t ismeasured in newtons.

Aspring isvery similar t o w elastic string withone important difference;

a spring canbe comprcm:daswellasstrelchcd,
When strctched ,aspringbeha ,-esin u11etly 1 hc sarncway asa me1chedelas1ic
string.
When the s p1ing iscomp1em:d (i .e.has itslength 1educ:cd from the natural
Jensth) the forcesin the spring are 311 outw�1d p11$h (thrust)al eich end. These
forcesagain tend to restore the spring loits natural!engthandthespring is
inrompre55Wn
The n:duction in leng1h i11heromp,eniun,
 S.,,,ngt�!lndod byA
Tomion i ft""ing

ln oomp1essionaswellasin tension a springobcys �looke's Law

where T is now thethruscin the spring

and x isthe compression.

Elasticstrings andspringsobcy /looke's l.aw T = :1..;

A is thc modu]us ofelas1icity andhas 1he dimens.ionsof fo1ce.

A is equal to the force1equiredto double the !ength of1he s1ring or spring.

I) An elastic string of naturallength 2m is fixeil ;n oneendandis stretched to

2.8m in lengthbya fo1ce o f 4 N . Whacis itsmodulusof elasticity?

Tensio11 '"' Extending Force

x(�)
Using Hookc's l.aw gives

T =
l.O

Therefore A = 4 -

So 1he modulusof elas1icityis !ON.

0.8 ('·')
2) An elllstkitringof natural length 41 and modulus of elasticily 4mg is
stretched between two points A and B which are on the same le\-eJ, where
AB=4/. A panic\e attached to the midpoint of the strinB hangs in equilibrium
°
wi1h both portioM of strins maklng 30 with AB. What isthe mau of the
particle?

.'V.
·r I 7

T < /"

,<I.(

Let M be the mau of the panicle and let C be the midpoint of the ming.
°
Reso!vingve1tically at C , 2TsinJ0 = ,\fg
T = Mg
°
Thest1etched length of themins AC i s 2/ sec 30
AC .- 2311

- ('J,,1/)
The cxtem;ion in the string is AC-2/ = 0.31/

(0.31/)
Using t-looke'1 Law gJves T-
" ,.,

Mg = 4mg 2J

M = 0.62m
Sothe mass of thc particleis 0.62m

3) Anelas1icspring !sfixed a1 oneend. When a force of 4 N is applied to the

otherend the sprlngc,i:tendsby 0.2 m . lf thespring hangs 1 e· r1icallysupporting
a massof 1kg at thefree end. thesprlng lsof lensth 2.49 m. F!nd thenatural
lcngth andmodulusof elasticil)' Of thespring.
Letthe natural length ofthe spring be I m.
Extending Force • Tension

x(¥)
T, = 4

llooke"s Lawgi1·es T1 "'

A = � = 20/
0.2

(2.49~1)
Now T1 "' A - -
1
�nd T1 .. ( l )(g) • 9.8

24 -
So 9.8 = 20/( · ; /)

.,. 9.8 = 49 .8 -20/

,, , ,,, 2
The natural length of the sp1ing is 2 m and the modulu, of elasticity is 4 0 N .
4 ) Two springs AB and B C are joined together end t o end to form one long
spring.The Mtural lengthsof the separate springs are 1. 6 m and 1.4 m and
their moduli of dasticity �re 20 N and 28 N resp«tively.Find the tension in
the combined spri11g ifit isstretched between111,·o points 4m apart.

Measuringall leng1hsinme1res.
let the exten!ion in spring AB be x ,. AB = (1.6+ x)
thenthe length of spring BC is 4-(J.6 + x) • BC = (2.4-x)
But the natural length of spring BC is 1 4.
Sothe extension i n t h e spring BC is (2.4 -x- l .4 ) .. ( 1 -x)
Becall§C 1he point B ls i n eqoilibriom,lhe tensionsIn AB and BC are equal.

Using llooke's Law for AB ... T = 20-

1.6
Ill
(l -x)
aml for BC • T = 28 121
1.4
(1-x)
� = 28
1.6 J.4
X • 1.6(1-x)

X= �
l6
.

Then, i n ( I J . T=
ii (ii) =1 9
»
So the 1ensi on i n thcspringis 7.69 N.
°
S) A rod AB oflength 4a and we!gh1 Ii' res1s a1 60 to a smoothve rtlcal
wall. It i.! supported with the end A in contact with the wall by an el utic
string connecting a point C on !he rod to a point D on the wall vertically
above A. ]fthc natural length ofthe st,ing is ja andthe distancu AC and
AD are a, find themo dulus ofelasliclty ofthestring.

In liDAC, DA =-AC therefore A6c: • AfD

°
But angle DAC is 60 so triangle OAC s
i equilateral.
Hence the ming i, at 60° to the wall and OC = a.
 Hooll•'1 L.aw.Enwty

Therod is in equilibrium under theactionof threeforces which must t herefore

be concuirent. Thelineofactionofthetension in t hesulngmus1 1he1eforep,3S11
through P. thepoint ofin1e1$Cctionof R and kl.
T W
lami°s Theorem gi1·es ° = °
sin90 sln30
T = 2W
For the string, 11:tl ural length = �a
stretched length = a
extension = ;la

modulus • ;I.,

1-looke's law gives

S o t hemodulus ofelasticity is 6W.

6) When a n elast icslringofnal ural length 2m isfixed at oneend and hangs

1l'rtically!iupporting a parlicleofmass 4kg at the other end, it stretches t o a
length of 2.8m. A horizontal forceo f 28N is t hen applied gradually t o t h e
massuntil il is onceagain i n equilib1ium. Calculate 1helen g t h a n d t lieinclina1ion
to ihe,·erticalof thestring in this position.

\''
\' , ":
o.8 r,
I \

'
(i) (ii)
 Mathtrnotic:,1- Mecllanlcsond l',obabillW

ln diagram (i)llookc's l.aw gives

T1 = ;,._ LO ('·')
The mns is in equilibrium w

ln diagram (ii) Lamrs Theorem gives

T1 28 4g
° = ° = °
sln90 sin(l80 �8) sin (90 +0)
T1 28 4g
= =
!in90� � �

28 7
Hence ta.n o = : 98
.
¾
°
0 = 35.5

Hence

Usingllooke's Law

X
2r, (' )
"' - = - (48.2) : 0,98
' 98

So the length of the suing is (2.0 + 0 98)

. m = 2.98 m
0
11nd1he !ndination ofthe string 1o thc ,'Crticalis 35.S

7) Two identical elastic strings AB and BC of natural length a and modulus

ofelasticity 2mg are fastened together at B. Their other ends A and C a,e
fixed to two points 4a ap ut in a vertical line {A above C).Apnticfo of
ma ss m is auachcd at B. Find the height above C at which the pa11icle
rests in equilibrium.
 Let x be the extension in AB
Then the extension in BC ls
(4a-2a- x) = (2a- x)
The particle at B is i n equilibrium
T, = T1 +mg ii)
Using Hooke's Law gives

I .,
I

Combining [ J J . (2] and [JJ gives

(2a- x)
211,g � "' 2mg + mg
a

X = fa
Sothe heightof B above C is 2a - x + a := ja
i.e.1heparticleres1sinequilib riu m at a height la above C

I ) An elastic string ofnamrallength J m lsfixed a t one end.Aforceof 2 N

isapplied to theother end soas 1o s1re1ch i 1.To wha1 length wil1 1hestring
exten d i fits modulus ofelastici tyis
(a) O.JN (b) 2 N (c) 4N?
2) The length of an elastic spring whose modulus of elasticity ls 25 N, which
ls fixed at oneend,is reduce d by 0.5 m whtn a furceof 2 0 N comprtsses i t .
What isthe natural length ofthe spring?
 M111l-la - Mtchonla •nd Probability

3) Astring will break i f the tensloninltexcttds J O N . Jfthe maximum

extensi onitcanbe givcnis ¼ ofits naturallenglh,finditsmodulus ofelasticity.
4) A spring ofunsuetched length I and modulus A hangs with a scale panof
mus m at iu free end.I f a m:w M is pl.actd gently on the M:a.le pan find how
far th e new equilibrium positionisbelow thc old one.
5) What is !he lengih and modulus o f elastic ity of an elastic string which has
length a1 when supporting a ma55 M1 and length a, whensuppon ing a mau
M11
6) A spring is fixed at one end.When h hangs vcrticaUy, supporting a mus o f
2 kilognm a t the fruend, its length I s 3 metre. The mass o f 2 kilogram I s
then removed and replacedb ya particle of unknown m:w. The length o f the
spring i s t hen 2,5metre. lfthc modulus ofe!asticityofthe spring is 9,Snewton,
find therTl.lMof the i:econdload.
7) A partlcle of Illa$$ M is anached to the midpoint of an elastic spring whose
modulus is 2Mg and whose unstretched length is 2D. One end P of the spring
Is auached to theceiling, and the other end Q to the 11001,of a room of
height 4a, l f P is verticallyabove Q Ond the dbtaJ1cc fromthectlling ofthe
partic[e when itisinequilibrium.
8) A m;u.sof 4kilogr:im resu ona smooth planeinclined at 30° to the
horiwntal, ltis held in equilibriumbyalight clastic string attache d t o the mass
and to a pointonlhe plane.Find the extension inthe string i f l t i s known th.at a
f orce of 49 newton would doub!e the natural length of 1 .2S metrc.
9) The end A of an el.:istic siring AB of natural length a and modulw of
elasticity 2mg is fastentd to oneend ofanother e!astic string AC ofnatural
length 2" and modulusofe!astlc ity 3mg. Theends B and C are stretched
between two points 6a apan in a horizontal line. Find the length of AD.
10) A light 5prtng ofnatural length I ls l1xedat oneend to a point O ona
&11100 1h h01izon1al 1able. The other end is attached 1o a pa11icle P ofmass m
which rests on the table. The particle is pulled awayfrom O until OP = S1/2.
[fthe modulus ofelasticityof the spring is 2mg find thetension in thespring
andthe initial acceleration ofthe partic!e when relea50d.

WORK DONE 1N STRETCHING AN ELASTIC STRING

l f a force is applied to the end of anelastic string sothatthe1tring stretches,

the forct is movingthe objec1 to which i 1 is appliedandis therefore doingwork.
Let usconslderan elastic stringofnarnral kngth a which ! s flxedat oneend.
Aforce is applied s1eadilytothe o 1herend until theextension in the string is x.
Calculation of th•Amo1,1nl of Work Done

Theextending forct willnotbt oonstantbecause it b alwaysequal tothe

renoringtension in the!itring, which varie!i uniformly with the extension.
The extending force i!ithcrcfore dircctly proportional to the extension.
Consider the string when
(a) the extension is :c, andthc cxtending forcc is T,
(b) the extension is Xi and thc cx1cnding fo1ccis T1
Whilc thcextension incrcascs from :c1 10 :c1 , the average extending force
is Hr1+Ti l

Thewmk done i n stretching the string by (x: -x 1) canbe cakul a tcd using
work done = average forcex cxtension "" HT,+T1Xx1 -xJ

[fthe string is iniciaHy unstrctched, then x 1 = 0 and T1 = 0 and we see

1hat theamount ofwo1kthen required to produc e a general extension x,

is f7x where T=A;.

,,,
Therefore, when 1he string isme1ched from its natural length a t o a + x ,

work done =
�

Those studenu whoarcsufficiently familiar "ithcalculusmay prcfer to derivc

the exprcssionfor thework done i n s t retching an clastic string by using
integration, as follows·

r=�·-===::l::::._'._' :::
::±:1:':::1
':J --t>\'

When the extensionis s the magnitude ofthe extending force is �­

(�)(!is, ).
Thewo1kdonein producing a fur1her small cxtension tiJ is therefore
approximately
 n" • 'fi.
The 10\al work done in stretching the string from a t o (a+ x) Is given by

""'
Nole.The work done when a springofmo du]us },. and natural el ngt h a is
compressed a distance x is alw giien by �

I) An elasticwinjtof naturallength 2m and modulus ofelasticity 6N is

st retched until the extending force is of magnitude 4 N. How much work has
been done andwhatis the final extension?

At maximum extension, Tension= Extending Force "' 4 N.

Using Hooke's Law, T = },. � , gives

The average force is j(0+4)N ,a 2 N

l-lence wo1kdone = 2xjJ = fJ.
So the wo1k done = 2} J and t he maximum extension = • l m

2) An elut i c sp1ingof modulu1 ;>.. andnatora)kngth a is fixed at oneend and

is at tached to a load of mass m at the other end.How much wo1k is done in
suetching thespring slow!yfrom its naturallength t o thepos.it ion ofequilibrium
ofthe load?
 Hooli1'1 L1w. E""'Vf

When theload U i n equilibrium

T • mg

But u sing Hooke'sLaw gives

mga
x=x
Then theworkdonein st retching t h e spring is givcnby

¥l = � (Tr = ��
3) A spring ofnatural length 2/ andmodulusofela sticity mg i scompreMCd
t o a length I and an elastic string of modulus 2mg ls uretched to a length l'·

��- � -
If the work done inbot h ca ses il equal.find the n�t u ral length of the st ir ng.

�­
For the spring,
A, .. mg
c ompression = /

' Ail'
work done = - = -
2(2/)
mg/
4
For the s t r ing,
A1 "' 2mg

�
natural length = a
extension = jl-a

{ l a)'
Work done = A 1 i � .. �qt -a)2
As equal work is done ? = '!j!Cil-a)1

al • 4(fi-a)1
al = 9l1 - 12D/+4a1
0 "' 4a2- 1 3a/+91'
0 "' (44-9/}(a-/)
Therefore a= I or {I
But ! l cannot bethenatural length ofthe string asit is greater thanthe
stretched length j /
So the naturaJ lengthofthe s1ringis /.

I) An elastic stringbreaksifthe 1ension in it exceeds JN. Theunstretched

length ofthe mingis 4 m anditsmodulu1ofelasiicityis 2N. Findthe work
done in me1chingit to breakingpoint and 1he length ofthe stringat th.at

2) lfthe work donein halvingthe lengthofaspringofmodulus 4N is

1.2J whatisthe natural length?

3) Two elastic strings AB and CD are each fixed with one end fanened to
the ceiling and the other 1othe fioo1ofa room ofheig)n 2.6m.
Fur AB � <= 2 N and 11atural length= 1.4m.
For CD A = J N and natural length "' 1.8 m .
lfbothmingsare vtrticalfind the iatio ofthe work done in stretching them.

4) Fin d the work donein stretching a rubberban d roun d a rollofpapcrsof

radius 4 centimetre iftheband when unstretehed willjmt go rounda cylin der
ofradius 2 centimetre anditsmodulusofelasticityis 0.SN.

5) Thc,.,·01k donein compressing a springofnatural length JI to a length '21

i s 1wice u great a s t h e wmkdonein doublingthe lengthufa string ufnatural
length ll. Show that the rnoduli of,lasticit}' arein the ratio 1 2 : 1.
 Hooke'o l.lw. E-sv

ENERGY

A bo,Jy Is nid to poueu energy if ii has 1he capacity 10 do work.

When a body possessing energy does some wor k , pan of its energy is used up,
ConverKly if work is done to an object the object will be given some energy.
Energy and work uc mutually convertible and a,e measured in the same unit,
thejoule.

Work done • Change in ene,gy

There arc various f orms of energy. Heat, electricity, light. sound and chemical
energy arc all familiar forms.In slUdying mechanics howe,·er we a,e concerned
chlel1y withmtt a hnlcal e11ergy, This type ofenergy i s a property of movemem
or position.

Kinetie Energy

KinetkEnergy, (K.E.),is the capacit y of a bodytodo w01k by virtue ofits

motion.
l f a bodyof mass m h u a •'Clocity v its kinelic energyis equh11lentto the
11·ork which an external f orce would have to do 10 bring the body fm m reu up
1oitsveloci1y v.
TI1e nume1ica! value ofthc kine1ic energy canbc calcula tedfromtheformula

Thisformulacanbe deri\'Cdas follo11'$,

Consider a constant f orce F which. acting on a maM m initially at rest. gives
1he mass a 1·e]ocit)' v. If. in reaching thi s 1 e· loci1y. 1hepar1icle has been rnovlng
with an acceleration a and hasbeen given a displacement 1, then:
F = ma (Newton·s Uw)
v• = 2as (Motion of a particle mo•ing 11i1h unifonn acceleration .)
Fi = Work done by the wnstant force
Combining these relatioruhips we have:

work Jone = ma(f)

But the K.E. ofthebodyis equivalen t t o thework done in glving1hebodyits
velocity,
Hence
Nole. Sinceboth m and r,il are alwa� positive. K.E. isalways po sitive and docs
not depend uponthe direction of motion ofthebody.

Pot1nti11 Energy

Potential energyi!i energy due t o pos.ition.

lf abo<lyisina position suc h that ifit were relened it wouldbegi n t o move,it
has potential energy.
The,e are two common forms of poten tial energy, gn,vit.ttional and e!.utic.

Gr1vita1ion1IPotential Ener;y,(P.E.), iJ a p1op m y o f height,

When an object is allowed to fall from one level to a lower level it gains speed
due to gravltational pu!l, i .e.it galns kinetic energy.Therefore,in pouessing
height.abodyhas the abilit y t o com-ertits hdght into kinetieenergy,
J.e.ll pOS$tsseSpow,tia/ enc1gy.
The magni1Ude ofiu gravita1ional potentialenergy isequivalent 101he amoun1
ufwo,k done bytheweightof thebody!n causing the desc ent.
lfa mus m isat a height h abo,<e a lowerle1·el t h e P.E. possesscdbythe
mass is (mg)(h).

P .E, = l7lllh

Since h isthe height o f a n objcct abo1• e a spccificd lcvcl , a n object below the
specified level h u negath-e potential energy.
 Hool<t't law.Entrv\'

l'.E. o f m , is rn1 ga1

l'.E.of m1 is -m,ga,

Nole.The chosen level from which height i1 musured hasno absolute position.
lt i s i mpo1talll thercfore to indica1e clearlythe zeroP.E.levclin anyproblem
inwhich P.E.is 10 M cakula1cd.
Etastic Poten1i1I En11�, (E.l'.E.) is ap1op,:rlyofst1e1ched st1ing11and springs
or compressed springs.
The endofa metched elastic stringwill begin t o m o,"t ifilis 1e\eased.The string
thcreforepoutsscspotentia! cnergy duc t o ib clasticity.
The amount of elastic potential ene1gyuored in a string of natural length a and
modulusofdasticity A when it is extended bya length x is equivalerH lothe
amount ofwork neceua rytoproduce the extension,
Xx'
Earlier in the chapte r w e saw that thc workdonew:is -:i;;

Note.E.l'.E . i s never ncgative whetherdueto extension orto compiession.

J-:nergy ls the abllity t o d o "'Olk,

/:."nergya11dworka1e mllluallyconvenible
The n
u itof
enngy is the Joule.
Ki11eti,: mergy (K.E.) iii given by �mvl and iii never negative,
Gra�itatio11 11/ Po1e111iul E11ery (P.E.) is given by mgh. J1 ispoliUve for objects
above a 1pecified lcvel b111 11ega1ivefor objects below 1his lcvel.
£/astic Pot
emial Hm.'ry (E.P.E .) is given by ½ Ax1/'2a and is neve1 negative.
 M,,ffilmnlc.- Mtd\llnic.•ndProbabHitY

- --r ------- ---- r ------

l) A bodyofmass 2kg i sheld 3 m abo,·c thefloor ofaroom . F indthe
po1entialenergyof1he body ,efo1ive to
(a) thefloor.
(b) a t ablcofhcight 0.S m.

_L h•·• ro,

(,)
I
m

.,.
2.!m

Oh

(b)

(a) l'.E.= mgh 1 and h 1 = 3m (,clatlvcto lloor)

P.E. = (2X9.8XJ) J = SS.BJ
(b) l'.E. = mgh1 and 1,1 = 2.2 m (,clativc 10 table)
P.E.= (2X9.8X2 .2 )J = 43.121.

2) A forceact s o n a body of mass 3 k ilogram causing i t sspeed t o i ncrease

from 4 metre per second to 5 metre per second . How much work hasthe
for�donc?
lnitial K.E. = ½mv11 = H3)(4)1 J = 241
Final K.E. = ½ml!Jl .. i(3)(5)1 J = 37.S J
Workdone = Change i n energy
Hence wo1k doneby fo1ce = (37.5-24)1 = 1351.

3) A stone of mass 3 kg isthrown so that it just clearsthe top ofa wall 2 m

high when itsspeed is 4 m ,-•. What is ii$ totalmechanical energy as it passe s
ovc r t h e "a· ll?
 \''
1= K.Lof smee • jm� • j(JX4)'J
P.E.of s10nc • mgh "' (3}(9.SX2)J
• 24J
• 58.8 J
Total mcch.Jnical energy c K.E.+ P.E.= 82.SJ

P.F,. uro

4) Water isbeing raised by a pump from a s1orage tank 4 me11e b,elow ground
and dcUvercd at 8metre per second through a pipeat gmund )cvel. Jfthc
crou-sectional arta ofthepipeis 0.l2$quaremetre fin d thcwork doneper
second hy the pump (1 cubic metre ofwater hasa mass of IOOOkilogram).

r
. m3
Volurnc ofwatcr dcli1·crcd pcr second = (8)(0,12)m3 = 0 96
Mauofwatcr ddis-c�d pe1second = (0.96XJ03)kg .. 960kg

P.E. p.incdby w31er per second (mgh} = (960)(9.8}(4)J = 37632J

K.E.gaintd by "''atcr persecond (imv2 ) "" H960)(8')J = 30720J
Total mechanical energy gained per second = P.E.+ K.E. = 683S2J
Work dnnc=Changeincncrgy
Sothework doneby thcpump = 68 3S2joulc persecond.
Note.This is alw thc po-..·er ofthe purnpbecause
changein energypcr secon d = work doneper second=power.
 Mo-le:t - Mft,h..,le:t..,d l'roblbllltv

I ) Complete the following tablebycalculating the missing items.

Velocity Kinetic Energy

Jkg
8kg JOOJ
8)

2 ) How much energy i sstored i n a spring i fi t snatural length i s I m and i t s

modulus 2 N w h e n it is:
(a) stretche d t o a length of l .4 m ,
(b) compre 1SC d t o halfitslength?

3) An athlete of mass 80 kilogram startsfrom rest and sprints until his speed
is JOmetreper second.He then takesofffora highjump and clearsthebar
when his bodycentre hasrisen 2.2 meue. How much work hashe done up to
the moment when he clearsthe bai?

4) An elastic st ring whose modulusis 4 N is st retched from 3 m 10 4 m in

length. Whal isUslnc1ease In me1gy if its natural length was 2 m?

S) A machine picks up a stalionaryblock ofmau m, lifts it thmugh a height lr

and projects it with velocity �. This operation iscarried out 20 times e�ry
minute.How much work d�s the machine do each minute?

CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY

Kinetic and Potential Energy11e both forms of Mechanical Energy. The total
mechanical energy nfa bodyor sys1em ofbo die1will be clianged invalue if:
(a) anexternal force otherthan weiglitcauseswork to be done(work done by
weight ispo1ential energy andb therefore 1lreadyincluded in1he total
mechanical energy),
(b) wme mechanical energy isconverted into another form of energy(e.g wund.
he�t , light etc).Sucha oon�rsionof energyusuallytakesplace whena
sudden changein themotionofthcsys1em occurs.For inslance. whentwo
movingobjectscollide somcmechanica! cncrgyisconverlcdintosound
energywhich isheard ai a b1111g at impact. Another common example i$
the conversionofmechanica] energyinto heat ene1gywhentwo rough
.:ibjec1srubagalnst each other.
 Hoolt■'o t..w. EM,VV

lf neither (a)nor (b)occurs then1he 101almechanical energy of a system

remain s oonstant.This is the Pri11cip/e of Con:sen·ario11 of/llecha11ical Energy
and can be expre ssed in the fonn

When this principle is used in solving problems ,a careful appraisalmust be made

of any extcrnal forc es which are acting.Some cxtcrnal force, doworkan·d hcnce
c.:iuse a change in the total energy of Lhe system . Othcn ,howe,· er, can be present
without doing any work and thescwillnotcause anych:r.ng e i n cne1gy.
For example.consider a mass 111 movingalong a rough horizontalsurfacc.

The no,malreaction R ispe,pendicular to thc direction ofmotionand does

nol do any work.
The frictional force µR. acting in the line ofmotion,doescause the velocity
ofthcmassto change.Thcfric tionalforce thercfore doesdo workand 1he 1otal
mechanical energy will change.
The conserv.ition of mechanical energy principle is a very powerful weapon 10
u sein problem solving.I t is applicable to any problem where the nece=ry
condi1ions arc satisfic d an d which is conccrneJwithposi1ionand\'e]oci1y.
l'roblcms involving acceleration, howcvcr, arcusuaUy bctter approached by
applying New10n·s Law of Motion.

I) A smoothheavy bead is threadedon to a wirein the shapeofa circlcof

radius 0.6 m and cent,e C . The circular wire ls fixed in a vertical plane with
the bead n rest at the lowest point A. If the bud is projected from A with a
\-e]ocityof 4.2 m s-• find its height above A when i t firstcomes to rest.
Ut the massof thebeadbe m kg.
Jf thebead first comes 10 ,est at B, let BC make an angle 8 with the upward
l-'ff!ical, so1ha1 the height of ll above ,\ i, 0.6 + 0.6 cos0 = 0.6 ( J + cos0)
ln 1 he initialposi1ion P.E.= 0
K.E . = }mV = ¼m(4 .2)'
Total mechanical energy = P.E. + K.E.= ½m(4.2)'
In the flm restposition P.E.= mgh = mg(0 6XI
. +cos0)
= m(9.8X0,6)(1+cos8)
K.E. = 0
Total mechaniul energy : P.E,+ K.E.= m(9.8X0.6)( 1 + cos8)
During the imcrmediate motion no work ls done bythe normal reactionbecause
it is alwaysperpendicul:.u to the direction of motlon sowecan use conservation
ofmechanicalenergy,
lnitlal energy = Final energy

Hence �(4.2)1 = m(9.8)(0.6)(1 + cos8)

(4.lX4 ·2)
I +cos8 = ,., �
2(9.8XD.6J •
cos0 = !-
SQ t h e h eight ofllaboveA = 0.6( 1 + f) m
= 09. m

2) Two particles uf equal mus m are connectedby a ligln inelastic suing. One
°
particle A rests on a smoo1h plane inclined at 30 to the hori1.on1al.The
JtringpasseJover a lR1oothpu!leyat thetop of 1heplaoe and thenhaogs
1�rticallysupporting thesecondpanic!e . l nitiallyparticle A is held at apoint
A1 on theplaneandis released from thispositlon.Findthespeed ofeither
particle when A has travelled a distance / up the plane.

lnitialpo1iti on, f;,,.lp<>oi1iom

Pa<!iolnatA1 andB, Par1,r;1n01A, arw1e,

lnitialpoi;ition P.E. forA = O

P.E.for B = 0
K.E.for A = 0
K.E.for B = 0
Total mechan.iul energy = 0
°
Fina!position P.E . for A = mg/ sin 30 = ½mg!
P .E.for B = -mg/
ICE.for A "" ½mil
K.E. for B = imr:Jl
Total mechanical energy = mv1 - ½mg/
(No externalworkis doneas R is alwaysperpendicular to the dhectionof
motion and T isan internalforce)
Using conservationofmechanical energygi1·es
0 = mvl -fmgl

llcnce1hevelocityofeither massis ,/(½g/J

J) A light elastic stringof natu1al length 2a has its ends fixed to two points A
and B in a horizontal linewhere A B = 211 . A partkle P of mass m is
fastenedto themidpoint ofthest1ing andis held mid,vayhe1ween A and B.
When released, theparticle firJt comes to instantaneous 1eu when bothportions
ofstringareat 60° 10 AB. Findthemodulusof elasticityofthe string.
(ln thisproblem. 1he mechan.ical energyincludes elas1icpotential ene,gy.)
 �1.....,.1ic,s - Mechonla•nd Prob1blllty

Initial po sition Fim ren position

°
P.E. '=' nrg u tan60 '-" mga,j3 P.E. = 0
K.E. =- 0 K.E. • 0
E.P.E.(string unstretched) = 0 . .E. "' � (2asec60° -2a)2 = M
EP
2( )
Total mechanical energy • mg u,j3 Total mechanical energy "' M
Using conservationof mechanical enugy gives
mga.,J3 = NI
llmeforethe modulusofela stic ityofthestringis .,J3mg.
4) An elauic string ha s one end thed 10 a point A. The other end B, which i s
attached toa particleofmass 2kg ispulled verticallydown from A until AB
i1 3 m and then relea&ed. lfthe moduhu ofel:uticityof the string is 21.6 N
andits naturallengthi1 I m fm d:
(a) thevelocityoftheparticlewhen thest ring fimbecomes slack,
(b) thedistancefrom A ofthe particlewhen lt first comesto ren.
 Hooke'1 law.EMt1V

(l) l n i t ill l p o sillon P.E. = 0

K.E. = 0
(21 2)l
P.E. = �xl =
E. 1� J
2
Total mechanicalcnergy = 43.2 J
(ii) Stringflm slack l'.E. = mgh = 2(9.8)(2)J
K.E. = !mV = v1 J
E.l'.E. = 0
To1al med1anicalenergy = (39.2 + v1 )J
(iii)Particlc flr st at rcst P.E. = mgh .. 2(9.8)/i J
K.E. = 0
E.l'.E. = o
Tota] meehanic a!energy "' \9 .6h J
U1ingconsc1vationof medumic alencrgy1hroughou1 gives
43.2 "' 39.2 + 111 ., 1 9 6h
.
Ill = 43.2-39.2 "' 4
43.2
lr • l9.6 "' 2.2
S0 1hcveloci tyofthe par1icle when1he stringbccome:s slack i s 2 m s-', and the
depth of the particle below A when flnt u re st is 0.8 m.

I) A particle fa]� freelyfrom re st until it s speed i s 7 metre per second. \low

far huit flllen?
G
2) A truck ofmass M ispulle d u p a smooth track inclined at 30 to the
horizontal. lt s speed increascsfrom u to Ju in a di stance d. Find the work
done by the engine.

3) Onc endofan elastic s1ring i sflxc d t o a point A on a smooth horizomal

table. The other end i sattached t o a heavyparticle P. Theparticle is pulled
away from A until AP is of length 3/{2 and ii then relea sed. If the natural
lcngthof the 11ringi1 I andit smodulu sof elutidlyi s m, findlhe veloci t yof
the particle when the IIring reach� its natural length. If 1he mass of 1he p utkle
i s m.
4) Two identical partides of mass III are connecied bya light ine!Jstic i;t ring of
length 2J. One par1 iclc A rest s o n a smoo1h ho1izontal 1able and 1 he other
particle B hangs freelyove r th r e dge.lnitially A ishel d a t a distance I from
the c dge oftheub!eand thestring attached to A ls perpendicular to the edge.
If A is relea51: d findi1s,-elocitywhen lt rcachn1he table edge.
5) A particle of ma ss O.S kilogr.,m is attached to a light el utic string of natural
length 2 meue and modulus of elasticity I N. The other end of the string is
fixed at point P on a smooth horizontal plane.The panide is projected from P
along the plane with a,·elocityof 4mc1reper second. Findiis greatcst dinance
from P duringthe following motion.
6) The end A of a light elastic string AB is fixed.A particle of mass m is
attached to the end 8. Thc particle isheldas clos e as possible to A and ls
released from that position.Find the length of AB whcn thc particle is in its
lowest pos.ition ifthe natural length ofthe string is / and its modulus of
elasticity is 2mg.
7) A particle of maM m is suspended fiom a fixe d point A bya light efastic
ming of natural length / and modulus of elasticity 4mg. The particle is pulled
down from in equilibrium p05ition a distance d and 1 hen rtleasi:d.If the
pmidejust rcachcsthe hcight of A, find d.
8) Two equal :1eale pans each of mass M are connected bya light inelastic
slling which passes o,-er a smooth pulley.The two pans are at the same level. Jf
a load ofmass 2M is gentlyplacc d on onepanand the systemis relcased,find
throogh wha! dis1 ancc each p.an has mo, c· d whcn their v elodtyis 2. l m s-1•

MULTIPLE CHOICE EXERCISE 7

(Tht imrruct o
i m for amwer �
i 1 · nsaregi<- e,i onpage x./
h esequ ewo

I A force of 4N is applied io an elastic siring in order to stretch it.The

)
strins h u na1ural length 3 m and modulw 12 N. The exten:llon is:
(a) 9m (h 3 m (c) I m (d) 4 m.
)
2) A springis comp,esse d t o halfits namral lengthbya force of 6N. Its
modulus ofelasticityis:
(a) 12N (b) 3N (c) 6N (d) 4.5N.
3) The pottntial energyof a bo dyofmass m is mgh where h is:
{a) 1 he distance from a chosen!evel.
(b) thc hcight above tht ground,
(c) t� height above a ,hosen le\'el,
(d) the vertical distancc mo
, ·cd.
 Hook•'•L..w. E,,.,..,.

4) A particlc ofmai.s m sli du a distance d down a planc inclinc d a t 8 101he

horizontal.Thcwo1k done by thenormal reaction R is:
(a) Rd (b) mgdcos8 (c) 0 (d) mgd sinB.
S) A particle falls fredyfrom ren through a distance d. hsspeed isthen:
(a) .J'iJ (b) -F 2iJ (c) - ✓fgci' (d) ✓iid.

6) A particle of mass 2m is attached to one end of an elastic st ring of modulus

mg wh= other end is fixed to a point P. The partide is dropped from P. I t
will llrst cometo 1e1 t
(a) when thc tcnsio n i n t h e stringis '2mg ,
(b) when thc kinetic ene1gy iszero,
(c) below theequilibrium position,
(d) when the lcngth ofthc minghas doubled.
7) A particlc travclling in a horizontalstraight linehasan accclcration of
+ 2 m s· 1.
(a) ltstotal mechanica\ energyisconSlant.
(b Theparticleisdoingwork.
) ltspotentlal encrgy isconsiant.
(c)
(d) Work isbeing doneon thepartic\e.
8) Themodulu:s ofelasticl!yofan elasticst ring is:
(a) 1he ra1io oftheex1ension 1o thenatural length,
(b) e11ual t o t h e forcest1ctching theming,
(c) measuredin joules,
(d) equal t o t h e t emJon when thestring istwi�itsnatural length.

9) (a) Thetension in a stringof lcngth 1 m is 2N.

(b) An elastic mingofnatural length O.S m and modulusofeluticity 2N
is extended by 05 m.
10) (a) Theenergy stored inan elastic slri ngofnatural length a and
moduJ� >.. is jM.
(b) All elastic str!ngofnatural !cngth a and modulus >.. is st retched to a
lensth 2a.
11) (a) ln a system thet ota!work done. othcr thanby 11,•eigh1,iszero.
(b) Thetotalmcchanical ene1BY ofa 1ystem isconstanl.
12) (a) A block isM:t moving acrou a horizontal surface and asit movts the
ltmp('rature oftht block riM:s.
(b) The kinetic entrgy ofa block mo\ing ona horizootal surface is

13) Calculate 1he elltension inan elastic s1ring:

(a) thenaturallength is 2 m.
(b) the elasticpotential energy is JJ,
(c) themingis hangins vtrtlcally.
14) A particle is 1lidingdown an inclinedplane. Calculate lts1peed when it
reaehes the foot ofthe plane
(a) thelengthof the p\anc is 4 m.
(b) contact is smooth,
°
(c) the inclination ofthe plane ls 20 ,
(d) themusof the pmide ls 3kg.
15) A partlclt ishanging in cquillbrium atoneendofan elastic s1ringwhose
otherendis fixed. Findthe distance betwttn theparticleand 1he fixed end·
(a) the partkle •· •tighs ION.
(b) themodulwof elasticlty is g N,
(c) thenatural kngth ofthe string i1 2 m .
16) A particle is released from rest a l 1he top ofa tower. Findits speed a1 the
bottom
(a) the tower is 50m high,
(b) themassof the pmicleis 2kg.
(c) the pa11icle mo,·es ve1tically.

17) Theencrgystoredinan e!astic stringis proportional to the extension.

18) Aslongasno ex1nnalfo1ces act onaiystem the kincticencrgymustbe

!9) Some external forces which act on a moving body do not do any work.
20) A spring obeys Hooke's Law when it is stretched but not when it is
compressed

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE 7

I) A bodyofmass III isreleasedfromrestand falh under gra\ity against air

re�istance. The body reaches a speed v after falling th1ough a height h. Find
theworkdonebythe bodyagainst theair resistance. (UofL)
 Hook••1 l.aw,e_,.,

2) An elastic Hring of natural length I m obeysl\ooke·s Law. When It is

st,etche d t o 1 .2 m theenergystored in i t i s l6J. F in d the energy storedin
the SlrintJ when it isst,etc hed to l .5 m (U of L)

J) A f orce,ac 1ingverticallyupwardson a bodyof m a ss 10kg, moves the body

vcrticallyfrom rest to a heigh t Sm above iustartingpoint an d givcsit a speed
of 6m/s. Fin d thework done bythe force,
(Take g as !0m/s1] (Uof L)

4) Find the effectivepower, in watt s. ofapump which rai ses 5 kB of water

evcrysecond through a height of I0m andcjectsit at a ps eedof 20m/s.
{Take g u l 0 m/s1] ( U o f L)

S) Twoparticles A and B areconnectedbya light inelas1ic stringwhich

passesover a smoothpulley. A i!iof ma!is m and B i s of ma s s 2m. Initially
bothpartic lC$areat rest at a depth 2/ bclow t hcpullcy.lf theyare released
from rest findtheir velocitywheneach hasmove d a distance I.

6) Two springs AB and B C are fast ened toge ther at B. The ends A and C
are fast ened to two fixed points on a smooth horizontal table where AC is 2 m.
AB and BC have natural lengthsof 0.6 and 0,8 m and moduli of e!astldty
2 ilnd 4N respectively.Fin d the stretchedlengthsof AS and BC.

7) A bodyof mass 2.Skilogram isatt achcd to Ule end B of a light elastic

string AB ofnatural length 2metreand modulus Sg newton. Themassis
suspended\-er ticallyin equillbr!um bythe strlngwh�eotherend A Is
attached to a fixedpoint
(a) Find the depth below A of B whenthe bodyi!iin equilibrium.
(b) Fin d the distance through which 1he bodymustbepulled down \'Crticaliy
fromi1sequilibriumposi1ionso 1hatit 11,ill just rcach A after rde3.$e,

8) An engine ispumping waterfroma largc tankand delivcrinsit thr.ough apipe

of diamcter 0 04me!rc
. at a rate of l00liucper sccond. Fin d 1hework done
bythe enginein one second.
[The ma s s of I litre ofwater i s takenas l kilosr:11nl

9) A ringisthreaded on t o a smoothwirein t h e form of a drclefixe din a

vcrtic.:ilplane.Thering isp10jec tedfrom the lowestpoint on thewirewith a
velocity of 4.2 m s-•. lf the radiu s of theci1cularwire i s 0.6 m, fin d the heisht
above thecentreat which theparticle firstcome1 to in11antaneousre s1.lf.
instea d , 1 h e ringhad beenp1ojectedwith a velocityof S , 6 m s-1 , describeits
mo1ion.
 M.otti.<notlcs -Mechanlcsond l'tobability

10) A light ela.stic ming. ofun strctchcd lcngth a and modulu sofela sticity Ill.
i sfixdatoneend toa polm on theceil!ng ofaroom.To theother endofthe
st ring isattached a partic le ofweight W. A horizon1al force P is applied to the
panidcand l n equilib rium it i sfound that the st ringis stretched to threctimes
its natunl kngth.Cakulate·
(a) theanglethestr!ng make swith thehorizontal,
{b) the value of P in term sof W.
If. in stead, P is not applicd horizonta! l y findthc lcastvalucof P which in
equilibrium will make the string ha,·e the same Inclination to the horizontal as
before.Deducethatthemetchedlength oftheuringis Ja in thisca seand
find the inclination of P lo the vertic al. (UofL)
I I) Provethat thc workdone!n metchinga light cla stic llringfromiu natural
length a to a length (a+x) i sp1oportionalto x'.
Oneend ofthi s string i sfa stened t o a fixedpoint A, andattheo therenda
particle of m u s m i satuchcd.Thepartic lei src!eased from rest at A. and first
comesto rest when it has fallen a distance 3a. Show that at the lowest point of

mag.nitudeofiuacceleration i s ig.
i t s path theacccleration ofthc panic lcis lg upwarcb.
Find in 1 em1sof g and a thespccd oftheparticleat theinstant swhcn thc
(U ofL)
12) Jn the diagram AC, BC and CD arethreeela stic strings ""ith the same
modulus of ela sticity.The end s A and B areattached t o a horizon talsupport
and the end D of the string CD carries a particle ofmau 2 kg hanging freely
unde1 gravity, The natu1al lengths of the strings AC and CD are 0.24 and
0 . 1 8 m respecti,-ely.and intheequilibrium pa;ition AC is extended by 0.0J m
°
and theangles ACD and BCD are 120 and 150° respectively. Calculate:
(a) themodulus ofelasticityofthestrings.
(b) the natural length of BC,
{c) the depth of D below AB.
13) T"·o idcntlcal cl utic stringsof length I metre and modulus 4.9N ue
each fastened to a particle ofmm 0.5 kilog1am. Their other endsare fixed to
two points 4 metres apart ln a vert!cal line. Find the height ofthe partic\e
above the lowerfixed point A in tile equilibrium position.The particle is now
pulled down to A and released fiom rest.Find 1he greatest height above A to
whichthe paniclerisn.

14) A waterpump ra!ses 50kg ofwatera 1>econd thmugh a height of 20m.

The wateremergesasaje t w i t h speed 50 m/s. Findthe klnetlc cnergy and t h c
potenlial energy gi\'CII to the watereach second and hence the effective power
de-·elopedby thepump.
Given that thejet isdirected vertically upwards,find thefurtherheight
utainedby the water.

15) 1'10\'t thnthe elas1 ic ene1gy of a lightsp1ing ofnatural length a and

moduJus ofelasticity X, stretchedby an amount x , i s >.x1/(2a).
A trolley ofma$S m mns down a smooth track ofconstant inclination 11/6 to
thehorizontal, carryingat iufront a light springof natural length II and
modulus mga/c, where c lsco1utant.When the springis fully compres1>edit is
of length a/4, andit obeys llookc'slaw u p t o this point . After the trolley has
trn1-clled a dlstancc b fiom r cst 1 he sp1ing mceua fixedstop.Show that, when
the spring hasbeencompressed a dist ance x, where x<Ja/4, the speed v
ofthc t101Jeyis gi1·enby
cti'-/g "' c{b+x)-x1
Gh-cnthat c ""a/10 and b - 2a. find 1he 101a\distance coveredhy the
trolleybefore it mmnemarily comes to restfor the flnt time. (U of L)

16) A ring ofnuw III can slide freely on a smoothwirc in thc shapeofa circle
ofdiameter la, whlchfsfixed l n a vcnical plane.The ring isfastencdto one
c n d o f a l ight elastic string ofnatum] lcngth a ;1.1 1 d modulusofelasticity m,.
The other end of the ming is attached to the lowest point ofthe wile. The ring
isheld at the hig hest polnt ofthewireand isslight l y disturbedfiom mt.F!nd
the veloci t y ofthe ring:
(a) when it isln'tJwith the centre oftheciJcularwirc ,
(b) whenthe mingfiriabecomes slack,
(c) when thestrins makes an acute ang.le O with the up"·ard,·ertical.
 Mothemllicil - Mochat>Jct Ind Problblllr,

17) A particle of weight W is an ached bytwo light inextensible sliings each of

lengt h " to two fixed points distant II apart in a hori zontal line.Write down

-�'"· ·A.
thetensionin either string.
Oneofthemingsis now 1cplaced byan elastic stringof thesamenalllrallcngth,
and it is foundthat inthc new position ofequi lib1iumthbstring hasstretched
t o a length 5 11/4. l'ru,'e that thc modulus ofelasticityof thisstringis
.
1 WJ ./39. andshow thatthe tension inthc othcr string hasbccn increased in
.
theratio 5 : ./13 (U ofL)
IS) One end O ofan elastic string OP isfixed to a poim on a smooth plane
°
inclined at J0 t o thehorizontal. A particleofmass m !sattached to theend
P and is held at 0. lfthena1ural lengthofthes1ringis a and its modulus is
'2mg. find
(a) the distance down the plane from O at which the pa1tkle first comesto
imt:mtaneous rest after beingre e
l ased fromrest at 0.
(h) 1hc1·e\ocil yoftheparticleasit passes through iu equilibdum position.
l9) In the diagram, BAC isa rigid fixed rough wire and angle BAC i s 60°.
I' and Q are 1wo identica\ 1ings ofmass m connected byallght elastic string
ofnatural \ength 2a and modulu1 ofelntlcity mg. If P and Q arein
equilibrium when PA : AO"" 3a find the !ea!Jt coefficient of frictionbetween

20) Water ispumped at the rateof J .2 cubic metre pe, minute from a luge
tankon thegroWJd. up to a point 8met1e abo1·ethelevel of1hewa1er inthe
tank.It emerges as a horizontill jetfrom a pipewlth a cross-sec tion of
Sx 10-Jsquaremet,e. Jfthe efficiencyoftheapparatusls 60%, fi n d the
energyrnppli<:dto the pumpper second.
21) A panideofweigh t W il attached to a point C ofan unsuetchedelntic
string AB. whe,e AC "° 4a/J, CB: 4a/7. The ends A and 8 are then
attachtd !nthe ext1emities ofa horizontal diameter ofa fixed hemispherical
bow l o f r.idius a andthe particlere$Uon 1he$mooth inner surface, thc llllg]e
°
BAC being J0 . Show that themodulu1 ofel.a11icityofthe11ringis W and
de1ermine1hereactionofthebowlon theparlicle. (U ofL)
 Hooh't l.llw.Enftff

22) P ro1·e that the potential energy of a light elastic st ringof nat ural lcng1h /
and mo�folus A when stretched to a length of (/+x) is ½:\x1/I.
Two points A and 8 are in a horizont al line at a diuance JI apa r t . A pa rt icle
P of mus m is joined t o A by a light inextensible st ring of length 41 and b
joined to R bya ligh1elastic ming of na1u1al lengt h I and modulus A.
Initially P is held at a point C in AB p roduced such that B C '-' / , bo1h
st rings being just t aut .and is t hen released f rom rest.If A=lmg show t hat
when AP isvertical t he speed ofthe prnicleis 2./ii and find t h e
in:it anuneous value ofthe t ension i n the elastic st ring i n thb p0!1i1ion. (JMB)
23) Two fixed point$ A and B on t he same horilont al level ue 20cm apart.
A light elastic ming, which obeys Hooke's Law. is just t aut when it s ends a,e
fixed at A and B . Ablock of mass S kg !s att ached to the string at a point P
where AP"" 15cm. The S)'Stemis t hen allo1<·ed t o t ake upits position of
equilib rium1<'ith P below AR andit is found t hat inthis positionthe angle
APB is a right angle. If LBAP,. 8 , show t hat thc rati o o f t he ext ensionsof
AP and BP is
4 cos8-3
4 sin8 - l
Hence show t hat 8 satisfies t he equat ion
C0!8(4 cos 6 - 3 ) = 3 sin8(4 sin8 - 1) . (Uof l)
24) A ring A of rnass m i s t hreaded onto a smooth fixed ho ri1.ontalsliaigh1
w(re.The ringis a t t ached t o one endof•llght elastic st ringwhose othe rendis
fixed 1oa poin1 B at a height lr above1he wire. tni1iallythe ringisvcrt ically
helow B. ln t his position it is given velocity v along t he wire.The st ring has a
natural length h and modulus oFelast icit y mg. Showthat the angle B between
AB and t he w i re when !heringfint corne:; t o instant aneous rot .is givtnby

sino (i+ 1) = I .

2 5 ) A m� o f 3 kilogram is connectedbyanelast ic st ring oFnat urallength

I met,c and modulus ofelasticit y 14.7 N to a fixd point.A ho1izontalforce
equal t o t he weight of I kilogram acts on the m a ss maint aining it in equilib rium.
Flnd t he inclinati onofthest ring t o theverrical.lF the ho1izonul force is
removed.what is t he lea.st fo rcewhich must act o n t h e particle t o ensu re t hat
t he stringshall bci11clincd a1 thesameang!e11 bcf ore.
Calculatelneachcasetheext ension uf thestring.
 CHAPTER 8

MOMENTUM. DIRECT IMPACT

The momentum or abody is the product of i t s miW and its veloci ty.

Because,·elocity i� a ,·ector quanti ty, momentum also i s a vector wh� direction

is thcdirectionofthe,·elocity.
If• body is moving wi1 h constant velocity, its momentum is constant. In ortler
t o cause a change i n,·e\oc i t y a force must act on the body. It follows, then. that
a forcc must act in ordcr to changemomentum.
Proper1iu ofmotion already established canbe11sed t o determinethe
1elations.hi pbetween a fo1ceapplied to an object and1hechange inmomen1Um
which it produces. Coll5ider aconstant force F which acts for a t i m e t on a
body ofmass m, thus changing i l l velocity from u to v. Because the force
isconstan1 1hebody wil11ravcl with constant acceler.11lon ii where
F "' nu,

hence

Ft= mv - mu
The product of a constam f orce F and the t i m e r for which i t acts is called
!he m
i pulie of !he force and the rdatlonship above can � written;

Unit.Theunit ofimpulseis thenew1on second,Ns.

Momentum canbemeasured i n kilogram metre per second (kgm s-1) uniubut
the i mpulse unit. Ns, can beused a5 theunit for momentum also.
INSTANTANEOUS IMPULSE

There are many occasions when a force acts for w shon a time that the effect
h imtantaneous, e.g. a ba! striking a bal!.ln suchcases, a!though themagnitude of
the force und the time for which it acts may each be unknown, there is, neverthe­
less, an instantaneous impube wh0$C 1-alue is equal to the change in momentum
produced

I) A truck of mass 103kg tra¥elling al 3 m s-1 is brought to rest in 2 seconds

when it mlkes a buffer. Wha1 force (assumedcons1an1)is exe11ed by the buffe1?

lf theimpul se exerted by the bufferis +J newtonsecond then theinitlal vclocily

ofthetruckh - 3ms-1 andits flm1l ¥elocityis ze10.
Theo 1 = 111v-nm
J = 0- 10'( - 3) = 3 x J03
But J = Ft = 2F

Hence F = - = 1500

The force exerted bythe bufferis 1500N

2) Wha1cons1ant fo1ce acting in the direction ofmotion ofa partideof mass
2kg willinc,eue itsspeed from 4ms-1 to 20m,-1 in 4 seconds?

--------!> •

The constant force F,u and v arcal!in the nme scnsc i.e. allare positive.
Since Ft = mv-mu
Fx4 • 2 x 20 - 2 x 4 "' 8
The required force is SN.
 Matllematlct - MecM111c&1nd Prob1bill1y

3) A ballof mass 111. ira,·ellingwith velocity 2i+Jj. receivcs animpulse -Jmi.

Whllt!s theve!ocity ofthe ball immediately af1erward1?

Using I = m(v-u)
gives -Jmi = m(v-!2i + JH)
V = -JJ+ (21+Jjf
= -t+3j
Note that thc ,·elocity componentinthe directionof j is unchanged. This is
becaose the,e isno impulse component in thisdirection.

4) A ball of mass O.S kg is thrown towanb • wall 10 that it 1trikes the wall
nonnally with a speed of IOms-1 . lfthe ball bounces at right angles awayfrom
thewallwith a spcedof 8 m s-•, what lmpulse does thewalJe;,,;ert onthc baJI?

Taking the direction ofthe impulsc J as positive and using

J = 11111-nm

.'
we ha,·e , = ! ;,,; 8 - H- 10)

Therefore the wall nerts an impulse of 9 N s on the ball

S) A nou.Jeis discharglng w111er at a 111te of 2001itrepcr second, with a speedof

!O melle persecond. lf thewaterstrikes11 wall a1 right angles anddoesno1
bounce offthe wall, find the force F newton e;,,;erted by the wall on the water.
(The man of! litre ofwateris I kilogram.)
 Momon1um. Oirtet lmpad

Mass of water discharged per second .. 200 kg

Momentum destroyedper second = 200 x J 0 kg m s-•.
Impulse exerted by wall in one =ond = Fx I N s
Impulse = Change in momentum
Hence F x \ "" 2000
F = 2 x 103
Thereforethewall exerts a forceof 2 x 1 0J N or 2kN onthe water.

°
6) A bullet of mass m strikes an obstruction and ricochets off at 60 to its
original direc tion.lfits speed is also changed from u t o v, findthe magnltude
ofthelmpu]Jeactln g o n thebullct.
This timethevelocitiet beforeand after thc impulsc arcnotin lineand i t i s
ne�ssaryto consider componentsofimpulseand ,-clocitics in t woperpendicular
directions.{hralJelandpe1pendkula1 tothe inl1ialvelocityareconvenien1
directions.)

Consider componentsparallcl to J1 taking the seosc of J1 u positive

°
/1 = m(- vcos60 ) - m(-u)
Slmllarly,parallel to J2 we have
J2 = m(vsin60°) - 0
Hence J, == m(u - fv)
and /2 = ½mvv'3
The magnitude of the rcrnltam impulse is given by �

== mJu2 - uv + V"
EXEACISE 8o

I) Aconstant forceof 12N actso n a partidcof mass 4kg whose initial

speed is 8 m s -1 . thc dircctionofthc forcc bcing inthc di1ectionofmo 1ion.
Flnd itsspec d .i t thccndofJ s.econds.
2) ln what timewill a forcc of S N reduccthespec d o f a particleofmau
3kg frnm 2 l m s-• to 6 m s-1 ?
3) A hammer of mass 1.2 kg travelling at IS m s-1 is b rought to rest when
it mikes a nail.What impulse acts on the hammer?
4) A dart of mass 0.12kg flying at a speed of 2 0 m s-1 hits the dartboard
and comes to rest in O.I seconds.What is1heaverageforcee1<erted bythe
dartboor d o n thc dart?
5) A batsman strikcsacrickct ballatright anglesto thcbat so that its
di1ection ls re�crsed.If thebaH approaches the bat with a speed of 30m ,-1
and lea\·esil at 5 0 m s-1 , whatisthe magnitu deoftheimpulsee1<crte d b y
thebaton theball ifthemau oftheballis 0.]Jkg?
6) A ball ofmass m receives a blow whic hchangesitsvelocityinslantimcously
from Si-2j 10 l + 7j. What isthc impulse ofthc blow!
7) A sphere of unit rnau istravelling with a S!X'ed of IOms-1 in a direction
-JJ + 4j when it collides with a pole which changes the velocity of the
sphere to - 2i+j. What impulse is gi\'Cn !O the sphc,e bythe pole?
8) An impulse 4i- 7j given to a moving particle of mau 2 kg changes its
velocity to 5i + j . What was 1hc velocityjust bcf01chand?
9 ) S a n d falls steadily through a holc ooto aconvcyor bclt moYingho rizontally.
4ks ofsand falh cvcry second,miking thebcltat IOms-1 . Find theve rtical
forcc cxertc d bythebclton thesand (assumlngthal thcsand does not bouoce
on impact).
°
10) An objcc1 ofm11n 2 k g isdivertcdfrom itspath through90 bycollision
wi1h a solldobstruction.Find themagnitudcand dircc1ion ofthe!mpu!sc
ln,urred at imp3ctifthc speed ischanged from 20m1~1 to ! O m S-1.
11) A footbal] ofmai.s 0.4 k g travclsho1izonta!lyat 12nu-1 towards a player
who dl\·erts it&path through 60 horizontallyand passe:sil at l 8 rn s-1 10 1
°

team mate.Find thcimpul segivcntothc ball:

(a) ifit ispassed horiwntally,
°
(b) lfit iskickc d at an angleof 30 tothc ground(considcr threc rnutoally
perpendicular directions).
12) A jct of water travelling with a speed of 12 m s-1 impingei on a plane at
right anglcstu theje1.]ftheforce(as sumcdconstant)cxcrtcd by thc watcr on
theplanels 400N. calculate thcvolurneofwa 1erbeing disch11gcd per minu1e.
(The water docs not bounce off the plane and its mau per litre is l kg.)
 Mom..,tum. DlrKI Impact

CONSTANT MOMENTUM

When il force affecu the ve\ocity o f a n object, momentum changes in the

direction ofthat force.
lt follows tha1, ifina certain difcction 11o force affccn the motion,thcre i s
no changein momentumin that dircc1ion.
Consider,forcxample,a foo1ba ll which i s travcllingalong the g10undat
16 m ,-•. A player kich theball at 1ight angles to its direction of motion. The
impulse ofthckick changesthc momcntum in thc di1cc1ion ofthc kickbut lhe
bal! continucs withan unchangcd vclocity componentof \ 6 m s-1 in the

L. . .
original di1cction since no impulse has acte d in 1his direction.

_________. 16m,·•

THE PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM

lntern1l lmp1n

Whcne,·e r two solid objects arc in contact they c;,;en eq ual and upposite
fo,ce s on each other (Newton'slaw).
l t is clear that, regardless ofthelength oftime for which thcy arein contac1,
cachis in contactwiththe othcrfor theuime lime.
Consequently they exert eq ual and opposite m i pulse s on each othei.
Since chilnge in momentum is equal to the impulse which produces the change,
it follow s 1hatequaland oppo site impul s e s p10ducccqual and opposltcchangcs
in momentum.The resultant change in momentum of two objecu which are
flee to move ls therefore iero and their to/al momemum 1emalmconstant
althoughintema l forctshave affectedthe individual motion ofeach-object.
This propcrtycanbe combined withour carlicr obscrvations to formthc
f ol!owing princlple.

�,r}t
l!ni't1>&ined diG'clnm, no external forc°e. ,ffecu the mitiop ora'·w,,1�.@
11J�1. ���llj� dil'eetiolf r�mains eons t!ll.l t;'· · .��,):'] ,:
Thisvery important 1da1ionship isknown asthc principleof con:1e rvationof
linear momentum.I t plays a 1·ital part in the sol111ion of problems where there
areintemal impu!ses. such all those invo!ving a collision.
EXAMPt.ES 8b
1) A truck of mass 1200kg ls moving with a Spl!t'd of 7 m 1-1 when it collldc1

CJ
with a second truck of mass 1600kg which is stationary. lfthc two trucks
are automatically coupled togethe, al impact . .,..ich what SJ>l!t'd do they move
on together?

Lct thevelocityof thecoupled trucks(total ma!.5 2800kg) be V.

ln thedirectionof motion,
momentumbefore impact "' J200 x 7 + 1600x0
momemum after impact = 2800 V
A pail ofequa! and opposhc internal impulses actat impact, therefore, using
conscrva1ionof li11ear mornentum 11,•ehave
1200 x 7 = 2800 V
V• 3

Therefore thespcc d of t hecoupledtrucksis J m s-'.

2) Abu!let ofmass 0.04kg tni•·eUing horizontallyat I OO m s- 1 hitsa

stationaryblockofwood ofmass 8 kg. pnscs th1oughit and erneri;cs
horizontally wit h a spced of 40rns-'. l f theblockis freetomoveona smooth
horizontal pl:me find the speed with which it is moving after thebullet hu
pused throughit.

GJ
�
r:::7 •
 Mom..,Nm. Di,_ lmp«t

If the speed of the block is V then, using conservation of linear momenmm

(inthedilectlonofmotion)wehave
0.04 x l00 = (8V) + (0.0 4 x 40)
2.4
I' = - = 0.3
8
Therefore theblock has a speed of O.J m s-1.
3) Twoparticlu, each ofmass m, collidehead on when thcir sp e edsare 2 u
and u . lf they stick together on impact,find their combined spec d in tenns
of u.

Usi11gconse1vation oflinear moment um (in thedirectionofthe velocity 2 u )

w e have
(mX2 u)-mu = 2 m x V
V • j,

The combined ma» will tra1·el a t speed !u.

(Note that the momcntom of the secondpartkle �fore impact Isncgati,·e
be cause itssense isopposite to that specified upositivc.)

4) A gu n o f mass /If fires a shcllofrnass m and 1ecoils h01izontaUy . lfthe

shell t r avel$along the bam!I ,,rl'ith speed v find the speed with which the burel
begins10 1ecoil if:
(a) thc b:mel isho ir zontal,
(b) the barrel ii inclined at an angle 30� to the horizontal.
Statcin cach casethecon11ant force required to bring thcgun to rest in

<•>
2 scconds.

The spee d of the !hell is v- V as it leaves the bancl. �cause the barrel is
recoilingwith1peed V.
Befo1efiling theshell, thegun isa1 rest andthe 101al momentumis u10
Using col15Cr,.-ation of linear momentum (in the direction of the shell'1 motion)
0 = m(v-V)-MV

'"'
(M+m)V = mv

Therefo,e the initialvclocity ofrecoilis -

M+m
lfa constant force F1 brings the gunlo rest lt mustexert.in 2 seconds, an
impulse equal to theinitlalmomentum ofthc gun

2Fi = M ­ ( m, )
M+m
Mmv
So thc force rcquiredis
2(M+m)

This time the shell leaves the barrel with a velocity which is the resultant oftwo
components inclinedat 150°,
Usingconscr•ationofHnearmomen1umin the directionof 1ecoilgives
°
0 = MV+m(V-v cos30 )
!mv../3 = (M + m)V
mu-/3
V "" · -
2(M +m)
mVVJ
Thcreforethe initial ,·elocityof1ccoil is --
2(M+m)
and the force, F1• 1equired 1ostop1hegunin t"·o uconds isgivenby

Mmv,,/3
So the required force is
4(M+m)
 Momenl�m. DlfflH lmp«t

Notethat momcntum is notconservcdinthc vcr1ical dircctlo11bccause the

impulse exerted by the ground o n the gu11 i san external Impul s e w hich does
change the total momentum
Notc that thc speed of1hcshell as i 1 /earcs the gun lssometlmescal!edthe
m uzzlesp e d
e .Jt bnotcqual tothe spced ofthe shcll relativ c t o the barrel.

1) Twoparticles A and B ofequal massarc travelling along thcs.ameline

with ,onstant specds 4 m s-1 and J m s-1 respectively.lftheycollide and
coalesc c fin d their common speedjust after imp;,ct
(a) i f theycollide head'iln,
(b) iftheywere original!y1ra1·ellinginthesamesense.

2) A t ruck ofmass 400kg runsat a speedof 2 m s-1 into a stationarytmck.

They becomecoupled together and move on with spe e d 0.8 ms-1. What i s the
mass ofthe secondtruck

3) A gun of mass 2000kg fires horizontall y a shel l of mass 25 kg. The gun·s
horizontal recoi l i scontrolled by aconstant force of 8000N which b,ings the
gun1o rcs1 i n l.S scconds. Find thcinitialvclocityof1heshell:
(a) rclati v c t o thegun.
(b) i n the air.

4) A boyofmau 40kg i s o 11 a sledge of mass 10kg 11avel!i11ga1 5 m s-l

when another boycomesfrom behind moving three timesas fast asthe sledge
andjumps on to the sledge. What isthesecond boy·smass ifthe spe e d ofthc
slcdge is doubkd?

5) A gunofmass km firc s a shcll of mass m. Thebancl ofthegunis elcvated

at an angle a and the gu11 rccoi lshorizontally.Show thatthe shelllcni:sthe
k+I
banel at an angle /3 t o the horizontalwhcrc tan/3 = ----;;- tana.

6) A bullet of ITT:15$ m isfired with a horizontal speed 21.1 imo a statio11ary

block of wood of mass 50m which is free to move horizontally. Find the
,·elocityofthe bloc k i f:
(a) the buHct goes righ1 1hrough it and emcrgeswith spce d u,
(b) the bullet becomes embcddc d i n theblock
 P,t111>ematlca- Mtdl•nlcaand Pr<H>MIOty

7) A vertical post of mm M is to be driven into the g io und. A pi le- driver of

mass m mikes thepost verticallywith a veloci t y 11. Astumlngthat the
pi le-d1h"e1docs no1 buunceuffthc, pus1 , find theveloci1ywi th which thepo.st
enten the ground.If the combined mass comes to rest when the post hUJ been
driven inio theground to a depth h fmd 1h e c onstantforce w1th 11ohichthe
ground resl5ts penetration.

8) A partk\etravelling hurizontallywlth spced u colli des and coalesce1 wlth a

particleofequal mms hanging11 1est at theen d o f a ligh t i ne1:tensible string of
°
length 2/. lfthestring ,otates throughan ang]eof 60 beforefint coming to
1est. showthat u2=8g l.

When a suing je1ks,equal and oppositc tensi ons act suddenlyat eachend.
Cnn5equtntlyequal and opposite impulses act on the objects to which the two
ends of thestringare attached. Therearetwoca5esto consider.

(a) One end of rh es

m'ng isFix ed.
Thebnpulsewhichactsat thefixedend ofthe strinacannot affect the·
momentum of the fixed object there. A moveable object att�ched to the free
en d howeverwillun der g o a changein moment u m equal t o t h e i mpulsivetension.
ln such cases themomen1umof the1ys1emdoe1 changeinthe directi o n of th e
string but is unchanged in1heperpend_iculu di1ection whereno impulseacts.

(b) 80/ h e11ds ofthe11ri11g al/ac hed to mQveab/eubftC/l.

Inthis casc equaland opposi teimpulses acton thc two objccts. producing cquu.l
andoppositechanges i n momentum.
The total momentum of the system therefore remains constant, although the
momentum ofcachindividual object is changed inthe di,ecl i o n of thelilring.
Perpendicular 10 the string however, no impul5C acts and the momentum of
etic hparti clc i n thls di1ectlon\s unchanged.
Thc ve!ocities of1wo objccumoving atthcends o f a taut string a1enot
i ndependent. Thei mportant relatlonship be1wecn them canbe illustrated
as follows
AB is a taut string.Particles A and B aremoving with velocltiu as shown
in the diagram .
Resolving the velocities along and perpendicular to AB we have

The noteworthy componentsarc th01c along AB since:

if u 1 cos01 > u1 cos02 the string is notlaut,
if u2 cos81 >u,cos01 thestring has snapped.
Hencefor theHringto remain tautand unbroken, u 1 co!l81 = u 2 cos02•

ponents m the

I ) A string AB of length 2 1 is fi xed al A to a point on a smooth horizontal

table.A partideofman m attachd to B isini!ially a t a point C distant /
from A. Thepartidc isprojected horizontallywith speed II at right angles
10 ,\C. l'ind 1he in1pulsi�1enslon inthe string when it becom e s taut andthc
veloci!yoftheparticle immediatelyafterwards,

When thes1ringbe,omes1 aut AB = 21

and cos CAB == j
°
Hence cAB = 60 when the ins1antaneous impulses act.
Justbefo1ethestring je1ks taut , 1hepartidchas velocitycomponent s p uallel
° °
and p,erpendicu!ar lo AB of 11sin60 and u cos60 respectively.
 �d,-lb - Mtchanla and Prob.i.ility

When the string bccomes taut the leng t h o f AB isfixed and B canno longe,
tra>"d i n the directlon AD. After the jerk the velocity of the particle is
therefore perpemlicula, to AB

Usi n g Impulse ., Change in momentum

(a) along BA J = 0-(-11unin 60°)
J =- �11111./3
(b) pe1pendicufar to BA (no impulse component)
°
0 = mv-mucos60
... v = fu (lhowing that the ,-eloci t y i n thisdi rection do«not chang<,.)
Therefore, the veloci1yofthe partic!e just after the string jerks 1autis ½u
perpendicular to the stri ng.

2) A particle of mass m i s atuched to each end of a string AB of length 2/.

The whole system lies on a smooth horizontal 1able with B i n i t i ally at a point
C distant / f,om A. 1 lieparticle atthe end B i s p roject ed across the table
with speed u pcrpi!ndicularto AC. F i n d t h c velocitywith which each particle
beginsto mo,·e aftcr thejerk and the magnitude ofthc i mpulsiv e t ension.

Po�tior, when1trir,g;,
jl<,t llbou! ,o i<'r�
 Momontum. Dltct lmpct

Whenthe mingje1ks1ight, both particlesbeginto move with equalvdoci1y

compo nents, v. in the difection AB.

Perpendicular to AB there isnoimpulse on either partide; ve!ocilycomponents

in thisdirectionare thcrcfore unchanged.

Using Conservation of Momentum in the di1ec1ion AB:

°
0 + mu cos30 = mv + mv

giving V = iu../J

Just afterthejcrk therefore

the velocityof 1he mm at A = ¾u../J along AB

thc ,clocityofthe
· massat B = .J(!u)l + (lu../3i

. . . .
in a direcuonmclined to AB at arctan -
(" ';,30')
-
,

l
Le. al arctan
Jj

The magnitude of / can be cakula1ed by con sidering the cb,mge ln momentum

ofo11eof1he par1ic!es.
Forthemiwal A. in the direction AB,
J = mv-0
Therefore J = jmu.,/3

lt i s importan1 to apprecia1ethat, in analysing1he effect ofan ins1an1aneous

impulse, the velocitiesinvolved are those immediately befo1e and /rnmedUue/y
after theimpact orjerk.Thesubsequcnt motiondepends, noton the impulse.
but upon whatever forcesact afrer the impulse hastaken p!ace
 Mothemotiot - Mech1!Wot- ProbobUl"1'

I) Momenll.lm <> mass)(ve!ocity

2) Impulse=change in momentum
3) Momentum inc1eases in 1he dilectionof lhe impulse.
4) In a dilection 11,•here no e)(temal fo1ce acts, the momentum of a system
1cmainscons1ant.
5) Part!cles m0Vi ngu 1heends ofa tau11tring haveequalvelocitycomponents
i n thedirectionof thestring.

3) Threeeqll:J.! partklcJ A, B and C lie on a ,mooth horiwntal \able.Light

incxtensiblc strings which uejust tautconnect AB and BC and LABC is 135 .
°

An impulse J is applied to the partide C inlhe dire<:tion BC. Find the Initial
spced of each panide.

,
Theexternal impulse applied to C
' C

causesbo1h strings to je1k exening

internal impulse• J1 and J,. '
,\ II
I, J,

--;•""'
itycom_...,110l•l<h

II •• II

Using impulse =change inmomcntum in the directio1Uparallcland

perpendicular to AB we have:
For particle A J2 = mu 1 [I)
°
For particle B J1 cos45 -J2 = mu 1 [2)
°
11 sin45 = mv1 [3[
For particle C along BC J-/1 "" nm [4)
Also the velocities of B an d C along BC areequal,i.e.
° °
v1 cos45 +u1 c0!!45 = u (5 )
Equalions ( I ] and 121 give
Ji/1 - mU1 = IIU/ 1

- J1 : 2J2mu1

Equation [3J gives

Equation [5J gi>-es

Equation {4] gives

V J../2
l-lcnce 1he initial speed of A = =
1./lm -;;;-

(')( 2/ )
the ini1 ialspeed of C = 7 -:-;-- = -
v2 7v2m 7nr
3J

and the initial speed of B = � = ��: = �¥!!-

4) A rn a» 2111 rests on a horizon ta! L:lble. l t is attached t o a light inex1ens ible
ilring whichpasses over a smooth pulley and carries a mass m at the o ther end.
Jfthemass m is r:iised\'erticallythrough a dis tance h and is then dropped,
find the speed with which the mass 2m begins to rlse,
 MatnefMII.. - Mech.rn.. .nd ProlMbillty

Juot bolo,eotri"'l lmpu..,...,on,tri"'l J1>111lttrrtrl"'l

jorl:1 jorl<s jtrkt

When man m fal sl \·ertically under g1a\ity wehave u = 0, 11 =g, J = /J

Using
gives
Using impulse= change in momentum for each massgi\'Ct,
for mass 2m J = 2mv, - 0
for mass m J • mv-mv,
from these equations v, = ¼v
Hence the particle of mass 2m hcgins to risewith specd j�.

1 ) Two particles, each of mass m , aie connected by a light inextensible string of

length 21. lnitially theylie o n a smoolh horizo ntal table a1poinu A and B
distant I apart. The particle al A is projccte d across the t able with velocity u .
Find t h e speed with which the second particlebegins to move ifthe direction of

(a) along BA,

°
(b) a t an angk of 120 with AB,
(c) perpendicular to AB.
ln each case ca!cu!ate (in tem11 of m and u)the impuls.ive lens.io n in the string.
2) Apartick A of m.us 2 k g lies o n the edgeof a table of height I m. It is
co nnectedby a light inelutic string o flength 0.6Sm to a se c o n d particle B of
mass 3 kg which islying on the uble 0.2S m from 1he edge (AB is
pe1pendicular 10 1hee dge).lf A ispushed gently ove1lhe edge find thevelocity
wilh "·hich B hcgins t o move.Fin d also thc ! mpulslvetcnsio n in the string.
J) Th1eeparticles A, B and C all of m35s m rest on a smooth horizontal
planeso thatangle ABC is 120•. B is connected to both A and C by lighl
inextensible minp which are initiallyjuu 1au1.An impulse J is then applied to
° °
particle B in a direction making an angle of 150 v.ith BC and 90 with BA.
Find theimpuWvetens!onin each s t ir ngand 1heinillalvtlodtyofeachpartkJ.e.

4) Twoparticles, A ofmass 2m and B ofmass m, areronneetedbya light

inextensiblestring whichpa5.SCs over a smoo1h flxedpulley.Jniliallytheparticles
arehel d s o t ha11hcy areboth a1a height 0.81m aboveaflxedhorizontalplane,
and themin g i s just taut. Thesystem is t hen relused from rest . Find:
(a) theirnpulse exerted bytheplanewhen A s11ikesit (withou1bouncing),
(b) lhevelocityv.ith which A next leaves thep!ane.

S) Three identical particles A. B and C lie close together on a smooth plane.

A is ronnected t o B and lo C bylight inexten:1ib lestrings.lf B is set moving
w!th vdoclty II across theplaneflnd
(a) 1heflmimpul!.ivem1sionin 1he!ilring AB,
(b) 1heinitialve)oci1yof A,
(c) the initial velocity of C.

J!
6) Theillustration sho-..'$ twoparticlcs
connected b ya light inextensible
stringpassing m-er a pulleyflxed at a
m heightof l.0S m abovea horizontal
plane.A iJofmass 2kg and is
- initiallya1 rest on 1heplane. B is of
m mass ! kg a n d han g s a t a dep t h o f
0.9 m below 1hcpullcy. R is then
raisedto theheight of thepulleyand
releast d from�st from that pos:ition.
Calculate:
(a) 1hespu d o f B when thestringisabout to tighten,
(b) 1heimpul!i,·e1
i ensionin theming,
(c) 1hespced wi1h w hich A !eaves theplane,
(d) thespced ofeitherpartidewhen B reaches theplane,
(c) theimpulsewhich B exertJ when it strikes thep!ane(without bouncing).
h lherean impulsivtlen!iionin thestringwhen B hits theplane?
 M11Mm1t1co- Mochonlco1nd ProlMbllhy

DIRECT ELASTIC IMPACT

When two objects co\llde and bou nce, the lmpact between them is elast ci.
lf,instead, theycoalesceupon collislon,thc impactis ille/auic.
(A rea d e r who is studying Physics mayfind t hat these terms a rc defined
diffe rentlyin that subject .)
A pai r of equaland opposite impulses act at the moment of impact.If, just
bcfo r c impact, the objccts wc1c mo,ingalong thelincof;u;tion ofthese
impulses, the impact is direct, e.g.

Afte r impact thc particiesagain bcginto movealong thcline ofactionofthe

impulscssince.at impact,no impulseactcd in thepe rpcndicul a r d irection.

NEWTON'S LAW OF RESTITUTION

When two objects a r e in direct elastic impact the speed with which 1hcy
separa.te aftc r impactis usuallylcss 1han thcl r sp«dofapproachbefore impact.
Experimcnta! cvidcnccsuggests that the ratio of these relative speeds is constant.
This p roperty.f o rmulated byNewton, is known as the law of iwtWnand
rest
can bcw rinenin theform
separation spced: app!� -!J>Ccd ""' e

;.. � l�:1fo. " l [!�.,rlbe:·

ar� _cct0P,�"1.:,,<;
."'J.l!ll,.iiiJ!ii\1Q,,liil,l!fflWWil
Impact between objects which do not bounce is inekist ci and in this case e = O.
A collision between two objects whose relative speed is unchanged by the impact
issai d t o bcperfec1/y e/astic.Fo r two such objec1 s e= I
J n g e n e ral
Direct impact can occur between two moveable objects o r between one fixed
andone moveable ohject.ln bothcasesthcla w o f 1estitutionis valid.
The principle of com,e r vation of linear momentum applies to impact between
1wo mo1·eable objects (cqualantlopposi1e inte r nalimpul�s)but no1whenone
ofthe objectsin colli!i.ionis fDi:ed (extemalimpulse).
 Momentum. D!rlC't 1........,

I) A smooth sphere of m a s s 0.5 kg movingwithhorizontai speed J m s-1

s1rik e s a t righ1 ang]u a ,-erticai w:illandbounce s off 1hewail w lth horizontal
speed 2 m s-1. Findthe coefficient ofre s1itution betweenthe sphere andlhe
wall and the impube exerted on the wall at impact.

-�m•·• .

, ,
,..__...
2.,,.,

e "' separation spccd: 3pproach spced = 2 : 3

The1efo1e 1he coefficien1 of restitution i s f.
Using impulse= change in momentum for the sphere we ha,·e:
J = 0.S x 2 - 0.S(- 3) = 2.S
Theequa\andoppc»ite impulse acting on thewall i s thcrefo1c 2.5 N s.
2) A smooth sphere of mass 2 kg i s moving with speed J m s-1 on a horizontal
p\ane whcnit collide s with a stationary smoo1h sphere ofequalsize but m a ss
4kg. lfthe coefficien1 ofre stitu1ionbet"''ecn 1hc sphc1e s i s ! find lhcveloc i t i c s
ofboth spherc s aftcrimpact.

li,;1-------. J m ,·• e-11<c

Apptoo<h 1 p<ftl • l m1·•

,�,
as nr;
________. Mm,•• __________.. Pffll•O

Uslng thelaw ofn•siitutio n i n t h e form

e x approach spccd "' separation speed
and thcprinciplcofconserva1ionoflinear momcn1u m w c have:
½ x J = v-u Ill
2 x 3 = 2u+4v 121
Hence v = l and 11 = 0
After i mpact the 2kg ma s s i s at rest and the 4 k g ma s s ha s a speed of l .S m s-'.
 M-lia - Moch•nico •nd Probabilii-,

J) Two identicalsmooth spheres of mus m colli de direetly head-on with

speeds of 6 m s-• and 2 m s -1 . lfthe coefficient ofrestitution i s ¼ find the
spttd ofboth spheres afte,impact.

,., .__.__.6m,·• lm•·,.__. ,.,

Apprna<h opttd •8o,,•I

. ....__.....
Scpuni,,n ,pn,d• •-•

L:tw ofrestitution givcs ! x B = v-u

Conservation oflinear rnomentum givcs 6m-2m = mu+mv
These equations become 2 = p- u
i giving v = J and 1 1 = I
md 4 = 11 + 1'
Thercfore thespecdsaf1cr colli1ionare J m s-• anti l m s·'

4) Two identicalsmooth spheres A and B arefreeto mo\'C on a horizont.al

plane. B is 1t rcs1and A is projectcd v.ithvelo.:ity u to $11ike B directly .
B then col!ldcswith a 1 c· rticalwall which is perpendicular 10the direction of
molion of 1he spheres.After rebounding from the wall B again colli des with
A an d is brouglJt to restby thisimpact.lfthe coefficient of rtstitution hasthe
samevalue al allimpacts prove that c= I.
FirstImpact: between A and B.

,�,
..,...__........ .,
,.,___________..,
L:twof restitution gi\'tS
Conservation oflinear momentum gives
 Momentum. Dlren I�

hence {l +t')U = 2111 [\[

md (1-c)u = 2u1 [2[

Second Impact: between B an d the wall .

"'--------. .,
(This lime, since the impact is external, momentum is not conser..-ed ).
Lawof restitution givts [J[

Third lmpar:1:between A and B.

., � ,.
··◄------"' .... (11 r,1t)

Law ofrestirntion gilu r(u 1 +v,) = ul

Consuvation oflinear moment u m givtt m1j 1 -mt, = -muJ

Eliminating u l gi\'CS Vz - 11 1 "' e(11 1 + t'z)

vi( l -e) = u 1(e + l) [4)
But from [3) and [ l J v1 = ev1 = e(! + e)(½u)
and from [2] " .. ( 1 - t')(!u)
'
So [4J becomes e(i + t')(fuXl -e) = ( l -e)(j11)(t + I )
e = l
Nole: Example 4 ,which Involved several impacts ,inuoduced a form of notation
whlch helps to cla ir fy the solution.
At C\'el)' impact the symbol II was ust d for A's speed and v for that of B.
The 1;uffix used indicated which impact was being analysed e g.. 11, represented
 MMh1""'1ia- MKh1nl011nd Ptoboblll!y

the spee<l of A after the third impact; 111 was neve, used becau� A was not
involved in the second impact.
A problem involvingthree particles and multiple impacts can be similarly treated
using 11. v, w fo r spted symbo\s.

Lo11 in Mech1nical En ergy

lnpractice the totalmechanica!energy of a system isreducedbyacollision

o r a jerk. The explanation forlh.is lossc:an usuallybeheard, i.e.some mechanical
encrgy il converted intothe10und ene1gyofthe bti,'8 at impact.
Mechanical energy may also be 1 ramf o1TTied into heat or light energy.
Perfectlyefastic impact however.in whlch thereisno chnnge i n re!ative speed ,
ilnot accompaniedbyanyme<:hanical energyloss.

EXAMPLES8d lcon1lnuodl
5) A and B nre 1moo t h s phere1 ofequalsize. A is 1ta!ionary011 a horizontal
plane aml B is moving on thatplane withspted 2u whenit collides directly
with A. lf the�fficien1 of restitu1ionis j. A isofmass m and B of mass
2m, find thelo ssin kineticenergyat impact.

.......,..__...__.,
Law of restitution: ! x 211 a V1 -11 1
Conservationof linearmomentum: 2mx2u • 2mu 1 +mv1

'""
hen�
4u = 11,+2u,

giving Ju = 3u 1 and 611 = 3V1

Original K.E. = !{2n,)(2u)1 = 4mu1
Final K.E . = !(2m)u11 + Jmv,'
= ½(2111)111 + !m(2u)' = 3mri2
1 1
TI1erefore los1 in K.E. = 4m11 -3m111 = mu

6) Reptat Example 5 "-ilh a cocfficientof restitutio n o f I in51ead of }.

Law ofrestit1.1tion:
Conservation of linear momentum: 2 n1 )( 2u = 2im, , + nw,
hence
4u = v,+ :is,,
gMug 2u = 3u 1 and 811 "' 3v1
1
Original K.E. = 4m11
Final K.E. = ½(2mxl11)1 + �(m)(f11)'
: 1111(&111)(8+64) = 4mu1

Therefore Joss in K.E. = 4mu1 -4,nu1 : O

(Thisconfirms 1ha1 prrfectlyelasticimpacts involvc noloss in mcchanical
energy.)
Nole. In problems on elutic impact, a particle A may catch up wilh, and
collldc with.another paniclc li moving!css quickly in thewnc directJon.
Jn thusituation A issaid 1001•er11Jke B.

In u/1 questions im·oh·ing spheres, there will br smooth ,md of equal size.
\) A spm!re ofmaH 10kg moving a1 l6ms-1 impingesdircctlyon another
sphere of1ru1ss 5kg mO\-lng in the opposite directionat 4ms-1 . If t "" ½
find 1he specds ofboth spheres aftc1impac1 and1he magnitude ofthe
instantaneous impulses.
2) A baU of mass 2 kg moving at 6 m s-1 coUides directly with another ball of
mass 3 kg moving ln the same directionat 4ms-1. Find thespeed ofeachbaU
afier imp)Cland the loss in ltinctJc energy if e : i.

J) When two spheres of equal mass collide directly at speeds of 4 ms-1 and
Sms-1 in opposite senses,half thc original k.incticene,gy is !ost upon impact.
Prove that e = J.
4) A sphere A ofmass 0.1kg is moving with speed S ms-1 when it collides
di1ectly wich a stationary ,plme 8. If A is brought to �,t by the lmp;ic\ and
e : ½. flnd themassof B. itsspeedjust afterimpact and the magnitYde ofthe
in�tantancousimpulses.

S) Three perfectly elastic spheres A, 8 and C ha,·e masses Jm, 2m, m

respectively. They are lying ina straight llne o n a horizomalplaneand A ls
projected with speed u to collide di1ec1lywith 8 whichg0c.'1on1o collide
directly with C. Find the speed of ead1 sphere af1er the second impact. Explain
whythere wiU beno furtherimpacrs.
6) Find,in ternuof /,f, m, e, V and v ,1he instant aneous impulseswhich 3Ct
when two spheresof masses M and m collide directly with speeds V and 11
,espectively:
(a) ifthey collide head-0n ,
(b) ifthey are t ravelling in the same sense (V> v).
The coefficient ofrestitution between the spheresls e.

7) A sphereofmass 2kg fallsfromrest at a height \Orn above an elastic

horizontal plane.Find the height to which the sphere will rise again after its
first bouncc ,ifthc cocfficient of rest itution is!.
8) A small sphere which isdropped from a height of 1.2 m on 10 a horizontal
plane rel>oundstoa height of I.Orn. Find thevalue ofe andthe lOM in
mechanical energy caused by 1he impact , i f the massof 1hesphere is 2kg.
9) A light inexteruible string AB has the end A fixed to a \'Crtical wall. The
end B is anached to a small elastic object which isdrawn aside. fmm the wall,
°
until the ming makesan angle of 60 with the wall. The particle isthen released
from rest. Find the angle which the sl1ing makes with the wall when the panide
next comesto instantaneous res1 if1he valueof c is j .

10) A smallspheieis d1oppe d o n 1 o a horizontalplane from a height h . lfthe

cocfficient of renitution bctween t h e sphere andthe plane is c find , in termsof
h and c, the height to which1he pa1ticle risesaf1ereach ofthe flrst , second
andlhird impact s , showing lhat theseheightsarein geometric prog1ession.
Dedoce the total distance t ravclled by1hespherebefore it comesto rest.

MULTIPLE CHOICE EXERCISE 8

{Thei11Structiom f
or amw e quatio1u aregive11 011 page :t.J
er i11g thes

TVPE J
\) A ball of mass 0 4kg. hitsa w-,d!at right angleswith a speedof l 2 m ,-1
a11d bou11ces off ,again at righ1 angle.1 tothe wall,with a speedof Sms-1 • The
impulse exerted l>ythewaUonthe l>allis:
(1) l.6 N s (b) 20Ns (c) 4 N s (d) 8 N s.

1) Two masses collide and coalesce as shown in the diagram. What is the spud
V ofthe coml>inedmassjust after impact?

,_
e-------+, lo
-
e-----+ •
(a) 3v (b) iv (c) v (d) Jv.
3) Agunwhkh isfieeto recoilhori.l.ontally
fjres a bullet whenthe barrelis inclined
a1 30° 10 1he horizontal . 'l\'hen 1he
bulle1 leavesthe barrel i 1 willbe
trave!ling a t a n ang]e tothe horizontal
of:
°
(a) 30
°
(b) a li11leless than 30
(c) a little more than 30°
(d) zeto.
4) Two smooth objects,wi!h a cot'fficient of restitution e, collide dllectlyand
bouncc u shown

-------.,.
-------.., e----------+ •
e----------+"
Newton'slaw ofre!litu1ion gi,·es:
(a) e ;,,; 411 = v, + v,
(b) e x 2u = v1 - V;,
(c) e x 2u "' 11i - v1
(d) it canno 1 be applle d as the masses areno1 known
5) Aparticleof mass 2kg mming with speed 4 m s-1 isgiven a blowwhich
changesthe sp e e d to J m s-1 wi1hou1 deflecting 1he particlefrom a straight
line.The impulse of tbcblow is
(a) I O N s
{b) 6 N s
(c) we donot know whether itis J O N s or 6 N s.

6) A body of mass m is moving with speed v when a constant force F ii

applied to ! t in thcdirectio n ofmotion for a t ime t:
(a) Theimpulse ofthe fo1eeis Ft.
(b) Ft=c mv.
(c) Thebody lc«s an amount of kinetic energy equalto Ft.
F,
(d) Thefinalspeed of the bodyis v + ;-

7) When apartide P of mass 2m collidcs witha p:trticle Q ofmass m:

{a) P exeruan irnpulseon Q ,
(b) the mechanical ene1gy of thesynemis unchanged,
(c) the impulse which P exerts on Q is twice the impulse which Q exerts
on P.
{d) Q exeruan impulse on P.
8) Two movi.ng paniclesare a t t ached,one t n nch end of a st ring AB. Jf the
stringjerk s t i gh1. 1hen immediate!y afteiwu ds:
(a) both particles ha1·e the sarne speed,
(b) the particleshave thes.ame spee d lf they are of equal mau.
(c) t he particleshaveequalveloci t y componentsin t he direction AB.
9) A sphe1e A of mass m, uaveUingwith speed v, co!lides difect\ywitha
stationary sphere B.If A i s brough110 1estby thecolli!.ion and B i s gl1·en a
speed V, then:
'
(a) e = v- (b) the massof B is ,
\/
v
(c) e = ;, (d) the particles arenfequal mass.

10) A paiticleofrruu.s 1kg h; droppedf1oma heigh1 of Jm on to a horizontal

planewhere it bounus and rises to a height of 2m above t he plane.
(a) thecoefficicn t of restitutionb j,
(b) just before strik.ing the plane t he speedis ../6i; m c1 ,
(c) t he coefficient of re�titution Is .Ji,

(d)jus1af1er striking the plane, 1he1peed ofthe pa1ticlei1 fi ms-1.

J l )(a) ln a specified direction abody hasa con:;1ant speed.

(b) No resultantforce act s on a body.
12) (a) The coefficient of restitutionbetweentwo colliding objectsls < l.
(b) Mechanicalenergy is lost when two obj�ts collide.
13) (a) Two spheres collide directly.
(b) Two spheres are travelling towards each other in the sa.me stritight line.
14) (a) Two spheres colli de directly without loss o( momentum.
(b) Two pe:rfectly elastic spheres collide directly.
15) (a) Whentwo spheres colli de directly half the orlginal kine1ic energy i s lost.
(b) Two spheres have a coefflcient of 1estitutionor j.

)6) Two particles A and B collide difectlyhead-0n :in d bounce.Find 1heir

speeds immediately after impact,
(a) The man of A is twice the mass of B.
(b) Justbef ore impact t he spe:e d of A is 4 m s-1 and that of B is J mi-1 .
(c) No kinetic enersy i s lostby the i mpact.
 17) Aball moving on a horizontal floor hitsa smoothvcrtical wal!normaUy.
Calcul.:ite the speed with which ii leaves the wall if:
(a) thespeed when approaching the wall i s 3 m s-1,
(b) thecoefficien t o f restitution i s !,
(c) the mass of theball is 0.4kg.

18) Aball falls vertically on t o a horizontal p!aneandbounces.F i n d the impul�

theball e,;ert s o n the pla neif:
(a) theball is ini tially 2m abo�e the plane.
(b) i t r i�safterbouncin g t o a heiglt t 1.2m.
(c) the coefl icient of,estitution is ./j ,
( d) the mus oflheb,llis 0.5 kg.

19) Two part i c el s A and B are ua,·c\ling on the same s1 ra!gl11 llnc when they
collide.Find the loss in ki netic energy dueto impac1 i f
(a) A a n d B ha,� cqual mass.
(b) justbefore imp.1c1 1hespccdof A is three times thespeedof B.
(c) the coefficient ofrestitution is J.

20) An i ncluUc stringhasa particle ,\ attached to one endand a particle B

attached to theothcrend.lf A isprojecte d i n the dllection BA flnd the
in.i.tialspccd of B if:
(a) i nitially the string i s slack.
(b) t hespeed ofprojection of A ls 4 m s-•.
(c) thc partklesareofcqualmass.
(d) the s t r i n g i , 2 m long.

21) The law of 1cst!tution applies to an elast i c impact between a moving object
aoda lixed surface .

22) Thecoefficient of restltu t i o n i sgiY�nby: refotive spcedbefo1eimpac1

dividedby relative speedafter i mpact.

23) A perfectly elastic i mp3C t does not cause 3 loss i n m echanical ene1gy.

24) The momentum of a syi;tem rem3ins coostant in any direction in which no

e,;ternilforceacts.

25) Impulse means an imp3clbetween moving bodies.

280 Moth.....ticl - Mochlnlct 1nd Proboblllty

MISCELLANEOUS exeRc1se 8

I) A forceof ION acts on a mns of 2 kg for threeseconds.lf thelnitial

velocltywas 5 0 m c1 what is theOnal velocity?
2) A stone weigh ing 5 N is thrownvt rtically upw:uds.wit h vt locity SOms-1 .
What isits ve!ocity after twoscconds and after twent y seconds?
[Take g= l O m , -1 .)
3) Water issunfrom a pipe, whose crosssectionis c m1 , i n a horizontaljet with
vtlocity v m s-1 . Whatforce mustbee1«11tedby a shield placedpt"rpcndJcular to
theje11ob1ing 1hewater t o a horizontal $top?
(Themusof l m3 of waterb letlkg.]
4) Twomasse s of 20 and IOunits, moving in lhesamedirectio n a t speedsof
16 and l2uniurespectivtly coUideandstick together.Flndthevelocity of the
combined mass immediately afterwards.
5) Agunofmas.s 1000kg can launch a fflellof mass 1 kg with a hortzontal
vt\ocit y of 1200m s-•. What lsthehoriiontal velocity of recoil ofthe gun?

6) A sphereof mass m fallsfrom rest at a height II abovea horizon11l pl.111e

and ,ehounds toa height !h. Findthe coefficient of restitution , the impulst
exertedby theplaneand the]on in !CE. due toimpact.

7) A particle of mass m moving with speed V strikes a particle of mass 2m

a1 restand coalesces w i t h it.E:,;pres1i thefinal kinelicenergy as a fractionof 1he
original kinetic energy.

8) An inelastic pile dri�er of mass 4000 kg falls freely from a height of 5 m on

t o a pileof= 1000kg driving the pile 20cm into theground.Fi n d t h e
speed wi1h whichthepile1tarts to mo , ·einto thegroundand also thc , a 'Crage
resistanceto pe11etra1ion oft heground i n 11ew1ons.
{Take K as !Om/s2.] ( U of L)p

9) Twopanicles P and Q , of ma ss 2m and 3m respective!y ,are connec1ed

by a light inelastic string which passes 0>·c1 a smooth fixed pulley. The system is
releascd from rest "'·ith 1he1tri11g uut and 1hehanging parts vertical.Af1cr
lime 1. the particle P picJ.a u p a stuionary particleof mass Ill. Show that the
loss of kinetic energy of the symm due to lhe impulse is mg',2/60. (U of L)

10) A sphe,e A. of mass 2m and telochy 2u. 01·er1akes and c0Uides wi1h
sphere B. of mass m and velocity u 1raveUing i111he samelinewhich is
perpendicular to a vertical smooth wall.Afterbeing struckby A. sphere B
gDHon to strikethewall.Ifthe coefficient of 1esti1u1io n b etween A and B
is ! andthatbet...,·een B and t h e ...,a· llis ¾ fflow that ther e i s a second
colli5io11betwee11 A and B and de$C1ibe...,·ha1 happe11s af1er thc secondimpac1.
I I) A sphere A, of mass m 1 , and velocity u, collides with a s t ationary sphere
B of mass m1• lf sphtre A is brough1 torcst by the colli1ion ,findthe vcloci1y
of B afteriminct, and the coefficient of restitution . lf sphere B now collides
with a stationary spherc C and isbroughtto rest fiudthe massof sphere C
asswnirlg the same coeffkient of ,estitution between A and B , and between
B and C.
12) A smooth sphcre A ofmass 2m, moving on a horizontal planc with
speed u collides directly with another smooth sphere B ofequal radiusand of
mass m. which isat rest. If the coefficient of restitution between the spheres
is e, find their specds af1cri111pact.
The sphere B later rebounds fro111 a perfectly elutic vertical wall. �nd then
collides directly with A.Prove thataftcr thiscollisionthc spcedof B is
i ( l +e)111 andfind thespcedof A. (U ofL)
13) State the law of conservation of linear momentum for two interacting
particles.Show ho,., the Ja,., of conservation oflinear momentum applied to two
particleswhich collide directly follows from Newton·s lawsof motion.
Three smooth spheres A, B. C. equa l i n all respccts, \ieat rest andseparated
from one another on a smooth horizontal table in the ordc; A, B, C with their
centresin a straight linc.Sphere A lspwjccted with spced V directly towards
sphe,e B. 1f the coefficient of rcstitution a1 cachcolfuionis e, where
O < e < l , findthe velocityof cachof 1he sphc1c1jus1af1cr C isset inmotion.
Show that A mikes B a SC<:ond time. (1MB)
14) A pump raiseswater from a depth of !Orn and discharges it horiwntally
through a pipe of 0.1 m diame1er a1 a veloci!y of S m s-1. Calculate !he work
done by the pump in one second. If the water impinges directly with the same
\'Cloclt y o n a 1·ertical wall, lindthe forcc exerted bythe wa1er onthcwallif l t i s
a.sswned that nooe of th e ,. a· terbounceshack. [Take K as 9.81 m s -1, ,r a s
3.142 aud the mass of l m' ofwater as IOOOkg.) (UofL)

IS) Two eqU11lspheres B and C, each of mass 4111, lie at rest on a smooth
horizootal table . A t hird sphere A, of thesameradiusas B and C but of
mass m, moves with 1'Clocity V along the line of centres of B and C. The
sphere A collides with B which then collideswith C. If ,\ is brought to rim
by 1hefirst collis!on show that the coefficicn1 of res1itutionbetween A and B
[!1 j. If the coefficient ofrestitution between B and C i!I � find 1 h e 1e· loci1ies
of B and C af1e r t h e secondcollision.Show that thc total lossof kinetic
21mV1
energy duetothe two collisionsis � (1MB)

16) Three smoo1hsphere1 A , 8, C, of equalradiiand ma5Ses 111, Nn , J,.�m

respcctively,where >. isa constant ,are fre c t o move along a straight horizontal
groove with 8 between A and C. When any two spheres collide the impact i s
direct andthe coefficien1 of res1itutionis e . Spheres B and C neinitially at
 Mnhomatia - Mech•nla •nd P,obabllity

rest and sphere A i.s projected towards sphcre B with speed 11. Show that the
velocities of A and B after the first impact are

mu
t ->..e
and
l+ e
1+)_11 respecli\·eJy.

Flndthe vclocities of B and C aft e r 1he :1econd impact.

Given that Ac< 1 , 5how tha1 there is a thl r d impact if e< A. (U of L)
17) (a) A sphere of mass m moving along a smooth horizontal table with
speed V collides directlywith a stationarysphere ofthesame radius a n d o f
mass 2m. Obtain exp ressions fo r the speeds o f t h etwo spheres after Impact,
in terms of V and the coefficlent ofrestitutlon e.
llalfof1hekinetic energy is losi in the impact.Fin d the valueof e
(b) A particle ofmass m moving in a straigh t line with speed u receives an
impulse ofmagnitude / in t h e d i rection oflts motion.Show t h a t t h e inc rease
inkinetic ene rgyis gh·enby

.,
/(1+ 2m11)/(:Zm). (UofL)
18) A particle of mass III is projected verticallyupw a r d with speed u and
when i t 1cachesi1s greatest height a $econd particle,ofmau 2m, is projectcd
,·ertically upwardwith speed 211 from the same point as t h e first . Provc that
1hetime1ha1 elapsesbe1ween the projectionof1he$econd partic!e andits

colli.sion with thefirst is -, an d find th.e heigh t above thc point ofprojection
at whichthe collision occu1s.

"'
Jf,on collision , t h e p a1ticlu coalesce.prove that the combined p a r t iclewill
19111
1each a g1eatest height of - abovc 1hepoint ofp1ojection. (1MB)

19)

Two particlei, each of mass m, a re connected bya light lnex1emlble string

which pa55es overa smooth pulley at 1 he 1op of a fixed plane!nclined at an
angle arctanfi to the horizontal.T h e p a rticle A ison 1hep\ane andthe
particle B hangs freely(sce figure).The systemls reletiCd from res1 w:l t h t h e
string in a vertical plane through a line ofgre atest slope ofthe pfane.The
coefficient of friction between A and the plane is \. When B has fallen a
distance h the string breaks. A comes to rest after travelling a further dbtance
J up the plane, B falls a further distance h 10 slrikc a horizontal plane and
rises toa height h above thJt p!llfle,Find
(a) thespeedof the particles whenthe stringbreaks,
(b) the valu e of J,
(c) the coefficient of restitutionhetwcen B and the horizontal plane andthe
impulse of the blow when the puticle B strikes this plane, (AEB)

20) Three particles A, B, C of masses m, 2111, Jm respectivelylie at rut in

that order in a $l laight line 011 a smooth horizon1al table.The dilitance between
consecutive paniclesls .11 A slack light inelastic stringof le11g1h 2il connects
A and B. An exactlysimilar slack string connects B and C. Jf A is projected
in !he direction CBA wi1h speed V, find the time which elapses before C
begins to move. Find also the speed with which C begins to m01-e, Show that
the ratio of the impulsh·e tensions in BC aod AB when C is jerked into
motio11 is 3: I. Find the total Jou of kinetic enersywhen C hlls started to
(1MB)
°
21) A smooth plane is fixed at an inclination 30 with its lower edse at a
height II above a horizontal table.Twopartidu P and Q , each of mass 111,
are connected bya light incxtensib!e stringoflength 2il, and P ishelda1 1hc
Jower edse of the inclined plane whilc Q restsonthe t:ib]e \'e rticallybclow P.
The particle P is then p1ojected withvclocity r, (u>./ia) upwudsa!onga
lineof greatest slopcof the plane.Find the impulsivetension inthe stringwhen
Q is jerked into motion. Determine the magnitude of r, if Q just reaches 1he
lower edse of the plane, and the tension in the strins while Q is moving. (JMB)

22) Ahammerof mass Sm, moving horiwntaUywith velocity V, mikes a

stationaryhorizontal nail of mass m . lfthc coefficient of restitution between
l
the hammer l!fld the nailis findthe\·elocityof the nail just afterthc blow.
Immediatelyafter the blow the nail begins to penet rate a block of mass nm
which is free to move ona smooth horizontal tablc.Penet rationis resistedbya
constant force R , Find the common velocityof the block and the nail when
the nail ceascsto penetrate the block.Showthat penetiation ceascs a1 a time
4m,1V
aflcr the blow(il may be assumed that there is onlyone blow
](n+ l)R
between thcharnmerand the oai!). (JMB)

23) Two particles of masses m and Jm are connected bya light inelastic
stringof lcngth 21 whichpasscsov e r a small smooth fixed pcs.The par1icles
arehe!din contact withthe pegand thcn allowed,atthe same instant, lofall
fromrest under gravit y,oneon cithcr sideof the pcg.Provcthat
(a) thcspcedofcach particlejus1afte r t h e s t rins tighte11s is vfiifi,,
(b) thesuddentlghtcnlngof thes1ringcauscs a loss of energycqual 10 3mgl ,
(c) 1hclighter partide reaches thepeg again af1c r a to1altime ,/6lfi. (JMB)
 Mott..motla - Meehonlts•nd l',oboblllty

J.
24) A sphere A uf mau m i s moving with speed V on a smooth horizontal
nourwhe n i t cullidcs directl y w i t h a stationary sphere B o f the s.ameradius bu1

J.
ofmus N11. The cocfficient ofrestitut i o n between the spheres i s Find
expreui ons for the speeds of A and B after impact.
Sphere B then mi kes normally a ve1tical wall and rebounds.The coefficient of
1utitution between B and the wall is also If A and B do not collide
again ,show that A;:> 19/6. Showtha1,when A :0 6, the kinetic energy
!U5twhen A strikes B is SmV1/21. (U ofL)

25) A small smooth sphere moves on a horiwntal table and stri kes an i dentical
sphere lyinga1 1es1 on the table a1 a distan« d from a vert icalwall. lhe i mpact
being a!ong the lineofcentres and perpendlcular to the wall.P10ve th.at the
next impact between the spheres w i U take place at a distance
2de1/{l + e')
from the wall, where e is the cocfficiem of restitution for all impacu involved.
(U ofl)

26) Tv,o particles A and B, of mus 2m and ,n respect ively , are attache d to
theends ofa light i nextensible stringof length 4a which passes over a small
smoo1h pegfixe d a 1 a heigh1 3a abov e a n inelutic table.The sy11tcmls released
fromrest wilh eachparcicle at a height a above 1he t1ble.
Wri!e duwn theequatio n o f motion foreach ofthe particles and hence detennlne
the common magnitude of their accelerat i011s. Show that, u the i nstant when A
is first brought to rest b y h i t t i n g the table, B has a speed V given by

Detcrmine, !n tcrmsof V and II,

(a) 1he 1imetha1 dapses before A first hits the table,
(b) the t i me that A i i; restingonthe table after thefirstcollisionbefore i t i s
first jerked off.
(c) the spee d w i t h which A is fiJSt je1ked off the table,
(d) 1he t i me that elapses between A being first jerke d off the tab!e nnd
A hlt1ing 1hetable ag�. (AEB)

27) Two small spheres of masses m and 2m are connected by a light

i nextensible stringof length 211. When thestring is taut and horizontal.lts
mid,point b fixed and the spheres ue released from rut.The coefficient of
rest itution between 1he spheres i s ½, Showthatthe first impact bringsthe
heavier sphere t u rest, and lh.at thesecond impact bringsthelighlersphereto
rest.
F i n d t h e ,-elocity of each sphere immediately after thethlrd i mpac1. ( U o f L)
 Mo.nontum.OINCtlmPICI

28) Two par1icles A and B of masses 1m and Jm respectivelyare placed on

a smoo1h horizonta l p lane.The coefficien t o f restitu!ionbetween A and B is ½­
The partide A !s made to move with speed u directly towards B which is I!
rest . Calculue thes�dtof A and B aftcr 1heir collision, theimpulseofthc
force t ransmiucd from A to B and tlle loss in kinetic encrgy duetothe
collision,
The particles A and B arc now connected by a light inextensible siring and are
placed sidebysi de on the smooth horizontal plane.The parride A it given a
horizonurl velocity v di1ectlyaway from B. Calculate the impulse of the
tension in thestringat thc instan t when thestring tlghtens.Calculatealso the
resulting common 1·elocity of the two paniclcs and !.how that the Ion in kinetic
energy duetothetightening ofthestringis 0.6mv'. (AEB)

29) Two scale 1»-ns,each of mass m, are connected bya light inela. lllc st,lng
which passes over a smJ.!1 smo01h fixed light pulley.On one scak pan there is an
inelastic particle A ofmass 2m. Thesystem isreleast d f o r m rcst wit h the
hangingpartsof theming vcrtical.l'ind the 1ension in1hestringandthc
1ccele111tion ofeither scalep1n.
At the instant when motion begins, a pm ick nf mass 3m is allnwed to fill
from rest and aftu I Kconds lt strikes, and adh.eres to, A. Find the impulsive
tension i n t he11ring and 1heveloci1yof either scalep:tn immediatelyaftcr the
impacl. (JMB)

30) Two particles nch of mus m arc connected by a light inextensible string
and a particle of mass /If is attached to the midpoint of the string.The system
isatrest ona smooth horizon1al tablev,i 1hthe mingjust ta u1 a n d i n a straight
line.The particle /If ls givena 1-cloci1y V along thc tableperpe ndlcular tothe
string.Prove that,whcn thetwocndparticlcs areabout to collide:
(a) the velocityof /If is VM/(M+2m).
(b) the speed of each of the ocher particles is V(2M(M+m)jl/(,\f + 2m). (0)

3 1 ) Tluee panicles A, B and C, each of man m. lieal e r st on a smooth

horizontal table.Llght inexiensiblestrinp cnnncct.A to B and B to C. Th e
°
string:sarejuU tautwilh LAI.IC=135 , whenablow ofimpulK J is
applied to C in a direction parallel to AB. Provethat A begins to movewith
speed (J/7'Jm and find the impulsive tension in thestring BC. (U of L)

32) Abullet of mass m is fired with. speed u into a fixed block of wood and
emerges with speed 2u/3. When the experiment is 1epe:tted with a block
frec to movethebullet cmcrges with speed u/2 relalfre to theblock.
Assuming thesameconsiant 1esistanceto pene1ration inbo1h cases, find the
massand the finalspeed of1hcblockin 1hestcond caK.(Ncglect the effect of
gravity throughout.) (UofL)
 ��tlcl -Mechlnlco•nd Pta.blblHty

33) The mas:ses oft luee perfectly elastic sphercs A, B and C are M, M an d
m respectively (M> m). T h e spheres ,1re Initially a t rest w i t h their cenues i n
a st raight line, C lyingbetween A a n d B . Jf C is given a velocity t oW11rds A
along t he line ofcenues, show that after colliding first with A and t hen with B
it will not collide I second time with A !f M < (,/S + 2)nr. Find t he ratios
o f t h e kineticcnergiesofthe threc spheresaf1er t hc second collisionandverify
that no energyhas bcen l0$1. (Uofl)
 CHAPTER 9

PROJECTILES

A p10 jectileisa particlc whichis givcnan initial vcloci1yand 1hen moves

undtr theactionoflts wcight alone.lnthis chapter we,analysethemotionor
projectiles whilethey arein night. For example, a ballwhlch is thrown isa
projectileand weare concerned with its flight from the moment it leaves the
thrower's han d untll its llightis interrupted.
lfthe initial vtlocity ofa proj\!ctilc ii,.enical it mo.-cs ina straight linc (see
Chapte14).
lftheinitial ,-elocltyisno1 vertical theparticlemo1-e1 in 1 curveand lts llight
canbeanalysedby considering the vuticaland horizontal componentsofiti
accdcration. vdocity and displacement.
Consider a ball which is thrown with an initial,·docity V at an angle n m the
horizontal.
We will take horizontal and venical axes Ot and Oy through 0 , the point of
projection.Wlth this frameof 1eference, the horiiontal components of
displacement. velocityandacce!erationa1any time during 1hefligh1 are
x, .:i:, i' a11d1he vertical cornponentsarc y, j, j.

Throughmu the flight the only force ;icting on the ball is its own weight,so its
acceleralioni, g vertically i.lownwards
X = 0 and ji = -g
Hence the horizontal velocitycomponent ls com1ant and venically there ii
mo1ionwith corutantacctlcralion,
lnitiallythehoriiontaland verti calvclocitycomponcot.sarc V cosa and Vsina.
Hencc , a t anytime I duri ng thc flight,

(using v = u +at)

Furthcr , si nce01c baU startsfrom 0 , using s= ut and � = ur+ fat'

gives

Theseexprcssionsfor dilp!acemcnt and vclocitycomponcnts canbcusedto

dctcrmineall theinformation that mightbc 1cqui1cd 1bou1 1heflight of a
p1ojectilc.

I) Aball i s throv.-n "· i th an i nitialvelocityof 2 0 m s -1 at an ang

le of 30"
abovc thehoriwntal.find;
(a) 1hcspccd of thc blll 2 seconds aftcrprojection ,
(b 1hcdistanc e o f 1heball from itspoint ofp1ojcction l second afterbcing
)
1h1own.
[Take g = I 0 nu-�.I

°
ln thil problem V= 20, a = 30 , g = JO, l "' 2
So X = V cosa
°
X = 20cosJ0 = 10,/3
i = V si na-gt
°
y = 20sin30 - ( I OX2) = - 1 0
Nole that when j, i s negative theballlw passed i t sh i ghest point and i s falling.
Nowtht 5peed of the particle b givenby
v = ,hi+J'i
"' ,/300+ 100 = 20
So the speed afttr 2seconds Cl 20ms-1

(b) When t = I , x "' Vt cosa = (20)(1)(,/J/2)

tc !0,/3
and y .. Vtsina-h-1 1 • (20)(1)(!) - }(IO)(I)

Then OP = ../7+yl
= ✓fcio +Ts = sv'fJ
Soafter l second the ball is S../i1m from 0.

2) A stone U thrown from the lop of a tower which is 11 m high and stands
on horizontal ground.Thespeedof projection is 12ms-1 andthe inilial
°
di1tction ofmotion isa1 60 10 1he downward vertical. Find the timetaken for
thestone 1o rtach 1he ground. Findalso the di rectionof mo1ion jus1 before it
hits the ground.
(Take g a1 IOms-1_]

lfwe wish 10 use the same e:,;p1essions in this problem. the origin, 0. is at the
1opof the10werand theang!e ofprojection isbelowthe x ax.is.
°
So a = -30 and.at1he foo1ofthe tower. y = - 1 1
Then y = Vt sin a-}gt '
- I I = (121X-})-S11
S1'+61- l l "' O
t = l or
Tal:ing the poi;itiveva!ue,the stone reachcs 1hcground after I ucond.
The negativevalue represents the time before projection when the stone could
havcbecnat grnund level.

Just before the stone hits the ground.

°
i = 12 cos(-30 ) = WJ
j, • 12 sin ( - 30 ) - (IOXI) "' - 16 (i.e.do wn wa1ds)
°

So,at A, thevcloclty componcntsor

the stonc are:ushowoin the diagram.
Jfthe dircctlon ofmotio n i s a t a n anglc
,;, belowthc horizon1al tl1en

!Take g as I O m s -1.J
In Questions 1- 5, V isthe speed ofprojcction, a islhc anglcof projcction,
1 isthc timeaftc, projection and d is che distanccofthe projecti!e P from
thepointof projectionat time t11,• henthe coordinate s o f P ar
e (x,y).
°
I) V= 12. a = 60 , r= 2; find d.
°
2) V=20. a=45 . t= I; find X and y.
°
J) V = IO, «=JO , x=l0✓3; find tan d y,
°
4) a = C,0 . x = 30, t= J; find V an d y.

S) v -. 12, x = 24 , 1 = 4; fmd a and d.

6) A particlcis p10jectcd witha 1-elodty of 4 0 m , -' at an angle of 60° to the

horizontal.Finditsvelocity l j seconds latcr.

7) A particleis projectcd with a �-elocityof I O m s -1 at an angle of )0 to the

°

horirontal. Findits distance hom thc point ofprojection ½ sccoodlater .

 l't'oj,oo:dlH

8) A panide isprojected from a point on level ground with a velocityof

20ms-1 and hits the ground j ofa secondla1er. Findthe angle ofp,ojection.

9) A particle isprojected from a point O at an angle of -JO". (JO" below

thehoritonta l ) .lf thepartic el hitsthe ground,whichis SOm belowthe level
of 0, 2 seconds laterfindthe initialspeed ofthe particle.

THE EQUATION OF THE PATH

The path ofap1ojectile(sornetimes1eferred toas the trajectory) isa curve

whichisthe locus ofthesetofpointswhose coordinates arc givenby

x O V< casa
(
y = V1sina--! g 1 l

These are theparametric equations ofthe cur..-e (I istheparamete1) and the

Car!esian equationcanbe obtained by eliminatlng I 1o give

g xl se.:l a
y = x t an a - - -
21'1

Note that y isa quadraticfunctionof x so

.
, the pathofa P.rojectileis a parabola.
,

From the equation ofthepath wecan find thevalue of

val� of x.
t for anyparticular

t
Wesawin Chapter 4 that the direction ofrnotion b along thetangent to the

curve.UW!g thereforeprovides an alternative method for calculating the

dilection ofrnotion at aparticu larpoim on the path rather than at a particu al r
t
ime.
 M1t.......iicJ- MechonlalandProboblllr,-

PROBLEM SOLVING

The formulae that can beuscdto soh· e projectileproblem sare

.i = Vcoscw [I]
(
j- = V si n (l: - gl ]2]

X = 1// C(l:S(l: ]3]

[
]4]
1
y = V1 si n o: - �gr

gxl sccl n
y = x 1 a n cw - ---;;;-- ]5]

]6]

Note that equat ion (6] need notbe memoriscdasit can easily b e obt.iined faum
equation[5].

l'roblenu involvingvelocityrequi1e the u se of cquation s(IJ andj2J

l'roblemsinvolving po5ition c a n b e dealtwit h i n two ways;

(a) byusing cquation s!J) and j4l ifthe coordina1cs;ue rcqui t t d
sepautelyat a given time,
(b) hyu,ing equati011 [5] ro,e/a1e1/Jc coonl/11a1 es and to avoid introducing
the time 1 .

'I,,
Problem sinvolving dirccti(l:n o fmotion can al so b e deal! with i n two ways:

(a) by u sing togivethedilectionof motion at apartiru lartimc,

(b) byuililg � t o givethe directionofmotionat aparticu /arpolm.

lt i smuchbetterto sclcct the most appropriate formulae for solving a particular

problem, than to risk using all of them at some stage. This i1 Fatal.a,
equa1ion [5] is equivaJcnt tothepair ofcqiu1 ions [3] and [ 4 ] ; \ h c uscof all
1hrce ofthcsc cquation slead stoan infuriating r e sul1 such u 0 = 0!
I ) A pa n i d c i s projcctcd wi t h a spcc d of 2 0 m s -1 and reaches its greatest
height above the point ofprojec!ion i ofa second later. Find the angle of
projection.

If A i.s thchighest point on the path then,whc n t hc parti clc i s at A i t i s

1ra1·cUinghoriiontally,i�.
j = 0
This occun when I = �
Atanytime r, j = 20 sino- - g r
So.at A . 0 = 20sin a - (9.8)(i)
9.8
60
Hence sino- = - = 0.1633

°
0 "' 9.4
°
Therefore the anglc of projcct i o n i s 9.4 .
2) A particle is projected from a pointwhich i s 2 mabove ground !cvcl v,,ith a
vcloci t y o f 4 0 m s -1 atan angle of 4S to the ho ir zontal.F!ndits horizontal
0

distance from 1hepoin1 ofprojection whcn i t h i u theground.

'BT
'"
,o.1,
.,.

lt
?

- - - :� - - - - - -- X

g x1 sec1a
U!;ing the equationofthe path y = x tan tt - - -

,,,
2V'

y = x - --
1600
 Mat.,_Ml,;s - Mechonl,;sand P,obablll1y

,,,
We require the value of x when y = -2

So -2 = x - -
1 600
49x1 -8000x-!6000 = 0
X "' 165
Theref ore the horizontal distance of theparticle from O when it hiu the
ground i s 165m.
°
3) A s1one is 1h10wnfrom the1opofa cliff 70m highat an angle of 30
below che ho1izonta] and hits the sea Wm from thebottom of the cliff.Find
1he initialspeed of 1hestone andthe direction inwhichitis movingwhenit hits
the sea.

L.etthe initial speedby V m s -1

x'g
Usin g t h e equation ofthc path y = x tan ( - 30") - zvi sec' ( - 30°)

The scone hits thesn whcn y "' -70 and x = 20

Thc,eforc -70 = ✓3
-20 400 x9.8 4
- �x 3

V' "' 44.7

V = 6.7
Therefore 1helnitialspeedof1he stoneis 6.7ms-1.
To find chedircctionof motlonofthe stone wecan use
g sec - 30")
� = tan(-30") - ;c :\
Whenthe stone hits the �a. x = 20
dy -I 20d.8 x 4
So at that point � = 0 - 44.JxJ

°
Therefore thestonehits the sea at 81 to the horizontal.

4) A particle P is projected from a point O with an initial �elocity of 60 m s-1

at an angle 30° to the h01iwntal. At the same inuant a =ond particle Q is
ptojected in thc opposite direction withinitia!speed 50ms-1 from a point
level with O and 100m from 0. lf the pa11iclcs collide find 1hc angle of
projection of Q and find when the colllsion occurs.

If the particles co!Ude they must be at the same poi,u at the wme time so, as
time isan important consideratlon,wedo not use lhe equation ofthe path.
Let I be the time imerv:il fromprojectionto colllsion.
For P we use O as origin and the x axis along OA giving
°
Xp = (60 cos30 )/
°
Yp = (60 sinJ0 )1-br'
Fo, Q we use A as origin and its x axis along AO giving
XQ = (50cosa)t
YQ = (50sintt)r- !gr1
Xp +XQ "' 100
1(J0./J +50cosa) = 100 111
Also )'p = YQ
30 "' 50sina
sina- .. j (21
 Mottlo1N11ia -Mechanic,,,ond P<-llll'f
°
Hence,fromcquation J2], cosa = 1 .,. a "' 36,9
The,cfore Q isprojecte d at 36,9" to the horizontal.
Then equation [ I ] gives
l(3Ch/3 +40) = ! 0 0
t = l .09
Therefore theparticles collide l 0.9 5econds afterprojection.

] 1�
5) Apartide isprojectedfrom a point O with initial velocity 3 i + 4j,
.,.indvi:ctor exp1ession1 fo1 1he vclocity and position of theprojectile a1 time 1.

�
0 •

The magnitu des of1he initial horizontaland vcrticalveloci1y components are

3 3nd 4 respectivdy.i.e. Vcosa • 3 3nd V s i n a • 4 .

'"'
At time r, :i: = V cosn .. 3
j = V1inn-g1= 4-gt
V = )i+(4 -gt)j

Simila1l y a 1 1ime 1, x = Vtcosa = 31

and y = Vrsi n a - !gt1 = 41- fgtl
So the dhpbcement veclOr, r, is given by
 ProJectilH

l n seneralif apartlcle isprojected with initialvelocity ai+bj , then ilsveloclty

at any time r can bc cxprc�d in t hc form
v = ai+(b -gr)j
and iu position at anytimc I canbe exprem d i n 1hefonn
1
r = ati + (b1-Jgr)j.
Anyproblem on projectilesmay be solved using vector methods but in general
i t i s u nwisc t o d o so unles.s theproblem isphrased in "ector lerms.

Jn thisexcrcisc take g as !Oms-l

I) Aparticle isprojectedwith a 1 e· !ocityof JOms-1 at an ang!e arctan¾ to
the horizontal. II hlt!i the ground at apoint which isJe,·el with iu point of
pro,icction.Flnd the timefor which it isinthe air.
2) Aparticle bproject ed with a 1-elocityof !Oms-1 at an angle of 45° to the
horizontaL lt hitsthe groun d a t apointwhich is 3m belowitspoin t o f
projection. Find 1he t ime for which i t is in th.e air and1he horizontal distance
covered bytheparticle in this time.
3) A ballisthro"·n fromground level wi1ha,·elocity of ! S m s -1 at an angle of
a
60 to the horizontal.Find when the ball hits the ground and the ti� al which
it reachesitsgreatest height abo
,·e the point ofprojection.
4) A partide isprojected "ith a,·elocityof 70ms-1 at an angle of 20 to the
°

horizontal. Find the greatest heigh11cachedby thepar1lcleabo1·e i1!ipoin10f

projection.
5) A b.lll is thrown with a , e· locityof J S m s -1 at an angle of 3 0° to the
horizontal from a point which is ! .5 m above ground !e�l.Find when 1he ball
hits thc groundand the direction in which i t i5 movingju111 before it h i t s the
ground.
6) A ball isthrown from g1ound level so tlut ii just clears a wall 3 m high when
it is moving horiion1ally.lfthe initi;tlspeed of thcballis 20ms-', ftnd 1he
anglc ofprojection.
 Molh•rno1ic:t- MKh1nk:ooncl Probobllt1y

°
7) A particle isprojectcd at an ang] e o f 30 to the horizontal and 2seconds
later i s movi n g i n 1hedi1ection aictan ¼ 1 0 1hc horizontal.Finditsinitial speed.

8) ln Qucstion 7.Jf1hcdirectionofmotion is arctan(-!), 2 seconds aftc1

projcction,wha1 is thc i n i t i al speed?
A!so "· ha 1 i s the signifi canceof arctan(- i)?
9) Apa11i cle isp1ojected fromground \evelwi1h an i ni!ialveloci t y of 35ms-1
at an angle of arctan j to the horizontal. Find the timc forwhich theparticle
is more than 20m abm·e thc ground.

10) A panicle isprojectcdfromapoint O which is JOOm abo\·e giound

!evel.The inhial veloci t y is 40m s-' horizon1ally . F i n d t h e time at which the
partklehits 1 h e ground and1he horizonta l d i s 1a nc e o f t hispoin1 from thepoint
ofprojection.
1 1 ) Aparticlc isprojectedfrom apoint O w i t h i n i t i a l 1 e· locityvec1or i+2j.
Find the \·clocity vectorand position vector ofthe particle (a) aftert seconds,
(b) after lj seconds.
12) Aparticle is projected from apoint O and l J 5eeonds later it passes
through thcpoint whosepos.iti o n \'t'ctor i s 4 i +j. Findthe initialvelocityof
the p:irticle.

13) Two seeonds afterproject!on from a poin1 0 a p1ojectile P passes through

a pointwithposi t i o n 1't'ctor 8i - 12j. Findtheinitialvelocity1-cc1o r o f P.
Find abo thepositionvector of P after 3 seconds.

!4) Aparticle is projected from apoint O with initial \"elocity vector 31-j.
Find t h e d i rection i n whlch i t i s moving 2 secondslater. Find also the Cartesian
equation ofltspath.

JS) A par!icle isprojected frum a point O wlth veloci t y,·ector 20i+ 30j.
25econds later a secondparticle isprojected from O wi1hvelocity vecto1
60i +50j. Pro\·e that the particles collide ! second after theprojectlonofthe
secondparticle.

16) Twoparticles arep1ojected simultaneously from apoint O in the same

\'crtical p!Jne wi1hang]es ofp1ojcction Jo" and 60" andwith the same i n i t i al
sp<:edof 2..,/J ms-•. Fi11d 1he positions oftheparticles 1 seconds aftcr
projection andhenctOnd t h e dlstance bet-veen them when 1=2.

17) A and B a1e twopointson lcvel giound, 60m apart.Aparticle is

projected from A towards B with l11 ilial y,eJocity 30ms-1 at 45 to the
°

ho1lzontal.At t h e same insunt aparticle llprojected from B towa1ds ,\ with

the same i nitial velocity. Find when the particlesC<1llide and the height above
the level of AB at which they collide.
 l'rojectlles

18) A partieleisprojcctcd froma point O wit h a n initial velocity of 20m1-1

andat arctanj to thehorilontal. 2 seconds later a second particleis projected
from O and it collides with the fint particle I sec ond after leaving 0. Find
theinitialvelocity o f thcsecond particle,
c d r0
1
1 c 8 c i
9
,
a'i ln�::1: �� �::i:�; :: � e �o:::n�� ?nt:�c:�� i�c: !::ier°!a;t�� �:
projected from a point 0.3 m below O with an initial velocity ofJ 1 .5 m s-1 at !111
anglc arctan ) to thehorizontal.P rovc that thcparticlcs colli<leand fm d when
this occurs.Fin d alsothedircctiooin which eachputicleismoving when they
collide.

PARTICULAR PROPERTIES OF PARABOLIC FLIGHT

Certain information about projec tiles isrequired frcqucntly cnough toj11Stify

obtainingthisin gcnc,al terms.
Consider a partide whichisprojected fro m a point O on level ground with a
velocity V at an angle a to tltehorilontal, reaching ground levcl again a t a
point A .

. . ;
'ili
0- � -
-
''
nori,,001>lnr,g,- -
-
'
'
The Time of Flight

Thlsis thetimetaken for theparticle to travel alongits path from O to A.

Al any time 1, y • {Vsino:t)r - h1
·'
When tltcparticleisat A, y - 0
Therefore ( V sino:)r - b1' - 0
2 v no.
1 = 0 or t= ;
The Gr111es1 Height
Thisis h inthe diagram a n d i s theheighta! themidpoint ofthepath.
At anytime t, j = V s i n a - gt
When theparticle is at B, it is movinghorizontaUy,i.e. j,= 0

So V si n a - gi = 0

' ,,
(Nottthatthisis halfthetotaltimeofflight.)
V' sin'a V'sin1 a
Then y = V sin01 - }g1 1 glvu Ii = - - -- -

The Horizonlll Renge

I
Thisis 1he dlslance from theinitlalposition10 1hefinalpo sition on a

'
horizontalplanethrough thepoint ofprojection,i.e. OA.
2Vs.ina
Atanytime 1, x = V1 co s a but,al A, 1 =

' '
2 v2 sinocoso V1 sin2o:
S o , f o r OA, x "' ...

The Muimum Horizonlll Renge

For a gi1-en value of V, the horiiontal rangei s maximum when the value of
1'1 sin 2a °
i s greatest. This occurs when sin2<1'= I Le. when o = 45 ,
Determinationof the Angle of Projection

lftheprojectilehas topass t hrough a puticular point withcoordinate$ (,:i, b)

then weuse theequation of the path in theform
gx1(J+tan1o:)
y = xtana - �

giving

Thl$is aquadratic equationin un111 so,providc d i 1 has1"'·o differen1posi1ive

roots, 1hereare1wo angl«of projec1io n for which thepat h of t h eprojectile
wlllpass through a givenpoin1, wi1h a given sp e ed of p1ojection.

(Take g as ! O m s-• unles s otherwisespecified.J

I ) A gun has a muzzle,-clocicy of 200n1S-1 (i.e. a shell lea,-es thegun with an
initialspeed of 200 m s-1). F!ndthehorizontal rangc o f thegun whcn the
°
ang!eofprojeclion i s 30 . Find also 1hemaximum holizontalrangeof thegun.

visin2a
ThehorUontal rangeis - -
°
° (200)2 sin60
When o:=30 , thciangcis --- a. 3460
g
Themaximum horizontal rangeo c c urs when o: "' 45°
 v1 (20W
Therefore the maximum range is - = - = 4000
g 10

Therefore thc ho1izontal range ofthe gun is 3460m when the angle of
°
projection is 30 and the maximum horizontal range is 4000 m.

:Z) A particle is projected fiom a point O with an initial speed of 30 m ,-1 10

pau t hrough a point which is 40m from O horizontallyand ]Orn above 0.
Show that thereare two angles ofprojectlon for whlch thls is pos.sible.l f these
ang.lc111e o and Jl s.how that tan(a + jl ) • - 4 .

,,
'�
_. _ _ __
,
,. '
,\

Let the angl e o f p rojec\lon o f t h e pa11ic lc be 8.

The path oftheparticle hasto pas:s through the point where x =40, y = 10.
Using the equation of1hcpathofthe p1ojectilein the form

The point (40. 10) lies on this path so

10 = 40 tan0 - �� (! + tanl 8)

8 tanl 0-36 tan0 + 17 • 0 [I]

This i1 a quadratic equation in tan 8 with two positive roots.Therefore there
°
arc two values of 8 less than 90 . so there a,e twopos.sibleanglesofprojection.
tana + tanJl
Nowweareaskcdtocalculnc tan(a+{J) which is equa! to _
1 - Wla tan{J
where tana and tanjl are the roouofequation [ I ] .

Hence tan a + tanjl = f = ! (sum ofroou)

and tanotanjl = lj (product ofroots)
 Projoc'111n

Therefore

3) An arrow which huan i nitialspeedof 40ms-• i s aimed a t a targetwhkh i s

level with i t at a distanceof 100m fromthe point nf projection, Findthe
least time of flight for the arrow t o h i t thetarget.

Thehorizontal range of 11 p rojectile ls

As the horizonul range is to be 100m,

100 = l60sin 2a

a = 19.3" or a = 70.7"

Thc1eforc there a ie two possible angles of projection for which the arrow hiu the
target.

2 V sina
Thetimeof flight!s - - .. 8 sina
g

T h i s ls lun when sina hasthe smallcr ofitstwo values ,l.e.whcn a = 19.3°

° °
When a=19 3
. thetimcofffight i s 8 sin l9.3
Therefo1cthe least 1imeoffli gl1t is 2.6s,

4) ln ex11n1ple3,if thc target i.5 a s1rip which is 3.7 5 m high.find the possible
Y3lucsofthe angle ofprojection ifthe arrow i s to hitthe target.
 !O"( anl a:)
The equation o f the path o f the a r r o w is y = t01 tan a:- �:�

fo11he a r row t o hit the targe1, 0 ,,;;; y ,,;;; 3.75 when x = IOO
1
0 ,;;; 100tana:- :i ( l + t a n1 a:) ,;;; 3.75

0 ,;;; 800tano:- 250( i + tan1 o:) ,,;;; 30

If S001ano:- 250(l+tan1 o:) ,;;; 30 wep:t 25tan1 o:-80 t a n et: + 28 ;;. 0
.. (25 tana- 14XS tano:-2) ;;. 0 - t a n a ,,;;; j o r tana: ;;. 1;
° °
.. o: ,,;;; 21.8 or o: > 703
2
If 800 tan n-250sec .:t ;;. 02
we get 5 tan a:-16 rnna:+5 ,,;;; 0
1

° °
• !93 ,;;; et: ,;;; 70.7 .
° ° ° °
The1efore 1o hit 1he ta rgel 19.3 ,;;; o: ,;;; 2 1 .8 o r 703 ,;;; n ,,;;; 70.7

(Take ,; as I O m s- 1 ]
I) A gu11 hasa maximum range of 200 m o n the ho rizo ntal.Find 1he velocity
o f a shell u lt !ea\-es thc muz1.le o fthegun.
2) The maximum range of a gun is 150m. What isthe muzzle,·eJo city and wh.at
is1he11 rea1cn heigh1 1eache d b y the sh o 1?
3) A parlicleis projec1ed fro m a po int O t o passthro ugh a po int levelwl1h 0
and SOm fr o m 0. Find the minimum,·elocity o f pro jection fo1 this t o be
possible a n d t h e g reatcsthcight reached with t his, · e locity.
°
4) A pa rticleisp1ojectedat 20 t o the ho rizo ntalandjuJt cleau a wall which
is [Orn high and 30 m fro m 1he po int o f prcjectio n.Find 1he initialspeed o f
the pa rticle.
5) A bal! isthrown"'ithan initial velo city o f 30 m s-1 at 30 to the ho rizontal.
°

It jun dearsa wall, the fo o t o f which is 25 m f r o m the point o f p ro jection.

Findthe height o f thewa!l.
 Projoc:IIIH

6) A particleisprojectedfroma poinl O withan lnitial speed of 3 0 m s~1 10

h it a target which i s level with O and 6 0 m from 0. Show 1hat there aretwo
possibleansles of projectionforwhich thu is pos,ib!eand f111d them.
7) A particle isp1ojected from a point 0 w i t h an initial speed of SO m s-1 •
Thepaniclejust clearsa wallwhichis SOm high and 1 00 m horizontally from
0. Find thetwo po6&ibleans!es of projectionofthepanicle.
8) A par!!cle·isprojected with an initial speed of 6 0 m s-• towards I wall which
i1 100m horizontal!yfrom thepoin1of p1ojection and 20 m high.Find the
Jeast angleofprojection fo1which theparticlewiU passove1 thewall.
9) A part icle isprojected withan initial specd u t o pas s t hrough a point which
is 511 hmizontallyand u verticallyfrom thepoint ofprojection.Show that if
there are 1wo angles of projection forwhich1his ispos,ible ul > 20(u + l 25).
Find thet<1lueof II forwhich thereis on]yoneangleof projection.
JO) Agunwitha muzzl e veloci1y of \OOm s-• isfired from thefloor ofa
tunnel which is 4 m high. Find the maximum angle of projeclion p0$Sible if a
buUet isnot to hit the1oof, and1he rangeofthegunwilh1hu ang]eof
projection.
1 1 ) A gun is fired to hit a 1argct le,·el with it but 1000m away.If the rnuule
,-eloci tyoftheguni1 2 0 0 m s-• andtheshel l it liresh;uto pass overa tree
1 5 m highand SOm from thegun,find theang]eofprojectionnece=ry.
12) Show that. with ,m initial speed u, the maximum horizontal dinance that a
particlecan travel fiom its point of projection is twice the maximum height i t
canreach abo,-ethepoint ofprojcction.
13) A particleis projected from a point O withan ang]eofprojcction a:.
Find a: ifthe horizonta! rangc ofthc particleisfivetimcsthegreatest he!ght
reached by it

4)("1;4&).
14) A parlicleisprojected in!iidc a tunnel which is 2m high.lfthe initial

speed is u show that the maximum range inside the tunnel is

IS) A particleisprojected from a point O on levcl ground towardsa smooth

\·crtical wall whichls 20m from 0. Theparticle hits the wall when travelling
ho1izonta!ly.lf thc speed of projcctionis 25m s-• lind thetwo possiblcang]es
of projec1ion. lf thecoefficien1 ofres1itution between theparticleand thewall
is i- find thedistance frorn thefoot of thewall o f t hepoint wherc thc particle
hits the ground.
16) A particle is projected from a point O on level ground towards a smooth
,-ert ical wall JOm from O. Theparticlehlts thewaU whcn t rave\ling
horizontallywitha speed of J S m !i-1. Find theinitia! velocityoftheparticle.
Show that the time takenby the particle toreach the groun d againi5
independen t ofthe coefficientofrestitutionbetween theparticle andthe wal].
17) Abomb is tobe droppedfroman aeroplanewhichisflying steadily a t
1000m with a Jpeed of 200ms-1 .How far (horizontally) should the planebe
from the targetbefo,e it ,eleases the bomb and how long will it take thebomb
to hit the targetwhich is onthe ground.
18) Two particles I' and Q arc fired simultaneously fmm two points A and
B on level groundwith speeds ofpmjection u and 2u respectively. P is
proje.::ted soasto achieve iu maximum rangewhichis AB . Jfthe particles
co!lide. find the angle ofprojectionof Q. Find also. in term1 of u and g, the
height at which the particles collide,
19) Twopanicles are pmjected simultaneously fmm two points A and B on
level groundanda distanceof 150m apart.Thcfirst particle isprojected
,
veHicallyupwardsfrom A with an initial speed of u m,- and the second
particle is projected from B towards A with an angle ofprojection a. I fthe

.,,
particlesoollide when theyareboth at their greatest height abovethe level of

AB, prove that tano=

is0g·
20) Two particle!! a,c projected simultaneou,ly f,om a point O wilh the same
°
initial spee dbutwit h a ngles ofclevation a and 90 -a.Prove that the rangeof
the two particles i!, the same and show that at anytime during their flight the
0
line joining themis incline d a t 4S to the horizontal.

MULTIPLE CHOICE EXERCISE 9

(lmtrnctium fur omwering r
hne quesriom oregfre11 011 page x.)

I ) AbaUi5 thrownwitha speed of 20ms-1 al an angle arctanj to the

horizontal.lts horizonta!component of,-elocitytwo seconds !ateris
(1) 4 nH- 1 (b) 32ms- 1 (c) 0 (d) 1 2 m s-' (e) l 6 m !i-1 ,
2) A projectile is givenan initia! veloci1yof i-2j. Jts horizontal component
ofvelocitythreeseconds lateris:
(a) ,/S m,- 1 (b) -2ms- 1 (c) J m s- 1 (d) - J m s-1 (e) - 29 m , -1 .
J) A projecti le iJ thrown from a point which is I m above ground level.Taking
Oy verticallyupwar d it hit!i lheground when:
(a) X' = O (b) y = - 1 (c) y = I (d) )• = O (e) j .. J
4) A projectile is thrown from gmund level with an initial vdocity 4i +Jj.
lt reaches its greatest height abm· e ground lcvdaftcr:
(a) 0.24 s (b) O.J s (c) 0.18s (d) J s (e) Ss.
 ProjKtilH

5) A projectileis thrown withinitialspeedof JOrns- 1• lts rnuirnum

horizontal range is:
(a) 900m (b) 30m (c) 3 0 0 m (d) 90 m (c) 9m.

6) A projectile is givenan initial v c l o c i t y o f i + 2j. The cartolanequation of

iupathis·
(a) y=2'"-Sx1 (b) 4y=2'"-Sx: (c) 3y = 6x -2Sx1
(d) y = 2'"+5x1 (c) 4y=2x+Sx1.

7) A stoncis thrown frorn a height of !Orn above 1heground with an !nitial

°
velocity of ] O ms-• al 30 below the horizontal.Taking Oy vertically
downward,it hils the ground whcn:
(a) Y = S (b) Y = - 5 (c) Y = IS (d) Y ,,. - 15 (e) Y=O.

8) A particle is projected from ground level. Oy is taken vertically upward.

When the particle ruches its grcatest height above ground lcvel:
(a) j1 = - g (b) Y "' O (c) i = O.

9) A projectile is fifed with initial speed u so as to achie1·c the maximum

horizontal range.
10.'
(a) The cqualion ofilspath is y : x- 7.

{b) The horizontal c ornponent ofit svelocity is j11.

°
(c) Thc angle of projection is 45 .

10) A particle is p1ojcctedfrom a point A with initialspecd u atan anglc o,

iothe horizontal.Jts horiwntalrangeis R.
(1) Thepa1tide wouldh.avethc samc horizontal rangc ifthe anglc ofp10jcction
°
was 90 -r:,..
R
{b) The time of night is � -

,,
112 sin1 r:,.
(c) Thepartide reaches a maxirnum heigh t o f � - above A.

11) A projcctilc is projcctedfrorna point O o n lcvel ground with initial

°
velocity II at 45 1othc horiwn1al.When ithiti the ground:

.;,
(a) Y"' 0,

,
(b) lt has bcen i n t h e a i r fo r 1 tirnc lQ .

(cl x=O.
 �rti.....tlr:I - MKNnica and Ptobllblllty

12) A particle i1 projected from a point O on le1·el ground rnwards a wall

which it hits normally. Find how far frnm O the palliclc hits the ground again.
(a) The coeffkient of restitution between the particle and che wall i1 }.
(b) Thehorizontal componem of i nitial velocity is 101111-1.
(<.:) The di,tane<� of the wall from O is 30m.
13) A particle is projected from a point O to hit a Target which is le�el with 0
Fin d 1 he1wo possibleang]es of projection.
(a) The target i1 1 0 0 m fiom 0.
(b) TI1ernass ofthc projectileis 0.005kg.
(c) Theinitlal speed oftheprojectileis 3S m c1.
14) A particle ls projected towards a wall which it hits normally. Find the time
takenby the particle to reach ground lc1-elagain.
(a) The"· a llis 20 m from the point of projec tion.
(b) Theinitlal speed oftheprojectileis JOms-1.
(c) The cocfficirn t o f u:stitutionbetween particlean dwallfs !-
15) A particle is projected so that it just cle,n1 a wall.Find the initialvelocity
of the projectile.
(�) The wall is Sm high.
(b) Thefootof 1hewalli1 30 m ho,izonta!ly from thepointof pmjeclion.
(c) The particle is moving at an angle of arctan ! 10 t h e downward vmical as it
passes over the wall.
16) Two particles A and B arefiredsimultaneously towar dseach othCJfrom
twopoint1on !evel ground.Determinewhether thepartides co1Hdc.
(a) Thetwo pointsofprojectionare 5 0 m apart.
(b) The initial speed of A is ! S m s -1 .
(c) The initial speed of B is 3 0 m s -1.
17) A stone is thrown into !he sea from the :op of a diff. Find how far from
1heba,e ofthe cliff the1tonehitsthesea.
(a) Thes1oneis in 1 heair for l.5 seconds.
(b) The diff is 20 m high.
(c) Theinitial horizontalcomponeni ofvelocityis l O m s -1 .

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE 9

1 ) A tilcslidcs down a roofincUnedat 2if to thehorizontal starting 3 m

from the edge o f 1he roof. Assuming that the mof i s smooth find the horizontal
distancefro m theedgeof 1 h e roof tlt.:Lt thetilehitstheg1oun d if theedge ofthe
roof is 8m aboveg,ound level.
 ProjK'III
..

2) Two particles are projected simultaneously from the same point with angles
o f projection a and j] and initial speeds u and v. Show tha1 atanytime
during their 0igl1t the !lnejoining themis inclined10 1he horizontala1
usina-vsinfJ
arclan
u cosa-vcosj:I
3) At v,hat point durtng it s flight is the speed ofa piojectile minimum? A
partic l e is projec1edfrom a poin1 0 o n 3 horizontalplanewi1han angleof
projection a. Show1hatthe ra1ioofthe greatest 11peed tothe lnstspeedduring
the flight is I : cosa.
4) A projectile is fired frnm a point 0. The speed of the projectile when at its
greatest heiglll 11 above O is ,/(2/5) times its speed when al height h /2
above O. Show that thc initialangle whichthe ,'Clocityofthe projectile makes
'-'" iththe horizontalis n/3. (UofL)p
°
5) A ball is projected with speed 20 m/s at an angle of 60 10 the hortzont�I.
Findthc 1imc u.kenf or1hcballtotrav•I lO m horizon1ally.Find also thc hcight
ofthe ball abo, · e thc levdofthe point ofprojection when it h u t111velled a
horizontal distanceof lOm.
[Take g as 10m/s1.] (Uof L)
6) A particle is projected from a point O with initialspeed " 10 pau through
a point which i s a t a horizonialdistance a fiom O and a distance b vertically
above the Jevd of 0. Show that there are t wo possible angles of projection.Jf
these angles are a1 and a, prove that tan(a, + a1) = -(a/b).
7) A pmicle is projec1cd with speed II m s-1 at an angle a to the horizontal.
Flnd the direction in wh.ich i l ls moving aftcr t second1.. A particle is projected
from a point O and after rscconds passes 1hrou g h a poin1 P tra,·elling i n a
dircctionperpendico!ar tolhe direction of p1ojection.Provctha1 OP= jg1'.
(AEB)
8) A stone thrown upwards from the top nfa verticalcliff 56 m high falls into
the sca 4 scconds later. 32 m from 1he foot ofthe c!iff.Findthespecdand
di rcctionof projection.(Thestone moves i n a vertical plane perpendicular to
the diff.) A o econd 11onci• thrown al the same tim e, in the J:lnt e verticalplane,
at the same speed and at the same angle 10 the horiwntal, but downwards. Find
howlongi1 willtake toreachtheseaand 1he distance be1"·eenthe points of
entryofthcstonesintothc water.
[Take g lo be l0m/s1.] (UofL)
9) ,\ pani.-:le is projected from a point on horizoolalground with velocity V
and angle ofelevation a. Pro,·e thatthc grcatcst height ieachcd abovethc
v·
ground is sin'a.
2g
A bowler bowls a ball at the wickCl which is 20 mcues away from him
measured horizontally. The ball leaves his hand 2 metres abo,·e the ground and
without hlttingthe ground, p1155Cs through a pointwhichis vertically abovc the
wicket and ¾ metre vertinlly abo,·e the ground. The highest point reached by
the ball is 3mctrcs above 1heground. Find thc anglc ofelevation at which thc
ballis projcc1cd. Show thatthe angle madewith the hori?ontal by the dircction
ofmotion oflhcballwhenit passes over thewicketis arctan j.
Findthc tirnc bctween theinstantwhen the ball !eavcs the bowle(s handand
thcinstantwhcn it pa:u;es over thewickct. (CJ
10) A particleis projected under gra,·ily withspecd V from the point O, the
angle of projectionbcing a above the horizontal.Thc particlerises toa vertical
height H above O andits range on 1hc horizontalplane 1hrough O is R.
Prove that
v' V'
(a)/l= sin2 a (b) R = sin2a
'i; ;
Deduce that l6H1 -8Rof{+R1 = 0 where Ro isthema,dmumrange for
thcgivenspeedof projection.
Given that R0 = 200m and R = 192m, find the two possible values of
//, 1nd 1hc corresponding values of o:. (JMB)
II) A particle isprojected wi1h speed u at an elevation a to the horizontal.
Calcula1e the greatcstheight reached andthe horizontalrange.
The ma:ii:imum horizontal 11nge a particle can achieve with an initial speed u
is R . lfa partide projectedwith speed ii hua horizontalrange jR, calculate
the two possible angles of projection. Show that the difference in the maximum
heights attained with these angles of projection is }R. (AEB)

12) A particle is projected from the origin O with velocity V at an angle of

elnation 8 to the horizontal. Show that its height y above O when it hu
gx1 sec' 8
tra>·clled a distance x horizontally isgh·enby Y "' X ta n 8 - .
�
A baU th10wn from O with speed 1400cm/, iscaughtata point P. whichis
1000cm horizontally from O and 187.5 cm above the level of 0. Find the
two po:u;ible angles of projection. If the ball is thrown from O with the same
initial speedto pass through a point 562.5cm vertically abo,·e P, show that
there ison!ynne possible angle ofp10jection. (UofL)

13) A particle is projected with speed V at an angle a to the horizontal. Show

thatits greamt height above thepoint of projectionduring ils flightis
{V1 sin1 a)/(2g). A ball is projected from a point at a height il abo,·e
horizontal ground , v,•ith speed V at an angle a tothe horizontal.At the highest
pointofits fllghtit impingesnorrnally o n a vertical wall and rebounds.
Show that the ho1izontaldistance from thepoint ofprojectionto thewall!s
(V1 sina cos o:)/g and that 1hetime taken bytheballto 1cach the ground after
theimpactis ✓(Vl sin1 0: + 4'a)/g. (U ofL)
 P<oJo,cdl..

14) lf a panicle is projected with speed r, at an angle of elevation o: show that

t he horizon1al range is (u1 sin "la)/g and thc maxim11m hcigh1a11ainedis
(u's!n'o:)/2g.
A golfball i s struckso thatit leavcs a point A on thegroundwith speed 49 m/s
at an angle of elevuion a. If it lands on the green which i$ t he 53,me level as A,
thenearestand forihest points of whichare 196 m and 245m 1cspecth-ely
from A. fin d theset of possiblevaluc1 of o . Find aho themaximumhcight
thcballcan reach and stillland on t he green.
Thert is a tree at a horizontal d i s tan� 24.5 m from A and to rtach the guen
the bali must pass over this t ree. Find t hemaximum height ofthet reeif thi s bali
can reach anypoin t o n t he grcen.
(Assume the poinl A , the green and theba� ofthe tree to be in t he same
horizontal plane.) (AEB)

JS) The heigl1 t o f a vcrticalrnast OP is II high andit s1andswit h O on the

horizontal groun d .
(a) T"·o particles areprojected simultaneousl)' from P lnthesamevertical
planewit h thesamespeed. but with different ang]es of projection.Show
tha1 thedi s1ancebe1ween theparticles incre3ses 11nlforndywithtime.
(b) l f e particlc i s project e d ,e· rticallyupwa r d s from O with velocity V and a
second particleis projec tedat thesameins1ant from P with velocity V
and angle ofprojection !1 showt hat theyareat t heir iliortest distancc
apart after time h/(2V), and find this iliort est distance. (C)

16) A boytbrows a ba!J Wi t h initial speed 2✓(ag) at an angle !1 to the

1 t aJ 1 h
��::;�� t�: ���:c:���i�n�.:: tJ: :�;�i;;:;�;�ts ��,;� sin 11.
Byconsiderlng t hehorlzontal rnotion. show that if theboyis st and!ng a1 a
distance a from thewall the coefficient of rtstillltion between theballand the
wall equals
i/(4 sin20- I).
°
[)educe that the angle 11 c.anno1 he less than 1 5 . (UofL)

17) Twoboysstandon horizon1alg1ound at J distance a apart .One throws a

ball froma heighl 2h with velocit y V and thc o the1catches it at hdgh1 h. If
!1 is1heinclina1ionabove1he ho1izon1al a t whlch thefirst boythrows 1hebal1,
Wow th:at g,i1 tan2 !1 - 2V1 11 1 an!1 + g 111 -21'111 =O.
When a= 2.J2h and v• = ]gli . calculat e·
(a) theval11eof fJ ,
( b ) 1heg,eatcs1heighta1t ained byt heballabove1heground,in 1c1ms of h.
(AEB)
 Mallwnltla -Moehanieland P,oi..l>Hli-,,

18) Two particle, are projected with the same speed from the same point.The
angles of projection are 2a and a and a tilllii T elapses between the i utanll
r
of p1ojcction.lf thc particle5 co\lidein mght,find the spced ofprojection in
1cm15 of T ;u,d a.
lf the colli1ionoccunwhen oncof1hc pa11icles i s a t it1 greatest height, show
that a b given by 4 cos4a - co!';2 a - J = O. (AEB)
19) Two equal particles are projected at the same instant from points A and B
°
,·cl, the first from A towards B with vclodty u at 45 above
al the same Je
AB, and thesecond from B tow uds A with velocity v at 6d' above BA.
lfthc particlu collidedirecilywhen each reaches its greatest hcight, fin d 1he
1 2
ratiQ v : u andp10ve1hat u =ga(3- y3), wherea is the distance AB.
1

After the CQ!Jbion the fmt particle falls vertically. ShQW tha! the coefficient of
restitu1ion between the particles is (yj"- IX../J + I). (JMB)
20) A particlc isprojectedwlth spccd V and angle of c]evatlon a from a
point 0. Show tha1 1hecquationofthcrathofthc particle, 1eferrcdto
horizontal and vertical axes Ox and Oy respcclivclyinthc planeof thepath,

A particleis project c d a t an dcvation a,where tana=J, from a point A

on a hmizon1al plane distant 100 m from the foot of a ve tical
r 1owc1 of height
50m. Thc particlc justdears thetower and!ands a t a point B on the horizontal
plane.Dcterminethe initial speed of t heparticleand lhediuance AB. Find
also the greatest hcight reachc d bytheparticleabovc t heplane.
[Take g u l 0 m/s1.] (Uof L)
21)' A particleis projcctcdwith speed u at an ang]eof elevat!on a, where
t a n a ,,, 3 . Find,in 1erm s of u and g, thehcight of thepartklc when its
speed is 411. Find alsothedircctions inwhichthe particleis moving at t his
height
°
lfthevelocityQft heparticlc makes an ang]cof 45 w i t h t h e horiwntalat
times t1 and 11 (where 11>1 1)aftc1 p1ojection. show thil r 2=2t1.
(U of L)
22) Anairc,aft is flyingwith speed V in a direct!on inclincd at an angle er
above thc horizontal.When thc aircraft i s a t hcight ii, a bombis d1opred.
ShQw that the horiwntal dinance R, mcillurcd from the point vertically below
thepoint at which thc bomb is rcleasedto thcpoint wherethebombhitsthe
ground.is given by
gR = ½ V ' s inlo+ VC2glr + V'sin'o)i cosa. (Uof L)
 CHAPTER 1 0

MOTION I N A CIRCLE
TYPES OF ACCELERATION

A body has an acceleration whenever iu velocity ll not connan t.Velocity is a

vectorquantlty however andm.:iychange cithcr in magn!tude (i.e.spttd)or ln
du:ection orboth.ln all cascsa forcc mustact onthe body10produccan
acceleration,thcdirectionofthe forccde1crmining theputicular typeof
accc\uation.
(a) A change ill J�td occurs,,,hen a force acts li l tire direction ofmotion of
the body 1o whlch l1 U applicd . Such a forcecanno1caust anychange !nthe
direction of the ,cloci1y.
(b) A clu111g e .i r d ri «tian at constant speed is caused by a force p er
pendicular
10 1he d(rection ofmot /011oflhe body.Such a forcc wlllpus h orpull1hc
body off i1Sprcvious courscbu1 willno1 affcc1the specdsincc1hcreisno
force componem in1hc dbcctionQf motion,
(c) lf both sp eedand dircction of motion aretobe change d a fo,ee �ith
componenu bothparallel and perpen dicular to1he direction of motionis
required.

_____,;

Type(a) Acceleration of l his type has already been studied In Chapter 4 and
needsno further analysishere.
TypeJ (b)and (c) A body whose direc1ion of motion is not oonsunt taees out
a curvedpath o f somesort.Thecurve de$Cribed depends upon the forces which
are actlng onthe body.
lnthis chapter our analysls is c<>ncentratedon motionin oncparlkular curve,
the circle.
 Consider a partide P describing a circle. centre O and r.idius r, at constant
speed 11.
As there isno chanse inspeed,no force component acts inthe direction of
motion. which is tansential atany instant.
A force mustbe actingon thepartlcle huwever as the dlrection ofmotion is
not constant.
This forcemust thcrefore actalongthe radius,producins a radialaccderation.

Tha Magnitude of tha Radi•I Aceelu1tlon

Supposc thatthe p;irtidetravclsfrum a point P 1 loan adjacent point P1 in

time M andtha1 1he angle P10P1 is tie.

In the direction of Pi(}, the a(celeration isgiven approximately by

inc,ea� in velocity along PiQ from P1 to P1
time taken to travel from P1 t o P1

"
vs.inliO

Ml dO
Nowas liO ➔ O, !.inli0 ➔ 60 and 6f ➔
dt
d8
So the acce!erationat P 1 towards O is 11 �
But � is thc angular vcloci ty ofthe particle,which wewi!l dcnotcby w

andwe know fromChaptcr 4 that v = rw or c., ; -.

d8
Hence vd(=vw : (rw)w or v -; . (')
i,e, the radial accelerationofa particle travelling with constant speed v in

,,
a circ el of radius r is towards tbccent,e andis ofmagnitude

-; or rw2

lt therefore follow1 \rnl1a pnticle candescribea circlewith cons1an1sp«d only

,,
when it is acted upon by a foru of romta111 111ug ,tit11de towards 1 / iece111rt'
producing a radia! acccleration "·hosecomcant magnitude si or rw2.
,

Not,:, that i t is only the nu,g 11i11,de ofthe acceleration that is constant.The
accelerati o n i tse!f isnot constant as i ts direction iscontinuously changing.

I) A particleofmass m is attach e d b y a light inexten sible string oflength I to

a fixed point A on a smooth horiiontal table.If it is travelli ng with constant
�i ,: �:::•::" '' "" 'i""'",'h, mi,g ,ed >h, .,,"'""
.w

,_
p

.,
,..,, "

E) ''"
l n this problemthc forceactingontheparticle towardsthe centre i s T, the
tension in thc slring.Asthe panideis travelling ina horizontal cirde,i!svertical
accelemtionis ie10.
Vertica lly (iero acceleration) R = mg

Therefore
l
Horizontally (Fmce = mass x acceleration)
Tension • mlw1
Reaction =mg
T=ml w1
2) A c a r ofmas.s M is t urninga corner of rad!us r. Thecoefficient offriction
bet ween the wheels and the horizontal 10ad su1facc is µ. What is 1 hc maximum
speed at which 1hccarcan1 urn thecorner withou1 i;kiddiog?

At maximum speed 1 hec entral acccleration is also greatest and rcquircs the
maxinll.lm f1ictlooal ro,ce.llcnce,at maximum speed V. friction is limiting.
Vertlcal!y (zero acceleration) R = Mg
MV1
lfo1izoot�Jly (Force = man x acceler::atlon) µ =
R -;-

Mvi vi
Eliminating R gi1-u µ = - = -
rAfg rg
Thc,cforc atmaximumspecd V = ./iiri
Note.Thefriclional forces wodated with the motion of a vehicle arc quite
complex.At lhiss1 agewca1c considc1ingonlythc fric1ion 1ha1 acts
pcrpendicubr to thc,Ur�tion ofmotion;this l s called 1 hc/u1eral friction.

J) Aparticleofmass m k g is lra1'Cl!ingat constant 11pecd 11 m s -1 round a

circleofradi u s ,rn.
(a) I f 11=8 and ,=2 fio d themagnitudeofthec entral accclera1ion.
(b) l f 1hc forcc ac1ing1owards t hecen1 reof thecircleis ofconslant m1giiitude
6N, m = 4 and v=J. fln d t h evalueof ,.
2) A circular trayofradius 0.2 m h u a 1mooth vertlcal rim round theedge.
Thctrayis fixc d o n a horizontal1ablc and a small ballofmw 0.1 kg i s s et
moving round 1 hc insideof therim of the tr.iy with sp«d 4 m,-1 . Calcu!ace
1hehorizontal fo1cc exerted on theballbythcrlmofthctny.
3) A car ofmass 400kg can turn a comer at 40kmh�1 without skidding but
at SOkmh-1 it dot"s skid.lf1hc corner is ar1�rcofa ci,cleofradius 20m,
findvalues between which /J, thecoefficien1offrict ion be11•1een 1h e w heels
andthe road surface, canlie.
4) A disc i s free1o roca1e in a h01izontal plane abou1u1uis throughits
centre 0 . A unaUobject P isplace d o n the disc sothat OP = 0.2 m . Contact
between theparticleandthe di,c isrough andthe coefflcient offrictionis 0.5.
Thedisc1henbegiru to rotate. Find the angularvelocityof the disc whenthe
partide tsabout t o sllp
5) A particle ofmass 0.4kg is anache d to oneendofa light inextensible
string of length 0.6 m. The other end is fixed to a point A on a smooth
horizontal table . The p�rticle is se1mo1·ing in a circular path.
(a) lfthe speed ofthepartideis S m s-1 calculate th c m1sion in 1hc string and
lhe reactlon withthe table.
(b) J f t h e s tring snapswhen thctension init exceeds 50N, find the greatest
angular�loci1y a1 which thc partic!e can travel.

ConicalP■ndulum

Comide1an inextensib\e stringof leng1h I which i s fixed atone end, A.

At tl1e other end is attached a particle P ufmass m describing a circle with
corutant angular 1�!ocity w in a hmizontalplane.

As P ,otates, the string Al' tracesout 1hesu1fac e o f a cone. Consequently1he

sy1ternbknow11 as a mniet1/ pendu/11m.
Vertically Tco,8 • mg 111
Horizontally Tsin8 "' mrw: [2J
 M.1h•,...tk:1- Mech•nlco 1r>d l'l'obablllly

'"' ,,,
Jn trUlllgle AOP , = /sinO 131
h = l cos8
Several intcrcs t ingfacts canbe deducedfrom these equatiom:

'!!{:
(a) lt i s i mpossibl e f o r t h e stringtobe horizontal.
This is seenfrom equation [ J ] in which cos8 = which cannot be zero.
°
Hence O c annot be 90 .

(b) Thetension i s alwaysgreater than mg.

This alsofollowsfrom cquation [ I ] as cosO < l (6 i 1 acutebu1no1 zcro).
Hence T>mg

(c) The tcnsion canbe calculated wi t hout knowi ng the i ncllnati o n o f t h e string
since.from equat ions [2] and (3]
T s i n 8 .. m/1i n O w2
T = mlw2

(d) Thc ,·ertical depth h of P below A is i n dependcmof 1he leng1hof1hc

s t r i n g s i ncefrom cquat ions ( l ] and [4J

r = mg •
1

T c= m/wl

Therefore

Ii = .!.. which ls independent of /

w'

EXAMPLES10b

I ) An i nex1ensible u1ing of length 2m is fixcd atoneend A and caHics at i t!i

othercnd B a panicleofma� 3kg whichisrotatin g i n a horizontalcirclcwhose
cent re is I m l'Crticallybe]ow ,\. f i n d t h c angularvcloci t y of thcparticlcand
the tension i n thestring
 ·1
Mo!ion lna Cln:la

_,,{d 'i
�
(E)
0

,,

'�' =
Vertically (zcro acce\cruion) T cos8 = Jg [ II
Horizontally (Newton's law) Tsin8 = Jr(.i [21

In triangle AOB

(J] and [4] give

I l
r = 2 si n 8

8 = i n ; r = ,/3
[3[
[4[

[ 2 ] -;- (I] gives tan8 = rw1{g

Hence ,/J = ,/Jwl/g .. wl = g
ln [ J ] Tx i = Jg ,. T � 6g
The angular velocityi s ,/g ms-1 md the tension in the string is � N.

2) Two light inextensible strings AB and BC each of length I a,e auached to

a particle or mass m at B. The other end� A and C are fixed to l.,,·o points In
a \'erticallinesuchthat A is distant I above C. The particle describes a
horizontalcircl e w i th constant ansularvelocity w.
Find (a) 1he terulo n inAB.
(b) the leutvalu e o( w sothatboth mings shall be taut.
 Mamom.ilco - Mochar'lla•ndhobablllty
° °
Vertically T1 cos60 "" T1 cos60 + mg (I]
°
Horizontally (T, + Ti) 5 in60 : mrw1 (2]
°
In triangle AOB , : / sin60 [JJ
Simplifying [ I J gives T1 - T1 "" 2mg [4]
(2] and [J] ghe Ti + Ti "" mlw1 IS]
{4] and (5] givc 2T, : 2mg +mlw1
Snthe tensionin AB is mg + jmlw1
The string AB ean ne\<er be llack but tl1 e string BC could become $.lack
In order tlut it llta)l remain tau!, T2 mwt not become negative, i.e. T1 ;;. 0
[4] and [5] gh·e 2T1 = mlw2 - 2mg
If r1 ;,;,, o , then ml w' > 2mg .

Therefore in order 1hatboth mingsshallbe1au 1 , 1,,11 ;;.¥,

J) A light inextensible st ring of length J/ is 1hruded through a smooth ring
and carries a pallicle at each end.One particle A ofma» m ii at rest at a
distance / belowlhering.Theother particle B of mas.s /If is rotating in a
horizontal circlewhosecemreis ,\, Findthe angular velocityof B an d f ni d
m intcrmsof/lf.

Sincc ,1 ,;o scparate particles areinvolvedwe mun analysethc state ofeach.

As the 1ing is :m1 ooth, the 1 ension is the same in both sections, BC and AC, of
the string.
For mass A (in equillb1ium): T = mg I\J
Formas.s B:
Vertically Tcos8 = Mg 121
llorirontally Tsin8 "' /lfrw' (3]
In t riangle ABC ' COlO = 1/U = ½ 1•1
t r = 2/sinO [5[
°
(4] and (S] give O = 60 and , = ..,/31
In [2] TO) = Mg "' T = '2Atg
T = mg
Therefoie m = 2,\I

ln [3J

Bu1 T='2Afg so Mg,/3 = M,/31,.}

Therefore w = ✓i7l

4) Thebase ofa hollow right cone of semj \·ertical 3ngle 30°, isfixed 10 a
horiwntal plane. Two partideseach of mass m are connected by a light
inextensible millg which panes1 tuough a small smooth hole in the \'ertex V
of the cone.One partide. A. hangsat 1es1 insidethe cone .The otherp3rticle
B mo,-eson the outer smooth surface ofthe cone at a distance / from V, in a
horizonta l c irclewith centre A. Findthe tension in the ming,theangular
velocity of B andthe norm:il reactionbetwecn B and the cone.

The tenslon isthesameln both por1ionsufstring1ince1hehokissmuoth.

lf thcpurtion BY isoflcngth /, the radius of B'scircularpathis l sin30° =½

for pa1tide ,\ (in equilibrium) T = mg (I I

 M1thtm11ico- Machlnlco•nd Prot>.bllltv

For particle B
° °
vertically T cos30 + R �n30 "' mg (2/
° °
h.orizontally T sin30 -R cos30 = miw2 (3/

Sirnplifying,we ha,·e: T = mg (!/

-IJT+R = 2mg (2/
T--l3R = m/w2 (3/
Eliminating R from [2] and [JJ ... 4T = 2-IJmg +mlw'
From [!! 4mg = 2-IJmg+mlw'

w' = (4- 2-IJ)f

From [ l ] and [2] R "'" 2mg- ,J3mg

R "' (2- -IJ)mg
Therefore 1heten sion i n tl1 e st ring i s mg,
i
theangular �elocit y o f B is [¥<2-.JJ)] ,

and thenormal reacUonal 8 i s (2- -IJ)mg.

I) Oneend ofa light i nex1en si ble s1ringoflength ! rn isf xi ed.Theothcr end i s

attached 1oa particle ofmass 0.6 kg whlch i stravclling i n a horiiontal circular
path of radius 0.8m. V.'ha1 i s theangula1speed oftheparti cle?
2) A ligh t i nelasticstringof length 1.2m. fixed a t o n c end. carries a partic\e P
of mass 2kg a t thc other en d. lfthe1ension i n thestri ngisno1 1o excced
40 N, what i s the maximum angular speed a1 which the part i c e l can travel in a
horizontal circle?
3 ) A particleof nlils!I m i 1 a1 tached tooncen d of a llght i nelasticstringof
length I theotherend ofwhich i sfixed.lf theparticlei smovifli i n a horizontal
circlcwith the st1ingi nclined a t a n ang]e O to lhe�rlical l in d a n expression for
i lsangular,·elocity.
4) A ring ofmass O .bkg i s rnached to a point I' on a string AB of length
1 4m.
. whc,e AP is 0.8 m. Theends A and B are attachc d t o twopoints
I.O rn apart i n a vertical line, A being abm-e B. Theringi smaden, t!lvcl i n a
horizontal cllclewith spced v m s-1 .
(a) Wl1at i s thesmal!est possi blevalueof v ifneither portionof string is slack?
(b) lf 1> "' 4.2 m S-1 c alcu!a1c1heten sion i n theportion AP ofthestring.
5) A panicleof mass m. attache d to theend A ofa light inextensible string
de1Cribesa horizontalcircle on a smooth horizontalplane , The mingi1of
!ength 2/ and the otherend B i s fixed.
(a) t o a poin t o n the plane.
(b) to apoint whichisa!a height I above the plane,
lf1he angul.arvelocity ofthe particle is w, find,in eachcase,the tensionlnthe
stJing and the reactionbetween theparticleand theplane. giving yonr ans wers
in terms of m. I and w.

6) Twoparticles A and B of masses III and M respectivelyare connected by

a light inclastic mingoflength 31 whichpas ses through a srnooth swive\ a t a
fixed height.If A canbe madeto pcrform horiion1al circlctabout B u centre
while B isal rest u a depth / below the swivel, find the value of M:m and
find.in termsof / an expression for the angular velocityof A.

7) Twoparticlesofequal mass areconnectedbya light inextern;;!ble string of

length I m which passes through a small smooth�dged hole in a smooth
h.orizo n1al 1able.Oneparticle hangsu rest at a depth 0.5 m below the hole.
The otherpanicle delCribesa horizontal circle on the table. What is iu angular
,-i:locity"!

8) A smoo1h ring ofma: 1s m is threade d o n to a lightinelastic stringof

length 81 whoseendsare fixe d to t wopoints A and B distant 41 apart in a
vertical line (A above B). Calculate the tension in the st ring when the ring
desc ribeihorizontal circlesabout B ascentre.
llis impossible for the ring to de1Cribc horizontal cirdes mid•waybctween the
levels of A and B. Explainwhy thisis so.

9) Attelnlic string AB ofnatural!ength f1 andmodulus ofelasticily 2mg,

has one end, A, fixed.A particle ofma,s Ill isat tache d to theend B and
perfonns horizontal cirdes with angularvelocity .Jfiii;. Find theexte111iu11
i n t h e s tringand the cus.ine ofthe anglebetween themingand the vertical .

A vehicle which travelsround abendon horizon1alground reliesenti1e!yon

the frictional force at thewheelbas e toprovide the necessary central force .

,,
Because the 111asnltudeofthe frict iona] force is \imite d ,thecentralaccelera1ion,

--;, and h.encethe specd ofth.e,-ehicle.are a!so limited (see Examples lOa).
]f,however,theroadsurface isno1 ho1!zonta! , t his\imitatio11 canbeovercome
 Motl>eml1Q- Mechanico•nd Probability

Consider a vehideof mass m travellingatspttd V round a bend ofradius r

on a roadwhich i s banked a t a n angle 8.

A force of R sin8 acts 1 owards 0, the centre of the circula1 path.

mv'
Therefore R si n 8 =-;- 111

Vertically(noac celcration) R cos 6 = mg ]2]

By elimi nating R ""e see that V1 = rg tan6
So the vehicle c an travd at a speed V=.,/iitan8 without ally telldCllc y to
side- slip and V i s called thedesign specd ofthe track.
The giea ter the value of 6 , thefas1e1 the vehicle c an 10und thebendwi thoul
tending to slip.
lfa speed v,, greater than thedesign speed, i s used then theforce R 1 s i n 6 i s
inrnffici entto provide the necemry cential acce!eration.The vehiclewill tend
to slip ou twa1dsffom the circular path and a fricti onalforce wlll opposethls
tendency, up to i t s maximum value of µR1•

1
Towards O (New!on·slaw ) R 1 s i n 8 +µR 1 cos6 = 171 1 ]I ]
:

Vertically(no acceleratlon) R, cos8 -µR 1 sin6 "" mg ]2]

Dividi ng f \ J by l2J gives v/= rg(::�:�:�::)

Thevehicle can therefo1c1ravel without slipplng round thebend at a 5pe e d v1 ,
gre.iter than the design speed �, whenboth friction and thebanking
ofthc t rack contribu1 c 1 o thecen1ral force.
At a speed Vz, !ess than ../rg tan 6 , thecomponent of reaction, R1 sin 6 ,
causesan acceleration grntu thanis required tokeepthevehicleo n a circular
path. ln this casethe,<ehidetends to slip down thebanked track;thi,tendency
!sopposed bya frictional force aciing outwuds.

- - - - - -
•• ' �

���,

Towards O (Newton's law) R1 sin(J -µ.R2 cos(J = mvl

----;- Ill

Ver1ically(no accclc1ation) R1 cn!i8 +µR1 sin8 = mg 121

sin 8 - µ c s8
Dividing [I] by [2] gi
,'es v,1 = ,g( � )
cos8 + µ sm8
This gives the speed Vi which is 1he lo"·es1possiblc spced at which thevehicle
cantravd round thetrack without slipping downwards.

-•OO•---b--
I) A caris travellingrounda sectio n o f a race1rackwhich isbanked a1an anglc
°
of 15 . The radius of the track is 100m. What is the speed at "'hich 1hc car
can tnvel without tending to slip?

o• - -

�t�x
[F !here isno tendency 1o slip 1here willbeno lateral frictional force.

0 mv1
lforiWnlally(Newton'slaw) R sin l 5 =
JOO
°
Vertic:i!ly (no acceleration) R cos l 5 = mg.
 Mo,h..,..tla - Modlaniea and f>rallablllty

tan \ 5 = �
°
Hence
100,
v1 = 100x9.8x 0.2679
Thercforethedesign speed is J6.2ms-1 •

2) Acar trm-ellingat 28ms-1 has n o t endencytoslip o n atrack ofndius

200 m banked at an angle f/. When the speed il increalCd to 35 m s-1 the car
isjwlDfl thepoint ofslippin g u p t h e track.Calculatethec oeff ci ient offriction
betwcen thecar andthetrack.

Whenthereisno tendency to slip , no late�l frictional forceacts.

1
Horizo ntally R slnf/ = ,/�: Il l

Vertically R cosfl .. mg Ill

(28)'
Oividing [ J ] b y [2J givcs tanfl •
200 x9.8
tanfl = 0 .4
°
fl = 21.8

At a speed higher than 28 m s-1 thecartendsto slip outwuds and friction

acndown thellope.
 1
Horizontally Ssinll +µS cos8 = m �� !J I

Vertically S c o s8 -µSsin8 = mg [4]

sin fJ +µ cosll �
DM.ding [3J b y [4j gives =
cos ll - µ sinO 200x9.8
umO+µ 35x35x10

� = .:8
Dividingby cosll gives =
1-µtanll 200x98

But tan II =0.4 hence

1 - 0 .4µ
3.2+8µ = 5 - 2µ
10µ = 1.8
The cocfficient offriction betweencarandtrackis 0.18.

3) A railway line i staken round a circular arc of radius lOOOm, and is banked
byrai.singthe ou1er rail hm above 1heinner rail, lf 1he late ral pressure on the
inncr railwhen a train travelsroundthe curveat I O m s- 1 isequal to the lateral
pres.sure on the outer raU whenthc train'sspeedis '.!Oms-1, calculate the value
of It.(The di.stance between the rails is I .S m.)

!.£'. �

. ' .,
10' !O'

�
U\ m bethe m a ss ofthe train and II theangle at "·hich t he railtracki.s
banked.
10'
(a) llorizontally R si nO-PcosO = m - [I]
10'
Vertically R cosO+Psinll = mg [2]
R �ne = i\im +PcosO
R coso = mg-P�ne
308 �i-...t1cs- Mecllanlcs•nd P,olMblllty

sin 8 ffim+Pcos8
Dividing gives =
cos8 mg-Psin8
mgi;in8-Psin 8 =- -/rim cos8+P cos1 8
1

mg sin 8 - /omcos8• = P (cos28 + sin1 8 = I)

20'
(b) Horizontally S sinO+P cosO = 111 103 (31

Vertically S cos8 -Psin8 • mg (4(

[J] gives S sinB = R) m - P cosB
[4J givu S cosB = mg+P sin8

� J1im-Pcos8
Dividing gives "'
cosB mg+PsinB
Hence 111g sin 8 + P sin1 8 "' R,m cos0-Pcos1 8
P = t(lm cos8 -mg sinB
Now frornpart(a) P "' mg1.in8 - �m cosO

Therefore R)m cos8-mg sin8 = mg s!n 8 - ftlm cos8

giving fm cos8 = 2mg sin 8
I
hence tan8 = - = 0.0255
4g

But the distance bctween the rai!sis J .5 m.

Henc e lr "' l .5 sin8

= l . S x 0.0255 (sinB ::=. tan0 because 8 is small)

Sothe ou1e1rai!is raised 0.0383 m abovc the inner rail.

 °
I) A 1oa d bank e d a t 1 0 goes roun d a bcnd ofradius 70m. At what speed
can a car travelroun d thcbcnd without tending toside•slip?

2) A1what ang]eshould an alrcraft be banked whcn flying a1 IOOms-• on a

ho!Uontal citcle o f r a dlus JOOOm?

3) A motor car describes a curve of 120 m radius on a road sloping downwards

toward$ the iiuideofthe curve a t arctanJ. At what speed cantht car travel
withnotendencyto side-iJlp?

4) On a levc! racetrack 1 cu canjust go 10und a bend ofradius 80m at a

spt t d of 20 m s -1 without skiddlng. At wha t angle must the track be bankt d so
that a spt t d of 3 0 m s -1 canjuubc reached withou1 sklddlng, 1hc cocfficicnt of
frictJon being t h t $1111 t i n b o t h cases? [Take g as l O m s 1- .J

°
5) A ci1cular race track is banked at 45 and has a ra dius of 200m. At what
speed does a ca r h av e no t endency tolide-ilip? lfthe roe{f\clentof fr\ct!on
between the wheels and the track is ½, fin d the maximum speed at which the
car can travel 10 undthetrackwithout skidding.

6) An englne o f mass 80000kg travds at 40kmh-1 10 un d a bendofradius

1200 m . Jfthe t rackls level, calcula1 e t h e lateral thrus t on the outer rail.At
what helght abovethe lnne,rail should the outerrail be ra isedto eliminate
Jateral thrust at t hisspeed ifthe dlstancebetweenthe rallsls l .4m?

7) A bendon a racetrackis designed withvariablebanking sothatcanonthe

insi d e o f t hc track can corner at 80kmh-1 and those onthe outside at
l60kmh-1 without lateral friction. If the inner radius is 150m and the outer
mdiu, l6Sm, findthe difference between the anglt•ofbanking atthe tn,lde
and outlide o f t he track.

8) The sleepers of a railwa y track which is turning round a bend o f ra dius 60 m

are banke d so t hat a tfllin traveUing at 40kmh-' exe1ts nolate11 I forceon 1he
r:iils.Find t helateralforce exerte d o n the rails byan engine ofma ss I OS kg:
(a) tll\"tllingat JOkmh-1 ,
(b) travelling at 50kmh-1•
(c) a t rest.
Stateincachcascwhether theforce acts on t h e inneror outcr ,ail.
 Thevelocityofa particle P travcllingoo a ciTcular path wi!hv.irying speed,
i,i: clt.anging both in magnitude and dizection.The particle therefore has /1'.l'J
acceleration components:
(a) towards the centre of the circle, a component which is the rate of change of
directionofthevelodty.
ltsmagnitude at anyinstant is r (or ,,,,Z) but it b not constant when

(b) in the difectlon ofmotion, i.e.a!ong thetangent tothecircleat P, a

W.
component � which b the ,ate of increase of magnitude of thevelocit y.

. .

Motionofthis type will ,esu!t when theforces acting on theputic\eha>'ll both

radial and t angenlia\ components.This situation ari$CSWhen a partic\eis
dncribing a circular pathina vcrtical plane.

MOTION IN A VERTICALCIRCLE

A particlc canbe madet o travel i n a vcrtical ctrcular path in a varie1yof ways.

Some of these involve driving mechanisms and canbe fairly complex. Our study
however is limited 1 0 simple c uesin which the speed of the panicle, once it ii
sct moving,is not affected byanyextcrnal forceother tlt.an weight.
[n problems o f t his type t heto1a l m e chanical energyof1he system remains
.
Consider the motion of a smallbead of mass m threaded on to a smooth wire in
the slupe of a circle of radius a and cent1e 0. The circle Isfixed In a vertical
plane andthe beadpaue sthelowestpolnt A onthe wire with peed s u. It

,_
subsequentlypasses with speed tl through another point B where angle BOA

Dlagram(l)1'1ows the forces actlngon thebea d , a n d i t s accelera1ion oomponent1

at B.
The normal reaction R is alwaysperpendicular to the wire and b therefore
perpendlcularto the direction ofmotion and docs no work.Conscquentlythe
total �chanical energy remaimcomtant.
Diagram(ii)showsthe vclocitiesan dpositionsofthebe•d.

= m ,,
Applying Newton's law along radius and tangent at B (diagram (i))we have:

Radially R - mgcos8 ;- [I]

Tangentially mg sin 8 = - m dr
,, [2]

Uslngconservation ofmechanlcal energy (diagram (ii)):

To1al M.E. at A is Jm111 - mga

Total M E
. . at B is jmv'-mga cos8

Theref ore [JI

Equation (IJ shows that R has its greatest l':l!ueu A,

m,'
R = mg c o sB + , c os 8 <: I and v<:u.
-;;-
Equa1ion [J ] gives,in tcmu o f 11 , the specd v at anyspecificd position.
Using thiscxpreulonln equatlon [ I J gives the value of R at that position.
Equation [2] givesthc tangcntlal accclention at a spedficdpositlon.
Thcse three cquatlons canbe used 1o ana!yse thc motion ofa particlc describing
avertical drdc i n slightly diffcrcntcircumstances:

I) A particle attachc d t o onecndofa

light rodwhi c h i s frceto rotatcabout
a smooth fixed axis through the other
cndoftherod,ln thisi:ase,thcforcc,
T, in the 10 d acts in the same wayas
0�
��
the reaction, R. between the wire and

0-
thcbead.

. .
2) A p3rtlcle rotatingon the inside
ofa smoo1 h c i rcularsurface.Again

.
we hav e a normalreaction R between
the surfa� andthe particlc.

J) A particle rotatingat thecndof

a light string whose other end is
fixed.Thcteruion. T. in the string
hclpsto providc thcfor� towards
1he ccntre of1he circle i n this case.
4) A pvticlcmoving on the outside of
a smooth circular surface. This Cale is
rather dilTerent from all the others,
since the normal reaction. R, exerted
oothe particle always actsou.tward
fro m thecentre . llence onlythc wcight
of the pvticle can provide anyforce
towards thecentre and clearlythiscan
happen onlyi n the upper part ofthe
circlc. Sothe panicle canremainin
C(ln!act with theuppersectiono11ly
ofthesurface.Equ.1tionssimilar 1 0
thosealreadyderivedcanbefound
to analysethisform ofci1cu.lar motion,
u shown below.

Newton·s t.aw: I mgcos O - R = -;;-

mv•
[I[

d,
mgsinO = m [2[
�

Coruervali011ofM.E. [3[

Aithough thegeneralanalysi.sofall the$C cascs is similar, thue arein fact two

different groups of problcnu which must nowbecoosidcred $tpamely:
(1) thosc in whichthe particlecannot moveoff thccircular path . eg.thcbud
.
thrcade d on the wire andthe p;,rtlc leattached tothellgh t r o d;
(b) those in which thepartic \c can leavc thccircular pathand travel i n s o m c
other way, e.g.thepartic lcattheendofa stringor moving on a circular
surfacc .For these, circular motion ispcrformed onlywhile the slring istaut
orthe particlc isin contact with thcsurfacc.
Mo1ion Rn1rlettd 10,Clreul1r P.ih

UY!lg the ea� of the bead threaded on 1he wire, we sec that the bead may:
(a) pass through t hehighei;t point of thc wire1nd go on t o dc$Cribecomplcte
circles,
(b) comcmomcntarilyto rcstbeforc rcaching lhc highcu pointand
subsequently oscillate.

(a) lf thebcad pawsthrough t h e highes 1 •

point,then v>O at thetop.
Usingconmwtion of ME gives
2
lmu = Jmv'+ 2mga Di.,
,
• v1 = u1 -4ga
But v>0
Hence u1 > 4g.:r P.I E. =-> �

(b) [f1hcbcad comumomcntarily to

1est at somc point A, then
v = O when 6=a
Using conseMtion of M.E. gives

,.,.,,
½mu1 = mga(J - cosa)

• cosa = 1 - �

Not e: Becauu th e bead cannot /rov eth ew ri e. the onlycondition necessaryfor

it to dcscribc comple1c circlc,is 1hac/u �el ocily /JgrttJ1cr1
h anzcro att
hc
h igh eJt point
. If thevelocitywere to becomezero at the top, the panicle would
rcma.in thercin unstableequilibrium.

EXAMPLES 10d
I) A pa rt!clc ofm¥5 2 kg isat tachcd to theend B of a light rod AB of
length 0.8 m whlch ls frceto rotat einavcrt!cal planeabout lhc end A. lf lhe
end 8, whenverticallybelow A, is given a horizontalvelocityof 3 m 1-1
$how that theparticlewillnot describc completecircles.Find theanglethrough
whichit oscillatesand thegrcateJt stress inlheroddu rlng themotlon.
 ' ·"'"--- ' . . ,
"- - -·@: lrnO'

Using conser,;ationofmcchanical energy(diagram (ii))givi:s

½ x 2 x 31 - 2g(0.8)= ½ x 2 x 111 - 1g(0.8)cm6
If v aa 0 , 2 g (0.8)cos8 = 1.g(0.8)-9
5.68-9
cos8 = -1 - = 0,425
15.68
°
The,cfore v=0 when f/ =64.8 and the particle comes to rest before it
°
ieachcs thetop of thecircular path. Sotheparticleoscil\atcsthrough l 29.6

Applying Newton's law towards the ccnue(diagram (i))gives

2 x v1
T-'lg oos0 = -
0.8
T b g,catcst whcn e "' 0 and V "' 3.

Thercforethemaximum tenslonis (�+2g ) N = 42.I N

2) Asmallbea d o f mass 2kg is threaded on to a smooth ciri;u\arwireofradi11$

0 6. m . which is fixc d i n a vertical plane.lfthc bead issl ightlydislurbed from
rest at thehighcst point ofthc wire, findits spced when it rcaches the lowest
poillt.Find also thchcight aboveth c c emn:,ofthc point al whlch thercaclioo
between the bead and the wire becomes zem.
 . w·
MltMmallca -_,..,,lca11'1d �blll1V

�
••
__

�,
.
P.Jl. !!'o_ I

C
0
.
�

Using coiuervation of mechanical energy from A to C gives

0 + 2.g(0.6) • !(2t>/ )-2.g(0.6) [I]
t>i = 4g(0.6)

Therefor e t h e speed at the lowestpoint i s 4.84m,-1•

ApplyingNewton"•law radlally at B give•

R + Zfcosll = � [2[

Usingconservation of mechanical energy from A to B gives

If B l s t h e point where t h e reactlon becomes uro, [2] gives

v11 = 0.(wrcos9

Then [J] becomes

2.g(0.6) = 0.6fcos9 + l .2gcosll

cos8 = i

1-lence 0B .. j(0.6)m ..- 0.4m

The point where the reaction Is zero Is 0 4. m above the centre.

Note. Below the level of B the reaction between thebead and the wite acts
towards the centre but above this level, where cosll > J, R Is negative
showi n g that the reaction acts outwards,awayfrom the centre .
3) A light rod oflength I is free to rotate ina vcrtical planeabout one end. A
paflicle of mass m is attached to the other end.
When the rod is hanging u rest vertically downward, an impulse is applied 10 the
particlesothatit iraveh in complete vcrtical clrcles. Findthe range ofpossible
values ofthe impulse andthe tangentialacceleration whentherodil inclined at
°
60 to the downward verticaL

First, using impulse = change in momentum we h.ive

J = m11 [I[
Usingconservation ofmechanical energygives
1 2
Jmu -mg/ = ½mv -mg/cosli Ill

,,
Applying Newton"s Jaw tangentially gives

-,rig sin Ii = m dt [JJ

°
lfthe particle isto describe complete cirdes, v > O when 6 ,. 180
° °
When 9= 180 , (2) gives v1 =- u 1-2,gl+2,glcosl80
t'l = ul -4g/
But v> O therefore u1 > 4gl
u > 2../ii (u cannot be negative)
Hence, from !I) I > 2m-./il
Therefore the value ofthe impulse mustexceed 2m../ii

° ../3 dv
When 0 = 60 , equation(J) becomes mg = '" d/
2
So the tangential accderation is !g../3
I) A liglu rod of length I m is i;moothly pivoted about a horizontal axb
through one end A. Aparticle ofmass 2kg attached tolhc olherend 8 is
released from the po$itionwhen B is vertlC3lly above A. Find the tension In
therodand 1he \-eloci1y oflhe particlewhen AB makes an ang[e wilh the
upward,·enicalof:
° ° °
(a) 90 (b) l20 (e) l80 ,
2) A bead ofmas:1 1.5kg is threadcd ontoa smoolh circular wire of radius
1.5 m f1Xcd in a vcnkal plane. The bead is projected from the lowcn point on
lhewircwith ,peed (a)../4ims-1 (b)./lwms-1 (c)v'sims-1 •
In each case determine Jn what way the bead moves on the wire (giving putkular
care to part(1))and cllculate the greatest value of the reaction between the
bead and the wire.

J) A P3rticleofmass m isattached to thecnd A ofa light rod AB of

lcnsth /, frec toro1a1c i n a vcrticalplaneabouttheend B. Therodis held with
A verticllly above 8 and the particleis p1ojccted from thisposition wi1h a
horizontal velocity u. When the panicle at A is vertically below 8 it coUides
with a stationary pa1ticle of mass 2m and coalesces with it. If the rod goes on
to perfonn complete circlesfindthe range of possible valuesof 11.
4) A small bcadofmajS m is free toslide on a smooth chcularwlre of radius 11
fixed ina verticalplane. lfthc bead is slightly disturbed from restat the ltighest
pointof thc wire,find thercactionbet"'·een thebeadandthc wire,thc velocity
ofthe bead and lhe rcsultant accclcration ofthe bead , whenthebcadhu
rotated through
° °
(a) 90° (b) 120 (c) ISO .
5) A ligh1 1od AB oflcngth Im is frec to ro1ate in a vertical planeabout an
axis through A. A panicle ofmass I kB is attached to B. Ifthe particle is
projected f1om its lowest position with speed J,/4.9ms-1, show thal the
panicledcscribcsrompletecircles. Find the vertical height abovc A ofthe
end B 11,•hen thestress in therodis zero.
6) Two beads A and B of masses m and 2111 ie5peclivcly are free to slide in
a venical plane10und a smoolhcircular wire of radius a and centre 0. The
bead A isat rest at thc !owest point C ofthewire whilc B is released from 1eS1
a t a point on thesame !cve\as 0. Jf 1he coefficient of restitutlon betwcen 1he
bcad! is !, find the height above C towhichcach particle rises afterimpact.

Motionnot Re,triccedtoa CirculuPath

As an exa,nple of this cue Jet us comider the motion of a particle rotating at

oneend ofa light string fbted atits other end.
Thistimethe particle can travel inoneof threeways.ltmay·

(a) pm through D while thc stdng i s st illtaut and go on todc scribecomplcte

circle s;
(b) o scillatebelow the kvel of 0, the string alwaysbeing taut wi1hin thi, lower
semi-circle;
(c) cease to travel on the circlc at wmc pointbetween C and D when the
stringbecomesslack, substqucntlymoving as a projectile untilthe string
becomes taut again,

Uling New10n·s law and con servation ofmechanical energy in the diagram s
above we get
mt>l
T-mg co sO = -;- (II

''
"
imu'-mgu = ½mv'- mga ,osO 121
mvl
Hence T = mg cose+
-;-

T "" mg cos6 + �(u1 -2ga + 2ga cos6)

(a) Forcomple1e circles,r

hes1ringmus1bc 1autinthehighes1 po sitlon
°

.,,
i.e. r -;,, o when (J= 180 .

°
Hence -;; ;;,. 2g-3g cosl80
Nou, : ltisnot sufficient in thisca. sethat
v > O at the highest polnt,asthe
particle could bcmoving i11sidc 1he
°
ci1cle with velocity v when 8 = 180 .

when 8 a l 8�'

(b) For oscilluions the particlecomesmomentarlly t o rest at a poin t on,or

,.,.,,
. v=0 when 0 ..;;; 9 0°.
below,the levelofthe centre 0, i e.

[n equation [2) cos8 = 1-- when v = O

°
But 8 <; 90 so coso ;;;. o hence u1 ..;;; 2gu.

lnboth (a)und(b).thest ring isalwaystaut.

If u i s the\-c:Jodtyat tllelowest point,the rangesofvaluesfor whlch the ,iring
never goesslack, and the part!cle t herefore neverlea,'esa drcular path, are;
u <; .J'J.g/l and u ;;;. -./3ja
(c) Circular motion ceasesat the instant when the stringbecome1 sl11ck,
Le.when T=O. The angle IJ at thisinstant isgivenbyusing

T = m( � - 2g + Jg cos!I) = 0

,,,
ga- u l
cos /J ca :?, -

Once theming i s slack. theonly force actingon the partick isinown

weight and the motioncontinuesa.s thalofa projecti!e.
°
Thissituation arisesonlyif 90 < 11 < 1Brf (i.e.above t helevelofthe
centre)

,,,
ln this case O > costl > - 1
2ga-u2
0>- - > -1
llence the range ofvalue1of u for whichthe stringdocJ go slack is

N o l e.It ismost important, when tackling a problem on vertkal cireulu

mo1ion.to decidewhethe1 or not 1he particlecan leave the cbcular p.ithor
ls1estricte d 1oit. Thesp«ial comlitloru tha1 canbe applled are different in
these twocuu.
I ) Aparticle ofmass 2 kg is moving on the in!ide sur face of a smooth hollow
cylinder of radius 0 . 2 m whose axisis horizontal.Fi11d 1 hc least spced whlch
theparticlc must have at thc lowcst polnt ofitspathifit travels i n complete
circles.

Applying Newton's law along BO we have

R + 2g = 2(fz) (II

Cooservation ofmechaoicalenergyfrorn A to B give,

121
From [ l ] and [2] R + 2g = IO(u'- 0.l!g)
R = !Ou1 -10g
But,fo r complete circlcs, R ;;i. o at B (i.e.coot act is not lost at anypoint).
Timefo,e
Hence the lcut value of u is .Jg "' .J9]
S o the leastspcedat A is 3.lm s- 1

2) Apa,tk.le ofmass J kg is su$ptndcdfrom afixedpoint A bya light

inelastic stringof length I m. Whc11 i n i tslowcst position it isgivena hofiwn1al
$pted o f 8 m s-1 .
(a) Prove that itperforms complct e ci rcles.
(b) Find theratioofthegreatest 10 1he least tension ln thest1i11g.
(c) Calculatc t h e t angential acceleratio n o f t h e partlcle when t he strlng is
horizontal.
 Mo1Mffl111k:I -Moehanlcs� P<ot..bill1y

·:rn
•-o ' :
'
A

-(!)
�

' 'f', �
· , ,,, a
q)_

G
P =----.- •• �s

Q '

,.
(a) Applying Newton's Jaw radially at R we have

T3 + lg -= i(f) [1 1

Conservation of mechanical energy from P lo R gives

(j)(j)(B') - (j )(x)(l ) a (j)(j)(,,') + ( j)(x)(I) [21
Hence
T3 '"" 32- (f)(9.8) > 0
Therefore the string is but at the highest poim on the drcle and the panicle
will describe completetircle1.

(b) Maximum tension, Tm.,,, occurs al P (i.e. TJ

and minimum tension, T,.,1n, occurs al R (i.e. T3)

,,
Applying Newton's]aw radiallyat P gives

T1 -!g = ½ x J

Ther�fore Tm..., "' (32+4.9) "' 36.9

 Mollonin■ Ci,.,,_ 323

Wea\readyknow that Tmfo = (32-24.S) = 7.S

Therefore Tm,,,, : Tm1,. = 36.9: 7.S "" S : J

(c) Applying Newton's law tangentially at Q gives

Hence
,,dt = -g
The tangential a�leration when the string !s horizontal is of magnitude g.

J) A particle of mass III rests at thehighest point oftheouter surface ofa

smooth cylinder ofradius a whosc axisis horizontal.lf the particle is slightly
disturbed from rest 10 \hat it begins to tra,·el ina venicalc!rcle find the \lirtical
d!stancc travelled by the partide beforeit !ea,u the surface ofthe cylinder.
Afler leavingthe cylinder howfa1doesthe pa11icle fall while 1ravellinga distance
a horizontally?

ApplyingNew1on's lawrad.ially at B wehave

mgcos8-R = 1!!f­ 111

Con$ervation of mechanical energyfrom A to B gives

121

From (!] and [21 R = mgcos 8 - ;(2ga -2gacos8)

4) A part icle P of mass m is attached by a light inextemible string of
length 2a lo a fixed point 0, When \-CTtically below 0, P is gil"en a horizontal
velocity u . When OP becomes horizontal the string hit,; a small smooth rail,
Q, distam a from O and the particle continues 10 rotate about Q u centre.
lf thepartidejus1de$Cribes comple1ecirdes about therail,find thevalueof u .

@ .. . �u.
. '
~•�cs,JD
' '
"
. .

Thereis no lou in mech.:mkal energy when the string hits the u.il Q because
thesuddcn chaoge in temionis pcrpen dicular to t hedircction of motionofthe
partlclcandthcreforehnno effect oniu spced,

Conservat ionof mcchanicalencrgyfrom A to B gives

!n1111 -mg (2a) = !mV1 +mga 111

Applying Ncwton's b w radiallyat B wehave

V'
T+n11: • m -;; 121

Hence

For complete cirdes about Q. T ;,, 0 at B

u 2 ;i. 1ga

lf1hepanidejuJ1describescompletc ci1de1
!I = -.fiii
O."';;�c§
5) A smoo1h hollow cylinder ofradius a and centre 0, is fixcdwit h i t s a xi s
horizontal.A particle P ofmus m isprojected from�int o n t h c inside
surf aceofthc cylindcr, levelwith 0, with sptcd .Ji4ga venically
downwa1d. When P ,caches the lowest point of the surface it collide s with and
adhcre sto a stationaryparticle Q al so ofma ss m. Find thc hcight above the

� IN
Conscrvationof mcchanical encrgy for P from A to B (diagram (!)) gives
}m(l 4ga) + mga "' jmu1

" - 4../ii

At impact between P and Q, weuscconscrvation oflinearmomentum

(diagram(il))
m(4v'ia) + 0 .. 2mv
v = 2./ii

Now fm the p3rtkle of mail 2m (diagram(W)) conservation of mechanical

energy from I! to C g:h-c s
½{2111)(2\/g,i)1 - j{2m)V1 + 1mga
· + 2mgaco s6

ApplyingNewton·sLaw radially at C ""e ha�e

2mg cos6+R = 2mV1/a 121
Thepartide leave sthe surfaccwhen R = O
so 1ha1 2mg co s6 • 2mV1/a
ln cqll31ion [ I / 4mga = m(i,g cos6)+2mga+2n,gacos6

,o, , . l
The particlc ll.'a•�sthc cylindcr a t a height aw se above the centre.
iu abovcthe centrc.
I) A particletravtlling in• vert!cal circle ofradius r has two acceleration
components:
ti1 dv
-;: towards the centreand � alongthe tangent.

2) A particle which is 1estric tedtothc circul u path wlll travtl!n cornplctc

circlesifthevclocity II atthe lowestpoint midlcs 112 >4gr.
3) A partkle which is frcc to lcavc t h c drcular path musts.atisfya condilion
which will u1sure that the particle is always at a dittance r from the centre of
the circle, for cxarnplc conuc1 with thc insidc ofa circul1r surfacc mu11 no1�
lost.ln1hiscasc 111 ;;. sg,.

I) Aparticleofmau 2kg il a1tachcdtothc cnd A ofa light incxtcnsible

string AB fixed at B. Initially AD ilhorizontalandthe partlclcis projectcd
vtrtically downward from this position with vtlocily v. If the particle descri�s
complcte drclcs, findthc possib\ e valuc s o f v if1hc lcngth of1hcstringis I m.
2) A particle of mus m is projected horizonlally from the highest point of a
smooth solid sphere. lfthc particle loscscontact withthe surfacc aftcr dcsccnding
a vcrtlcal distancc ofonc quancr ofthcradlus a of1hc sphc1c,find thc specdof
projection.
3) A smooth hollow cylinder of radius 0.5 m is fixed with its axis horizontal.A
p.,rticlc of m us 1 .2 kg is projected frnm the lowest point on the inner surface
with sp«d (a) J m s-1 (b) 4 nu-1 (c) 5 m s-1 . Dc1crrninc in cach casc
whcthcr thc particlcwill oscillalc. dcscribccomplc1c circles or lo§econtactwith
the cylinder.
4) A particle ofm:iss m i s frec to rota1c at theend ofa ligh1incxtcnsible
string fixed atit s o thcrend.lfthc length ofthc stringis / and 1hcpar1iclei1
projec tcd horizontallyfrornits lowcstpositionwith 1pccd ../6il, fmdthe
g,eacntand lcast tcn.lons lnthc strtng during1hc cnsuing motion, l'ind abo 1hc
resu/ran1 aceelcrationof1he particle whcn itis:
(a) a t its\owc ts position,
(b) atits highcst position.
(c) level with the fixed cndofthc string.
S) A particlc ofmass 1.5 kg i s lying atthc !owcstpoint ofthc inncr su1faceof
a hollow1phcre ofr.1dius O.S m whcn itisgiven a horizontal impulsc. Find thc
magnitude of the impulse:
(a) lf1hc partklc1ubscqucntlydc scribescomplctc vcrtical circlcs,
°
(b) ifthe panic!e loscscontactwith1hc sphcrcaftcrrotatingth10ugh 120 .
 � - Moochenlco •nd Probability

6) A light inex1ensible string AB oflength I is fixed at A and is auached to a

particle of maS$ m at B. B ishel d 1 distance I vertically above A and is
projected horizontallyfrom thh position with speed ../Jif. When AB is
horizonta l , a p oint C onthe string ,trikes a fixe d smoothpegwthat theradial
acceleration oflhe particle i s instantaneou.slydoubled. Exp=thelengthof
AC internuof I.
The particle continues 10 describe vertical circles about C as centre.Compare
the greatest and least tensions lnthe string durlngthh motlon.

MULTIPLE CHOICE EXERCISE 10

(Theimtn<cr
lom f
oramwtrf,igt
htst qu e,r
to,u art gl>"enonpag ex.)

I) A particle ofman m istnivdling at constant speed v round a circle of

radius r. lts aece!eratlon is:
mv1 v1
(a) rv1 (b) (e) (d) mr112•
--;- -;

2) A string of length I 1w one end fixed and a particle of ma ss m attached to

"'
1heotherend 1ravels ina horizon1al circle ofradius r. Thetension lnthe string

(a) mg (b) ;� (c) mgf (d) mg;-.

3) A bead b threaded on to a circular wire fixed in a vertical plane. The b ead
travels roundthe wire.The acceleration ofthebeadis:
(a) 1owardslhe centre and cons1ant,
(b) towardsthe centreand varies,
(c) m 1 d e u p o f t w o component s one radill andone tangential ,
(d) awayfrom thecentreand varies.
4) A vehidecan travel mun d a curve at a higher spee d when thero.adls banked
l h an when theroadis level.Thlsls becaus.t:
(a) bankingincreasesthe friction ,
(b) banklng lnc1eases theradlu1,
(c) the nonnalreaction ha1 a horlzomal component,
(d) when thetrack isbankedthe weight ofthecar acts down the incline.
5) A partic]e hanging at the end of a stringof length q is given a ho1izontal
velocity V so thatit brgins to travd in a verticalcircle.The plfticle will describe
complete circlc1 if:
(a) v;;..,f,iga (b) v < y'sg; (c) V > ./iga (d) v ;;. ..Jsg;;.
6) A stringof length I ha sone end fixed and a partic!e ofmau m i sattached
to theother end . l f thc particlc describcsa horiwnta l c irclc atan angular
speed w:
(a) thc 1cnlion inthc strin g : m/w2,
(b) lhespced ofthc panic!e i s lw,
(c) thcresultant f orcc actingon theparticlehasnovertical componcnt.

7) A partic!c ofma.u m travellin g i n avenical circlea t t h c endofan inelastic

ming of length I will perform complete circles provided that:
(a) thekinctic encrgy at thc lowest point isat lcast 2m&I,
(b) thespec d i szero onlyat thc high.est point.
(c) thc string ncver goesslack,
(d) the strlng doe snotbrcak unlll itstcnsl oncxceeds 6mg.

B) A bcad i stravellingon a lll'looth circular wircin avcrtical p bn c a n d ha.s a

sp t td V atthe lowcHpoint.
(a) Themcchanicalcnugyofthebea d i sconstant.
(b) Nocx1emal forcuac1onthcbcad.
(c) Thcbcad will o scillat c i f V < 2..Jia.
(d) The bcadwill o scillatc onlyif V < �.

9) A particle of mus m i son a smooth table travelling with angular spoed w

Jn a horizontal circlc atthecndof a stringof lcngth / whoseoth c r c n d l s fixed.
T i sthcteruion in thestring.
{a) T i s constant.
(b) T= mlw'.
(c) T = mg.
(d) T i sthc rcsultanl forcc acting ontheparticlc.

IO)(a) A particlcls tm'Clling in a circlc.

(b) A paniclcis tnvelling w ith consumiveloclty.

11) A particlc i1 describing avcrtical clrclc ofradiu s a and the speed V at the
lowcst point i ssuch that .,/4ga < V < ../siu.
{a) Theparticle i snot frceto leave thecircular p;ith.
(b) Complctecirclcsarc described.

12) A l!gh.t rod of lcngllt / i srotatin g i n avertical planc about anaxi sthrough
onc end. A particlc l sattachc d to l ltc olltcr end.
(a) Thc rodisatall timcsinlcnsion.
(b) Thc grcatcst spced oftheparticlc isbetwcen ../1il and ../sii.
3) A particle, moving on1hesmooth inside surfaceofa fixedsphericalbowlof
radius 2 m, des.::ri bes a horizontal drcle a t a distance 8/S m below tlie centre
ofthe bow\.Prove 1hat thesp«dofthe partide is J ms -1 •
[Take g as !Oms-'.} (Uof L)p

4) A car mo\·e s w ith constantspeed i n a horizonialcircleof radius r on a track

which isbanked atan angle a tothehorizontal.where tana-=J. The
coefficientof friction between the tyres and theuack i s !- Find, i n tennsof r
and g , therangeof speedsa1 which thecar can negotiate this bend without1he
tyru slippingon the 1oad surface. Showtha1 1hegrea1est possible speed i s
.,/ J I times1he least possiblespeed. (ltmaybe assume d t hat the car willnot
overturn at these sp,eeds.) (UofL)
5) A partic!e ishcldata point J> onthe surfaccofa smoothfixedsphereof
radius 2a and centre 0, where PO makes an angle JO� "' ith the upwa,d
1uti cal.lf the particteis released fromrcs1a1 P findthe heiyuabove O ofthe
poinl where the particle loses contact with the sphe1e. Find abo the horizontal
distance of the particle from O when it is level with 0.

6) A panide A of mass m is held on the surface of a fixed smooth solid

sphe,ecenue O and radius a a 1 a poinl P such that OP makuan acute
angle arcosj w!ththe upwaid vertical,andisthen released.l'rove that,whcn
OA makes an angle 8 with the upward vertical, the velocity v of the particle
isgiven by
v' = !ga(3-4 cos8)
p1ovided 1hat1he particle remainson the surface ofthe sphere,and findthe
normal reac1ionon the pa11idea1this time,
Deduce that the particle leavu the surface when OA makes an angle ½11 with
the upward vertical. (0)
7) A light inextensible ming AB Im length 7a and breaking tension 4mg. A
panideofm:w m i s fastened tothe string at a point P. where AP""4a,
The ends A and B are secure d t o fixedpoinu, A being at a hei ght Sa
1·ertkallyabove B. l f t h e putide i s revolving i n a horizontal circlewith both

£
port!on11 ofthe string 1101. show1hat 1hetimeofone revolu1ion lies between

✓SK
311' and 81T �
✓St ( U o f L)

8) A llght i nextemlble stringof length / is threaded through a unooth beadof

mass m and hasone endfixed at a point A o n a smooth horizontaltable:ind
thcothe r at a point B at a height !I vtrtlcallyabovc A. Thebead ls projected
soasto desc ir be a circlc i n contact withthe table w i t h angularve\ocity CJ.
Find the radiusofthc cirde.Prove thatthc tension i n thestringis jimlCJ1, and
that CJ mustnotcxceeda certainvalue.Findth!s value. (1MB)
 Matl>ffllalk:o - MKhanla•nd Probablllty

9) A heavypanicle i sprojected horizontally with p s eed u from the Jowett

point on the inside of a hollow smooth p s he1e of internal radiu s a. Show 1h11
the least value of11for thepartic\etocomplcte a ,'Crtkalcircle l s ,/fia.The
partlcleprojected with thi svelocity. h i u a rubbe1 peg1fter 1ravelling a di&tance
jrra, thecoefficient of re stitutionbetween thepeg and thcpartic el bcing I­
Calculate the vertic a\ height of t he particle above the point ofprojection at the
moment when i t leave s the surface of the phere.
s (AEB)

10) A particle A of mai.s m hang sby a light innrnn.sible strin g of length a

from a fixedpoint 0 . The string i s initiallyvertic al and thepanicle i s then
given a horizontal velocity ,J[,iiii). Show that it will move round acomplete
circle in a verticalplaneprovided n > S.
lfwhenthe ming OA rei1ches1he horiwn1a l t he particle A oollide sand
coale sce swith a seoondparlicle at re$t a l10 0fmass m, find t h e l e a st value of 11
for t h e vertica!circleto becompleted. (Uofl)

11) A lightinelastic Wing of length a haioncendfixed at O and aparticle of

m a ss m auached to the other end. Theparticle describ e s a circ el in a horiwn1al
plane below O w!th constant angular �eloci1y w so th,u !he string makes an
ansle (J with the ,'C1tlul through 0. W1ite down 1heequation sof motion and
showthat co s(J=g/aw:.
The st ring i1now replaced with a n e \ a s1ic 1tring of unmetched !ength a and
modulu s >..mg and thepanicle i s set in motion so that it 1otatcs in a horizontal
circlc withthe �me angu\arvelocity w a sbefore. Pro,·e that.if the strlng i s
inclined at an anpe o- to t h e vertical,then
co so- = (},g-aw2)/>..aw2

12) Two light inela stic ming s AP and BP connect a panicle P 10 fixed
points A and B. T11 c point B is verticallyabo1'C A and AB "' AP = I and
B P = l../3. The particle P mo,·e s i n a horizontal circle withcon stant p s eed.
The !east angular peed
s of I' for both st ring1 tobe t1ut i s w. Al t h i s p
s eed
calculate the ansle between thc st rings 1ndthe valueof w. When the angular
speed of P is w1 (>w) t h e t c n sio111 in the suing areequal.Showtha1
w/"' lt/(IV3). (AEB)

13) The &leepeu on a railway linewhich round sa drcularbendare banked so

1h11 11 pu
s d V an engine would exen no latera l thru st on the rails. The thrust
onthe inne1 railwhenthe enginc'1 peed
s i s v1 i sequal t o th e t hru st onthe
outer ral! when the peed
s i s Ill (� > V> v,). Show that 2v'=v/ +tJ/.
14) Aparticlc move s i n a verticalcirclc onthcsmoothinner11urface of a rixed
ho\low sphere of radiw a and centre 0. theplaneof thecircle passing through
0. The particle is pro�c t e d from the lowestpoint of the sphere with initial
velocit y u , and leaves the surface of the sphere at a point P, whcrc OP makes
an angle (J with the upward venical through 0. Show that

,,.
u 2 - 2gu
cos9 =

If cos8 a. J, show that after leaving the sphere thepaniclc willpau the vertical
line lhrough 0 at a distance above 0 of Hiu, (C)
1S) Onc end ofa llght inelastic string i s a t t achcd to a point A verticallyabove
a point 0 o o a smooth horizontalp!anc and at a hcight Ii above It.The string
carries a partlclc P ofmass m atits o1her end.Whenjusttautthc strlng ls
incline d to thcverllcal atan anglc a-.
(a) If P moves in a horizontalcirc le,centre 0, with speed v, show that
v2 c;;; hg tan2 a.
(b) 0ne end o f a light elastic ming of natural !cngth h andmodulu1 ofcluticity
!mg is now attached to a fixedpoint below the plane at a distance h from
0. The other end is passed through a small smooth hole at 0 and ls
attached to P. If P describcsaci1c lcon 1heplanc withboth 11trings taut,
and ifthc ,eactionof P on theplane is ½mg, fi n d an exprc5S!onfor thc
speed v of P in terms of h , g and a.
16) Two rigid, Iight rods AB, BC, cach o f length 211, are smoothlyjointe d
a t B , and t h e rod AB i s smoothlyjoirncd at A r o a fixed smooth,-enk:al rod.
The joint at B carrie s apaniclc ofmass m. A small ring. al!o ofmass m. iJ
smoothlyjointed to BC at C and can slide on the venical rod below A. The
ring rests on a smooth horizontal ledge nxcd to the vertical rod a t a distance 2a
below A, as shown !n the diagram.

The system rot3tcs about the vertical rod wiih constant ansular velocity w.
Findthc force cxcrted bythe lcdgcon 1hc rins,and dcduce !hat ifthe ring
,cmaim on the ledsc , then aw2 ..:: Jg. (JMB)
17) A smooth hemispherical bowl with centrc O and of radius a is fixed with
its rim upwards and horizontal.Aparticle P of ma ss 3m describes a horizontal
elide on the inner surface of tlte bowl with angular velocity w. This mass is
attached to one end o f a llgln inextensible string of length 2/J. The string pa=
through a smooth hole at the lowestpoin! of the bow!. At the other end of the
ming is attached a particle of maB m which moves as a conicalpendulum in a
ho1izontal ci1de w!th aogular velocity w. Byconsldcring thc motio n o f the
second particle !.ltow that the motion isp05Sible onlyIf w1 > g/b, wltc,c b
is the length ofstring outslde thebow\ .
l fthe angle made by OP with the vertical is 6ft, !.ltowthat w1 = 6g/a, and
find, a s a multiple of mg, the reaction between the fintparticle and the bowl.
(C)
18) Apatticle of mass m is auached t o oneendofa !igl11 inclastic1t1ing of
length /. The other endofthe string!s hcld at a helght h (!c:11; 1han /) above a
smoothhorizontaltab]e. Jf thepartic\e ishcldon the table with the uring taut
andis p1ojec1edalong the 1able so that it moves in a horizontal circlewith

m(,- --"2._)
uniform speed v, p10ve that 1heforce that it exeru onthe tab!e is given by

11-111
Find an expression for T, thc tcMion inthc string,in tenns of m. v, I. h.
I f h "' O.J m and l = 0.5 m and m = 2kg,
(1) find 1he force exer1ed on thc ublcwhen thespeed is l nu-1
(b) findthe maximum velocityfo1which thepartlclc willremain on the table
and tlte corrcsponding tensio n o f the string.

19) Onecnd o f a light incxtcnsible string oflcngth / is attached1o a llxcd

point A andtheothercndto apartklc B ofmass m which is hanging freely
at rest.
Theparticle ls then projected horizonuliywith 1-clocity ../1iiff. Calculate
1he height of 8 above A whenthestring goctslack.
The procedure is repeated but this time a small smoothpeg C is placed at the
same level as A sothat when thestringis ho1izonta! lt cometinto contactWith
1he pcg.lftheparticlc then dcsi:ribcs a complete circleabout C, find the least
value of AC. When AC has this kut value find the ten!.ion in the ming
immcdiatelybcforeand after thesuing strikesthepeg. (U of L)

20) Aparticlemo1·es with constant spced v i n a circlc ofradius ,. Show that

the accekration of thep.irticleis v'fr directcdtowards thc ccntre ofthe circlc.
A rough hori.lontalp bte rotates with conuant angular wlocity w about a
fixed vertica1 axis.Ap.irticle of mass m Heson the plate at a distancc Sa/4
fiorn thfa axls.lfthc coefficicnt of friction bctwcen thep!ate and thcparticle is
� and the particle remains at rcn relati\"e to theplate. show that w C. �
 MMti.matla - M.cMnla and Ptobi,billty

24) A particle movc1 with constan1 specd v in a circle ofradius r. Show that
the acccleration ofthc particleis v1/r dircc1cd 1owards thecentreofthe circle.
A particle P ofmass 1m isattachedbya light inextensiblc string oflength a
t o a fixedpoint O andis also a11ached b yanother ligh1 inex1ensible s1ring
of lengtl1 a to a small ring Q of mass 3m which can slide on a fixed smooth
vertical wirepassing through O. The particle P describes a horizontal circle
with OP inclined at an angle !1r with the downward vertical.
(a) Find thetensions inthestrings OP and PQ.
(b) Show that the spcedof P ill (6ga)I.
(c) Find the pcrio d o freYolotionofthe s ymm. (JMB)

25) A smooth, hollow circular cone of semi.angle n, is fixed with its axis
vcrtical and iU\-ertex A downwa,ds. A particle P. ofmass m, rnoving with
constant speed V, dcscribes a horiwn1alcircle onthe inncr s11rface ofthe
cone ina plane which is a t a dilltance b above A.
(a) Show that V1 :,;gb.
(b) If P is auached to one end ofa light elastic string PQ ofnatu,al length a
and mod11lus ofclastici1y mg, find V1 if (i) Q is auached to A;
(ii) Q is passed t luough a small hole at A and is a t tached to a pa1ticle of
m:w m hanging fr�ely in equilibriun1

26) A smooth wi1e bent into the form ofa ci1cle of radius a is fixed wi1h ii�
plane vertical. A small ring of mass m which can slide freelyon the wire is
attached 1o one cnd ofa ligh 1 elastic stringofna111rallength 11 and modulus
4mg , theotherend ofthe stringbeing ticd t o the highest poin t ofthe wlre.The
1ing ill heldat the lo"·es1 point ofthe wire withthestringtao1andis lhen
sligh1!ydillplaced. Writedown 1he eqoationofene1BY ""hen therad.ius10 1he ring
makes an angle 9 with the down"·ard vertical and deduce that the maximum
velocit yoccurs when cos 9 • - l/9.
Find the velocil)" of the ir ng when the 1tring first becomes slack. (U of L)

27) Pro\'e t h u 1he poten1ial encrgy ofa ligh t elastic stringofnatural lengt h I
and modulus X whenstretched to a length (/ +x) is ½Xx2/f.
A beadof ma.s m can slide without friction along a circularhoopof rad.ius 11
wh!ch is fixed i n a ve,tical plane.The beadis connected to the highe st point of
the hoop by a lightelast!c strlngofnatural length a and modulus 3mg. lnltiaUy
lhc bead i s mo\'ingwith speed u 1hrough 1he lowest poin1 ofthe hoop. Glven
that 11'=ug , show 1ha1 1hebe1d just reaches the higl1est poi1 1 1 o f 1he hoop.
Show that thespeedw11 11 at 1he instan1 when t h e s1ring fin.t ..-ent slack and
find the rnction ofthe hoop o n t he bead a t that instant. (JMB)
 CHAPTER 1 1

G ENERAL MOTION OF A PARTICLE

MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE

Consider a particlemoving ina straight line such that,at tlme r. iu

displacement from a fixed point on that line is J, iu velocity is '11 and its
ac«leruion isa.

Nowacceleration is the ratc ofincrell5C ofvelocity sowe cansay

a = dv
,,
Also ve[oc:i1y istherate,1fincreasc ofdisplacemen1,M1

Conversely

When II i.J oonstant these equations give rise to the formulae derh-cd in
Chapter4,which can beusedto analyse lhemotionof the partk:lebut il is
eflCntial to appreciate that theseforrnulae apply only to co,uumr acce!eration.
In all cues where the acceleration is variable. calcuhu must be used to solve the
appropriate differential equations.
The relatJonships defined above canbe useddlrecdy tosolveproblemsin whJch
acceleration,vdoclty and dbplacement vuy wlth tlme.
Consider, for instance, a particle movingalong a straigh1 Jinewith an accelera1ion
--2
of a m s at time tseconds where a = Jt2 -2. lf initfallythe partldeis
at O, a fhi: edpoint on theline. with a veloeity 2 m $-1 then

using a = 312 -2 and v = fad1

we h.ive v = f (Jt 2 - 2)d1 "' 1 3 -21+c

but v = 2 when r : O, therefore c ac 2

V = t3- 2 t + 2

Abo , = f vdr
f
s = (r3-2r+ 2)dr = f - 12 +2t+c 1

s = O when r = O, therefore c1 = 0
s = !r4 -t1 + 2 t

,,
An alternali>"ewayof exp1essing thissolutionis given below.

U:ling a = J1 2 - 2 and a = ­
d,

we have

Separating the variables gives

fdv = f(3t2 - 2)dr

Now starting with v • 2 and I = 0 and moving 10 a general time I and
a general ,-eloe!ty v, a definiteintegral canbe produccd,i.e.

I: dv • s: (31 2 -2)dl

v-2 = 1 3 -21
V = t 3- 2 r + 2

Then.using v = �, � = 1 3 -21+2

[ ds = f� (1 -21+ 2)dl
3

S = !14 -11 +21

3CO Math-la - Mo,ct..,,la ,nc:1 ProbAblllly

I) A partidemovingina straight line hasan acceleration of (3r-4)m s-l

at time I seconds. The particle is initially ! m from 0, a fixed point on the
line, witha velocity of 2ms-1 . Findthe times when the velocity iszero. Find
alsothe displ.acementof the particle fiom O \\·hen 1 = 3.

Using a =
,,
d/
gives

The ,·elocityis uro when

Le.when (Jt-2)(1-2) = 0

r = 1 01 2

Using * = v we have

Therefore the p;rrticle is 2f m from O when I= 3.

2) A pa,tide stalls from rest and travel$ in a st raight line with an acceleration
court where ris the time.Findthe distance covered by the partide inlhe
intervaloftime from r - 2 to 1 • 3.

.C .C

pn
a = ¥, = cOSll"t - dv = coHrl dt

llence v = ; sinrrr

From1he sketch of1heveloci1y-1imegraph itcanbesecn 1hat theveloci1y is

never negativefor theintef\·al oftimefrom r =- 2 to / = 3:
i .e . the particleismoving in t hesame dbection thioughout this interval oflime.
Therefore if s1 is the displacement ofthe particle from its initial position when
1 = 2 and s 3 is its displacemen t .,. h· cn 1 = 3, then S)-s1 isthed ui ance

f: dJ = .i: ; sinnrdr
travelledbylhepartidein th.einterval 1 "" 2 to r= 3.

" "
v = � = .! . sm111

,,-,, . [--'c�,.-]' .'�

17• l 11"

S o t h c p article tr.wels a distance of ;i units bet.,.·een r• 1 and 1 = 3.

3) A partidernoves in a straight line withan acceleration which isinver:iely

proportional to 1' where r is the time, measured in seconds. lfthe panicle
hasave!ocityof J m c1 when 1= l a n d t hevelocity approachesauniiling
valueof 5 m s·1 .findan exprei.sionfor thevelocit y a t any time 1.

•'
k
where k is a constant.

Using
 k k
v-3 = --1 + -
21 2
k k
V = J+---
2 2,•
Thelimi ting valueof thevelocity is thevalueapp,oached asthetime incrc ues
indefinitely.
k k
,\s r- ..,, 2!2 .... 0, therefore v - 3 +
2

k
3+- = S
2
k = 4

,,
2
V • 5- -

l ) A particlemo,ing in a straight line s1 �mfrom rest at a point O on the line

and ,seconds !atcr hnsanacccleration (1-6)ms-1. Find expressionsfor the
veloci t yand d i splacement ofthe particlefrom O at time I and 6 secomh
after leaving.
2) A particlc movesi11 a straightlincwil h a n acceleration 21 m s-2 at time r.
lf i t startsf,orn rest at a point O on thc line,find itsvelocityanddisplaccment
from O a1 1 irne 1.
J) A patticlemovesin a straight line with an acceleration (31- I) m s-2
where I is1hetimc, Jf 1hcp;11tidehas a velocityof ) m s-• when r= 2
find itsvclocityat time t and when t = S.
4) A par1iclemo,·cs in a straight line with \'elocity v m s-1 at time / seconds
whe1c V "< J/ 1 - 1. l'indthei ncrcasei n d i splacementoftheparticleforthe
interval 1 =- 2 to / = 3,
5) A paniclemovesin a suaight linewith an acceleration (6r- 2) m s-1 at
time 1seconds. Jfthepartic!ehasan initial velocityof J m s-1 find thedistance
1ra
,·elled bytheparticlein thefirst secondnf i1smo1ion.

6) A particlemoves in a straight linewith acceleration � rn s-2 at time

1 seconds, If the particle isat rest at 0, a fixed point on theline.w hen 1 "" I ,
find exp,enionsfor its velocityand displacementfrom O a t time r and
when r• 2
I) A particle moves In a stnlghl llne with acceler1Uon - 'j';i where II is iu

velocity at time t. lnitlally thepart!c!e lsat 0 , a fixedpolnt onthellne, with

velocity u . Findin terms of u 1hetimeat whichthe velocity isier o a n d the
dlsplacemento(the particle (rom O a t t h l s time.
First w e n et d a relationthlp between v and 1
do I
a -- ; • -
j;i

C - 3v1 dv � { dr
.
u 3 - v3 = t
Theparticle is at rest when " "" 0 and this oceurs when t., u 3,
N o w w e will find an expression for the displacementbyusing
d, I
a = v- = - -i
113' Jv

r - Jv3 dv = ( d.!

j(u'-v') : r
S o t h e d i splacement fr<lm O when v = O is ju •.
Note. A relationsh ipbetv,,een r and t can usuallybe found from the

relationship between v and J byusing v=� and separating the variables.

Acctltr1ti on as 1 F111"1Ction of Oi1placemGnt

1
Considerapartlcle rnovlng along 1 maight Unewithacceleration s where r
i1its displacemcnt from a flxcdpol111 o n 1he l.i.11e , i.e. a= s
•.
do
A re btionship between V :ind J can be fo1111dby writing 11 as V �

l'i = s'

J>ds
,, �
Separating thevariable5 gives Jvdt> =

2 = 3+c
 Motho""'llca- Moch..,lcaondProbabillty

EXAMPLES 1lb (1«>nllnu.!)

2) A particle mo\'CS in a straight line withanaccelerationwhlch isproportlonal
to in distance from a fixed point, 0, on the line.and is directed 10"·ards 0.
Initially the particle isat rest when iU displacement from O Is !. Show chat the
particle hasa maximum \'Clocity when passing through O and zero \'Clocity
when itsdisplacement fiom 0 is +I or -1.

When the partic!e isat P, witha displacement s from 0, ithasan acccleration

ofmagnitude k.s where k is a positive constant.
Now the velocity is maximum when a is zero, i.e.when s = 0 .
Therefore the velocityIs maximum when the particle is at 0.
Re1urning tothe acce!e1ation weseethat i t i t i n t h e negativedirectionso. using
dv dV
a a v � , wehave V dy = - k.s

J: vdv = f,-k.sdi
v1 = -ks1 + k/l
vl = k(/l-sl)
when v = O,
Therefore the partide isatrestwhcnitsditplacemcnt from O is +! or -1.

I) A particle movesalong a st raight line with an acceleration a m s-1 where

a = ;, vms-1 bcing thevelocityoftheparticle at timc r�conds.lnitially
1hc particle isa1 1es1 at 0, a fixed poim on the llne.Fin d e xpre11&ions for the
ve\ocit yanddisplacement oftheparticlefrom O at time r, and flnd the
1· e \ocity or the particle when its displacement from O is S m.
2) A particle moves in a st raig
ht line with acce leration ll nu-' where
a=-Jv3, to m s-• beingthevelodtyofthe particle at !ime /$econds.
JnitiaUythe par!icle isat 0, a flxedpointon lheline,with:i velocity 2 m s-•.
Findthe velocityofthe partide )$eCOnds later and the disp!acement ofthe
particle from O at thlstime.
If F i s a function of velocity, i.e. F= f(v). then we can use either

"'* .,
dv dv . .
a= dt or a = v ili g1V1ng

/(r1) = f dt = Jjfu dv

f(v) = mvi ..
,,
fcis = J�dv

Jf F is a function of displacement,i.e. F=cf

(s). 1henweuse a = v �
SO !hal

/(r) = mr1�

f/(,)ru • rm,d,
Note. The e)(pression for a is chosen so th�t not more than two variables are
presen t in theresulling differentialequation.

I ) A particle of m= m moves in a straight line under 1he action of a variable

forcemch thatat time t thedisp!acement of theputicleis cos2t from 0, a
fixed point o n t h e line.Show t h a t t h e forcevarie, a s t h e d!splacement of 1he
particle from 0.
If s is the displace ment from O at time r we ha\·e
s = cos21
v • -2 sin 2t
<1 ., -4 cos2l
If the force is F at time 1, applying Newton·s Law gives
F = -4mco s2r
F = -411u
But -4m isconstant.so 1he forcevariesas the displacemen1
2) A particle of mass m falls from rest through a resi sting medium where the
resistance to motionis kv, whe1e v isthevelocity ofthepartideattime t ,
and k isa positiveconslant.F ind the,·eloci1y oftheputicle a t time I and

show that the\'elocity approaches a limitingvalueof �-

3) A par1 i d e of mass m moves in a uraight line under t he act ion of a resi st i ve
forceofmagnit ude ke•I" whe1 e u and k a1econ st an1 s.When t = O t he
speed of1 heparticle i s 11.Find
(a) the1i meduringwhi c h 1 he speed decrea sesto lu,
(b) t h e further time 1aken for 1heparliclet o come t o res1 ,
(c) thedi st ancet 111velled byt hepart iclefrom speed 11 t o rest .
4 ) A pa.rticlc ofunitm= moving in a st raight linei1 subjected t o a variable
resis1i•eforcewhich i sproportiona l 1o thec11be ofthe speed oft hepart i d e at
anyinstant. Theinitial speed oftheparticleis 2 m s-• and the ini tial retardat i on
is l m s-1 . Show that t he speed v m s-' ofthepartick afler / second s is
given by

Find. injoules, t hechangein kinet i c energybe1ween t heinst:in1 swhen t = O

and when t = 10.
Find a! so 1hedi s1 anceco•eredby thepar1ic\ebe1ween t he!n s1ant s,,..hcn t • O
and 1=8.
5) A part i cle fall s from 1c11t i n a medium i n which the resi stance i sproportional
to thespeed . lfthevelocity approaches a limiting v.tl.ueof KT, find the
velocit y, v. at time I and lihow that the dl stance, ,. fallen i n t ime I i sgivenby
r = g1T-gT'(! -e-•11)
Find thedistan« fallen whenthe accelerntion is ofvalue �g . Sket ch graphslO
show how v and r varywith /.

GRAPHICAL METHODS
lfa parlicle hasan acceleration u , then

But � is thegr:idient ofthe g,aph.

Thus the acceleratiun canbe estimated at time T by drawing the tangent to the
veloci!y-time giaph at that poim a n d findingits giadient.
Note that the tangent is drawnbyobstrvation,so thccurve must be well drawn.
Notc also that , in calculating thc gradi cnt ofthc tangcm. 1hc lengths of thc
sidcs ofthe trianglc uscdrnu11bc 1akcn from the scales o n t h c two axes.
Also since J = Jv dt the incre in displacement in the interval of time
�
from t= t , to t = t1 is J v d1. Thisisthe arcashadcd in t h c d iagram.
.,,
Therefore the increasein displacement o1·er aninterval oftime ( 1 , -t,) can
be estimatetlbyfindingthc areaboundedbythcvelocity-tirne graph, th e timc
axis andthc ordinatcs at 1 1 and ti.

Vtlocity-displ-mtrt1 Gr1ph1
A s e t o fcorrcspondingvalue!l ofdisplacernenlandvelocitycanbe used in a
Y11rietyofways to plot g111phs fromwhich canbefound
(a) thcacceleration at a particula r v clocityor di!ipl:icemem,
(b) 1hetimetaken1o achic1·ea givcn increasc in displacemcnt,

dv dv

vt = 1<�v1 ) i.e. a
(a) To findthe accekration wccan use a = � = v �

But =
lnv1)
Now tl½v') is the gradicm ofthe giaph givenbyplouing (jv1 )
against s.
Therefore the acceleration at a gil·en displacement canbe estimated by drawing
tl1e 1u,gen1101he curve of ,j: v1 plotted against J aml nnding!ts gradient.
(b) To find the time taken for a given increase in displac ement we can use

But ('� ds is lhe area shadedinthe diagram.

Therefore the time taken for an increase in disp!acemem from s1 10 s1 can be

f oundbyestimating the areabounde d bythe graph o f ; plotle d ai;airu;t s, the
s axis and 1he ordina1es at s1 and s1.

Corresponding\-aJuesofvelocity.11ld displ.acement for a partidemovingina

st raight lineare givenin thetable

Dr:aw a sui1ahlegraph to find the1ime 1aken to cover a di.t1anceof 6m from

the initial position.

The time �n he found by plotting ; ag

ainst s

' 0

1/v 0.5 033 0.2 0.13 O.CIB

The time taken fm the pariicle to travel 6 m from its initial position is
which i s t h e arcashaded in the diagram.
From thegraph thisarcais approximately l .63 units.
Thereforc 1hepa1tidetakcs l.63seconds to navel 6 m from its initialpo$ition.
Nole. The answer abovewas obtainedby using Simpson'sRulewith three
ordina1esbu1 anymetho d for finding 1hc approximat earca undcracurve canbe
uscd (sec 1neCmeCoune).

,I ' I ' I ' I ' 1 · I ' 1 ·

J) Apartic!emoves in a straight line.lts velocity v(ms-1) at given times
/ (seconds) isshown inthetable.

v J0 5 145 165 13 0
Draw a velocity-timegrnph. andfind
(a) theacceleration w h en t"" 3 ,
(b) thediscancemovedby theparticlebetween t=2 a n d t"' S.
2) The diagram shows the velocity-time graph for a particle which is moving in
a str11igh1 line

T11e5eaJefor oneunilis 1hesameonbo1h u:es an d t h e curveisexactlyone

hence draw a veloci1y- 1ime graph fo1 these 10 seconds. Use the velocity- t im e
graph to findthe distancetraveUed bytheparticle in thefint l O seconds of
its motion.

MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS

!fa particle P isfreeto movein•

pfanet hen at any timeits displacement.
velocityand acceluationarellkely to
have d iffcrcnt directionsas well u
di1Terent magnitude$. Bytakinglhe
componcnt s o f each ofthesequantities
parallel to axes Ox and Oy .,.-ecan
use the methods for motion in a
straight line i n each of these directions.

Jfthe componenuof displacement uebothfunctions oftin1e

X = /(I) and J" = g(t)
tl1us r = /(1)i+g(1)j

Using /'(t) to deuote f, t/(1)), the velocity components of P are

X "' f'(r) and Y "' g'(t)

so that r : /'(1)i+g(1)j
t 1 canbe now be seen 1hat

,,
v = -(r)

SimUarlybywrlting theacceleration componentsof P u

we get a •('((Ji+ ,{(t)j showing that

I) A particle moves in the xy plane such that its J)Osition vector at lime I is
ghi:n by r = (3r1-J)i+(4r3 +r-l)j. Find vector expressions for the
vclocity and acceleration of the particle at time t andwhen 1 = 2.

t=2 ¥ = 12i+49j

Using a = � gives 1 "' 6i+ 24tj

a = 6i+ 48j

l)

JI
A particle mO\'CS i n a planewith a oonstant accelerationof 2 m s -1 in the
direction Oy. lnitiallyitisal the origin with avelodty of 6 m 1 -1 Jn the
direction Ox. Show that thepathof the particle i s a parabola.
As the components of acceleration at time t are X = 0 and Y = 2, the
acceleration canbe wrtuen i n t h e form
a = 2j.
Using v= Jadl gives

V "' C i + (2t+ k); where c and k are constants of integration.

When 1 • 0, v = 6i, giving c=6 and k=O
llence " • 6i+ 21j

Using r= fdt givts r = (61+ c')i+(1 + k')j 1

When t=' O, t = O, giving 1•' : 0 and k' = O

Hence r = 6/i'+t 2j
r = x i +yj
So x = 61 and y = rl
Hencea1 time I the coordinatnof P are (61.12).
1
Eliminating I gives 36y = x which is the equation of a parabola.
Nole that .x= 6t and y =11 are the parametric equa1ion1 of the path.
3) A particle mow1 i n the xy plane and at time r isat the point {t1, r 1 -2r).
Fin d t he 1in1c atwhlchthe direc1ions ofthe velocity and acce!e ra1ionofthe
p;articleare perpendicu\ar.
At time /,
the components of displacement a,e X "= 12, y = fJ -21
Thercfore the componcntsofve!ocityare X = 21, Y = 311 -2
and the component sof accderat!on are X=2 y = 61
I. = Jt1 -2
sothe direction of thevdocityhasgradient
2,
Y
- 61
andthe direct ionofthc acceleration hasgr:idient = - = 31
X 2

(J,'-
Whent heseare perpendicular, 1 he productoftheir gradien1 1 is

� 2){31) = - l
 Mltl>emltlcs - -h.....,::s•<MI P,obo,blllty

1(9 r1 - 4) '"' 0
1 = ± { or 0

I) ,\ particle mm·es in the xy plane such that iu displacement fiom O at

time I i sgi,·enby r = J1 2i+{41- 6)j. Find\'ectorexpressions forthe
velocityand acrtlerationofthe puticleat time I andwhen / = 4 .

2) A partkle movcsi n the xy plane suchthatit hasan acceleration a at

time 1 "·he,e a = 2i-j. lnitiallythe particle isat rest at the pointwho�
position vector is Ji+j. Find the po:sition,·ectorof the partide at time t.

3) A partide movcs in the xy plane such that itsvelocityat time I isgi\·e n b y

v = J1l i +(1- l)j. Find the acceleration \'Ccto1 andpo:sition\'eCtor ofthe
partidewhen 1 = 3 if,initia!ly, the particle isatthe origin.

4 ) The po:sitionvector ofa particleat time r isgi\'en by r "" coswti + slnw,j.

Show that the speed ofthe panicleis constant.

5) A particle mowsin a plane "·ith a comtant accelent ion vector.The velocity

vector is zero when 1= 0 and equal to Ji- 2j when 1= I. Find an
exprcssion forthe velochyvector a t a nytime 1.

6) A particle movesin the xy plane and .it time I has accderation components
X = 2, ,Y = O. lnitiallythepartic!e isatthe origlnwith a velocityof l m s-1
in 1he direction Oy. Find thC\'Clocityofthe particle when 1= I and show
th.a1 thepatb ofthe particl e l s a p uabola.

7) A particlemo\·esin the xy plane and at time I isat the point

(cosw1, si n w1). Show th11 the pathis1 ci1cle andfin d 1 h e "elocityand
accelerationofthe particleat time 1. Prove that the velocityand ac�leration
are alwaysperpendicular.

8) A particle movtsin the xy plane and at fime I is at the point

(311 + 2,1-11). P tovethat the partide hasa con,tant accderationandfindit.

9) At time t 1he pwition >"Ccto, r of the point P with reipect 10 the origin 0
isgi\'enby r : ( A sinwt)i+ Xj, where A and w are constants.Sbow that
the,·ector a + <,ir i s corn1tant duringthe motionwhere • is the acceleration

JO) A pa1ticle movesin the xy plane and at time tit isat the point (x,y)
w i t h componenu of acceleration X and Y "'here X = x and Y "' 2 .
lniti:l.llythcpartide isat iesi a11M point ( l , 0).

By writing X as X � and y as j � find the components of \"elocity

at time t in teoos of x and y respecli\"ely.Hence show that the particle
dy 2.Jy
moves on a cun-e whose equation can be dcri•·ed from
;;: = .j(xi - I )°

11) A particle moves in the xy plane and at time I its acceleration components
2 9
aie i and y where X "' ; and j' "" . Initially the particle Is at rest at
j2
t.heorigin. Find thc velocity components .i and j as functions or I and hence
show thatthe cquation ofthe pathis (lxJ8= (lr)9 .

FORCES PRODUCING MOTION IN A PLANE

Consider a particle of m us m whose acceleration under the action of a

for� F is ii +Yj
lfthccomponentsof F are f-',,i and Fyj then
Fx = mii. and FJI = mY

F - ma

EXAMPLE11f

At time I theforce acting on a paniclc P ofunit m us i1 4i -tj. P is

inlti:i.lly at rest at the point with position vector i - 6j. Find the position
,-ectorof P when t = 2

Using F=ma gives

4i - 1 j = (IXa)
 M11tiem1tle1- Moeh.anle1 and Problbillty

I = 4i -rj
Thenuslns v = J1d1 gives

(where V isaconstam o f i ntegrati on).

But v=O when t= O • V = 0
So
Theposition vector of P i s r where

Now R=i-6j when r = O .. R=i-6j

So
When 1 = 2 1hej>OSitionvccto1of P ii; 9i + 1jj

In questions 1�4a fo,ce F acuonapanicleofmass m. whose acceleration,

1-eloci tyand p0$ition vecto r a t timc I are a , v and r . When 1=O the
particle i s a t apointwi thposition vector r0 with velocity Vo.
1 ) F = 3 i + 4 j , m= I, ,0 ,..0, v0=0. F i n d 1, v and r.
2) F = Jti-j. m = 2. r0 = i +j, v0 = 0 . Find r at time t
when / = 3.
J) F = ( sin /)i + (cou)j, m = l , t0 = -j, v0 = i . Find v an d r .
4 ) r =1Ji-1'j + J1 i -1j + li - Jj. m = 4. F i n d r0 , v, v0, a a n d F .
5) A particle P ofmas.s I kg isat rest at thepoint A whose position rebtive
to a fb1edpoin1 0 is i -4j. t f a constant f o1cc Ji-j acts onthcpanic\c,
fi n d i tsvelocityand displacement from A aftcr timc 1. What is the po si tion
veclur of f' 1elativcto O when 1 = 2?
6) At t i m e / thepositionvccto 1 o f aparticlc ofmm m is (cos1)i + 1'j.
Find1hercsultantforcc actingon thcparti c\c when

MOTION IN THREE DIMENSIONS

When the motion of a pulicle i snot ,cstrictcd 10 apbne. three a:otesare

n t t dc d f or a framc of rcfc1cncc.Thcmost con1-enicnt a,;ci arc a sct ofthrtt
mutually perpendi cular lines o.�, Oy and 0:.
2) A particle A moveswith velocity 2i-3j froma point ( 4 , 5). At the
same Instant a particle B, moving in the same plane wi1h \'tlodty 4i+j ,
passcsthrough a point C . Findwhether A and B c0Uidegiventha1
(a) C i1 (2,-1) (b) C is (0,-3)

(a) The equation ofmotionof A ls r1 oc 4i + Sj+r(2i - 3j).

The cquation of motion of B is r1 = 2i - j+r(4i + j).
If r1 = r1 equating coefficienuof i gives
4+2t • 2 + 41 • t = I
When f"' I r1 : 6i + 2j and r1 = 6i.
So r1 and r1 cannotbe equal for anyvalue of I andthc particles donot
collide.

(b) Thistime r1 =-3j+r(4i+j) and equating coefficients of i gives

4 + 2r = 4 r • t '= 2,
When 1=2, r , = Bi-j and r1 = 8i-j.
So thc particlcsdo collide, when r= 2, a1 1hepointwithposition
l'CCIOI 8i -j.

ln eachof thefo!lowingproblems, r1 and r1 arethc position vectorsof two

particlcs attime 1. Determine whether the partidescollldc and,if theydo,
give the value of t when this occursand the position vector of thepnillt of
colli!.ion.
I) r, "' 4i + j + 1(2i+3j)
r, = 2i - 3j + t(6i + l lj)

2) r i "' 2i + j + (cosnt)i + (sinnt)j + rk

r, = i + 2j + k + (sin 211t)i -(cos 2"1)j

)) T1 "' ( 3 + t 1)i+(7+t)j + (l -1)k

r1 "' (11+2t)i+ l lj +( l l - 1 1):

4) r1 = -Si + 2j + 9k + t(Si·-j+ 2k)

r1 == i + 2j + 3k + r
(Ji-j+ 4k)

Funhcrproblcmson collision (inter�ption) wil l b e f ound in Chapter l 3 .

2) Two particles A and B start simultaneoUJly fro m po ints Ao and B0 and
m o v e with constant velocities vA and v9. Find the time, and their distance
apart when they areclosest to�thcr ,if Ao is (- 1 ,- !), B0 is (4, 4),
YA "' 2i+j and Ve = i - 2j.
rA = -i-j+r(2i+j)
r11 = 4i +4j + t(i-2j)
r11-rA = Si +Sj +1(-i-Jj)

If d is the distancebetween A and B, we have

di ,,. (5-r)'+(S - 3 1 )1
d1 = 10t1 -40t+S0 Ill
0d2 = , 2 _4, + 5

But (1-2)'+1 isleutwhen , .. 2 and then �'= I.

S o ,\ and B areclo sest to gether when 1= 2 and arc then distant
,/JO units apart.
Nole. The least value o f d canalso befoundfro m equati o n I l l byiaing
calcul115.Thealgebraic me1h o d i1111o duced abo1·ecanbe115edonlywhen d 1 is
a quad1atic fonction.

Find the sho rtest distancebetween A and B given rA an� r8. which arethe
p o sitlonvcc t o u o f A and B at timer.

I) rA = 2i-j+Stj
re = i + t(2i+4j)

2) rA = i +{sinr)j
r8 "' (cos t )i+j

J) rA = 3(1 + r)i - ( 7 - 2r)j

ru "' 2(4 + t)i-(6-t)j

4) f>,, = (J - t1)i+(t+1)j
re = (2 +1)i -1'j

Furthe1 problemsinvo lvingsho nest distanceapar1(do sest apprnach)are given

in Chapter \J.
The lmpube of a Forca of Variable Magnitude

Consider aparticle ofmas.s m moving in a s1raight line under the ac1ionofa

variable force.lf, at a llme 1, theputicle hasan acceleration a and the force
acting onitis F. then

F = m­
,,
d,
Ill
lftheparticle hasa velocity u when 1=O and a velocity v at t ime I then,
byseparatingthe variables , equatlon [ I ] becomes

Now mv-mu is the increase in momentum of the particle over the interval
oflime 1.

The quan t i t y J: F dt iscalled lhe impulieofthe force overthe inlervalof

time 1.

Thusthe impulse of a force(constan1orvariable) 1s equal 101he increasein

Fo1a consta11t force· Impulse = Ft

For a variable force· Impulse = { Fdt

Work Do,,. by• forca of Variable Mavni1ud1

If we write equation f l l above In the form

F = mv�

then,by sepuating the variables, we get

where sisthe inc1easein dis

placeme n t o f t heparticlein time 1.
Now !n11:,1 -jmu1 is the increase in the kinetic energy of the particle.

The quan!ily { F ds iscalled the workdoneby the force causing an increase

in displacement of J.

TI,e conceph of work and impulsesome1imes lead to neat solutions �!though the
methodsgiven earliercan �lso be used.

I ) A particleof m.ass m moves in a str:iight Une under theactio n o f a force F

where F = 11 at time /. If the particle has a velocity II when I = 0,
find the velocitywhen t = 3.
If v isthe,'tlocitywhen 1 = 3 then,bycon$1dering t h e i mpulse of F from
1 = 0 to r = 3, weha,'t

.C
.c
mv -mu = Fdt

= 2t dt

Therefllie

°
2) Aparticle of mass m slides from 1es1 doWTI a plane inclined at 30 to the
horizontal.The 1esistance to the motion ofthe particle i5 ms1 where s is the
displace men1 oftheparticlefromits ini1ial position. Find1he 1�!ocilyof1he
particle when J= I.
 Ma1Mffl11k:1- MlehanlclandProbablllry

MULTIPLE CHOICE exeRCISe 1 1

(Jm1ruc1io1u for,msweririgt
hete qu estoi nsare g �i en011 page x.)

I ) A particle rnovualong a straightline Ox such that X =(6t-4)rns-'

at time t. lnitillllytheparticle is at O with a ,·elocityo f - 2 rn s -1 • The
displacernem of thepartide frorn O attirnc tis:
(a) r3-21 1 -2t (b) rl- 2r' (c) 6 (d) 1 J -2t1 + 2 (e) O.

2) A particle moves along a straight linc such thatat tlme tits displacement
from a fixedpoint O on thc li11c i s Jr'-2. Thc velocityofthe particle
when 1 = 2 is:
(a) S m s-1 (b)4 rns-1 (c) 12ms-1 (d) 6t (e) 1 3 - 2r
3) A panlde of mass 3kg moves ;tlong a straight line Ox under the actl011 ofa
force F such lhlt a time t. x = r' + Jt. The magnitude of F at time tis
gi,·cnby
(a) 0 (b) 2N (c) J(2t +3) (d) 6N (e) -6N.
4) A particle mo,-es along a straight line with acceleration a sill wt at till,c I .
Jniliallythe panide lsat 1eJt at 0 , a filled point on the line.The displ;iumcnt
ofthe particle from O at time I is gi,-enby:

(a) :;;sinw1 + 1 (b) � sinwt+ r (c) aw1 coswt

:; ;;;

1
(d) -aw sinwl

S) A particle moves along a straight line with an acceleration of � where v is

the velod1y at any instant.Initiallythe pa,ticle is�• resl.The velocityofthe
paniclea1 1irnc I is:

(a) 21 {b) 4r (c) ; (d) 2../t (e) 2../t+ 2.

6) A p.anide moves in a straight !ine with an acceleration l! where s is its

displacemcnt from afixedpointon the line. and v c:= O when J = 0. Its
•-elocitywhen its displacement is s is:
(a) s (b) s' (c) -s../2 (d) s../2 (e) ./b.

,,,
7) Aparticle mo,·cs inthe xy planesuch th11t at time ti 1 i s at 1hepoin1
(2t'. 3 1 - !). At time I theacceleration components are ghcnby
(a) X=41. ji=3 (b) X = Jt3, j1 = 2 - 1 (c) X=4, jl=3

(d) X = O. Y = O
 MMt,...,.tlcs - M.c:hanics _,.i P,obablllty

JS) A particle moves along a straigh1 1ine such that at time t its velocityis v
andits displacement from a fixed point on thelineis s. Its acceleration at time
time r!s:
(a) ¥, (b) v� (c) Jv dt.

16) The speed of a particle of mass 111 !nc1eues from u to v in time r wider
the actionofaforce F. Jn t hesametimetheparticle undergoes a displacement d.
(a) The wo,k done bytheforccls F.d.
(b) The impulse of1hef orceis F.r.
(c) Thework done by the forceis im(v1 -u 1),
(d) lflt =m(v-u).

17) (1) At time I the acce!crationof a particle isgiven by a = ;.

(b) Thevrlocityofa panic \eai time I is gh-en by v=21I.

18) (•) •• f
(,) (b) J,,,. Jf\,) d<.
19) (a) •· • (2r- J i + 3rj (b) a = 2i + 3j.
)
20) (a) The impulse of a fo1ce F .icting f or I time I is Fr.
(b) F is aconstant fo,ce.
21) (a) r = (J 1 : + 2)i-(1+ l)j-1lk (b) v = 6ti- j - Jr'k.

22) A particle 1110Vl:s ina straigh1 line. Find 1 hc distancecm·ered bythe particle
in thethird second ofi1s mo1Jon.
(a) , � o when r- o.
(b) a = Jt- 4 at time r.
(c) v = O when r = O.
23) ,\ particle mo,-es on the line Ox with an acceleration which is proportional
to -x. Find the maximum veloci1 y of 1 he particle.
(a) v =- 0 when t=O.
(b) x=a when r=O.
(c) i = J when t = I .
24) A particle mous unde1 the action of a f o1ce F . Find F i n te1ms of 1 .
(a) X = J1 l -4_
(b) .V = 61 + 3 .
(c) 1 he massofthe panide is 2 kg.
5) A pa,ticlc of mass 3 kg moves 110 that its position vector aflcr tse<:onds is
given by

Find 1hc forceacting o n 1 h c pntidca1 1irne t= 2 s. (UofL)

6) A particle movesl11 a str.1ight lineso that its speed b ln1'enelyp1oportional
to (r+ I). where I i s t he tlme in secondsfor wllich i t has been moving.
Aft er 2 seconds, thepartklc hasa ret a r dati o n o f 10/9 m s-i. Calculate t he
distance moved i n the fim Sl'!:cond of the motion. (U of L)
7) A partlcle P moves along Ox wi1hvJriableveloci1y v m i; -1 • When
OP• xm, 1he acceleration of P in the direc t i o n of x-increasing is - v m s-i,
Giventha! v = I O when x = 0. find v in t erms of x. (UofL)
8) A particlernovesa!ongthe x-axis. For all values of x its 1e1ardation i s
1{(2v1)ms-' where v m s-1 i s i t s speed . At time t= 0 seconds1he panlclc
isprojected fro nr the01ig i n with speed u m s-1 i n the direc1ion x increasing.
Show that thespeed is halved when t = 7ul/12 seconds and find the value
of x in t ermsof u at t his inst ant. ( U o f l)
9) At lime t. t h e p osition vcc101 r ofa panicle P is given by
r = u1+¼,1'.
where u and g ue constant vect ors. F i n d thevelocityand 1hc accelcralion of
P at time t. Obtainalso t hec;hange i n t hevelocit yof P be1ween t ime t, and
time f2, ( U o f l)
10) A puticle of mass 4 kg moves from rest at the origin under the action of
two forces each of magnitude 40N. One forceacts parallel to the vector
4i-3j, and the other parallel t o the.-ec t o r -3i+4j. Findtheacccleration
ofthe p�rticle
I I) A part icle of mass m movesIn a straight line aµinst a 1esistance of
(mv+ k) whc,e v isthe\·eJocity o f t heparticleand k i s a positi�econstant.
Jnitiallythepa11iclehasa1·elocityof u . Findan expressionfor 1hevelocityof
1hc partkleat anytime r and show th.at t hegrea1eit displacement fr o rn t h e
mu + k
initial po&ition occurswhen 1=ln ( )-
k

l2) Byw rit ing a u ¥i show that f;dv=r, llem:eshow that i f ; iJ

ploued agaiml v, the arl'a between the graph.t he v axil and 1he ordi nates
v : 0. V "' I' givest hc t imea1 wllich 1hevelocl1yis V. if , - o when
v= 0. A particle moves i n a straight line with acceleration wllich decreasei
uniformlywi t h thevelocity.lf1heacceleration ls I O m s -1 when the velocity
i s zcroand 4 1115-l- when theveloci t yi s 6 m ,-•. fin d thetimcs atwhichthe
1-elo c i t y i s 2 m s-1 , 8 m s-•, lf 1=0 when tt = O.
 Mothomallc:t - M..,h•nlco•nd P,-Ulty

particle has travellcd whcn t = 2, anddrawthe,·e!oclty-time grap h f o r thc

interval 0 <t< 2. (UofL)

17) Apoint P is uavellingin theposith'C direction on the x-.ixis with

accele1ationp1oportionaltothe squareofits sp eed v. At time 1 = 0 it
pas!its 1h1ough the origin with speed gT and with acceleration g. Show that
dv/dx = v/(gT1).
and hcncc obtain an expressionfor v in tennsof x , g and T. Prove that,
a t time 1.

Sketch the graph of .x agairut I for O < r < T. (Uof L)

18) Aparticle movingalonga straig ht line startsat time 1-= 0 seconds with
a velocity 4m1-1 . At any subsequent time 1scconds the accelcratlon ofthc
partic!e i s (61-B)ms-1•
Find
(a) the d.istancc theparticlemovt1before first comingtoinstan1aneous res1,
(b) the tolaltimc T scconds 1akcn by1hcparticle torc1umto thcstarting
point ,
(c) thc greate51 specdoftheparlicle for o ,;;1.;;: T . ( U ofL)

19) Aparticle starts from restat timc t "' O and move1 in a straigh1Une with
variablc accekration / m s-1; where

f
r = 5, + JO
f"' ( 0 <1<S)

(r;;,,s)
-;;

1 beingn1casuredln second1.Show that lhe ve!ocity ii 2i m s -1 when I"' S

and l l m s -1 when /"' 10.
Showalso that the distance travelle d b y t heparticlein the first I 0 scconds is
(43, - I 0 !n2)m. ( U o f L)

20) Aparachutist ofmass III falls freely until hispanchutc opens. When it ii
open,he cxpc1ienccsan upward resi5tance kv where v i� his spced and k is a
positive constaot.Prove that,aftertimc t from theopeningofhispuachute,
111(d11/d1) "' mg-kTI. Prnve :tlso that, irreJpective of his speed when he opens
hisparachute, his spi:ed appro oches a limitingvalue mg/k. providedihnhe fal!s
for a 1mfficientlylongtime.
The parachutist falls f!om rest freely under gravity for a time m/1k and then
openshis parachu1e. Pro\-e that the to1a! distancehe has fa\lenwhen his velocity
m1g
is 3mg/4k is
Si2" ( 8 1 n 2 - I ). (O)

21) A particle leaves a point A at time r = 0 with speed II and mo,-cs

towards a point B with a retardation Av, where v isthe specd ofthe particle
at time 1. The partide i s a t a distance s from A at time 1. Showthat:
(a) v=u -AS.
(b) ln(u - AS) = ln u - i\t.
At r = O a second particle:itaru from ,e stal B and movutowards A with
acceleration 2 + 61. The pa1ticles collide at the mid-point of AB when
t = I. Find the distance AB and the speeds of the particles on Impact. (AEB)

22) A particle isprojected horizontallywith speed u across a smooth horizontal

plane from a point O inthc plane.The particle b subjected to a 1etardation of
magnitude k times thespeedofthe partkle.Fin d the d i stancc ofthe partlde
from O and also itsspec d at timc I aft e r projcction.
Anothe1 particleis proje<:ted verticallyupwa1ds withspced u . In addition to
the rctarda1ion due to gravitythi1. partideis alsosubjected to a retardationof
k times itsspecd.Findthe timcthisparticle takcs t o r cach itsgreatest height.
(AEB)

23) A panicl e moves i11 the xy plane such that the acceleration of the panicle
at time I is 3i. At time 1 = 0 the paiticle i s at the origin with velocity
vector -2j. Findthe p0$ilion vector ofthc partide at time I and hencefi11d
the cartes:Limequationofiupath.

24) A par1icle isacted upon bytwo forccs F, and F, where F1 = 2i-1k

Jlld f1 : i + 41 j + J 1 k at time 1. TI1eparticleis initiallyat rest.Fin d the
momentumofthe particle 5 scconds later.

25) A particle ofmass m movesunde1 the ac1ion of a forcc F where

F = m cru1i +m sintj. Initially the particle isat the point - l with velocity
\'CCIOr -j. Prove thatthepath ofthc particlcisa circlewhosecartesian equatlon
is x1 +y1 • l.

26)A particle ofunit mass !sacted upon by a force which at timc r is

4i+ 1 2 t1 j. At time 1 :0 the particle isat rest at the point - i + j . Find
thc position vector ofthe particle at time t = T, aud de<luce that the path of
the particle isa parabola withvertex at the point - i +j. At time t = I
thc fu1ceactingontheparticlebe<:omes 4i. Find the positionvcctorofthe
puticle when 1 = 2. (U of L)
33) A cu of mass m is moving in a suaight line on a rough horizontal plane.
At time 1 1he car is moving with ,-clocity II and the 1esis1ance to motion is kV
where k isa oorutant.lfthecarworks ata constanlrate ii, show 1h.a1

(")'
If the car sta/U from rtst, show that v is alway1 Je,,s than k and fmd the

time taken fm thecarto reach thespeed ½

('')'
,;
(O)

34) A mass m hangs attheendofa light slring andis rais.ed vertically by an

engine working at a constant r:ue kmg. Derive the equation of motion of the
mauin the form

v1 � = (k-v)g

where v is the upward velocity of the mass and x is its displacement meuu,ed
upwards.
lnilially the mus is at 1est and when it has risen 10 a height h its speed is u.
Show thu

Without furthei integration fin<l.in terms of m, k and 11, theincreasc in thc

101alenergy ofthe mass dueto thismotion andhence.by considering 1hework
doneby theengine.<leduce th.it1he time taken is

(JMB)
 CHAPTER 1 2

SIM PLE HARMONIC MOTION

SimpleHarmonic Motion (SHM) is apanicul11 type of oscillatory motion. It

is defined inone o f t h e following ways.
(a) A particle mo,ing i n a straight line w i t h a linea1accelerationproponional t o
the linear displacement from a fixed point. always directed towards 1hat
fixedpoint,lst ravelling w!th li near S H M
( b ) Ap:irticlewhich oscillate s o n a circu!ar arcwith angular accelerationwhich
i1proportiona l t o the angular displacement from a fixed line and always
directed towards that fixed Hne , i s traYell!ngwith angular SHM.

BASIC EQUATIONS OF SHM

,,,
Given a fl.lledpoint O and a p.1rtide P distant x from O at any t i m e , the
linear accelerati on of P is �. or X, in the direction OP.
But,by definition,the accelerationof P is proportional to x and towards 0 .
Using n1 asa constant ofproportion,
the acceleration is u2x in t h e d i re<:lion PO

o- - - .- - - - - ------ -

lience

This differential equalion i s theba$ic equation oflinear S•lM.

 Given a fixed line OA and a partide P where OP is at an angular
displacement 6 from OA at any time 1, the angular acceleraUon of P
is � or ii away from OA.

Butby definition thc angular accclcraiion of P is proportional to 8 and

towards OA.

l-lence ii = -1118 is the basiccquation ofangul arSHM.

By intcgratingcitherbasiccquationitis possiblc to derive further relationships
involving vclocity, displacement and time.

LinearSHM

The acceleration of P can be taken as �- �. or v � (see Chapter I I),

,,
where v is the ,·elocity of P at any time 1.

Because the acceleratlon is a function of :x we can use the form v gmng

�

If P ismomcntarily at ,eu at a point A where QA .. a, then K,= ½n'a1

50that
 Mathem1nia - Mecluinia•nd P,ot.blllty

Therefore

a,csin � = m + K2

lfwec hoosetobeginour analysis from point A so that t=O when x = o,

then K1 = 2·

Hence a,csin - = n1+ -

' 2

Summarisin g o u r r esul t s s o fa,wehave

d'x
- � - ,i1x [I[
,,,

v = n� (2(
(3(

Now equation {2/ lhows that v= 0 when x=±a confirming that the
particle oscilla1es between two points A and A ' on opposite sides of O and
equi distant from 0.

The distance OA is called the amplitude of the SHM.

The point O is the cenrre or meanpos
itionof the motion.

,,,
The time taken to travel from A to O is obtained byusing x = 0 in
equation (JJ giving ,u = f or r = -.
1iwil1 1ake four1imuaslongto travelfrom A to A' and back to A,
i.e.io describt one comp cl te osclllation.
This istheperiodic timt (orperiod of oscillation), T, and

[4[

Se\"eral !ntcrcstingp roperticsof SI-IM canbt obsen-ed from the four standard
fonnulae whlch have just bten derived.
(1) The periodic time is independent of the amplitude of the motion
equation [4J.
(b) The greatest ps eed is na. occuring when x = O Le. at the centre of the
path.The p s eed iszrrowhen x = ,Ca i.e.at theends ofthepath.
(c) The grea1est acceleraiion isofmagni1ude n1a, occuringwhen x=ta
while.when x = O u 1he cenue ofthe path , the acceleration i s 1.cro.

Angul11 SHM

Using 8=,:, when t= 0 and the angular ,·elocity w= 0, a simi lar

,,,
set of relationships car1be obtaine d for angular SIIM. They are:

1 = -1110 [lJ
d/
w = n� [21
6 = ,:, cos/II 131

T .. [4 1
�
Note.Unless their deris·atinnisspeciflcally aske d for.lhestandard fonnulae
can be quoted when $0ll'ing pmblems on SHM whether linear or angular.

s ee d i s Jm,- 1
I) Aparticle isdescribing linearSHM ofamplilude 2m. lfits p
when thep.irticle ls I m from the centrc ufthepathfind
(a) thepcriodic time.
(b) 1he m1ximum 1elocity,
·
(c) themaxirnumacceleration.
 -- -.
- - · - ----
- l _:.�:�.:---
--
(8-4>--c_ _ _ _ _ �

Since at A, v = 0, A muse be one end of the path, Let O be the cemre o f

the path where AO=a. The \-e]oc itiesat 8 a n d C, beins opposite in sign,
a1e in opposite direc1ions. Therefore B and C are on opposi te sidesof O.
Measuring x from O in che direction AO we have
v= 2 when x = -(a- 2)
v • -l when x = (8-a)
1 1
Using 11 = n (a - x')
1

[I[
and I = 111(a1 - [8-aJ l) [2[
EqU3tion [l) + (I J gives
I 16.1-64 4(a-4)
.. =
4 � (a- 1)
Therefore a = 4.2
From [ I ) 4 = 111 [(4.l)2 -(-2.2)ll
4 : 111(6.4x2 .0)

Hence n = _j_:_

- - • ---- • - -
The periodic lime is gi,·en by T ,., � and i1
8
"j
5
seconds

andthe amplltudeis 4.2 m.

Summa,v of Fo,mulM tnd Ttmu UHd in Linur SHM

AA' is the path

0 is1hc een1rcor mean posi1ion
a is the amplitude
 Motht<Nl lcs - ,.,..honlcs ondProbab.illty

For a particle at a general point P

X = - 111:x where n is a constam

T =- � where T is theperiodofan oscil!ation

Thema:timum accderation hu magnitude n'a and occurs at A and A'.

Themaximum speed is ,w and occun at 0.

J) A particle movn in a maight line with SIIM.Find 1he periodic ti.lM if·
(a) the acceleration b of magnitude 2 m s-l when the particle is I m from the
centre of oscillation,
(b) themaximum vdocityis 4 m s-' andthemaximum acceleratio n i s 6 m s -1.
2) Theamplitude of OS(:illat ion of a puticle describing linear SIIM i1 I .S m .
Thespeed at a distance ,/2 m frornthemeanpositloni1 2 m s-•. Find:
(a) 1hevelocityofthepar1icleatthc mean position,
{b) themaximum acceleration,
(c) theperiod ofoneoscillation.
3) A particle describing angular SHM passes through its mean position with
.111gular velocit y 4 radiansper �ond . Jf theamplitudeis rr/6 rndians, find
theangular ,·elocitywhen the angular displa.:emcnl from themean position
is1t/l2 radians.
4) A point is m01ing in a straight line with SH.\t about a fixed point A. The
poim h u speeds v, and v1 whenil!. displacements flom A are x 1-and x1
respecti,·ely.Find,in 1 ermsof x 1, x1 , v1 and Vi the periodic timeofooe
oscillation.
S) A particle b describing angular SIIM of period rr seconds. IU maximum
angular acce!erationis 4rr/3 rad,- 1 . Find thema:ir.imum angular displacemenl
of1heparlick from itsmeanposhlon and theangular ve!ocityof thepartlcle
when its angular displacement is halfthema:timum value.
6) A piston performing SHM has I maximum speed of O.S m s-1 .111d dcscrihes
fou r o sciUationsin oneminute,Find theamp!itude ofthemotionand the
\'elocity andacce!eration ofthepislon when iti$ I m fromthecentreof
oscillation.
7) A particle perform, two SHM oscillations each second. Its speed when it i1
0.02 m from itsmean position is half lhe maximum speed . Find the amplitude
of the motion, !he maximum acceleration and thespeed at a distance 0.01 m
from themean position.
ASSOCIATED CIRCULAR MOTION

A particle P is describlng ci1cular mo1ion of radius a withconslantangular

velocity w and Q is the foot of the perpendicular from P on to a dlame1er
AA'. Theveloci1y of P is aw a]ong lhe tangent andthe acceleiation of P ill
aw1 towards the centre O of the circle.

Thc components, para!klto AA', ofthe \'elocity andacceleration of P gl,<e

the \'e!ocity and acceleration of Q.
Therefore, fo1 Q. velocity = awsinO aluilg QO
acceleration = aw1 cos8 along Q0

If the distance OQ is x. then cose =-;;

Therefore Q hasan acceleration aw2 (�) = w1x towards 0.

But w2 bconstantso the acccleration of Q is proportional to the distance

of Q from O and is always towards 0.
Therefore Q de5eiibes SHM about O as untie and with amplitude a.
The equations of SHM can now be derived by considering the auociated
circular motion of Y {an alternative to the deri"3tion in which calculus was
used).
The velocity, �. of Q ill awsin8

sine : - -
,
Therefore (2a]
(a) If r, secondsisthetime from A 10 L at 2rads-1 then r1= j + 2 .
So t h e time from A t o B is 111 second,.
(b) Similarly,if IJ seconds is the time from A 10 M. IJ = 1 .32 + 2.
So the time from A to C is 0.66 seconds.
Ahematively,havingcvaluatcd w as aba,·e ,thcp1oblem can thcn be r.o\ved by
us.ing theformula x = o coswr.
(a) At B, x = 2d and the time from A to B isgi\'Cn by
2d "' 4dcos2r1
2 t 1 = arcos½ = 11{3
11 = n/6
(b) At C. x = d and the time from A 10 C lsgivenby
d = 4dcos 2 t1
211 = arcosj = 1.32
11 = 0.66

2) A particlc trave\ling with linear Sl!Mofperiod T starts from the centre 0

ofiu pathwhichisof length 2o. The pa1ticle uavclsfo1 a tlme I andis then
a t 3 point P. Findthe dis1:mcc OP if (a) / "' l T (b) t= ¼T.
As P uaveb along AA' with SHM its
projection P ' onthc as,ociatedcircle
travclswith con1tant angu!ar vclocity.

=-
w r
,.
The time, t. taken to travel from O to r with SHM is equal to 1he time taken

'
to traverse the aic O'P' with constant angular velocity

1= or O = WI
:;

OP = a sinO = a sinwr = u sin T

But thisis thebasicequatio n o f angular SHM.Therefore a par!icle osdllatlng
through small angles at the end of a light string performs angular SHM (to a
goodapprox.imatioo).

The period, T, of such oscillatiom is � whe1e n' .. !.

I

Therefore

Note: T depends uponthe length ofth e s tring andthevalueofgravitational

acceleration but not upon the m= of the particle (often called the pendulum
bob).

ThaSecood,Pendulum

A simple pendulum which swings from one end ofits path to the other end
ir. exactly one second i, called a /ltcondspmdulum and is Hid to htat ucom/1.
Since eachha\foscillation takes l second, 1he period ofoscillatio n i s 2 seconds ,
T = 2
The length of string, /, required for a seconds pendulurn can then be calculated
usmg
i
T = 2rr./iii • 2 = 2rr./if

gil'ing
,,
I = !..

J) A simple pendulum w h ich is meant to beat seconds (i.e. each halfos

c li /at o
i 11
takes I second) gains 1 minute per day. Bywhat pe1ceotageofin lcng1h
shoulditbe lengthened to makeit a,curate?
The pendulum makes (24 x 60 x 60 + 60) half oscillations in 24 hours .
24xl,Ox60
Thetimefor halfan oscillatlonis - - - seoonds
60(24 x60 + 1 )

Thetimeforone osclllationis 2rr./iii whe,e I isthe kng1h of1he

1M1odulum.
 Ma1hem11lo - MKl>lonlcs Ind Probablll1y

Considcr themotion ofthepa1tideasitpasscs 1hrough a generalpoin1 P which

is distant x from B where AB '- 1.

The tension in the string is A l

Applying Newton's Law in the direction BP gives

- A l .. mi

i ,. -�x
ml

T h i s is the basic equation of linear SHM where 112 "' �

ml
Thepar!iclcthe,eforeinitiaUyperfonusSHMwith B as centre.
But as thepartlc\epasses through B themingbecomes slack andno horizontal
forcethen acts on 1hepar1kle.lt will therefore travel with constan1 speed until
the stringbecomes taut again at B' where AB' = /.

Once beyond B' thestring ag;iin l u s a tens!on ¥ towards B' where B'P' ,,, x .

The particle again moveswith SHM where n1 "' ;;; but about centre B '.

The particle the1efore performs h a l f an oscillation with SMM at each end ofiu
journeyand cover sthesection between B and B' with constant speed.

3) Consider an elutk string of natural length a and modulus 2mg al\ached at

one end 10 a fixed point A and hanging verticallywith a particle of ma� "' at
1heother end, lf 1heparticleis pulled verticaUy downwar d a dlstance d below
i u equilibrium position andthen released,investigatetherubscquent motion
if d < a/2.
 $implt K!ormonicModon 399

p - - - - - - - - _ _'"! - - -- - - - -

In diagram (i) AB i5 the natural length of the string

E isthe posi1ion of eq11ilibri11mof the partlde
P i,a generalpoiot through which the partklepasses
C h thc lowestposition 11fthc partidc.
ln diagram(ii) wherethe extension in the string is e,

the tension (llooke'1 Law)

B11tthe particle isin eq11ilibrium

therefore TE .. mg .,. I! .. 2

In di:lg.ram (iii) where the extension is (e+x) and the acceleration of the
particle is X in 1he direction EI',

the tcruion

The m:iximum distance from E of the paricle is the initial displacement d

which is less than a/2. The particle thereforenever rises abo\"e \helevc]of B
il!ldthe stringncvcr goessbck. For <lllpositions of P, then, applylngNewton's
law vertkally doWfl"''ardat P gl\·es

mg - � (e+x) = mX

Therefore = mX
 Sltftple HHmonic Mollon

Above B, then, SHM ceases and the particle travels with vertical motlo11 under
gnvily.
lnorderto investigate thillsecondtypeofmotionln detail,the vel<><:lty at B , v8,
is,equired andcanbe calculatedw.ing

This isthe inltJ.al velocity for the

motionunder gravity abo\'C B.

The oscillatlonspe1formedby 1hepartide arecompoundand the periodic time

ofone oscillation canbe determinedin twopart$.

(a) Time, t 1 , taken from C to B with SIIM.

1 1 isequalto the timetakento describe

''
the arc CB' with constant angular

•'[)j'
'
j, velocity n.
,
l1 = -;;
But O "' 11 -BEB'

r
0 = rr-arcos ¼

'

(b) Time, ti , taken to1iscabove B to instantaneous rest,movingundcr

gravity.

0 == !✓isg; -gtl [v=u +at]

,.. t, == �✓i5a7i
 Slmpr. Harn,.onk: Mullon

Ccmparing wilh X: -n2x , we see that this is the basic equation of SIIM
about B as ccntreandfor which n=2. Also thc amp!itude, a, of t he
motion b BC i.e. a= I .
Now C isthe end o f the path and B i s the centre so B C i J onequarte1 o f a

:::;�:e:e�::'.��ken to travelfrom C to B b J (�) : ! .

" 4

Asthepart iclepassesth1o ugh. B with velocity %, the stringbecomesslack.

The particle no longer hasanyhorizontal force acting on it and itshorizontal
velocitywiU thereforebeco nstant.
Using r? m n1 (1l-x2) at B where x = O, g[,·es l'n "' ml
So the speed at B is 2ms-1
Thc timetaken to lrave!from B 10 A atthis speed ist htreforc l second.
The two typesof motion are (a) SM�1 frnm C to B
(b) cons1an1 ve!oci1yfrom B to ,\.
The total t ime Taken to travel from C to A is (iir + !)s.

2) A panic le of m3ss 2 kg isatuched to one end of a light elastic ming of

namralleng1h I m whose modulu1 of elasticity is 4g N. Theothe, end of the
ming isfastenedtoa fixed point 0. Theparticle is held at O a11d isthen
released from t hat position. Find the depthhelow O ofthelevtl where the
particle fust comesto instantaneousrest. Fin d also theperio d of oscillationof
the subsequent motion.

! ,. h-------------
I
1. ls_ _ ___________
- - - - - - - --- - - j,
 SimploH•rmonlc Mo1ion

B = 11- arcos i

The time taken f,om B to A is ;,-

11- arcos j;
which is
../fi
Also vA1 = 2g!(JV5)1 - {! )1J
VA =✓'fi
Above A the time, 1, taken before next cuming 10 1est isgivenby
0 = ✓'fi-gr (using v = 11 + a1)

r c A = Jz;
Sothetotal time foronecompound o:icillationis

Jfi 111 - a1cos Ji+2]

3) Ap;nticle of mau m is a ttached to one end of a lighl elastic st,ing whose

°
other cndis fixed to a point A on a smooth p lane inclinedat 30 to thc
horizontal.Thelength ofthestringis / andits modulus ofelastidty is 1mg.
The particle is pulleddown the line of greatest slope through A, to apolnt C
wherc itls releasedfrom rest.lfthe particlejust reaches A , find the time taken
totra,·elf,om C to A.

In dlagram(i) AB the natural l�ngth of the string

E the equilib1ium positionof1he partide
C the loweitposit ionofthe particle
P a gcneral positlon oftheparticle
Now, for the SHM bttwcen C and B (x= -it at B) we first find the

' ' C "-(�-"-)

Yehxi1y. Vg, al B using v1 = 111(a1 - x1)

Le. 8
I 16 16
Ve = .Ji[

Using x = a cosnr, !he time 1 1 t:tken to tr3vel from C t o B isgivenby

-¼I= il cost1 v2g/i

l 1 = ...fifii �rco s ( -j)

/ 1 = ,/ffii (1r- arcosl).

Above B thereisa constan1 1cceleration gs.in30° downthe slop,eso11,-e have:

initial veloci1yat B = ../g/

fina l v elocityat A "" 0
accderation "' - ii
lime f r o m B to A = 1,,

Thctotaltimetakento travel from C 10 A is 1 1 + 11 11,•he,e

4) A light verticali;pringis fixedat iulower end 0. A pLufonn of mai;s m ls
attache d to the upper end o f t h e spring and apartlcle, also of mass m, rests on
theplatform. The length of the spring is 4a ir1d its modulus of elnticityis 8mg.
lf theplatfonn togetherwith thepartic\eisgent!y depresse d th1oug h a distance
2a below the equillbriumposition and is then released from rest, Ylow that the
puticleperformspartial S/-IM but also appears tobounttoff the platform a t
somes 1age. Find t h e h eight abo1� 0 when this occun.

ln di.agrarn (i) OA the naturallengthnfthe q,ring

E the equilibriumposition
B the lowest position
P a generalpo!.itlon

"'•
ln d ia gram(ii) bo1h thepla1 formand 1heparticlea1einequ!librium and 1he1e
is a pair ofnonnal ructions, RE, between them.

Thecomprei;sion in th e spring. TE, is � '-'·

Becausetheplatfo1m is in equilibrium TE = R1:. +mg

Becausetheparticle isin equilibrium mg "" RR

Therefore
 l n d i agrarn(iil)

Applying Newion·s Law vertkally downward we have:

for theplatform mg+Rp-Tp = 111:t
for the particle mg-Rp = mX
Aslongas theparticle is i n con\act w i th theplatfonn, theseequati ons canbc
combi ned to give

Thlsbasic equation ofSHM about E as cen11e rcpresents themotion ofboth

the particle and the plalfonn so long as they are in coniact
The maximum downward acceleration of theparticle is g. since the maximum
downward force acting on it is mg . The platform has acceleration g downward
when x = -a i.e. at aposition D ofheight a abo,·e E.
But the amplitude ofthe motion oftheplatform is 24 (the initial displacement
from E). The platform will therefore rise above D where i t s downward
acceleration will exceed g
Above D, then, the retardation oftheplatfonn i s greater thanthat ofthe
particle. Contact between themwi llbe loot and theparticle,as it conti nues to
move under gravi1y,wiU appea1to hounce offtheplatfonn(in fact it is the
platform which withdraws from underneath the particle).
This apparentbounce occur.; at D whose height above O is 4a.
Nole. Remember that some problems about particles moving on elastic strings or
springs canbe solved without U$ing lhe eqwtiuns ofSHM. When considering
onlyvelocityandpooition. the principle of conscrvation ofmechanicalcnergy
prnvides thcbestsolution. Examples of this 1ype we1cgi,·en in Chap1er7.

l ) Aparticle of mass ! kg isattached t o o n e e n d o f a light ela$tic �tringwhose

other end i s fixed to apoint 0. The length ofthc stringis I m and theparticle
hangs in equilib rium 1.2 m below 0. Iftheparticle is thenpulled down a
further 0.4 m and released show that iiperforms partial SHM and find the iime
which clapscs before theparticle next comes to imtanl3J\eous rest.
5) A particleof mass m isoscillatingvcrtically at theendofan ellstic mingof
length I andmodu!us Zmg. TI1e motion ofthe particle wil! be entirelysimple
harmonic if
(a) the amplitude is !ess than /,
(b) the partkle never rises above ii� equilibrium PQSition,
(c) the stringne\·er goes slack,
(d) tbe amplitude is less than !J.
6) When a panicle performs small oscillations at the en(.[ of a spring. the period
depcndsupow
(a) 1hemassof 1he particle,
(b) the modulus ofelasticity ofthe spring,
(c) the na1ural len1th of1he spring,
(d) the ma!li.mumextension of the spring.

TYPE IV
7) A particle P is moving with linear SIIM about a point 0. Find the period of
oscillation if·
(a) theacce!eratlonis 6ms-1 when OJ> = 2m,
(b) theamplitude is Sm,
(c) themusof the particle is 3kg.
8) find the a111pU1udc oftheSIIM deS<:ribed bya puUcle if
(a) its maximum veloclty is Sms-1 ,
(b) its maximumacce!eration occurs at 0,
(c) the periodic time is 4s.
9) A par1iclcis a11achcd toa fixed point byan elastic ming andis performing
small vertical oscillations. Find the period if·
(a) the natural length ofrhe string is/,
(b) the modulus of elasticity is 2mg,
(c) 1hc p3rticle isof niass m.

10) A partide ll'hoseaccelcrationis pmportional to its displacement froma

fixcd point ismoving "·ithSHM.
II) A particlehanging at theendofan elastlcstring ispulled down and then
released. The motion of the particle must be entlie!y SHM.
12) A particlc describinglincar SHM ona path AB with midpoint O hasits
greatest acceleration at either A or B.

,,
13) A partide travelling in a ci1cle with constant angular velodty w is moving
withSIIM.
14) The period of oscil!ation of a particle travelling with angular SHM is
:;­
therefore w is thc angu!ar vdocity at the ccntrc ofthe path.
IS) A particle which is OS(;illating is not necessarily performing !il\M.
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE 12

I) A particle P moves with an acceleration which is proportional 10 its distance

from rest at a point A distant d from C, where the magnitude of Its
ilCCelerationb id, findan expreuion fo1 thc vcloci t y of P when it i s dlstan1
x from C.
After what time does I' next come Jo instantaneous rest? ln what time does I'
travel from A to a point Q where AO=�d?

2) A panideofrnan l kg isiltUchetl to the midpoint ofa light elastic stringof

namral)ength I m andmodulusof elastkity 4gN. The endsof the stringare
stretched bet"'·ccntwo points P and Q, 2 m apart i n a vertic al!ine (P above
Q). Findthc helght above Q ufthepositio n o f equilibrium ofthe part!de.
l'ind also theperiodofr111ul/ ver1ical oscillationswhen thc pa11ic le i1disturbed
from ,est.

3) A part i c el ismoving with linear simple harmonic motion. Jtsspeed is

maximum at ii point C and is zero at a point A. P and Q are two points on
CA such that 4CP = CA while the speed at P is twice the tpttd at Q.
Findthe 1atioofthe acc,,lerations a t l' and Q.
Jfthe period ofone oscilla t i o n i s 10scconds fi nd,correc1 to t h e fint decimal
place.the least time taken t o travelbetween I' and Q.

4) Prove tha t , if a particle moving with linear simple harmonic motion of

amplitude a has velocity v when d i stant x from thecenue of its path, then
v=w� where w i s a comtant.
Apoimua,·clling with linea1S1\M has speeds 3 ms-1 and 2 m s-1 when
distant I m and 2 m 1cspec1i ,·ely from thccentrc ofoscillat ions.Calculate t hc
ampliwde, the periodic time and the maximum velocity.
5) A p;miclc of mass 10kg i s moving along a straight line with simple harmonic
moti on.The part icle hasspccdsof 9 m s -1 and 6ms-1 at P and Q 1espectively ,
whose di stances f1om the ccn11e of oscillationarc l m and 2 m respectively.
Calculate thcgrcatcs1 speed and1he greates1 accelerati011 of the par1 icle.
lfthe poinu P and Q areon thcJamcsidc oftheccnuc of oscillat ion ,ca!culate:
(a) 1he shortest time takcn by 1he parlicle1o rnove from P to Q,
(b) thc wmkdonedurin g t h i s displacement.
6) A particle P moves in a straight line so thatitsaccelcratio n i s alwaysdirected
towards a point O initspath antlbofmagnitude p1oportional to the distance
OP. When P is at the point A , where OA = l m , i t s speed is 3..,/3 m/s and
when P is at the point B. where 08 = ..,/3 m. its speed is J m/s. Calculate
the maximum speed attained by P and the maximum value of OP.
Show that P takes rr/18 seconds !O move direct l y from A to B. Find, in m/s
corrcct t o 2 signiflcant figu1cs, thc speed of I' onc sccond after it passcs 0.
(UofL)
7) The diagram showsanclasticscring
OPQ of modulus >.. and natural length
11, oneend ofwhichis a11ached t o a
fixedpoint 0 . The st ring pi155Cs t hrough
a smallsmooth f x
i e d r ing at P, where
OP=a. Theo1he1end ofthemingis
anached to a small ring Q of ma ss m
which can move on a smooth venical
wire AB. Theperpendicular from P
on t o AB is PN. Thering ishcldat C,
whe1e N C = c , andis then relcascd.
Prove that the rlngpcrforms simple
h.:mnonic motion about a point on the
wire distant m11gf],. below N.
Find also thepcriod ofthc motionand thespee d ofthe ringwhenit panes
through N. (C)

8) A smaU sphere ofm= m is suspcnded from a fixedpoint A bya light

elastic string of modulus mg and natural lenglh I. The sphere ispulled down
to a poinl if vertically below its equilibriumposilion, and release d from res1.
Asitpasses through its equilibriumposition itpick, up a rider,alsoofmass m,
previol1Slyat 1est,which adhe1es to t h e sphe1e, Find thti depth below A at
whic h the sp hereand ride1next come t o res1. (U ofL)

9) Oneendofa light elnstic string, ofna111ralleng1h a and modulus ofelasticity

kmg, itauached at a f ixedpoint on a frictionlessplane incline d a t an angle 8
1 0 1 h e ho1izontal.A heavypanicle is attache d to the other end ofthe string.
Theparticle i s a 1 1e s t o n theplanewit h thc string along a line ofgrea1est slope
and extended by a length b. Theparticle is thenpulled down a distance d in
the line of the string and ,ekased.Show that the period of the simple harmonic
motion with which the particle starts to mo�e is independent of 8.
If d = 2b, find1he limefromrele a s e t o l h e string going slack and find also
the speed of theparticle at the inmnt when the string goes slack. (AEB)

10) Apanicle ofmaliil m is s upended

s f1om a cellin g b y a light elastic string,of
natu1al length a and modulus 12mg. When theparticlehangir at rest fin d t he
extension in the siring.Theparlicle is thenpulled down vertically a tllstance x
and relcased.lfthepa1ticlc just reachcs the ceillng,find:
(a) the v alue of x.
(b) !he maximum spttd and the maximum acceleration during th� mollon.
(UofL)
 Simpk Harmonic Motion

J I ) A particle ofma!IS m moves in a st raight line i n simple harmonic mot ion of

period 4111 about apoint O. lt surt sfromrest at apoint P, 4 m from 0,
and 111 luer a panick ofmass 2m isrelease d from rcst a t P and describes an
exactly similar simple harmonic mot ion.Show that t he two particleswill collide
iw s aft e r t hesecondparticleis rclcased,and fin d how farfrom O t he co!Hslon
will occur.
Drawa rough gr.iph of d i st ancc against t i mc t o i Uu st rat e your rcsu!t s.
Ifon colliding t h e twopaniclcs coalesce,find thc magnitudeand directionof
the ,·elocityofthe comp o site particle immediatelyafter 1 he impact . (C)

12) A light elas t i c spring , ofmodulus 8mg andnaturallength I, huoneend

attachcd 10 a cei!ingand carries a sca!cpanofma55 m at t h e ot herend.The
scalepan i sgiVen a vertical displacementfrom iuequilibriumpositionand
rclca se d t o oscilla1e wit hpcriod T.

Provethat

A weight of= km is placed i n t h e scalepan and from t h e new equilibrium

position theproccdureis rcpca1ed. Thepcrio d ofoscillat ion i sno"· 2T. Find
the value of k.
Find also t h e maximum amplit ude ofthe latter o sc illations f
i t he weight and
thc scalepan do not separa1e during t h e mot ion. (AEB)

13) A particle P, ofmass m, is suspcndedfrom a fixedpoint O byanelastic

slring.When t hcparticleis i n cquilibriumthe extcmion of t h e uringis 11.

211/(�) -
A ssumi ng th.at t he slring remain1 taut during 1hemotlon,prove that thepcriod
ofvert ical oscillations ofP is

A secondpanide Q, ofmass 2m, i s a t t 11 c h e d t o P. F i n d t h e ex1ensionofthe

suing in t h e new equilibriumposition and prove that , if Q now drops off , t h e

s t r i n g b ccomes s!ack aft er a t ime (11)(;). (O)

14) The end A ofa light elast ic string AB. obe}•ing Hooke's Law and of
natural lengt h 0.5 m, is fixed.When a particle ofmus 2 kg is at t ached to t he
string at B and hangsfreelyunder gravit y,t heext en"onoft hest ringlnthe
equilibriumpmit ion Is 0.075 m. Calculate, in newtons , the modulus of
eWt icit yofthestring.
The �rticleis nowpulled down venically a further 0.1 m and released. Show
t h a t ,untillhcstring becomes s!ack, themotionoftheparticleis simple
harmonic.Show t h a t the time that elapses before t heparticle fir st pa s es t hrough
t he equi.librium politionis (,ry'J)/40 s andf111d thespee d oft hcparticle
when it ls in thisoositlon.
[Take g as 10m/s1.] (U ofl)
 SimplaHlunonic:Motlon

18) O n e en d of a !ight elastic string, of natural!ength I and modulusof

elasticity 4mg, isfixed t o a point A and a particleofm11S1 m is fastened to
t he other end.The particle hangsin equllibrium verticallybe!ow A. Find the
extension of t h e string.
The part icle is now held at the point 8 at a distance / vertically below A and
projected venically downwa1ds with speed ,/(6ifj. If C is the lowest point
1eache d by the particle, prove that the motion from 8 t o C is simple ham1011k
of amp l i tude f/. Prove also t hat the t ime taken by t he part icle to mm·e from 8
to C is

(You mayquote a solut ion of the equation of simple harmoni c motion.) (1MB)
19) A partic\eis attached t o oneend o f a light elast ic ming,the olher e n d o f
which i s fastene d to a fixe d point A on a limoothplane inclinedatan angle
arcsin! tothe horizont al.The particle rests in equilibrium at a point O on the
plane w i t h t he string stret ched along a [ incof grcaten slope and extended by
an amount c. lfthe particle isreleased from rest at a point P on AO
protluced. show thatso loog as the st ring 1emains t aut the puticle wtll oscill.:ite
insimple harmonic motion about O as centre, and state theperiodictime.
If or .. 2c , find the velocit y of the panicle when it finn reaches O after
leaving P. (UofL)
20) Two poil1t s A and B on a smooth horiiontal tabk are at a di11tanoe 8J
apart.A particleofmass m between A and 8 isanache d t o A bymean11of
a light dasticstring ofmodulus >, and natural length 21, andto B bymeans
o f a light elastitming ofmotlulus 4� and natural lengt h 31. If M is the
midpoint of All, and O is t he point between M and 8 at which t he part icle
would rest in equilibrium, prm-c tha1 MO= fll.
If 1he p utkle i s held at M and then released, show that it will mo�e with liim ple
hannonic motion. andfin d theperio d of t he mot ion.
Find the velocity V of t he particle when it is at a polm C di stant ft/ from M ,
andis moving cowards B . (C)
21) A light el:istie spring,of naturallength a, and modulus 8mg , stands
>"<"rticallywit h i t s lower end fixedand caniesa panicle ofmaH m fastened t o
its upper end.This particl e is re&ting in equilibrium when a second particle, abo
ofmas1 m , is droppe d oo t o it from r e s t a t a hcight Ja/8 abo,·e it.The part ldcs
coalesce on impac1.Show t ha11hecompositc prnicle oscillatesabout a polnt
which is;it a height la abm·e thelowerend ofthe springand that the equation
ofmotionis

where x isthc displacement,at t ime 1. ofthccompositc partidc fromits cemre

of o�illation.State thc perio d an d find the amplitude ofthc resullingmotion.
(Standard fonnulae for simple tiarmonic motion may be quoted without proof.)
(JMB)
 CHAPTER 1 3

RESULTANT MOTION. RELATIVE

MOTION

RESULTANT VELOCITY VECTORS

lt frcquentlyhappcn s1hatthemotion ofan object i smadcup of a numbe1

ofcompone11ts,For tns1 ance , a mo1orboa1can bemoY:ingunder1 he effect both
o f i t sengineandofacurrent inthe water;or an aeroplane· smovemem i n the
!.kycan depcndbo1 h on i 1 senginc sand on1hcwind. Theactual rnotionof such
an object ! sthe re sultantufthev.11i ousc omponen t s i nvolvcd.
So, i f a boat ha sanengine whoseve!ocityvector i s v0 and i t i sbeingurrle d
along byacurrent who scvclocityvector i s Ve, the ve!ocit y o f t he boat. vb, i s
given by

Note that thevelodly v,, whkh the boat po= regar dlessofthe current , ! s
often referre d t o a s'thevelocityofth.eboat i n still watcr'.Si milulythe engine
velocityofanaircraftcan becalled 'i t sveloc i t y i n still alr'.
Theresultantvelocityof such mo'ling objec t scan befound byanyofthe
metho d sthat .,.e1e
· demo n st1111ed i n Chaptc r 2. i.e.,
(a) drawi ngandmcasurcment,
(b) trigonometry,
(c) thc u se ofCutesl an\·ectorc omponcnt s. i and j.
The reader i s recommended to revi se thi swo,k before a11 cmp1 i n g the next

I) A boat i s d1ifting i n 1 he sea where 1 heveloci tyofthec urrent i s 2i + 3j

The wind blowing the boat ha s a \'C]ocity i-Sj. What is the veloci t y of the
boat.
 Velocityofboat = velocityof current +,·e!ocityof wind
= (2i + 3j)+(i-Sj)
= 3i-lj
2) Apasscnger walksdireetlyacrossthedeckofa shipfrom starboard toport at
a speed of 6 k m h -1 • The ship which istravelling through the water at 2 0 k m h-1
isstecring due north in a cuITent running south cast at 4kmh-1 • In what
direction isthcpass.enger actuaUymoving? (Starboard isthe rlght ·handside.)

r -­
Let thepasscnger's vclocityhave components u kmh-' and v k m h -1 !n the
di1cctions east andnort h respectively so 1hat

t
�
Resolving in 1heeas1 andnorth directionswehave
0
u = 4 cru4S -6 = -3.1 7
°
v = 20 - 4 sin45 = 17.1 7
Now a .,eloci1yof - 3 . l 7 k m h -1 eastward is really a , e· locity of 3.1 7 k m h ·1
westw:ard. so the co mponentsof the passenger's 1·elocity are u shownbelow.

[
17.17
3.17

''
17.llkmh"'
tane = = 0.184
°
e = 10.4

J.llkmh"'

S o t hepaisengermoves in a direction 349 .6° ( N J 0.4° W).

I ) A plane whosc �lodtyin still air is ! 0 i - 12j isflying in a windwith

1·elodty -2i + Jj . With what 1·e!odt yistheplane flying?
2) A s hip is travellingat IOms-1 ina dlrection 4i-3j inawindwith
velocity 7 i -j. What i s t h e speedofthe ship instU\ water?
3) Rain isfalling vcrticallyat Sms-1. Jfawindsp rings up,blowing
horizontaUyat 6 m s -1 at whatanglc t o the 1·ertical will the rain fall?
4) A model boat with a speed in still water of J m s-1 is stce,ed due north
acro§S a river flowing due east at 4ms-1 • Windis blowing soolh-east at 2ms-1 .
ln what direction andat what spccd .,.·ill the boat move?
5) ,\ boat whose spced instillwatcris 12ms-1 is being stecred ona bearing
030 in a cunent flowing on a bearing 060 at 5 m s-1. What is the Spt"ed of
c e

theboat rda1i1·e to thc earth? A passenger walks wit h a sp eedof 2rns-1 across
thedeckina di1ection such tha1, relative to the earth, hc is moving north-east.
Flnd the bearings ofthe twopouible directions in which he could ha , ·ebeen
facing as he walked.

RESULTANT DIRECTION OF MOTION

Whon the motionofan objec1 ismade upofa number ofvelocities. the

directionin which itmoves isthe directionoftheresultan t , e· locity.
Conslderan aircrafl, whOSll tpeedin stillah b v., flyingina wind ofv,locity
vw. fro111 airp ort A to airport B. The required di1cction offligln is along AB.
The dhection of11101ion oft he plane is given by the direction ofits resultat11
velocity.Therefore v, + v.. and All hive theume dircction.This fact is of
fundamentalimportancein soll'ingproblems.

1) An aircraft has to fly from an airport A to another airp ort B .,.-hich is 240 km
from A on a bearing of 120 from A.A windwltha speed of 15kmh-1 is
°

blowing duenorth th1oughout the fligh t . l f t h c sp eed ofthep!anein still air

is lOO kmh-1 , find
(a) thc direction in which the pfane shouldsteer,
(b the time for the flight.
)
The plane has to nyio the direction Af3 relative to the or!h's surface. so this
isthe direction o f t h e rew/ta111 ve!ocity.

",,,.;,.,,
The information we have can be summarised as fol!OW$
Velocity Di=;,,.
I I
Engine component. ,·. 300kmh-' Unknown
Wind component, v_,. l S k m h -1 N
°
Resultant, V Unknown 1 20
A velocity1·ector triangle PQR can now be drawn and, from It, the magni tude
of the ruuhant veloci t y and the direction in which theplane must steer, PR,
canbe measured toscaleorcalcu!ated.

(a) Usingcakulation.
°
- 15sinl20
sinPRQ "" �-

°
PRO = 2.5
°
QPR = 57.5
°
Henct thcplanemust stccr on a cou,se 122.5 .
(b) v2 = J S2 +J002 -2(15XJOO)cos57.S0
V =o 292.2
Thetimeof Oight, T. i s givcnby
distanceAH 240
T= ""
spcedalongAB 292.2
Sothetimeof Oight i s 0.821 hours, or 49.3 minu1 es.

2) A girl can paddlchcr canoeat 4 m s-1 i n still watcr.Shewishes to cross a

st raigh t r i verwhich i s flowing at 6 m s-1. Atwhat angleto theriverbank
should shestec r t o crou: (a)asquicklyaspossible. (b)bytheshortest route?
(a) She will c,os, in the short�st lime when the velo c i t y component directly
acrossthe river is greatest and this i s when thecanoeis stecred at right ang]es to
thebank.

Jfthewi dll1 of1he river is d, thetime taken to cross is !d.

 MinMmadct - MM:...,,icsond Proi.bllily

(b) The fiver is crossed by the shortest rou1c when o is as l uge as possible.

Now sino - (4sin 0)/6 an d isgreatest when 0=9rf' i.1!. the canoc
shoul dbestec1e d a 1 ri gh 1 angles to the resulllln t di1cc t i on.
°
ln 1his= a = 41.8 so 1hec anocshouldbe steercd upst1cam at 58.2"
to the bank.
Nole. Problcms of1his 1ype shouldbcstudicd carcfull y a n d i ndMduallya s 1 he
°
angle c alled 8 is not always 90 . lf, f o r i nstancc. i n the examplc above thc
spceds wcrc i ntcrchangc d w c would havc
6!.in0
si11a ac -
4
But si11o l> I w this t i me fJ c an11ot
°
be 90 andthe grcalest value of $Ula
°
occurswhen a = 90
(Le.when r.in /J = �)
Nole. While studying this topic the reader will find that lhe word 'cours.e' has
differcn t meani ng s i n dlffe1ent contexts. lf1hisfac t i s apprecined, i t should not
bc 1oo difficult to take thc appropriate meaning i n uc h c a s<.
E.g., a sh i p 's1een o n a coursc' or 'scrs acourse' - 1hisgivcs the di1e c t i o n ofthc
vclocityofthe ship i n stillwatcr.
the ·1rue course' ofan aircraft - th i s is 1he dircctionof 1he rcsultan1
veloci t y.
threebuoys,A.B a n d C . 'mark a coursc' for a racc - this t i m e •coursc'
simp]ymeans thc palh ABCA.

!) Aboyc an swim in still water at vms-1. lie swims across a river flowing at
l.2 rn s -1 which is 368m wide.Find t h c t i m c h e t akes i fh.e tr.ivels the shortest
possible dist311ce i f (a) v = I, (b) v = 2.
2) A hclicople1 flies with constant airspeed 200 km h -1 from position A to
p<»i tion B . which is 1 0 0 k m northeastof /1, andthen fliesback to A.
Throughout the whole flight the wind velocity is 60 km h -1 from the west.
Find,by draw i n g o 1 calculation, 1h.c course se t for cac h of t h c t w o \cgsofthe
flight .F i n d also the mtal lime of flight from A 10 B and back.
3) A river flow s at a constant speed of 4 m s -1 between straight parallel banks
which are 225 m apar1.A boat , w h k h h a s a maximumspeedof 2. 6 m s -• i n
uillwater,lnves a point P on onebankand s ai l s i n a straight line t o the
oppo1he bank.Find graphlcallyor otheiwi se,the!eas t 1 i me 1he boa1 can t ake to
�ach a point Q on the opposi te bank where PQ • 375 m and Q i s
downslream from P. Find al so the least time the boat can take tocrouthe river.
Findthe time taken to sai lfrom P 10 0 bythe slowest boatcapableof sailing
directly from P to Q.
4) A speedboat which can mvel at 4 0 km h-1 i n still water start s from the
corner X of an equilateral lri ans]e XYZ of side 20 km and describes the
complete course XYZX �the least pos sible t i me.A tide of ! 0 kmh-1 is
running in the direction ZX. Find:
(a) the speed ofthe boat along XY.
(b) to the nearest minut e t h c t i m c t akenbythe speedboa t t o traver sc the
complete course XYZX.
S) A destroyer i s travelling north- westa! a constant speed of S m ,-1• A gun
mounted on the shipcanfirea shot w i t h a horiwntal muzzlevelocityof
25 m s-1 • lfthe carget t o behit i s dueeast oftheshipfindthedirectionln
which 1he gun should be aimed.(lgno1e thevertical motion of the shot.)

FRAMES Of REFERENCE

Most of the time we judge the position or the movement of an object with
refe1ence to theearth's surface.i.e . the eanh's surface i s ou1basi c frame of
reference.
Sometimes. however,we 'see' mo1ion that i s no1 relative lo the earth. For
i n stancc , i f a n observer B, sining i n a moving1ailwaycuriage,looksout ofthe
window at a passenger A w h o i s i n anothertrain travelling o n a parallel!ineat
the same speed i n the same direction. A ap{H'ars 10 be st ati onary.Relative to the
earth, ofcour se, A i smo, ·ingbu1,,e/01 li " ero 1lleob1erver B, A is stati onary.
If B' s traln i suavellingat 90kmh-1 and A"s trainat lOOkmh-1 then A
passes D u JOkmh-1. Rcla1ive 101hc canh, A "1spe<:dis IOOkmh-1 but
rdati>'e to B i t i s (100-90)kmh-1 •
In these two examples, B has becorne the fixcd point i n the frame of reference
The •elocityof
· B relativc to the carth i s thusdi scounted i.e. B's velocity
vector i s subtractcdfromthc velocityvectorof A rclativc t o thcearth.ln
general

the ,'elocityof A relative to B i s v,.-v6

where vA and , 6 · arethe ,-eloc i t i e sof A and B

re!ati•'e to theearth' s surface.
So the 1rue wind ttlocityis Sv'ii kmh-' ina dircciion 190.9°.
Note. Wind di1ection can be defined in two ways. Jn this prnblem we were
°
told that·the wind appcars 10be blowingin the dilcction 240 . This
information couldequatly wdl be cxpressed in the form ·thewind 1ppe:in tobe
°
blowing from 060 . G1ea1 care must always be taken. when reading questions
in1•0Jving wintlUirec1ion,to inccrprct correct!y the informa1iongivcn,sirn:e 1he
1womodesofcxpn'SSiOn a1c sosimilar.

S) From two rcconnainance vcueb A and B observation is being kept on 1

foreign ship C.
°
To A. which ismovinM at 10 knou on a course 030 the ship C appean
°
tobe traHllingin a direction 120 . When viewed From B whose speed is
°
12 knou ona course 150 , C appcars 10be 1ra,-elllng dueeast. What lsthe
truc ,·docity of 1he forcignship?

v r
Let C have,·elocitycomponcnts u and v 101hccm andsouth respectively.
Then, rcsolving thevelocities v,.., vB and Ve ofthe threeships, ln the

.. ..
dircctions ea.standsouthwe have

., •c -•a •c-•,
--+

� �
" 11-6
'
Component -+ 5 6 rS
Component! -5.../3 6.,/3 v-(-5.../3) 11-6.../J
°
The directionof vc-vA is 120

°
Therefore 1an 60 = �
v+ S.../3
.../J(v+ S.../3) : u - 5
...j3v = u - 20 111
6) Two aircraft areflying at the&amc heigl1t onst raight cou1ses.ll1e fi1 11is
flying at 400km h-1 due north. The true speed of the second is 350kmh-1
andit appeus , to thepilot ofthefintaircraft , to be o n a course 220". Find
tltetruecoursc ofthe second aircraft .

7) A, B and C arethreeobjects each moving with constant �elocity. A·s

11p ccdis I O m s -1 in a dircction PQ. Thc vclocity of B relativeto A is
6 m s-1 a t a n a n�of 70" to l'Q. The velocity of C ,dative 10 B is 1 2 m s-'
in the direction OP. Find the velocity of B and of C.

8) When a moto ir s1 isdriving with velocity 6i + Sj the wind appean to come

from the direction i. When he doubles hinelodty the wind appears to come
from the direction i+j.
Pro1·c tha t thetrue1·eloci1y ofthewindis 4i+Sj.
Themotori1t changes his specdbut stilldrivcsin thc samc direction.lfthc
wind appean lo come from the direction 2i + j , calcul3te the motorist's
speed.

9) A bo y i s walking duenorthalonga straight road and thewind appem t o b e

blowing south wen. When he turns right a t a cross roadsChe �in d appean t o b e
blowing inthc dircction 260 . lfthcboy wilksa t a constan t 6kmh-1 and
°

the1wo roadscro ss11 1igh1 angles, find th.:-truewind 1·elocity.

10) Two aircraft. A and B , are flyingai the same height.Both have speed
400kmh-1 : A isflying on a b('aring 330" and B is flying duccan.A third
aircraft . abollying at thc samfhcight. appca11 1 o thc pi10 1 of A to beon a
cou,se due south while to the pilot of B its course seems 10 be 240°. Jn what
direc1ion l$ thethhd aircraft actually l lying?

I I ) A boat A is sailing dueeastat lBkmh-1 and a second boat B is sailing

una bearing of 030 at 12kmh-1 . At a certaininstant a third boat C 1ppea!'ll
°

toan observer on A tobc sai!ing duesouth and appeal'l1 1oan obser1·er on B to

besailing on a bearing of 150 . Find thespeed oftheboa1 C and the bearing
°

on which itis $Mling.

12) During a race between two yachts, A and B, there is a wind of 18kmh-1
b!owins from due north.The resultant velocity of A is 12 km 11-• on ;i bearing
of 060". Find the direction of the wind relative to A .
At thesametime, theresultant velocity of 8 i s 12kmh-1 o n a bearing
of 300". Flnd , conect to the nurest degree. thedirection ofthewind
relatil-c to B and , in kmh-1 correct to one decimal pl:ice. 1he1·eloci1y of A
1clath·c10 1l.
RELATIVEPOSITION

When one moving object, A, isviewed from anothermoving objcct , B, we

usuallychoosc a framcof reforenceinwhich B isregarded asfixed.ln this
case displacement as well as velocity is measured rcluive IO B. llencc, if in a
certain time A undergoesan actual displacement (i.e.relative 10 euth) of rA
and B hasan acma! displacement of re, then the displacement of A relative to
B is rA -•D
Wealso know that,relativeto B , A hua veloclty vA-ve so. when B is
takc n a s t h c fixed poin t in thefiameofreferenee,
B doesnot movc from it soriginal position
A hasa displacement rA -re and a velocity vA - v11.

·<-J·-
:.�� --­
" 0

It follows 1h11 A's mo1ion relat i v e to B is in the direct ion of vA -ve and
that A and B are closest together when lrA- rel ililea!il.
ln someproblernsinvoJving rela1iveposition, thegiven data isin C artffian
vecto r f o r m a n d t hemethodsused in Chapter JI canbe applied. Whcn the
info rmation isgivtn inothc1f orms,proble1mc11J1besolvtdbycalculation or
by duwing and measurement.If the latter method Isch=n, two different
scatcsare n�ded. one f or speed ando!lefor distance. Jt issafer t o draw separatc
figures. one to each scale. the property theyhave in commonbeing the d ri ec:1 oi n
of the relative motion.

EXAMPLES 13d

I) An object P pasststhrough a point whose position vector is 3i-2j,

"'" ilh consl3nt velocity i+j. At the same instant an object Q , moving with
constant velocity 4i-2j passesthrough thepoint with position vector
i+4j. Find the displacement of P relative to Q after tseconds and the
time when P and Q are closest together.How far apart are theyat that time?
(Units11e m s- 1 and nr .)
If rp and r0 are the position vecton;of P and Q al time 1 . then
rp = 3i- 2j+r (i+j) and ro '"' 1+4j+r(4i - 2j)
 Mlth1-ict- MKhanla 1ndProbabllll'f

P 1ravels the dist ance P0N at the relative speed V in a t ime I so P0N = Vt.
This rela1ionship allowsthe value of t to be calculated.
Themethod described and explained abo\·e canbe carried outquicklyand
easilyby drawing and measurement exc eptfor evaluating r . Jt isrecommended
that the reader draws the two diagrams il!ll5trated. t o twouparur e scales, and
sofinds V, P0N and Q0N by measurement. Finally I can be evaluated.
Measurementsfrom accurateduwin8,' give
V ::::: 180; P0N ::::: 7690; Q0N ::::: 2200
l'oN
Then 1 = - "" 43,
V
S o t h eaircraft arccloscst togcthcrafter 43seconds and arc then 2200 met rcs
apart.
3) A ship moving at a speed of I S k m h -1, sights an cnemyde$\royer 10km
due south. The destroyer is travelling al 20kmh-1 north west.Thecaptain of
theship is01dered to s1eer asfarwcst ofnorth aspossible b u t t h e sltipwillbe
in rangc of1hedestroyer'sgunsifit approachcscloserthan 2 k m . Onwhat
bcaring cantheship stccr so that i t j uststaysoutof range?

ln d iagram(i) D0N 1cpresen1s 1hepath oft hedcstroyer rclatil-e 1otheship

and is on a bearing(360"-a} where Ct = arc!inJt = 11.S".
Jn diagram (ii) the !ide AC of the velocily triangle rep1c1ent5 the �elocity of
thc dcsnoycrrclativc to thc �hip.
Both DoN and AC represent the direction of motion of 1he demoye r relative
tothe sltip. So DoN and AC are pa rallel.
sin D r.in(4S"-o)
In triangle ADC 20
=
- -
,,
0
Therefore sln8 = flsin33.S
9 ,_, 132f (Di1 known tobe obtusc)

The anglebetween BC and the north

180°-(8-a)
°
58.9

The I.hip must not travel further to the west than 58 .9° weit of north.
Nole. When graphic.tl. wlutloniare offe1ed, explan:itioniimila r to 1hat given in
these examples shouldbe included. Onlythe t rigorwmemc · calcu lations s oh u ld
bertplaccd by measunme,u.

ClosenApproadl(Choiccof Coune)

Wc havcso farbeen c onr.ide ringthc rdativc motionoftwoobjects A and B,

both ofwhic h a re movlng wlthspecified,·e!ocities , an d havefound that the
shortest disunce between them is dslna where d !s the initial distance apart
Jnd o i sthe anglebctween the relative path a n d t h e initi.tl. line.
Supposc now 1hat, whilc the sp eedsofboth obj,cctsare fixcdand B move s in
a spedfied di1eet ion, A i sfree to choose itsbearing.
The angle a i sno longer fixed and,a s o: var i e s,lhelhorttst di stance / ,
between A and B, a l so vari e s.
If it is i mpouiblc for A to int ercept B, i.e. I cannot be zero, then A w i l l
passa s clo se to B a spouible when / , and hence a . takcsit ssmalle,t possible
value.
Considcr fir st a gcncra l cascwhcrc the 1el1tive palh make sangle s � and "f
with lhe di rection sofmolionof B an d A respectively.

ln lhi s diagram.quantitiu "· h ich are comtan111c:

the magnilUdesof v,., vB and d.
the direetionsof v 8 and �.
thc compoundangle (et+P)
Quamit i c swhich varya s A' s bearing va ir e sare: a,�. "f and I.
If a i st o bc a s small a sJ)'O ssiblc, � mu s! be a s large a s possible bec:mse n + O
i scon s1ant.Byapplyi ngthe si ne rule i n 1hevelocitytriangle we see that O i s
grea1es1 whcn 1 =90°

4) A speedboat travelling due eau at JOOkmh-1 i s 500 m due north ofa

!aunch wbcn the launcb set soff t o t r y t o catch the sp ccdboat. Jfthc sp ccdof
the launch i s 60 km h-1 show that the launch ca110ot get closer tu the sp eedboat
than 400 m.
Thc launch cannot catch thc speedboa t beca u se , e ·en when truvel!i ng due c ulat
60km h-1 the sp cedbo�t i spullingaw�yal a ,clativc speed of 4 0 k m h -1. The
launch wlll approach a sclo se a spo11Sible to t he 1pcedboa1when lheveloci tyof
the launch ¥A i sperpendicular 10 1he relativevelocity v A - vEI (where vEI
i sthc velocity ofthe spcedboot).
If A., and B 0 are the initial positions of the launch and the speedbrnat , then:

sin.II = &=f
°
Therefore sinew= sin(90 -I!) = cost! = j.
The sl1or1est dis1ance / between the launch and the spt"edboa1 is thert'foie
given by / "" 500sino and is 400m

S) A motorboat with ll speed of S m s-1 sets out at 12.00 fmm a point with
posi tion vector - I i i + 16j with theaimof getti.ngasclose a s j>OWble toa
yacht owned by a famous lilmstar.At 12.00 the yacht is at the point 41+ 36j
a n d i s movingwith cons11n1,·elocity !Oi -Sj. Findthedirection in which
the motorboat must stecrandshowthatthe motorboat cannot evcr rt'ach thc
yacht
l...et1he op1imum vclocity ofthe motorboat. •·n, be ai+bj
Thcveloci!y ofthc yacht , vy. is IOi-Sj
Thepathofthe motorboa1 rela1ive 10 1 h e yach1is v 8 -vy
where vu - vy = ai+bj-(!Oi-Sj)
The best direction for the motorboat t o stecr isperpendicula r t o the relative
path.Le. v0 is perpendicular to v11 -vv
Therefore v 11.(v11 ·- vy) = 0
(ai+bj ) . ( j a - J O ] i + fb+S)j) = 0
a(a- lO)+b(b+S) = 0 II]
Bu1we also knowtha1the spee d ofthc motorboat is Sms-1 so
a'+b' = 25 (2(
 Question
vA magnitude J m s·' 20kmh·1
direction dues perpendicular to AoBc, NE
v8 magnitude 4nu·1 20ms·1 JOkmh·'
direction dueW ducN
A,,B0 magnitude 20m 40m
dim:tion dueS anyco11venicmdi1ec tion SE
vA - vll magnitude
direction
IS minu tes
20m

°
4) Two straig.htpaths, inclined to onc anothcr at 60 , intersect at a point 0.
Aboy A isononcpath 300m from 0, whileaboy B ison theotherpath
°
400111 from 0. Angle AOB=60 , Simultaneuusly theboysbegin to run
towards 0, A with speed ISkmh·' and B with speed 12kmh·1. What ls
thc shortest
. dist ancebetween the two boys

5) A! noon anobscrvcr on a ship travellingduc cast at 20kmh-1 seesanother

ship 20km duenorthwhich ist ra•'elling SJ0° E at 8 k 1 1 1 h ·1 • At what time
aretheshipsnea1cst togcthcr?

6) Twoairc 111ft P and Q arenying a t thcsamc height at JOOkmh·' on a

bearing 135° and 350kmh·' onabe�ring 0(,0° respectinly.lf I' is initially
10km north of O, how close do 1hey get 1o oneanother1

7) Two cyclists are riding one along each of two perpendicular roadswhich
meet at A. Atone imtantboth cyclist s arc SOOm from A andboth are
approaching A. lfthespeed ofonecydist is B m s·' and the shortest distanc e
between the cyclists is 50m, find the twopossiblc specdsof thesecond ridcr

8) At time I "" 0 a ship A is at thepoint O and a iil1ip B isat thepoint

withposition vector I Oj referred to 0. The velocitiesof the two shipsare
cons1ant.Ship A sails at J4kmh·1 , in thc dircct ion ofthcvcctor Bi+ 15j
and ship B sails al 30kmh·' in the directinn of the vector Ji+4j.
Write down
(�) the velocity vector of each ship ,
(b) the velocity of B 1elati,·eto A,
(c) thcposition ,·cc1orof B 1clati,·c to A at time I hours
Givtn that visb
i ility is 10 km, show that the shipsare within sight of each other
for 3 hours.
9) A and B arc1wo ships whkh, at 1200 hours, ue at P and Q respectively ,
whc1e PQ=39km. A isstcaming 1 t 45kmh-1 in a direction perpendicular
tu l'Q and B issteaming on a maiglu course at JOkmh-1 in such a diTection
u to approach A ascl0$Cly aspouible.Show that B stcamsa t a n anglc
arcsin½ with l'Q.
Find whcnthe ships ued0$CS! together.
JO) A ship A istrave!Hng duccnt at 24kmh-1 . At noon a secondship B is
8km away f,om A i n 1 north�asterly direction. andonehour la1er B U again
8km away,bu1 in a south.ea1lerly di1eclion . Find the speed of B, whJchis
to be assumed constant.
Calculate the minimum distance between A and 8 and show that when this
p o sition occurs B isdue east of A.
I I ) Unit vecton inthe directlonse utand no rt h are i and j respectively. To
a cydist11a vc!ling ducnortha1 Skmh-1 thc direction ofthe wind appeanto
bc - i. •lclncrcas.eshisspeed to I S km h -1 without alte1ingcounc and thc
wind now appcan IObe in the di,ection - i -j. What isthe true velocity
vector ofthe wind1
The cyclii; t conlinuesto cyde in a straigh t line at \ S k m h-1 but changes
direction and the wind now appeusto blow in the directkm j. Find the
di rectioninwhkhthecycliJtisnow tra\-clHng.
12) A river Oo"'l at 4 m J-1 from west to east between parallelbankswhich
arc.it a distance 400metres apart.Aman 1owsaboat at a speedof J m s-'
i n stiU water,
(a) Statethe direction inwhich thcboat mustbcstcercd in order tocro ss the
river f10 m the wuthernbank tolhe northernbank in the shor!cst pouible tintc.
Find thc time taken andthc ac1ual d!stancc coveredbytheboat for thiscro ssing.
(b) Flod the direclion inwhich theboat mustbe steered lnorderto c,ossthe
river fiom thewu1hernbank1othe northembankby theshorteS1possible
route.Find the time talr::en and the ac1ual d i st ance coveredby1he boatforthis
crossmg

INTERCEPTION

lnterception, 0 1 collision. occursiftl1e relative lineof mo1ion of an object A,

pam!throug h the initial position of the reference object B (so that the shortest
distance apart, B0N. iJzc:ro).
Hence.if A intercepts B their1elative veloci t y is parallelto thc line joining
their initial positions
The time. 1. that elapsesbefore interception.isgivenby
Initial distance apart
Relative speed
 I) A cruiser is travell!ng duceut at 1S knou. At l200 hours 1 demoyer
whlchis 12 nautka! m iles sou1h west of thecruiser �1soff11 20 knou to
intercept thecruiser.At what iimewillinterception occur and on what bearing
should thedestroyer tra,·el?

Diagram(i)thowsthe positions at noon of the dettroyer andc u r ise1.

In diagram (ii) the side PR. of the •·elo.:itytriangle PQR. represents the
ve!o.:ityofthedestroyer rela1ive to 1hecruise1
°
For interception PR is parallelto D0Co. therefore rR.Q = 135 .

In 6PQR.

°
(I; = 32
l'QR = 13
°

°
And 1 he deslroyer"sbea ringis a: + 45 i e.. 011'
PR 20
° .. °
sin l 3 sinl35
Therefore the speed of D relulve to C is 6.4tnots
lnterception wi!ltake placeafter thours where
12
I = - = ].875
6.4
Thedes1royer willinlercep1the cruiserJt 13 .53 hours ifit trnvels on a bearing
071'.
 M11hemltic:t - Med>lnlcaand Probablllty

8) At noo11 , t he positionvector.. of 1 w o ships A and B, relative to a

lighthouse 0, arc (5i + 20j) and (-20i- 10j) respcctively ,whcre
i and j areunit vector.. dueeastand duenorth.Theconstantvelocitiesof ships
A and B are (- 2 J i - 5j) and { 15i + 25j). (Unitsarekm andkmh-1.)
Find the velocity of A relative to B. Fin d alsothe position vectorof A
relative l o B at time I minutes afler noon.
Determine, to the �arest minute, the time at which the two shipsare closest
together. (Uofl)
9) At noonan airnaft A isat a point with positionvector 5i+j and is
moving with comtant velocity - i +3j. A second plane B, whose comtant
vclocit y i s 2 i + 5j, issimultaneousl y a t thepoint with position vector
3i - 3j. Show that.at noon, A and B areeguidistant from any pointon
the line with vectorequaiion r : 4!-j+ ;\(21-j) and fio d the point on this
Jinewhich isalso equidistanrfromthepoint l-j.
If 1:Q at noon find thevalue of twhen A and B are closest together.
10) A cruiscrismovingdueeastat 35kmh-1. Relative tothe crui1er a f1igate
ismovingo11a bearingof 210 at 56kmh-1 . Usinga graphicalmcthod,
°

or otherwise,find the 013gnitudc,nd the dircctionofthevcloci t y of thefrigate

rclativc 1 o a coas1guardwho i!irecording thepathsof thesc shipsfrnm a
lighthou� .
Al 1300 hours thefrigate is 12 km due ent . of the cruiser.Ifboth ships m.alnlain
their SJXCds and courses ,find the time at which the distancebetween them is
leas1and 1heiractual dist3ncc aparta1 1hisinstant.
Findalso the time atwhich thefrigatcis duesouth of thc cruiM:r.

The motion of one object A relativeto another object B is the motion it

appear.. to have when viewedfrom B.
Thevelocity of A rdati>"c to B is YA -vs,
Forimerccption o1 collision to occur, thc rclativc,·docity mus1bcparal l elto
the initial displacement of A from B .
Jtisimportant to app1eciatethat several diffe,en 1 methodsaresuitablefor
solving problemson relative motion. No one method isideal for all problems
and t hc studcnt i1advise d to developl1cxibili t y i n choiceof approach.

Allhough rel�tive --�locity is usually eocoumercd in problems abo111 moving

vehkles. ships. aircraft ctc., thcrearesome questionsof a lCSii p1actical nature
inwhkhspeedsarc not oecessarily co nstan t a n d thepalhsarenotalways linear.
Thcset of exampleswhich follow a,eof this type.
 I) A p.article P is moving in a dockwii.e seme at constant angular velocity w
round a circle whoseequationis .x1 +y1 = a1. When r= , P i s a t t h e
O
point ( -a,O), A secondparticle Q moves along the .x axis with comtant
vdoc ity aw in the positive 1.en1e. Q i s al the origin when I = 0. Find, in
tcrnu of a, w and r the speed of P relative 10 Q at time 1. Find also the
directionof t he vclocityof P relative to Q when / .c rr/w

Diagram (i) lhows the positiom of P and Q after t seconds. During this
timc,a1 angular vclocity w, P wiU dc1.cribcan a1c subtending anang]e wt
at the centrc, andwill ha1·e a tangential speed of aw.
Diagram (ii) fflows the c omponentspa1alkl to O.x and Oy of the velocities o f
P and Q and the velocity of P relative to Q a t time /.
if V isthe relative speed, 1 hen
V1 = (awcoswr)1+ (awsinw1-aw)2
= a1w1 -2a1w1 sinwt + a1w1
Thcre btive spttd, V = aw,/2(1-sinwr
).

When r= :;, the components ofthe relativc ,·elodty,parall d 1 0 O.x and

Oy are ·

Therefore the direction of the velocity of P relative to Q when 1=- 1s

paralle l 10 1hc line y = x.
 Mathemotlcs- M.<:h•nlcs•nd P,oblb!llty

2) Two partides P and Q are projected simultaneously from a poilll O in

which i and j areuni t vectors horizontally an d ,ert\cally upwards respect!vely.
P is pwjectcd with,·elocity v✓Jj and Q is p1ojccted with,·e!ocity
½ Vi + } V,/Jj. Find 1 h evtlocity and dispfacement of I' relativetn Q at any

•�,
timet. Hencefind thevertical displacemenl between P and Q when the
horizontal displacement between them is of magnitude 2 V . Find alw the
distancebetween P and Q when P isat its highe5t point.
Y• At timet

I
for p tp = o j•p = - g
I x, • O h = V✓3 -gt
1
Xp = 0 YP = V,✓J - i,1
V,/J I forQ XQ = 0 J'Q = -g
XQ = JV .l'tJ = j V✓J-g1
60" X
O � XQ = jVt YQ = � V1✓J -!g1 l
Hence Yp = (V✓J-g1)j
YQ = 4Vi + t PV3-g1)j
Ip = (l'1✓J - jg 12)j
rQ = � V1i + q v1 ✓3 - }gt2 )j
Thevelocity of P relative to Q is vp- vQ where
vp- vQ = - j V i + f v✓Jj
The displacement of P relativeto Q is r,.-r12 where
rp- rQ = - ! l'1i + ! v1✓Jj

Thehorizontal distance between P and Q is of magnitude 2V when

t - f V1 i l = 21'
Le. when I : 4
The vertical di11ancc between P and Q isthen

q VX4✓3) ,,. 21'✓3

Vv'3
When P i s a t i t s h ighest point J',p = O • 1=­
g

Then
The distance d between P and Q is givenby

J' . (-�V')' +(�J

V 3
d = \,1
g

Therefore when P isat inhighest point

I ) Twoplrtidcs P and Q start simultaneously in the same sen5C fromlhe

origin O andboth ha ,·e cons111n1 1pccd v, P moves on the circle
x1+ y2 -2x : Q and Q mm·es onthet:ingent tothe circlc through O. Find
the reb1 ivespeed oft heparticlcswhen P has rolated through an ang]e
(a) f:r (b) 1r (c) i1r

2) Apoint P moV<:SSOlhat itscoordinates at time I a,c x=t; y=2t '.

A secondpoint Q mo,· e salongthe x a)(iS so that at time titsposition is
x = 2t. A third point R, nmvingon the y axis, is such that y=t'. Find
(a) the velocityof P relative to R,
(b) the vdocityof P relative to Q, when t"' 3 .

3 ) Two particles are traveUing round the ci1de x'+y' = 4. One particle. A,
isinitiallyatthepoint (2,0) and movcs antidockwisc with constant angu!ar
velocity "-'· The other particle, B, tras·els clockwise with constant angular
,·elocity 2w fiomits initialposition at thepoint (0 , 2). Find:
(a) the speed of A relative to B at time /,
(b) the valueof twhcnthc particles are first t ravcl!inginthe samedircction.
(c) 1he accclera1 ionof A 1elative 1 0 B when t= I.

4) A particle P is moving lllong the line y = x so that iu $peed at time I

is ./2 ut where u lsa constant.A secondparticle Q moves along thepositive
y axis with constant speed u . lf, wht'n 1 = 0, P i s a t thcpoint (-4.-4)
moving towaids 0, and Q isat the origin, find·
(a) the velocityof P relatlve t o Q at time 1,
(b) the distance PQ when t= 2.
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE 13

1) A ship A is travcl!ing due cast at i spttdof 8 m s-1 , and a ship B is

1 ravcllingduesouthat J0ms-1. Al an instant when A !s 3km from B in
°
a dircclion 060 , a motor boat leaves A and t,a�!s in a straight lillt' to B
wilhsp,ecd l 4 m s -1 • Show 1hatit rcachcs B in SOOseconds. On �achingthc
ship B. the motor boa1 immcdiaicly cums and travels back co A in a straight
line.again with speed 1 4 ms-1 . Find graphically ( o r othcrwise)thc timctakcn
forthe recurn journey. (C)

2) At IOOOhours a pilot boat leaves 1hcjctty1ojoina ship whichis 4 nautic al

°
miles from the jetty on a bearing of 3 1 5 . Thcship is stcamingduceutat a
stcadyspecdof l 2 knots. Find thetimeat which 1he pi101 boa1 1cachcs thcship
andthe distancc andbcaringof1hc ship from thejcnyat thattimeif:
(a) lhc pilot boat uavds at JS knots,
(b) 1hc pilot boattravclsa1 thclcastpo$.iible specd. (AEB)
°
3) A ship P stcamingat 20 km/h in the difcc1ion 050 is 1 2 0km duc wes!
°
ufship Q stcamingat 12 km/h in the direction 330 . lftheship s do no t altcr
cour se or spce d , findby mcans ofa scale drawing. 01 otherwi se ,thc lhoncst
distancc bctwccn theminthc subsequcnt motion.Fin d a l so the periodof timc
during which the ships ne "'ilhin a 11nge of SO km of each other. (U of L)

4) A ship is moving due West at 2 0 knots and the wind appears to blow from
°
2 2 1 West ofSouth. The ship then steams due South 1 1 the same speed and the
0
windthcn appears to blow from 2 2 ! East ofSouth.Findthcspcedof1he
wind and the true dircc1ion from which it blow,, assuming that they remain
(JMB
)
5) The banks of a 1iver 40 m wide are parallel and A and B are points on
opposite banks . The distance AB is SO m and B is downst1cam of A. There
is a constaot cuncnt of 4 m s-1 flowing. What is the minimum speed at wblch
a motor boat must be able to move in slill water in order to cross this river from
A lo B? If a boat sails from A to B with constant velocily in 7! seconds ,
find its speed relative to the water and the direction in which it is steered. Whllu
this boat is sailing from A to B a man 111ns across a bridge which is at 1ight
anglcs tu the banb ofthe rive1.To this man thc boat appean to bc travclling
paraUe] tothcbanksofthe rivcr.Findthcspeedat which thernan is running.
(AEB)

6) Rcla1ivclo a ship whid, istravelling due nor1h at aspecdof 2 0 kmh- 1 , the

°
vtlocity ofa speedboat i s inthe dircction 045 . Rclative 1o a se cond !hip
which i s travellin g due south a1 aspeedof 20kmh-1 ,thevelocity ofthe
specdbou isin the diJection OJ0�. Prove thatthcJpe cdboat is 11avc1lingon thc
°
bearing 9 whe1e tan 0 = .,/3 - l , �nd find itsspeed.
7) A cruise r sailing due northat '.!.4kmh-1 sights a destroye r 48km due east
sailingat 56kmh-1 o n a course (360- a)° whe re co1a "- fl. Show that
°
the de moy e r'scourse re lative to the cruiseri s o n the bearing 300 and find the
rc!ativc sp e c d.lfthe cruiser's guns have a maximum range of 3 0 k m and both
ships maintain course and spe e d, find forhow long 1he de stroye r will be within
range .Jmme dia1clythe de stroye r i s sigh1e d an aircraft is de spa1c h e d from the
cruiser and flie s in a straigh t lincata stcadyspee d of 4 4 0 k m h -1 onan
intersection coursewith 1he demoye1. Find1he course on which 1he ai1craft
flies.

8) A motorboat moving al 8 km/h re lat i,-e to the water travels from .i point A
°
to apoint B 1 0 k m distant whoscbeadng frorn A is 150 . It then travels to
a point C, 1 0 k m from B and due w e st of B. Jfthcre is a curre nt ofconslant
sp e e d 4 km/h fromnorth to south,find the twocoul"$Cstobe set,and pmve
tha1 1he 10tal time 1ake n 1 o rcach C i s approximately 2 homs 2 0 rninutes.
(UofL)

9) A port X i s 1 8 nautical mil e s du� north ofaoother port Y . Steamers

A, B le a,·e X. Y r e spective lyat the i.ame time. A travtlling a! 1 2 knou due
cast and B at Sknots in a dire ction arctin� c ut of north. Find in magnitude
and directionthe velo.ityof B relative to A. P10ve that sobscquentlythe
shortest distance betwe e n A and B i s 14 nautical mile s and fin d the time
takcn t o r each thispo5ition.
If w h e n the stcame 1 s a1e in this position a boat l e aves A and travels due west
$0 as to intercept B, find 31 what spe e d the boat must t,av e l . (JMB)

1 0 ) Two aircraft are in horizomal flight at the same al1i1ude.One is flying due
north at SOOkm h -1 whiht the othe r i s flying due w e st at 600kmh-1•
Re a lisingthatthe yare on collisioncourscs the pilots takc avoidingaction
simultaneouslyw h e n the aircraft are 10km apart.The pilot of the first plane
change s his course 10 345 (N 1 5 W) maintaining his spee d of SOOkmh-1
° fi

andthe pilot of the se condplam:maintains his councbut inc1e ascshisspecd

to Vkmh-1 • Find the value of V i(
(a) the aircraft are still oncol lision courscs,
(b) 1he change ofspe e d is 1he least 1xmiblc to e nsure 1ha1 thc distancc,bctwce n
Ille plan e s is n e v e r leu than 2 km. (AEB)

! I ) A ship is steamingat IS knots due e ast,whlle the win d spe e d is 2 0 knots

from due north. Flndthe magnitu de andthe dire ction, 1othe ne arest degrec,of
the win d ve lm;ityrclative tothe ship .
Find abo the cour1e, b e tw e e n e a s t a n d sou1h, along which the ship would havt
1o s1eerat l6 knots forthc win d v e locityrclative t o the ship tobcat right
ang]e s 1 o the course of 1 he ship.
Obiain the magnltude ofthe ve locityof the win d re lative to the ship in this
(Uofl)
21) A river flows a t a constant speed of S m s-• between st raight parallel banks
which are 240m apart.Aboat crosses 1heriver , t ravclling relative10 1he wa1cr
a t a constanlspee d o f 12111s-1. A man cyclesat a consuntspeedof 4 m s-•
along theedge ofonebank oftheri1·e1inthe direction oppositc10 1hc dircction
of flow of the river.At the innant when theboat le3vc1a point O on the
oppositebank, the cyclist is 80 m downstream of 0. Theboat is steered
re btil'etothewater i n a directionperpendicular t o thebanks.Taking i and j
tobeperpen dicu!ar horizontaluni11-i:ctors downstream and ac1ontherivc1
fron1 0 respectivel y,exprc ss,intcrmsof i and j, thevclocilies andthe
position ,-ectorsrelativeto O ofthcboat andthecyclist / seconds after the
bo.it ka1-es 0. llence, or 0 1herwise, c a l culate thetime when the distance
betwcen theboat andthecydist is lnst, ghing this least distance.
Jf,instead,thcboat weretobestcered so thatit crossestherive1 fiom O t o a
po!n! o n t h eotherbank dire<:tly opposite t o 0 , show that this crouing would
take approximately 22seconds. (U ofL)
22) To a motorlit driving due South along a level road with comtam speed u
thewind apl'('arstobebloWing in a direction W8"N. When heis driving with th
0
the'3rnespeed u dueNor1h 1heappa1ent direction ofthe windis W,,:, N.
Showthat when heisdriving a t a specd 211 dueNor1h.the apparent di1cetion
0
ofthewindis w,;, N, where
2 !an ,/, = 3 1an i? - rnntJ.
Dctcrminc thc truedirectionofthewind. (U ofL)
 CHAPTER 1 4

RESULTANTS OF COPLANAR
FORCES.
EQUIVALENT FORCE SYSTEMS.

Theresultant o f a sc1of forccsisthe simplest posslble fo1cesystem which

hasthC '3me effect in all respectsasthe original set.
The result11nt nfforces in one plane maybe e!ther a �nglef orce or a torque.

COPLANAR FORCES REDUCING TOA SINGLE FORCE

Whenthc rcsuhan t of a set ofcoplanar forccsisa sing!ef orce, it isfully

defmed only when itsmagnitude, direction and line of action ue known.
The mag 11it11Je anddirec1io11 canbe foundbycollccting thecomponems, in
each oftwoperpendlc1d.irdirectlons. o f t h e o riginal forces(see Chapter 2).
TI1e position of the resultant is determinedby comparing itsturning effect
about a specif1cd axiswith thatofthe original fo1ces,
l n t his"-:i ythreeindepe ndent equationsare obtaine d .

I ) Find the magnitudcand direction ofthe resuhant offorccsofmagnitudes

6N, 2N, 2 N and ! N which act along the sides AB , BC, CD and AO o f a
square ABCD a n d find where t h e line o f action o f t h e resultant cuts A B
(protlucedif necessary).
Le t the side o f t h e squarebe a. Diagram(i)lhowsthe origina!forcesand
diagram (ii)showsthe resultant, represe ntedbya pair ofcomponcnts ,\' 3nd
)' parallel to AB and AD respecti\'dyand cutting AB at an unknown point
P where AP=d,
 Rault1111S 0!CopllM1 F0tca. E11ulv1t.ntF0tooSy11om1

Comparing the 01iginal forces with !he rcrnl!ant we have:

6-2 = X
2+! = y
2a + 2D = Yd
X = 4; y = 3;

Tlmcforc the re�ollant is ofmagnitude ../(4'+32 ) N = 5 N.

lts line ofaction makcs arcunj with AR
and cuts AB produced at P where JAP = 4AB.

2) Find 1heequa1ion ofthe line ofaction ofthe resul1ant offorcesof magnitudes

4.,/2 N, IJN and JN which act u shownalonR lines " h· o!iC,llCtOr equations
arc r = A(i+j), r = 2j + ).(12i+5j) and r = .'.!i+).j respectively,

1 [?+": ,: ".
0 -- 1 - .,.

Le t the three f orcesbe F,. F, and F1 , andle 11hei1 �sohant be F.

F, has magnitude 4.,/2 and direction i+j. the�fore

F, "" ¾,'2(Sf) = 4i+4j

F2 ha�magnitutle 13and direction 12i + Sj, so
12i + 5j
F1 = 13 (- -) = 12i+Sj
13
FJ has magnitude 3 and direc1ion j, so
F J : 3j
F = F 1 + F2 + FJ = J6i + l2j
Hence

Comparing clockwise momenu about an axis through O "' e have,

{ !2)(2)-(3)(2) "' (16)(c)

C = I
The line of action of F thereforepasses through thepoint with
position vector U an d i s in theWrectiOll l6i + 12j. T11e"'foreits�c101
equation il;
r = liH( l 6i+ l2j)
Note. The di1ection,·ec1or canbe simplif ci d 10 4i+3j.
In thisproblem it would ha ,·ebeen just as comenient to work with the line of
action of F cutting the x axis, innea d ofthe y axis, at an unknown point.
lf, however,lhe cartesi an equati onof!helineofacti on i s wanted it i s best to
1akeapoin1 P on the y axis astheunknownpointthrough which the resultant
passes . In this way 1he di s1ance OP i11 also1he y in1crcept oflhelineofaction
of the resultant and can be used d i rec1lyin the gener.11 equation y = m.x+c.
3) ABCD i s a squaie i n which L bi sects AB and M �sects �Forces of
magnitudes 4, 8, P(newton) act rcspecth"ely along AB, BC, CD and their
1csultant isparallclto ffi. Find 1hemagnitudeandpositlon ofthe resultant
and ihevalucof P.
 °
Since LM makcsan angleof 45 with AB, th.cre5uJtan1,ofmagnitude R is
°
aboat 45 to AB. Let the resul!an1 cut AB at P whe1e AP=x.
Comparing 1he 1es11!1ant with 1h.e originalf orccs ,
4-P = R cos45
°
(I/
°
8 = R sin45 /21
°
A) &+Pu = Rxsin45 /JI
From [2! R = &,,/2

8o;4o "' }a
From \!] P = 4 -8 = -4

From [3) X =

Thc1efore lhc 1esuhan1 i sof magnitude &,,/2N

and cuts AB at a point �AB from A, i .e.the resultant i salong LM.

4) Fo,ces 2P. 3P, 4P act respectively along 1he sides AB. BC, CA ofan
equila!craltri angle ABC ofside a. Find thema8 rtitudeand di1ec1ion of1heir

Ll"
re sultam and the di stance from A of thepoint where it cuts AC.

a
. C
 Mathematitf - Mechanlco•nd PrONbillr,,

6) Forces ufmagnitudes 3, 4, 2, l, P. Q actalongthe sides AR, BC, ffi,

DE, Ef, FA respectively ofa regular hexagon ABCDEF. Find tlie values of
P and Q ifthe resultant ofthe six forcesacts illong CE.
Since the resultant is known to act :ilong CE, a diagram in which CE ill either
ho1iwn1al or vertical makcs1hc solu1ionsimplcr.

Taking G :u the centre ofthe hcxagunand 2a asthe ]ength ofcachside,

°
4-P+(2 - I -Q + J ) cos60 = O (I ]
[2]
°
(2 + 1 -Q-J)sin60 = Y
(J + 4 + 2 + J + P+Q)a,j3 = Ya
GJ [J]

f.f
From [2] and [JJ (P+Q+ 10),jJ "' -Q -

Ucncc 2P+ JQ+20 = 0

From I ll 2P+ Q - 1 2 • 0
The1efo1e Q = -16 and P .. 14

Nole. An altemath'e method of 1olutiOt1 is to take momenu about axes through

C and E. The resullant moment iszemin bothcascs since the rt:sultant force
pailes through both C and E.

ln Questions l - S . find1he magnitude,direction andequation oftheline of

action ofthe resultan1 of1he givenforces(units nethe new1on and 1he 111e1rc
throughout).
 ) )

• I !

Ll
I

._ , __7_·. ;· . \�
3 'l4w•
' ,.

l) '

to, - 1 ) I
•
 Raulunu. o!Coplo...., F,...._ Equ;-.oi.n,foreo sv,umt

RESULTANT Of PARALLEL FORCES

(1) UkeP1r1lltl Forcas(i.e.forccs inthe same scn!>e).

Comidcr two fo,cu P and Q whose lines of action are p:nallcl and arc a
dis1ance d apa11.

-i',. ("i 18

If A and B arc 1wo poinuonthelinc1 ofac1ionof P and Q rcspecti\'ely

such 1 ha1 AB is pe1pendicula1 1obo1h fo1ces,1 hen AB :d.

Diagiam(ii) shows the 1csul1an1 representedby components X and Y and

pascsingtluough a point C on AB where AC=x.
Comparing the given forcu with thci1 resuhanl we haV<":

P+Q = y ,,,
121

Qd = Yx PI

F,om [JI

Therefore BC .. d-x .. (_!__)d

P+Q

Notf. Bccausc of1hegcome1 ri�proper1ies ofparallel line5,itis not only AB

but a11y Transversal between P and Q which is divi dedby the resultant in
the ratio Q : P
(bi Unllk1Parall1I Forc11 (i.e.forces inoppot,ite sen$e$)

Consider two forces P and Q wh= lines of aclion are parallel and
distant d apart and suppose 1ha1 Q>P.

Again taking points A and B on the lines ofac1ion of P and Q respectively

where AB = d and representing the resultant by component.I X llld Y 11
shown.comparison gives
Q-P ,., y
0 "' X
Qd = Yx

This t ime AC - , • (_2_)d

Q-P

so1hat BC • d-., • (::!._) ,

Q-P
Therefore AC: CB= Q: -P showing th.it the resullanl,whid, isof
magn i t ude Q-P, dMdes AB ettemu/ly
. in the ratio Q : P.
Wl, en pa rallel fmcet occu1 in prnblems it is frequently simpler tu locate the
resultant byusing t h e principle ofmomenisthan to quutt1he resultsde ri,·ed
abo,·e.

(e) Equ1I Unlike P1raltelforus

This iia special cue of(b) abo\'e when P = Q.

The rn3gni1ude ofthe resultant, (Q-PJ. is now 1.ero.
The tuming effect however is not zero u c.m be seen by taking moments about
an axi1through A.
 MICl1tffl•l lc:o - Mec:hanlco•nd Problbllity

When a couplc acts ona body1hcre isno change in the linear moveme11t ofthe
body but there isa change iniu rotation.

CONSTANT MOMENT OF A COUPLE

Cons.ide r a couple cornprislng twoequal and opposite forces each of

magnitude P whose lines ofactionare distant d apart.

, - ., -t= , ---::�·
- ·, -·- - A, ,, -♦A,

Axes perpcndicular to the plane of3ctio11 ofthe couple could be takenbetween

the two forces(e.g. through A,) or outsidethe lines oraction ofthe1wo fo1ces
(e.g. through A 1 or AJ).
We shallnow determine the t01que exertedby the couple abouteachof these
axes in tum.
A!) Anticlockwise torque "' P(a1 +d)-Pa1 = Pd
A� Anticlockwise torque = P(d-a1) + Pa1 = Pd
A� Anticlockwise tn1que :a P(d +u1)-PilJ = Pd

The mJgrtltude ofthe momentofa CQuple isoften referredto as the magnitude

ofthe couple.

Ch11acte1i11iet of1 Couple

I. Th! li11i-arresidra111 ofa coupleis aero
2. The moment ofa coupl� is11ot :ero and is independent ofthe position of the
axis s.olongasthe axis is perpendicular to theplanein 11,hich the coup]e acts.
These c/raracteristics are u/so those ofa forr:e system whose resr,//anr is a couple,
a p1openy which can be used in sohing many problems.
 ' " 0"
Q
R-li.nu ofCopta,..r Forces.. E11111..1en1Fo1ceSyrt1ms

[) ABCDEF is a regular hexagon of side 2a. Forces of magnitudes 5P, P, JP.

4P, 2P and 2P act respectively along the sides AO, iic, CO, fil, ff and
FA. Ptu\-e that theyreduce to a couple,and find its magnitude.

,
-'V -..... ,;

.
Thc resuhant is a coup!eifthesix forces havea linearrcsultant which is zero
am! a ruul!ant moment which is not UTO.
Resolvingpar;,.Jlel and perpendicular to AB aml taking moments about an axis
through G we have:
5P-4P+(P-JP-2P+2P)cos60° "' 0 [! )
°
(P+ JP- 2P-2P) sin 60 "" 0 12 1
(5P+P+3P+4P+ 2P+2P)ay'3 "' 17Pay'J JJJ
Equations [!I and [2) show 1hatthe!inear1cmltant is zero.
So thesix forces rcduce t o a couplc ofmagnitude !7Pay'J inthe sensc ABC.

'r:71'
2) AllCD is a squa,e. Forces ofmagniludcs l , 2. 3. P and Q unils act along
AS, BC, CD, Di\ and AC 1e1pec1,· i ely.Find,·al11es for P and Q so that the
rcmltant ofthefiveforces i s a couple.
]f1here1ultan1 i s a couple. 1helinear
rcsultant is zcro.Hcnce1hccomponcnu

. Ll
in any diiection 1 01al zero .
Kesolvinggi,·o
! + Qcos45°-J = 0
°
2+Qsln45 -P = 0
l-lence.whcn Q : 2-.,'2 and P = 4 1he linea1 resul1ant of1hegi\•en forces
 Mlthemlll01 - MlcNnl01- Problbllil'f

7) A thlr d force,together with the twoglven forces, reduce to a co11p!eor

magnitude 2Fa. Findthe magnitu deand direction ofthe thir d force and the
distance from A ofthe poin1 where itsline ofaction c11ts AB (produced if
necesury).
8) Two forcesboth of magnitude 11F are added to the system. One acts along
AC a n d thcother passcsthro11gh B.
Calcll!ate II lfthenew systemr ed11ces to a couple.

9) Fou1 form arereprcsentcdby l-4j, 3i+6j, -9i+j and Sl-3j,

and thcir poin11 ofapplication are glvenby 3i-j, 2i+2j. - i - J and
-31+4j respectively.
(a) Show 1ha 1the forccs red11ce to a co11ple and fin dits magnitude.
(b) lf the fourth force is removed andthefirst force is moved to thcpoint
i - Sj sho w thatthe sys1em now red11cesto 3 sing.lcforccthro11gh thcorigin.
10) AOC ls a rig111-angled triangle in which AB=4a: BC=:Ja. Forces of
magnitudes P, Q and R act along the sides AS, BC and CA respectively.
Find the ratios of P : Q : R ifthcir rcsul1an1 isa couplc.
If the force along AC ii now re\-crsed, find in terms of P the magnitude of the
resll1tant ofthe ncw sy1tem.
J I ) Forces ofmagnil udcs I, 6, 8, 2 and .S unlts act along thcs!dcs AH, BC,
OC, DE and Ef respectively of a regular hexagon and another force acts along
FA. Gl\-e u much information II you can about the resultant of the 1ix forces
ifthe dxth forccis:
(a) l unil along fA,
(b) 7 units along A.f.

IDENTIFICATION DF FORCE SYSTEMS

A sct ofcoplanar forces may:

(a) b e i n equilibriurn,
(b) reduce to a couple,
(c) reduce to a sing]e forcc.
Jn orderto estab\ish w h ichofthcsc applies to a particularsct of forces,r
/vcc
/udependcntfact , are needed (since coplanar forces have tl11ce degrees of
freedom).The!iC ttuee facu are derived from variouscombinations of resolving
and taking moments.
Suppructhat X and Y 1'present the collcctcd componcntsin two perpcndicular
directions and that M�, M8 and fife rcp1eKn1 the ,esultant moments about
axcs through:myttuccnon-<:ollinearpoints A, B an d C in thcplancofthe
forces then:
 R....111nt, al C<,pl1- fon,a_ Equ;.,.1..,, Fo,c. S'(Slem1

(a) thc symm isin cquilibriumif

(I) X : 0 Y=O M.4 = O
o r (ii) X "' O M.4 � 0 M8 - o (providcd that AB i.s not
pcrpcndicularto X)
"' (iii) M.,.. : 0 Ms : O Mc "' O
(b) the systcrn rcduces toa couple if:
(i) X = O y .. o J\1.4 ,f,. O
or (ii) M.4 ., Ms = Mc 'F O
(c) the systern rcduccstoa sing)eforce if X and Y are not both zero.
The value of M.4 is then required to locate thisforce.

Purtiul ldemi[icaritJ11
When leiiii than 1hm.• independcn1 facts aregiven,1he coplanar forcesys1em 1n
which they apply cannot be identified precisely,

In these examples X. Y. MA . M8. Mc ha,·ethe same significance asin the

preceding pa,agraph.

I) What is the state ofasetofcoplanar forces for which x .. o and Y "' O?

If X "' 0 and Y: 0 there is no linear resultant.
Thcrefore thesetofforces i.s eithcrin equilibriumor reducestoa couple,
(Without furtherinformation there isnowayofdiffe1entfating be1weenthese
1wopossibilities.)

2) What is the rnultanl ofa set of coplanar f01cn for whid1 M.4 = M8 'F 0?

Since the tuming effects abou11wo diffcrcnt axesareequalthe resultant couJd

bca coup!e.
Onthe otherhand.poinu A and B could bc equidistant froina linear ruulta11t.

Thereforc thc stt orforccs reducuci1hcr10a couple ortoa sing!e fo1ceparalle\

to AB.
 M1tl>•m.nlcs - M9d'w,nic,-,,d ..,._blltly

3) A set of coplanar forces is such that X= 0 and M,.. = 0. To wha1

limpleform s i s i t pouiblefor theforces to reduce?
Since X .:: O, thelinear resultant,
if there ii one, i1inthedirection of Y.
Then M,.. = Yd and can be zero
elther if Y = O
or if d = O.
The1esu\tant cannotbe a couplc i.ince M,.. =0. Therefore.
either the1ystem 1educes to a i.ingleforceinthe direc!lonof Y and passing
through A (i.e. d = O)
orthesystelll is in equilibrium (i.e. Y=O).

Describecarefully the resu!tant of a sct ofcoplana1force1if;

I) The turning effec1 about eJchof thrunon..:oplJnar axes pe pr endicular10
theplaneofthef orcts iszero.
2) Theturning effect about each oftwo axe, perpendicula.r tothe plane ofthe
forces is zero.
3) The collccted cornponentsofthc f o rces a1c zero in the directions both
of Ox and of Oy.
4) The collected component!> in Question 3 are not zero but the totalmoment
about an axis throug h a point A in theplaneofthe forces is ze10 .
S) The system offorces causes a body to 101 a1e while iti centre of gravity
remains stationary.
6) T11ef orces areall pa111lel and in thesamesensc.

THE RESULTANT OF FORCES REPRESENTED BY LINE SEGMENTS

S uppose tluu twoforces arc 1epresented completely ( i e.. in magnitude,
direction anJ P<JJ 1i o
i 11) by pAii: and qAC, where p and q arecomunu.
Sometimes a palr offorcu whose resultant cannot at ftr5t befound byuslng
this theorem, can b e a l t erlllllivclyrepresentedso that thctheorem c a n bc applied.

2) In a triangle ABC, M is the midpoint of AC. Two forces are represented

completely by 2AC and 3MB. Find the resultant.

Since M isthepoint ofintersection of

thetwo forces, the rcsuhantvcctor
thcorem canbc used only i fuch force
is rcpresen1ed bya line seg:ment,one
endufwhich is M. An alternative f01m
must therefore b e found for 1h� force
2AC

-..�
�
Now A C = 2 M C w 2AC ., 4M(:_
The theorem can nowbc applied giving:
4MC+JM8 ,,, (4+ 3)MD
J:iiii B
/ where CD : DB -" 3 : 4

Therefore 1hc resultant of 2AC and 3MB is represo.-nted completelyb y 7M[}

where D divides CB in the ratio 3 : 4.
Succeuive appHcationsuf thi11heorem can be u sed to find 1he resuhant ofmore
than two forcts ghi?n in line segment form ,as is shown in !>Orne of the following
examples.

3) Forces represented completely by 2AB, cii, 2ci5 and 4A[) act along the
sides of a quadrilateral ABCD. Find their resultant and find the points where
its lineofactionintcrsee1s thc diagonalsof thc quadrilatcral.

" C App\ying the,·eclor theorem we have:

2A8+4A!5 "' {2+ 4lAP
where B P : PD c: 4 : 2

,
r:.ii and cii + :zC[) "' (1 + :z)CQ
where BQ : QD ac 2 : I
I' 3nd Q divide BD in the same ratio,
A 4;."1; p I> thcrcforc they arcthe 1a1nc point.
 R_.,ltanto 0f Copll111< Fotca. Equi..l1nt Fot<:e Systom1

Hen« !an8 = I
Q "' 2../2
The replaccmeni for« system ihe,dore comprises two fo"es each of 8 N
along 0A and OC and a forceof 2../2 N pas!.ing through A and making an
0
angle of 4S with AO.

2, The Combi,..tion of• Force and • Couple

Consider a forceofmagnitude F and a coupleofmoment ,If which act in

one p bne.With reference to perpendicular axes Ox and Oy which , for
c0n\·enience, arechosento beparallel andpc1pcndicular10 1hegivenforc:e, the
01igina l system andiHre�uhant canberepresen1ed in a diagram11 shown.

Note how the moment of the couple is shown as a curved anew indicating
tuming effec t . Thfa mustnot bemistaken for a fora,.
Comparinginthe usua l way "·ehave
0 = X (I]
F= y Ill
Fu -M = Yb (3]
F,om [ I ] and [2] wesee that , in rnagnitudeand direction,theresultan t i s
ldentka l t o theoriglnal force.

From 121 and [JI (u-b) = f

The ,-ery �fu! conclusi on 1eache d therefo� is:

Bec3� t he direct ionofthe displaccmem ofthe line of acti011 dependson 1he

sense ofthe couple it isadvi sable to calculatethe disp al cement , ratherthanlo
quote it,ln each problem.

I) The 1e1ult an1ofany force system which is no1in equilibriumis either a

sing el f orce or a couple andhas ex.ictlythe same linear and tumingeffectsas
thegiven ll)'stem.

2) The resultant oftwo likepual\d forces P and Q isof magnitude P+Q

andactsin1 line partllelto P and Q dividing them intcmallyin t he ratio
Q:P.

3) Thcresultant oftwo unlike. unequal ,parallelfmces p a n d Q isof

magnitude IP�QI and acts in a line parallel to P and Q dividing them
extemaUy in t he ratio Q : P.

4) lfeach member ofa set ofparalldforcespasses lhrough a Oxed point.thcn

their 1nultant also passc s t hrough a ftxed poin1 whichis indcpendent of1heir
01ientalion.

5) Acouple i s a pair ofequa l a n d opposite non.colllnea r f o rces.lt hasuro

linear resuJtant andpro ducespurerotation.Thc magnit udc o f a coupleisiu
moment, which is Fd where F is the magnitude of each force and d is the
distancebe1ween t h e m .

6 ) The moment of a couple is t he same about all axes perpendicular to i t splane.

7) The combina1io n of a force and a coup!e i n t h e same planc is a n equal forcc

whose line ofactionis displaced.

8) The ,esult ant of 1wo forces rcp1esented completely by pAB and q;;f, is
rep�1ented completelyby (p+ q)AD where D is on BC and
BD : OC = q :p.

9) Complct e specifica1ioo o f a force system inoneplanercqui1e s 1hree

independent facti.When fewer than thrct! arc given or used, incomplete m
ambiguous results ari se.
 A
�
U\ d
I} A
4 .,
, J
n
• f.

�J ,/IP

Comparing turning effect only(sincc the magni1Ude and direction ofthenew

ruu!1an1 a1eknown 1obe thcsamca.sthoseofthcold resultant),

� ../3P2a sin 30° + J3Pu = ../3Pdi sln3o"

llcnce di : 4a
Therefore the new 1csu!tan1cuts AC product>d at E, disu.nt 4a from A.
To reduce the system to equilibrium, a force equaland opp0$ite to, and collioear
°
with,this rcsultant mustbe addcd,i.e . a f01ce .../JP at 30 to AC and cuttlng
AC produced at E.

2
t Jo"

3) Forces 7P, 5P, JP and 2P act along the sides, All, BC, CD and 0A of
a square ABCD ofside a. Findthe equation oftheline ofactlon ofthe
resultant ofthe system using AB and AD as x and y axes respect i�ely.
A force F along AB and a couple of moment M are added 10 the system so
that thenew resultant passesthrough B an d D. Findthc magnit udeand sense
of thcforcc a n d t hecoupk.
Compa1ing , w e ha1·e:
1P-3P = X Il l

�
5P-2P "" Y ]2]
-Sl'rl-31'rl "' Xc ]3]
Therefore X = 4P. Y=JP. c = -2a
Thegradient ofthe line ofaction ofthe
1esultanti!I f = ¾ and the lineof

action cuts the y axis at (0,-2a).

lts equationb therefore
Y = i x - 2a
4y "" Jx-&,

Addins the force F and couple ,If to this resultant (whkh is cquivlllent to the
original syslcm)gi1-c s

A s 1henewre sultant pass<"s through B and D the tuming effectofthesystem

about axes through both B and D is zero

_IU M+3Pa -4P(2a) = 0

!!,J M-4Pa(Ja) -Fa -:= 0

Therefore ,If "' SA, and F "' -1P
The forceitof magnitude 7P in the sense BA and the couple l s of magnitude
SPu in thesense CBA.
 Mo1h4omlilla -Moch•nia - Pl'obeill1y

4) Forces JP, 7P, P, 2P, mP a11d ,iP act alo11g the sides AB, BC, CD, fil.
FE and FA of a regular hcugon. Find theYalues of m and n if:
(a) 1hesixforces reduce to a couple,
(b) thesyslem reduces to a singleforcealong AD.

C•l u
' u "
d /'

'
,,.p

! C

.
71'
.,,

"
'
Wh.en theresultantis a c oupletheli11ear rcsultantis z.e10 buttheresultant
moment is not,
Therefore - JP- 2P+(7P-P+mP + nl') cus6(i = 0

(b)o
G
and (7P+P+mP-nP)sin 6 0 = 0

··
Thesegive m=-8 and 11 = 0
Wi1h 1hese values , and taking O asthecenuc of thehcugon ,
(3P+7P + P + 2 P + 8f")d -4' 0
")
TI1erefore when 111 = -8 and 11 • 0 the system does reduce 10 a couple.

, ,
__ .. , · ,, - ., �,

.,. ', �
lfthe resultant isalong AD, it i1simp!cr if1hisline is horilontal(or ,1:rtical)in
the diagram. Comparing g i ves
°
(P+2P-n.P -3P)sin60 = 0
(JP+1P+P+1P-mP+,iP)d = 0
TheM, give· ,r = 0 and m = 13
Wi!h tlic1C values
°
X = 1P+ !3P+(P- 2P+JP) cos60 -4< 0
The refore when 11=0 and m= 1 3 the syuem does 1educe to a single
f orce along AD.

S) OABC ba recung]ein whlch 0A = 2a and OC=a. Forcesof

magnitudes P, Q and R act along OA, AS and BC respeetiwly. When OA
and OC are1aken as x and y axes respe�tlvely, 1he line ofactionofthe
resultant of theM,forceshu equ,tlon x zz 4(y+a).
Findthera1io ofthe m.agnit11de1 o f P, Q and R. Find also in te rmsof P and
o, the moment ofthecoupleneceuaryto transfe11helineofactionof1he
resultant tothe linewith equatlon 4y = x + 2a.

lfthe resullant makesan angle a ,,,ith Ox 1hen tlle gradien1ofits llneof

actionis uno = i ,. �1
Comparinggivet
P-R : Fcoso. [I)
Q = Fsino. [2)
"2.aQ+aR = Fa coso [3)
F
F,om [3J R = F cosa-2Fsina = �(4-2)

F
From Ill P =- Fcorn+R = �(4+2)
 □"'"'
Mo1.......
1iQ-Moch.nlco•nd P,obabillty

MULTIPLE CHOICE EXERCISE 14

{Th� imtrucrkms f"r answering thi:sc q1wst/o111 artgive11 ou /J'}-gc .o:.)

I)
Forces ac1.ushown round the side5of

"
a square ABCD of side 211. The
resultant f orce cuts AB at a point r.
(a) P H on AB produced and AP = "'1- .
(b) P bisectt AB.
(c) P ison BA produced and AP•2'1.
(d) P i s o n BA pmduced an d AP=a.
A JN ff

2) Thc resul!ant moment ofa set ofooplanarforces about each oftwo axes
through points A and B is zero.Tbe setoff orc es reducesto:
(ii) equilibrium.
(b) a forcethrough A and aoouple,
(c) a couple.
(d) a force through A and B,
(e) ei1her equilibriu m o 1 a forcethrough A and B.

3) ABC isan equilateraltriangle.The

resultant ofthe th,ee given forces
intersecu AC:
(a) on AC p roduced,
(b) on CA produced,
(c) between A and C,
{d) at C.

4) The resultant of AO and 2AC is:

ea> JAJ'i,
(b) JOC,
(c) J°AQ,
(d) Jf>A.
 '] /" 'U,
,LA__
l)

w'
O (l.0) � U 14,01 x

The foreein figure(l),togethe, w i t h a eoup\eare egui\•alem to the force In

figure(ii).Thecoupleis:
(a) 4 N m clockwise,
(b) s✓J Nm amiclod:wi r,e ,
(c) 4../J N m clockwise,
(d) 16Nm antidockwi5e.

Thed�grams rep1esen1 a se1 of forces andtheir re1iuJtan1

(a) ,r .. - 2.
(b) Theresuluntisa couple.
(c) The resul1ant i $ a forcea1 45° to Oy.
°
(d) Theresu!tant isa forceat 45 10 Ox.

7) ,u
The resuhanc of the force of 4N and
_
4 .-i J t11eckx:kwue coupleof 8 N m shown
in1hefigu1eis:
(a) a fur,eof magnitude 4N,
Ulm (b) a forceofmagnifude -4N,
(c) a forcepwing through 0 ,
.
(d) a fo1ce passmg1hrough (4,0).
() (I.Of i
8) (a) A se 1 ofoop!anar forCC's hasuro lincar reiul1an1,
(b) A set ofcop!annfo1ecs 1eduCC's to a couplc,
9) (a) A setofcoplanarforeesisin cquilibrium .
(b) The moment ofa set ofcoplanar fmccs about uch of \\l,'O different axes

10) (a) A setofc oplanar forccs reduces 1 o a couple.

(b) A m oflike pa1allelforces acts in a plane.
1 1) (a) Foreesrcpresentcd by 2AB and JAC have a ruultan1represemcd
by SAi).
(b) J n a tri anglc ABC. D b a pointon BC where BD : DC .. J : 2.
12) (a) Themomcnt o f a s e 1 ofcoplanar forces about cach ofthree axes which
arenocin line,iszero.
(b) A set ofcoplanar forccs isin equllibrium,

13) Find thc magnitude and direction ofthe resuhant ofa set ofcop\anarf orces.
(a) The resu)tant antidb(:kwise t01que about an axisthrough a point
2J+3j is J O N rn .
( b ) Thc rcsultant ant!clockwise to1que aboutan axisth10ugh a pnint
5i-j is 8 N m .
(c} Thc rcsultanl antidockwise 1orqueabou1an axisthrough a point
- 4 i + j is -4Nm.
(d) Thefo,cuarenot concurrenl.
!4) Find the multant of forces repmented by AB, 2BC, 3M) and 60C.
(a) ABCD i s a quadrilatc,al.
(b) AB aa 2 m,
°
(c) BAC aa 60 ,
JS) Sixforccs act rowid thesides ofa hcxagon.Find thcequatlon ofthe line

co. ru,
ofactionof their rcsultant.
(a) Their magnitudes are P, 2P,4P, 3P, P. 2P along AD. BC.
FE. Af mpeeti>-ely.
(b) The hexagon is regular.
(c) The coordinates of vertex B are ( I , I).

16) The resultant ofa set offorces is a force F. When a couple!s added to the
systemlhenewrc.iultant a!wis F.
17) A set offorceswh05e linear resultant is u:ro must bein equilibrium.
 18) TI1emomcnt ofa couplc dcpe:nWi upon 1heaxi s of roUUon.
19) Ifa set ofcoplanar forcesls not i n equilib1ium they redu«either t o a force
or to a couple.
20) fJ an axbischoscn passing t hrough a point onthc resulum ofaforoe
syJtem,thc result1nt torquc ofthesystcm about that axis is1.ero.

l) If ABC is any t riangleand PQRS is a squarc ofsidc l>, wri111 dow 11 a

comple1e �cifica1ion ofthere1ultant ofcach ofthefo!lowins ae1s offorces:
(a) Thrttfo1ces which ac1 o n a panic!eand arc reprc sen t c d i n rruignitudeand
direction by AS, BC and CA.
__ --+
(b) Three forceJ represented completely by AD. BC an�__cA.
__ _
(c) Two forces ofmagnitodcs F and 2F acting along PQ and SR.
(d) Two forces of magnitudes F and 2F acling along PQ and RS.
(c) Two forces each ofmagnitude F acting along PQ and RS.
(f) Two forces represented completely by AB and AC.
(g) Two forces �presented completely by AS and CA.
2) 1'rovc tha1 a couplc, 1ogethcr with a fo1cc in 1hc �mc plane,i s cquivalcm to

'k.�
a i;lngleforcc. Descrtbc completcly thepossible rcsultant s of aforceof ION
acting in theJame plane ill a couple of magnitude 20 Nm.
J)

<0.:,D- :". .
(0,1) '"'
!O
H<

U JO" �
8
10.1) B,<

'i
O 1-
(;(!, 01 � 8N
T.,,,·o forccs actas show n i n diagram(i).
A third f0<cc isaddcdto 1hesystem and the resultan1of theth1cefmces is
show n i n diagram (ii).
Find 1hcmagnitudc, direc1io n a n d po siti o n ofthethird fo1ce.
4) Replace forces F, 2F, 3F, 4F acting in 01dcr roundthe sidesofa square
ABCD ofside a, by 1hrceforces acting along1hesidcs oftriangle AEB where
E i s the midpoint of CD.
 MothamatiQ - Mechonla,•nd P,olMbillty

5) Show that the resultant of forces AB, CB, 2CD and 2AO acting along the
conesponding sides of a quadrilateral ABCD, Is represented completely by
6QP where P divides BD in theratio I :2 and O hlseets AC.

- - -- i.-- z.. -- - -
6) A rod AB is loaded and suppor1ed as ll!own in the figure.Fiod the largtst
torquewhich can be applied totherodinaverticalplanewithou1c1115ingthe
rodto overtum lfthetorqueis·
(a) clockwise,
(b) anticlockwise.

1f J fl
7) A s ystem ofcoplanar f01ces h u anticlockwise momenu M, 2M and SM
respectively about thepoints (a, O), (O ,a) and (a,a) intheplane. Find the
magnitudeoftheresultantofthesystem andtheequation ofits lineofaction.
(UofL)
8)

Forcesofmagnitude 4, 7. I , 4 and 3'/2newtons actalongthesides

AB, CB, CD, AD and the diagonal BD rnpeclively ofa square ABCD of
side 0.1 m, as shown in the diagram.Show that the forcesystem is equivalent
to a coupleandfind the moment ofthis couplc. ( U o f L)
9) Three forces 7 i +Sj. 2i + Jj and Ai Kl at the origin 0, where i and j
areunit vectorsparallel tothe .taxis and the y axis resp ecti v ely.The unit of
forceisthenewton. lfthem1gnitudeofthe result1nt ofthe1hreeforcesis 17N,
calculate thetwo pouiblevalues of A. Show that the 1wop01SSible directions of
the line of action o f the resullant are equally inclined 10 Oy. (AES)
 R..,lunuofCo!lll..., For..._ Equ1¥1llnl For11eSytte<M

10) A no n.uniform rigid bum AB, of length 3a and weight nW, 1es1s o n
suppo rts P and Q at thesame level,where A P = P Q m Q B • a . Whma
load of weight W is hung f r o m A, thebeam i1 o n 1he point of tilting abo ut P.
Find 1he distance o fthe centre of gravity o f thebeamf r o m A. When an
additional !oad of weight W1 ishungfrom B. thef orcesexe rted o n the
supports at P and Q are equal . Find W1 in terms of 11 and W.
lf a c o uple,of m o ment / . andactingin thevertical plme through AB, is n o "·
applied t o the loadedbeam,the 1eactio n at P is incrcned inthe ratio J : 2 .
Show that: l • �(n + !)k'a (J�IB)
11) All forces ln thlsquestl o n actin the plane o f a t riangle AHC in which
AHm 4a, A C = Ja and the angle A =9ri'.
Fo rces of magnitude 11P, ISP, JP act along AB, BC, AC respectively in the
direcUo n 1 i ndicatedby1he o 1der of the lener1,. Calculate
(a) the magnitude ofthe resu]tan1 of 1hese threefo rces andthe tangem of 1he
angle madeby its Hne of actio n with AB,
(b) the distance from A o f the poim where 1he liM of action of the resultant
cuts AB.
A co uple G i s n o w added t o the s ystemandthe resuhant o f this ertlarged
system acts thro ugl1 the point B. Caku!aie the magnitude and sense of G.
(U o f L)
12) (a) ln the regul.:irhexago n AHCDEF, .:io = a and BC = b .
Exp1euln te1m1, o f a a n d b, the vec\ors
Cil AC (iil AD (ii!l M (iv) M
(b) The o rigin 0, the po int ,1 with poslti o n ,-ector 4i+Jj and the
po int C withposition vect o r Ji-4.i are three vertlces o f a
square 0ABC. Calculate the position vector o f B.
Fo rces of magnitudu S N , lo../2N and I O N act along OA, 08
and ai respecti\·ely. Expreu each of the5e fo rces as a vector in terms
of i and j.
Mcnee show that the rernllanl o f these fo rces acu along 0A and
cak11la1e the magnimde o f 1his rernhan1. (AEU)
13) Forces 1, 4, 6, 1p, 2q and l8 new1om ac1 along1he ,lde, AH. HC,
CD, ED, l:"F and AF rupecl(\"el y o f a regular hexagon ABCDEF, the
direc1ions of 1hefon�e1 hcing indicuedby1heorde1of 1 he letter1.lf the sy1tem
U i n equilibriurn,find,byres o lving parallel andpcrpcndicular t o AB, the values
of p and q. Check yo 11r rcsult byfinding 1hemo ment o f t h e forcesabout 0,
1he centrc of 1he hexag011.
The fo1ce1 along ED, EF and AF are now replaced by a coplanar force
through O and a co plana1 co uple.lf1he resultl11 gsystemisin equillb riumand
if the length o f each side of the hexag o n is 2 metres, calculate
(a) the magnitude uf thisfo rce through 0,
(b) the magnit udeufthe couple.
 Rff\tltlnlS ol Coplen• ForcN. Equi..i.n, FotceSyntml

19) Forces of magnitude 2P, P, 2P, 3P, 2P and P ;i.ct ;i.long the sides AB,
BC, CD, ED, EF and AF respecthdyof:i regular hexagonof slde 2a in the
directiom indicatedbythe leuen . Prove that this system offorces canbe reduccd
to a ,ing]e fo rceofmagnitude 2P./3 acting along AC toge1he1 with1 couple.
Findthe magn!tude ofthc couple.
Show that the sy�tem c1nbe reduced to a �ng]e fo"e without a couple. Jf the
line of action of thi$ force cuu FA produced at X, cakulate the length of AX.
{ U o f L)

20) In the t riangle ABC, AB.,AC• !O« and BC,. 1211. The point E
°
on AC i s such that angle BEC is 90 and D Is the midpoint of BC. Forces
of nuignitudes 2P, tOP, SP and !OP act along CB, AD, 8£ and AC
re spectively.Calcula1e
(a) the sum of the resolved pans ofthese for�es pa raUd to BC,
(b) thesum of the resol\-ed partsof these for« s paraUt l t o AD.
(c) Lhemagnitudeufthe retu!tanl of these force s ,
(d) the acute ang]c madebythe line ofaction ofthe rcsultantwith BC, giving
your an swc11 o t h c ncarest degree.
The line ofactionof the resultantofthese force s c u t s BC at the point F. Find
the di stance BF in tenn s of a. (AEB)

21) Unit vectnr1 along the axes Ox ;md Oy are represented by i and j
rnpcctively.The positionvect orsof the pointt A �nd B are 8i+6j and
5i- 12j respectively.The line AB crruse$ the :,: axis at the point C.
Calculate
(a) the position vector of C,
(b) the pos!lion vector ofthe point D , 1he four1h nrtex ofthe paraUelograrn
OADB.
Tl1eforce F,. ofmagnitudc 40N, acts at O along 0A and1he force F,, of
magni1udc 26N, actsU O along OB. Byexpre:uing F, and F1 in term s o f
i and j calculate the magnitudc ofthe ruultant ofthese 1wo force1and show
thatthe llne of action ofthc resultant passesthrough C .
The force F , b ,tplacedby ano1her forcc F,. acting at O along OA. The
resu!tant of F2 and FJ pnses through D. Find FJ in tcnn, of i andj. (Al:B)

22) A lamina isin theshape ofan cquilatcra\ 1riang]e ABC, and D, E, F are
the midpoints of BC, CA, AB respectively. Forces of magnitude 4 N.. 8 N,
4 N, 3 N. 3 N act along AB. BC, CA. BE, CF respectively. the direction of
each forcebeing indicatedbythe order ofthe lettcrs.Findthe magnitudeofthe
resultant force onthe lamina,and1how that it s lineofaction cuts AD produced
at G , where DG ac AD.
The l1mina is kept in equilibrium by 1h1ce force s acting along FE, OF, ED.
Find thc magnitudei ofthe se forccs. (C)
 Mo1heffllllla -Mlchenics•nd l'n>bat>!l;1y

23) The points A, B. C, D, E , F are the vertices ofa regular hexagon.

Forces each of 2 n ewtons act along AB and DC, an d forccs each of I newton
act along BC and ED. i n t h e d irectionsindicated bytheorder o ftheleuen,
Forces Pncwtons and Qncwtons act along EF and AF rcspcc1ively. Find
P and Q:
(a) ifthe system ieduces t o a couple,
(b) ifthc ruultant ofthc systcm i s a forcc acting along ED. (U ofL)

24) A sys1em offorces i n theplaneofa tri1ngle ABC hasanti clockwise

moments of G, 2G and -2G abou1 1hepoints A, B an d C respectively,
Statewhythesystem reduce5 t o a wigleforcc andnot a couple.Find thepoinl
of i ntersection ofthelineofaction ofthisforcewith theside BC, and calculale
the moment about the centroid of the triangk ABC. (JMB)p

25) Stateone set ofcooditions sufficient t o ensurethat a s ystem ofcoplanar

f0 1ces i s i n equilibrlum.
Threepoint$, A, B and C, havecoor dinau,, (2o, 0), (2u, 2a) and (0, 2a)
rcspectivdy referred to perpendicular axes Ox, Oy. A system offorces i n 1he
plane xOy has anti.clockwise moments of 40Pa and 60Pa about A and C
1cspec1ivel y a n d a clockw i s e moment of 20Pa about D. Calc ulate the
mag:ni1ude,111d di rcctionofthe resullam ofth i s systemand 1heequa1i o n o f i t s
line ofaction. (AEB)

26) A tri angle ABC has AB = 4 m, BC = 5 m, CA = J m. 11nd D. E, F

are the midpoints of BC, CA, AB respccti\'Cly.Forces of magnitude 4 N. 5 N,
3 N, x N, y N act along AB, BC, CA, ED, CF respectively, the direction of
theforces being i ndicatedbytheorderofthe letters. Theresultant ofthesystem
acts along EF. Calculate x and y, and :Jtow tha1the magnitudeofthc
resultant is 20N.
The system ls equivalent t o a force P acting along AC, a force Q acting along
CF and a coupleofmoment M. Find P, Q and M. (C)

27) Forces :i..0/\ and µQB act along the lines AO �nd OB respectively.
Show that the resultant is a force (A+ µ)OC where C lies on AB and
AC:CB =µ:A. Forces JAB, 2AC and CB actalong tltesides AB, AC and
CB respectively ofa tri angle ABC. Their resultant meets BC in P and AC in
Q an d i t s magniiudeis kPQ. Find BP:PC, AQ:QC and k. (U o f L)
 CHAPTER 1 5

CENTRE OF G RAVITY

WEIGHT AND CENTRE OF GRAVITY

A solldbodyis madeup of a number ofpart i des rigidlyhc d l t ogether by

forces of att raction, whereeachpart i c!ehas a massand therefore a weightwhicli
actsverticaUy downward. The weigh! of a $0lid body i s the �sultant of the
weights of i t s constltuent particlesso,unless thebodyi s ofverygrea1 size, i ts
weight is t helfsultan1of a s et ofpara ll elforces.ltwas scen i n Chap1er l4 p, 464
t hat such a result antpasscs through a fixedpoint what ever theorientationof the
fo1ces, so 1heweight of a bodypi15SCS lhrough a !ixedpointwhateverthe
ori ent ationof that body.Th!s fixedpoint ls called the centreof gravityof the
body or (with certain limitations which are discussed lat er) the cent re of mass
o f t hebody.

Thus the weight of a body is equal to the sum of t h e weights of i u constituent

part ides ;ind actsvert i c•llydownward through a f i xedpoi nt inthc bodycal!ed
theccnueof gravity. Thecenue ofgravit y i s i ndepcndentof theorientati o n o f
t hc body

To find t heccntreof gravityof a bodyv,ecan usethefact that thewmof rh e

mom e,us of t h eweights oft h eeons1iru empcmicl es abou r any axis i1 equal ro
til emom nte of tir er es11/1a111 w eiglrtaborll1/J esameaxiJ. This will give the
distanceof t hecent rcof gravityfrom thataxis.
To locate the centre of gravity completel y it may be ncceuaiy 10 t ake moments
about t w o non•p;inl!el lines or,for three dimensional problems about three
non•parallcl lines, but suchproblems do oot concer n u s a t t hlsstage.

THE CENTRE OF GRAVITY OF A SET OF PARTICLES IN A PLANE

Consider t luee particles of weights Sg N, 1,rN, 3g N which are at point s
(3, -1), (2 ,3), ( - 2,5) referred to coordinateaxes Ox and Oy.
The centr e of graVityof the,eparticlesisinthe :xy plane.
Let tldspoi.ntbe G{.X,j).
Supp()5,C that the :xy pl.:ine ishoriz.ontal so that the weights oftheparticlesact
•�1tiul!y downwardperpendicular to the .\"Y plane and the total weight , JOg,
acu i n t h e s.arnedirection through G.

•,,
12.ll

Ulingthepri.ncip leof rnornentsgives

+ (2g)2+(Sg)3-(3g )2 "' ( l Og)X

·+ (1g)J+ (Jg )5-(5rll "' ( l !«)Y

y . !
S01he cen1re of gr
avit y i s at 1hcpoin1 (j¾.j)
No1e.Whenbothcoo 1dinate s o f t he cen1reof gravityare to hecalcu bted, it is
usuallybest to usea di3gram d1awn i n a horizontalp!ane containing the x and
y axes (as wasdone in the exampleabove).Sucha di:i.gram allows the distanc es
fiom theaxcsofeach pa1tide 1ohe seen clearly.lt must heapprecia1ed,
however, that the ln
i es ofact
ionoft he weig th s camwtbt marked on a diagram
of1his 1ype;onlythe pointthiough which the weight passes can be seen.

The General C.se

Consider particlcsofmHs 111 1, m2 , m l • • at the points (X i.y 1), (x2,y;i),
(x1,y,)... in the xy plane.
The weights of these particles arc m 1g, m2g. mlg ..
The total weight is l:mg actingata point G(x.J) in the xy plane.

-k
·r· 0
-·

Takingthe xy plane t o be horiwnta! so that t h e weights o f the particlesarc

perpendicular to the xy planc, thcnusing thc principle ofmo mcntsgives
•

g'!:mx "' Xg!.m

Then,ifwe cancclg. (see Note on p.501)

Similarly 0� gives

Thisiesult mayalsobe t<xpre5Sl'd invec{0 1 terms.

Ltt t h e partidesbe a1thepoints 11,•hose posi1io n 1 e· c1orsare r1 . r2, rs, - •
Then r 1= l.1i + yi j . r1 • x2i +y,j, r3 : x3i+Ysj,.
Asbefore X = � and ji = �

The poslt!onvectorof G i$ r where f=Xi+.fj

!mxi+!myj
So r =
i:,,,

m 1 r1 +m2r1 + 111 3rJ+ ..

i::111

Reconsidering the fint e xample i n v e cto1 te rms, we ha,·e particlu of masses 2 k&,
5 kg and 3kg atpointswhose posit i o n ,'f:ctou Jre 2i+3j , 3i - j and
�2i+5j.

Using the ruult abcn·e . the posi1i on vec1orof G is

2(2i+3j)+5(3i-j)+ 3(-2i+ 5j)

10

- Jb(l3i+ !6j).

Note.The fonnu]ae X= ¥!; and p = � re a!!y gi•·e the coordinate s of

tlic ce111re o/m11u ofthe sctofparticles.

Wcha1·c usc:d 1hcm 10find t he cemre o/grol'ily an d i t Jscorr e c t t o d o t h i s for al!
pract icalpur�s.
These two points arc 1101 the s.a m e , howcHr, if the set ofpart icles occupi e s so
largc an a1e a1hatthe " c· i ghts arcnotallparallc!, or 1hc,·aluc o f g isnotthc
s.ame for allpaniclcs.
 M11hemnic:t- Med!1nlc:a1nd Pr0bobilhy

UNIFORM BODIES

A uniform body is made from uni form material, i .e. anygiven quanti t y of the
mate rial (measured by length. area or volume u appropriate) will haYe the ume
ma"as anyequalquanti t y o f 1he same ma1erial.
It follows that a unifo1m body will have mass equally distributed about anyline
ofsymme try:so

Fo1example,the ce111re ofgravityofa uniform rod,circular lamina,sphereetc,

lies at the cen11e of the body.The centre of grav i t yofa cy!inder (hollo w or
solid)lies at the midpoim offu axb.
We can ex1end thb argumenT to flnd the centre ofgrav i t y of some other simple
bodies.

Centre of Grnity of a Uniform Triangular Lamin1

Consider the1ri angle as beingrnade from a series ofmips wlthsides parallel

to the side BC. As each mip is uniform and is approximately a rectangle, its
ce111re ofgravi1yisati!s midpoin1.
So 1he cent reofgravit yofthetri ang]e, G, must lie onthe lincjoiningthc
midpoi n t s o f t hcscstrips: i .e . o n themedian through A
Similarly by co111idering the triangle asbeing made fmm a series of mips
parallel to AC. G also lies on the median th1ough H. Therefore
 Cmtro ofGrnity

Note. Centroid should not be ,egardcd as another term for cenue of gr31'ily,
Thc cenuoidofany body is ilsgeometric centre and depends on!yon the shape
ofthe body . When thebody i s unifom1 thecent re ofgravity i s at the centroid
butfor non•uniformbodiesthe centre ofgravi t y and centrold aJc unli kdy tu
coincide.

Centre of Gravity of Some Special Uniform Tri angular L.aminu

( I ) For a uniform iso$Celes lii angular lamina ABC, in which AB "" AC, the
ccntreofgravity is on thc lineofsy mmctry AD andis jAD from A

(2) For a uniform right -angled tri angle lamina ABC. in which angle ABC i s
°
90 . thc ccnuc ofgra,·ity i s a1 distanccs !BA and }BC fiom thcright ang.lc.
along BA and BC.

�
"�'
3) The centre of gravity of a uniform tri angular lamina ABC coinci des with
thecentreofgravi t y of 1hree par1iclesofequal ma55 placcd at the verticcsofthe
tri angle.This property canbepro,·e das follows.
\ ) Three particles A. B. C ofma:;.i; 2, 3, 4kg are at the poincs ( I , 4),
(3 ,6), (2, I ) !n the xy plane. Find 1 he coordinatcs of their cen1re o f g ravity.

2) Four particles A, B, C, D ofma:;.i; J, 5, 2. 4 kg area1 1he point1 ( 1 , 6),

(-1,5), (2,-J), (- l . -4). Find the coordinates of thci r centreof giavity.

3) Three parti cles of mas1 5, J. 7 kg are at the points A, B, C, whru;e

position,utonare i-2j, 7i + j, -Ji+ Sj. Find the posi tion,·ector of
the i r centreofmass.Find :i.Jso theposi1i on,·cctorof 1hecentroi d of 1he points
A, B, C

4) Four particlesofmass J , 2. 5 and J ks are at the points A, B, C. D

whose positionvectorsuc 2i-j, 3i + 5j, - 2i - j, i - 3j. Find:
la) the posl tion,·ector of1he cent1e ofmas1of thepartides,
(b) the position �ector of thecentroid of the poims ,\, 8, C. D.

5) A uniform lamina i s in the form ofa trape;dum A.BCD where AB and DC

are the parallel �des. Show that the cenue of gn,ity of the trapezium lies on the
linejoining the midpointsnf AB and DC.

6) Thevertice1 of a t ir angle areat thcpointl i +j. 3i - j, 2i +j. Find the

posi 1 i o n ,ec1or
· of thccentre of gr11vity of 1he triangle.a1.1umins i 1 t o be a
unifom1 bmina.

7) Showthatthc ccntre of gravi ty of a uniform !amina intheformofa

par:illelogram i�at che point of inter5ection of the diagonals.

8) By di,iding a parallelogram into two triangles 1how that the centre of gra1i1y
of a lamina in the fonn of a paraUelogram is the same point as thecentre of
g.nvity of four particles, two ofrnass m at onepairof opposi tcverticesand
two of mass 2111 at the other pair of oppoMte vertkes.

Consider a body made up from two or mure parts, each of which has a known
weightand centre of giavi ly,As the"'eight ofthe complete bodyis the resultant
oftheweights nfits parts, the princi plcof 111omentscan againhe u..,d tofind
thecenueof gravityof thebody,
 Clffl•• olGrn<lty $117

(a1w)(½a)+ (!1?w./J)(a + la./J) "' j(4+./J)a1wi

+

1(5+ 2./J)a ,. !(4+ ./J)X

X : ,\;(14+3./J)

2) A thin uniform wire is b<:111 10 fonn the two equal sides AB and AC of
triangle ABC, where AB= AC=Scm. The third side BC, of tength 6cm,
ismade from uniform wire of twice the density ofthe first.F(nd the centtc of
gravi1yofthe framcwork.

A0 .,, 4 cm (l'ythagom)

Let w be the weigh I per unit length of AB and AC so that the weight per u n i t
length o f BC is 2w.
From 1ymmetrythecen1reofgravity, U, of1hebodylieson OA, m w e will
takemo mentsahout BC.

Dody Weight x c<><>rdinotc<>f ccntrc cf 11ravity

Wire AB Sw
Wire AC

+
Wire BC J2w
Framework ABC 21w

(5w)2 + (Sw)2 + ( J2w,O = (Hw).X

Theccntre ofgravityi1 fl cm frnm BC onthelineofsymmeny OA.

 +
y .. 211

5-0 thecentrtofgravityis 211 from AB and io from AD.

4) A uniform lamina is in thefom1 ofa square ABCD ofside Ja. E is a polnt

onBC and F is a point on DC such that CE := CF c:= 11, A square FCEH ls

'r21
rtmo�'td from thclamina.Find t he«ntrc ofgravityoftheremainder.

" '
I) F

' "'·" . .
The figure is symmet ricalahout AHC so X "')' and it isrnfflcient to find
o nly one coordinate of G.
The moment of the square ECFH SJ1b1rocrtd fiom the moment of the squa,e
ABCD is equivalent to the moment of ABEHFD. Using w f 1 o the V.'tight
per unit area and 1akingmomen1 s abou1 AD (the J' axh) weha'"e:

Weight x coordi nateofcentreofgravil)'

Squue ABCD
Square FllEC

+
Remainder

Thecen!re ofgrnvity of the remainderison AH distant JJ-a from AD.

 -r
Mathematl011- Macll1nl,:s -,d Proboblllty

5) A unifonn solid is i n the formofa cy!inder o f radius 2a and height 2//

w i t h a cylindrical holc ofradius a and height II dri!lcd cc1111a!Jya1 011cplane
end,Find the ccntrc ofgr:ivity ofthe solid.

I ! . •
-C�l). - a
I

. '
I I

:"---;--
: :
I I I
I I I

J -
I --
"
I
I

'
I

I
I
I
l

From symme1ry the cenucofgravi1y of 1hc soli d lies o1J theaxis of1hecy!inder.
Thecomplcte cylinderand thecylindcr rcmoved fro m i t are simi!ar bodics so
their volumes(and thc1cfore their wcighu) are in the ra!io 8: l, (the ratio of
thecubes ofcorresponding lengths)
Let wbethc wcight oftheportion remo,ed.

lwdy Weight Distance ofcentre ofgravity from AB

Solid cylindcr ABEF 8w
Solid cylinder CDI-IL
Remainder 7w

(BwXli)-1.�!II) = (7w)X
i = lih
Therefore 1hecentre ofgravity ofthesolid lieson 1he axisa1a distance of -Ii'•
from thccndwith thcho!e i n it.
Note.This method for determining the r c btionships between the weights of
simila1bodics isquickcr than using 'wcight pcr unitvolume'and shouldbe 1.1$cd
whenever possible.

6) A uniform lamina i s in the form ofa tri3nglc ABC where AB = Ja.

D and E are poin1s on AC and BC such that DE is pana.llcl to AB and
DE =a. The portion COE Is removed.F i n d the centre of gra\ity of the
remainder.
The centre of gra1·ityof the trapezium ABED can he found bythe methods
u:ie d in Examples4 an d 5 but an interesting ahernativewillbeused 1histime.

' - - --- -
fu "

/Z�. .G.
M

fu
The line Al: divides the trapezium into two triangles, ABE and ADE, with
t h e s.ameperpendicular height.Tl1eirareasand therefore their weightsare
p1oportionaltotheir ba:ies. i.e.in 1 h e ra!io J : !.
Now uch of thesetrianglescan he replaced bythree particlesof equalweight
placed at 1hevertices.Asthe weigh1 ofoch trianglc is thusgoing tobe dividcd
by1hree, their weightswill be 1akenas 9k' and 3111 (ratio J : I )
Thccentreofgravity oft ir anglc ABE i.s t h c s,11ncasthe cc111re ofgravi tyof
1hreepar1icleseachof weight JW at A, B and E
For triangle AED weuse threeparticlcseachof weight IV at A, E and D
Now, taking h astheheight of the trapezium , we have. fium diagram (iv),
Wli+ 411'h + 4)\.\0) +3k'{0) = 12Wi
X = l,_h
Bui G lies on theline LM where L and M are the midpointsof DE and AB.
So G ison LM and is distant /,:Utt from AB.
8) A uniform l3mlna is in the form of3n is05.Celes right•ang!c d 1rianglc. The
equa.l side1of 1he triangle are of lcngth 4m andthc lamina has a "·eight W
per un!t area.Apaiticleof wcight JW isauache d to thcrigl11-anglcdvcrtcx.
F!nd the cent r e o f gravityofthc iesultingbody.

9) A uniform lamina consim of a square of Ude a with a circle of diameter a

(made fiom the same mate rial) glued on to the square 10 that a diamete r of the
circ\e coincides "'ith o11e edge of1hc square.Locate 1 he cen1reof gravityof the
lamina.

JO) A uniform lamin:;i ABCD is in the form ofa square and a uniform wire is
place d round the circumforcnce ofthcsqua1c.Loca1c1hccentrcof gravi1yof
the completebody.

The rectangular laminas illustrated in Questions I ! and 12 are uniform and part
of thclaminahas hecn foldcdback upon itself toform a sectionof double
thkkness. locate the centre ofgra\·ityin each case

II)

12)
 Con.sider a uniform lamina boundcd by the x axis,theordinatn X "' 11
x • b and a c urvewith cquation Y "'f (x).

j • /(X) (r.y>

,� ,�
eGU'.j)
U".'7)
0 "
""" ,�h " ,<•• -- :- z•h "
,1_,
The chosen elemem is a ,·crtical mip ofhcigh1 y and width 6x.
Asthesuip is approxima1ely rec1angular,1hc coordinates ofitscentreof gr;11"ily
are ( x , !y). lfthe we!ghtper unit areais w an<l theareaofthe laminais
represent e d b y A , the foUowingtable ofdatacanbe conmucted.

Coordinatesofcentrc ofgravity
Portion Weight
Element (>·6x)w !,

+
Complete lamina Aw

.fu.. .c xydx "" AX

(1• 6x)w(iy)"" Aw.I'

.r�y'dx "' Ay"

lf, for anyparliculai lamina /(x) isknown,1he ncccssary intcgrat ioncanbe

pcrfonned.
The value of A may. in wme cases, be found from a stan dard formula.

Othcrwise it c an be cvaluaicd usi ng

Sligh 1 v aria1ions in thc boundarifs ofthe lamina do no1 a1Tec1 1hc gcncral
method.
 MothefN1k:s - Medlanlcs•ndProbabHl1V

I) Find thc coordinatcs ofthc ccntre ofgravityofa uniform lamina bounded

by the axes and that put of the parabola y1 = I -x which ls in the fim
quadrant.

t.Y.y)

'� 'lli_
y1 .. 1 -x

•Gti,jl t.,,,jy)

U
-- - x•I
6.r X "' I

The cur�e cutsthe x axis where x = I so,ifthe weightper unit a,eais w,

we ha1·e

Coordinates ofcentre of gia\'ity

Porrion Weight
Element (rlix)w

+
Complete !amina

� (y lix)wx "" Aw.i

( xy dx = A.i 111

,-,
(y lix)w{!y ) ""' AwY

Jf y' dx = AY
�

121

Now A = ( y dx = ( (l -x)111 dx
.

• [ -j(l -x)�r

•l
So(!] gives

where u = l·-x

· [-!,'"+!,"{
•&
'.!
Then (2] gh·es lf = ½{ (1 -x)dx

r�·er-- rnt[I�/
S0 1hecoo1dinatu of thecentr e o f gm·ityof the l3mina a,e (f.j)

2) Find1he position of1hecentre ofgravityofa uniformsemicircular \aminaof

radiu1 .11

The element is an apprnximately rectangular strip of length 2y and .,.i dth 6:i:.
Becausc the\amina is symmetrical about Ox. G ison Ox, sowe necd onlyto
uke moments about Oy.
Using w as the weight per unh area we ha,·e:

Portion Weight x coordinates ofcentre of gravity

Element (ly lix)w

+
Semicircle Aw= !1ra1 w

Thescmicircle ispart o f a ci1cle,1adius a, centre 0, so its equation is

xl +yl = al.

So t hc centre of gravit yofa uniform semicircularlamina ison the radius of

symmet ryand distant 4a/311 from thccentre

I ) Fin d theposltionofthe centre ofgravityofa uniform lamina that is:

a) In the form of the a1ea hetween the x axis and the curve whose equation !s
y = l - x2.
b) a quadrant o f a circleofrad.ius a,
c) in the m:lpe oftheuea boonde d bythe x axis, the lines X"" I and
x = 2, and the curve y = ;,

' d) i n t he form o f t he area betweeo the yaxi.s and the parabola y1 = x + 4,

(Hint.Use a horizontalstripas elcrnent.)
e) the scctio11 of1 ci1c leof radius a, cutoff bctwccn twostraight parallcl
lines at distances of ½a and a from the cen!re ofthe circle .
 i.,.i1>1m•llco- Mech.1>k:t•nd P,.,boblli1y

'
l) Find 1he posi1iun of1he cemre ofgravi1y ofa unifo11nso!idrigh1 circular
cone ofbase radiu5 a an d heigh1 h,

'
,

-.
O
<•.01 !

,�

Refoning the cone 10 x and y axes a5 shown, we 5ee !hat the generator of the
cone i s 1 hc linewithequa1ion y = ,; x

Taking "' as 1he weigh I per uni! volume uf the cone and using a 'disc' element
ofradiu5 J' and thieknei.s ,5x, weha,�:

+
Element
Cone

I•''�
)' <, •
( ,(�

j =
i[{]: : �
So the centre ofgravity ofa unifonn solid right circular conei,on the axis of
5ymmctry, 1hree-quarter5 ofthcway from1he ver1cx t o t h e base.
 C1t11tt1 olGtnity

2) Find 1hepositi o n of the cent1e ofgravityofthe unifo rm 501id ob1aine d by

r o tating,about the x axis. the areaboundedby the x axis, the line x = 2a
and the parnbola y1 = 4ax.

Taking w as the we g i ht per unit,·olume and an element that is app1oximately

a drcular disc ofvolume 11y1,h-, weha1•e;

Weight x coo1dinate ofcent1e o fgravity

Element

r.s:·
Par.iboloid

xy2 dx = vx

This time there is no formula fo1 /I so we use /I = ll.t ny2 dx

But y2 = 4ax, so r• 4ax1 dx "' X_c 4ax dx

llence 1hecentre ofgr.1vi1yofche paraboloidison the axis of1ymme1 yr and

distant Ja from the plane face.
Note that when choosing the posi tion ofthe x and y axes within a solid of
rernlution, thesimplest eguatlon of the generating curveshould beconsidered,

Jn determining thepositionof thecentreof

gravityofa hemisphere, forinstance,
theccntreofthep!aneface5hou!d betaken as
thcorigin&0 1ha1 1he gcnerator is part of
1he circlewith equation x1 +y1 "' ,1

Findthepositio n o f 1hecemreofgravi1yofthe followi ng unlformsolidbodies.

1) A hemisphereofradiw "·

2) A frustum ofa cone formed bycutting a coneofbase radiw ,, from thetop

of a coneofbaseradim J,- and height h.(Hint.Takethevertex oftltelarge
coneas origi n.)

J) A solid sphereof radius II i s cut into two sections by a plane. Themaximum

dep1h of1hes malle1 secti o n i s Ii. Find thedi stanceof theccntre of gravityof
thesrnaller cap from its planeface.

4) A Sl'Ction is cul from a uniform solid hemisphere of radius Ja by two cuts

paral!el to i t s planeface. lfthe radii of thep!anefaces of thesectlon a1e 2a
and II find thedistanceofits centreofgravityfrom thecentre.

S) Thesolid formed byrotating,about the x axis, thearea bounded bythc

x and y axes, the line x = l and thecur\"e y = r.

Whcn a po n i o n o f a curverota1es abouta fixed line,it tracesou1 tltesurface

ofa 1hreedimcnsional object , called a surfaceof revoluti on .
Thelocation ofthecentrc1Jf gravityofa surfaceofrcvo\ution is, i n gcneral,
beyond thescopeofth.isbookbut therearetwo lmportant cues thatean b e
dealt wi1h a1 1h.is stage.Theseare:
(a) 1hesurfaceofa c1Jncwithoutbai.e , 0 1 hollowconc,fonned when a s tr.i.lght
linero1ates aboul an axis towhich it i s i nclined at an aeuteangle,
(b) 1hecurved surface ofa hemisphere,or hollow hemisphere,or hcinlspherical
$hell , formed when a circularquadrantrolates co mpletely about a boundary
,adim: .
I ) Find lhedislancefro m t h evertex ofthecentrt' Of gravit y of a uniform
hollow right circular cone.

The oonical Jurface can be divided completely in!O thin !trips, f10m venex 10
bue.Uch ttrl p is approximately a triangu br lamina.The cerllfe of gravity of
each such lamina is two thilds of theway from wrtex to bale. So the centre of
gr.tvi!y of the hollow cone must also be two thirds of the way from vertex to
baJeand,fromJymmetry,on thenis of1hecone.

2) Find thep05ition ofthecentreofgravityofa uniform hemisphe ricalshell

ofradius a.

'

·�--�--
M

-1
�
•<in�

F1om symmet yr the cenue of gravity G of the hemisphere lle,i on Oy .

lfwedi,idethehemisphereintosliccJ parolle l to itspl.:rneface 11ten cach iliceis
appro11ima1ely a circularringwitltits cen1reofg.ru·ityat il!icentre.
Thering sho11. nin !hediagram is 3pp1oximatcly a cylinder of radius acos/1 and
width ali/1 and so has a surface all'aof (2rra cos/l)(a6/I),
Let w bc1hcwcigh1pcr uni1 area ofthehemisphcrc,
 Conu• of G,..,ity

Certaln unlfonn bodies requireind.ividualmethodsfor locating theircentm

ofgravity.Thc commonc stofthesc are explained i n 1he following ex1mpk s.

EXAMPLES 15f

I) Find theposition of1heccnt1e of gravity ofa unifo1m wirebent into the

form ofan arc ofacircleofrad.ius a and subtending an angle 2a al the centre.

Letthe weight pcrunit length ofthe wirebe w.

Taking axe s a s shown, 1hc cc111re of gravity of the arc lies on Ox.
Jfwe divide 1hc wirc in1 o small arcisub1cndingan angle ,5{1 al 0, ihen each
ekmen1 of!eng1h af,l/ i s appro:,;imatcly a partic!e.

"'
Body Weight xcoordina1c ofccn1re ofgravi1y

+
Element (u .Sl/)w ucosl/
(ux 2a-)w

e �o. (awM)a c n s ll ""- (11 x 2a-xw)x

2) Findthe position of the cen1re of gra1ity ofa uniform lamin a i n theform of a
secior of a circleofrndius a subtending an angle 2a atthe cenue.

Ut wbethe weightper unit area of the !amina.

Taking axes as ilhown,the centre of gr:nity G of the sector lies on Ox
lfwe diviile 1he lamlnainto sec1 ors,then eachsector is approlllmatel y a t riangle
with cenue of g ravity G' a t a distance }a from 0.

,to
Body Weight x coordinate ofcentreofgravity
Element (fa160)w
Whole sector (�a12a)w

+ (!,'Ww)(j"o,6) > (!o'l•w).,

C J,'w,�o ao , ,•.,.,

Thepusition ofthecentre of gravityofa semi�ircu]ar laminacanbe obtaine<l

from thisrouhby 1ubstituting a == ,r/2, 1hus giving analternatj\·e mc1hod
forNo.2 in c xampks 15c.
 MlthemllH:l- Mec:hlnlcoand ProbabU!ty

Hence

The1efo1e 0G = jOD
Therefore the centre of gravity ofa unifo1m solid lellllhedrnn lies one quarter
of the way up 1 he line joining the centmid ufthebase tu the vertex
We can deduce 1hepositionofthe cen1reof gra,it y ofany unifonn$olid
pyramid from thismu!t.(The baseofa pyramid canbc any p lane figure
bounde<lby !llaigh1 1ines;the remaining faces of1hepyrami d a r e t riangula1and
meet i n a comrnon vu1e:rt )
.

lf thepyramidis divided into sectiom

parallel to theb�sc. aU suc h sectionsare
similar 50it canbe se,en tha1 1he c en1,e of
gra
,·ity G ofthepyramid lies o n t hc line
joiningthe vcrlcx V 10 0, thece,nroid
ofthebase

lfthepyramidis dlvidedinto
1e11ahedronse3chhavingthe Silme height
as thepyramid ,the cemre ofgravi t y of
eac h tetrabedron is a t a point whichis one
quarte1ofthe heig ht ofthepyramid
abo,-e the b.ise.

So t he centre ofgravi ty ofa unif ormsolid pyrami d liesonthe lincjoiningthc

vertex 10 1he cenuoid oftheb1UC.at apoint whichis onequarter ofthe kngth
ofthisllnefrom thebasc
 Conue ofGrnity

Note. As the number of sides of a pyram i d becomesi nfinitelylarge the sloping

faccs tcn d 1 0 form a curvedsurfaccand thcpyrami d becomcsa conc thus
conflrming thepositi o n o f thc ccntrc ofgravityofa w!idcone

NON-UNIFORM BODIES

The ccnt1c ofgravi1yofsomcnon•uniform bodies can b e f oundbyu!iingonc

ofthe methods a!readydescribed but thiscanbe doneonlyifwc know lhcway
1ha1 1he den!ii1yvarics.lfthis is1he case, the wcight pcr unit arca o1\'0IUme
isno longer takcn asa constanl w.

EXAMPLES 15f (c:ontin�td)

_ _ _ __ _
4) Findtheposi1 ion ofthe cemreof gra�ityofa rod AB of!cngth / where the
weight ptr unit length oftherod a t a point distant x from A is ( l + x)g.

,
,
,�
Consider a sm.111 section of the rod of length bx. This is approximatelya
particleofweight ( l +x)g6x.

Weight Di stanceof«ntre of gravityfrom Oy

,
Element ( l +x)gbx

+
� ( l +x)gbx

.C x( l +x)gdx "' x_( (I +x)gdx

, , (3+ll)
which gi
,·cs 1
6 + 31
BodiH Han,gin,g FrNlyfrom On• Poinl

Considcr a bodyfrttlyms
p cndcdat oncpoill l A on the body.

Thercaiconlytwo forcesactin g o n thebody.

the tensio n i n thetieat A and the weight
acting 1hroug h t l1ecen1reof gral'i1y G.
lfthe bodyi.s i n equilibrium undertheaction
ofthesctwo forcesthen,astheweight •cts
vertic:illy downward, the tcnsion must acl
vertically upward.Thcn. astherc isno torquc.
AG mus1be1·ertic11/.

Bodiu Rening on Plane,

Consider a body resting with iu base in contact with a smooth horll.Ontal

plane.

The f on:o acting on the body are its weight and the normal reaction forcesat
1hcpointsofcontactbe1ween thebodyand1heplanc.Thescruc1ion forcoare
ve rtical andparallel,w the resultant normal 1nction fo1cemust l>c between A
and 8, thee)(tremepointsof contact with 11leplanc.lfthebodyl.$ restingin
equilibriumthe weigh1 andthc no1mal 1eaction force must beacting ln oppo:site
senses: the1ef o1cthevertical through r h ecell/rt ufgrurir
y mustfall between A
and B.
If thevutical through G falls outside AB then the weight cause san overturning
101queabou1 A or B and the bodywill topple.
 _ _ _ __ ,, _
When the particle ii attached to R, tl1e weight of the wire am! the weight of the
partic\e are a palrofequal, like, parallel forces. S o t heir resul1ant, and hence the
centre of gravity of the composite body , ill midway between G and R.

No"" when this body is suspended from A, AG' is ,·crtical, so the inclination
of AB to the vertica! isthe ang]e BAG'.

S o AB makcs an anglc arctan 2/3rr with 1hc ve1tical.

2) A frus t u m o f a unifonnsolid right circular cone illofheiglll Ja and the

radii of the plane faces are 2a and a. The frmtum is freely suspended f1om a
point on the edge of1he smaller p!aneface anda par1icle i$attachcd to the
lowcst point oftltisfacc 1 o t h.:J t 1he gencrato11hrough thcpoint ofsuspension
is horizontal.If 11' is 1hcwcigh1 ufthe frust um lind thc weight ofthe particle
in terms of II'.
Wemust fim findthe centre ofgravit y of t hc frustum.
 M11hemali<l - ,...,_,,oni<l ondProbobiliry

The complcte coneand theconeremoved aresimila r figur eswith cor responding

lcnglhs inthe ratio 2 : 1 , so their volumes,and the1eforc wcight1, a1c inthe
ratio 8 : I .
Let Ill be t h e weight o f the cone BCD.

Body Weight Distancc ofccnue ofg1avityfrom Oy

Cone ACE 8W
Cone BCD
Frnstum

Ut w be the "·eig h t o f the partkleat D.

From the diagr3m,
tan a = ½, TS = a tana=!a and TG = lia,
so S G = TG-TS = lfa

e) (w}(2.l sina-)-(W)(-'ia cosa) "" 0

3) A unlform !amina is !n theform nfa 5quarc ABCD oflide 2 m. E i s a
point on AD ,uch th.at ED= x metre and the portion EDC is removed,
Show that, if the lamina is placed in a vertical plane with AE on a rough
horiznntal surface, i t will10ppleif x > J - ..,/3.
If x = t} and the weight urthefamina is II' find the least forcewhkhmuu
l)capp\ied to thelarnina to nop i l toppling.

If G is theccntreofgravi1yofthelamina, 1helarni nawill rest i n equilibrium in

thep0$ition 1hown ifthe•erticalthrough G falls within Al: and i t wiU topple
ahom I, ifthcline ofaction of the weight fallsoutsidc Af.. SO we must fim
find thedistanceof G from AB.
LJ!t w bethe weight perun!t arca.

Body Weight Distancc ofcentreofgravity from AB

Square ABCD
6CDE

+
Remainder (4- x)w

(4w)l - ;nv(2 - !x) = (4-x)wX

_J2 - fu:+x1
3t 4-x)
_ ., ,,_
Thefamina will topple if X > AE
J2-6.l +X1
i e..i f - -- > 1 -x
3(4-x)
x 1 - (u: + 6 <0
[x-t3+ ..,/3)) [x-t3- ..,/3)1 <0
i.c. thelamina will lopplc if x > J - ..,/3
3) ,\ chi l d 'stoycon simof:i. so!id unifo1mhemisphereorradius, and a wlid
uniform right circular cone o f b a se ,adius , and height h . Tbebase softhc two
soli dsare glued togethe1.lf the den1ityoftbe hemisphe1ei, k time1 1bn of the
cone, show th:it the dinance fromthe,·ertex of the eone t o the centreof
gravityof the toyis
k(3r'+Brh ) + 3h '
if the toyis
4(2kr+h)

(a) The t o y is su spended from apoint on the rim of the common base and 1es11
in equilibri um with theaxi1of the coneindinedat1n angle 9 lothe
downwar d vertica l.Find tan,.
(b) If /J = 2r, and the toycanrest i n equilibriumwith anypoint onthe
surface ofthe hemispher e i n contact with a ,rnooth horiwntalplane , flnd
the value of k.

4) A square lamina PQRS of Side 21 i smade of uniform thin material.When

:,_ ,cmi-circulnr piece with f'Q os di:uncter is removed from the square, s.how
20/
tha1 1hecentre of mas.s of1he �mainder of the lamina i sa t a distance
J{S-r.)
from the line PQ.
The ,ernainder of the lamina i s suspended from a light string at tached at R and
han g s in equilibrium.Show that RS i sinclined to the downward,·ertical at an
2(14-Jrr)
ll!lgle 11. where tanll = - -
3(8 -rr)

(You may quote the poSition of the centre of gra

,it y of a uniform 5emldrcular
lamina.)

S) ABCD i sa unlf or m t hin sheet ofcard ofwcigltt W and side 12a. The centre
of the caidis.thepoint r. A cut ismade along Al' and the section APB is
folded over, aloos PB. andt tuck to the section arc. Find the di�tances from
BC and CD of the cenlle of gravity of the remlting object Al'BCD.
lfthis objecthangs freelyfrom B, findthe anglebctween BC and the,·ertical,
[f a particle <lfweight kW i,nowat tache d a t A 10 that the object rests in
equilibrium with AC horizonta), find k.
4) W- Mothematlcl - Mec:Nn1..ond Pr,>i.t,llity

y • f�I
Thea,ea bounded bythecurve y =f
the x axis and theo1dina1es at O and
x, representsa umform laTTUna The:,:
coordinateof its centreof gravityis
given by:
(x),

0 ., t

(d) fxyd:c

5) A unif onn solid cone has a base radius , and height 4,. h rests with iUplane
face on an inclinedplane wltich i s roug.h enough top1even1 sliding.Thecone will
topplewhen 1heinclina1!onof theplane t o 1hehorizontalisgreater than:
° °
(a) 45 (b) arctan¼ (c) mtan¾ (d)90 (e) arctan½.

6) The centre of m as.s o f a non.uniform trianRUla.r lamina coincides with its

c entroid.

7) The ce111reofgravity oftl1reeparticles of equalweight plac ed at tbevertices

of a trianglc ,\BC coinddes wiih tbecentroidofthe triangle ABC.

8) A unif orm wi,eis bent to for111 the !.ides o f a tri:u1gle ABC . If the centre of
gra1·it y of the wi1ecoincideswiththc centroid ofthetriangle ABC, triangle
ABC must beequilatera!.

9) The c cmre of gravity of a uniform lamina in the form ofa quadrilateral

D
coincides wi1h1hecentreof gravity offourpa1tkles of equal weig.h1placed at
the�erticu ofthe quadrilaterdl.

lO) A uniforrn laminain 1hefo1m ofa

rectanglehas onewrner hent ovuas
in the diagra111. The centre of g ra vity
ofthe re1ulting la111ina lic s o n the
diagonal AC.
7) Show that the centruid ofa uniform solid hemisphe1eofradius a lsat a
distance 3a/8 from 0, thecentreoftheplaneface.
The figure below shows the central cros s-section of a casting made in the form
ofa uniformso!i d h endsphe1eofrad!us a and cemre 0, with a hemispherical
c:ivity ofradius !a and centre A. lf thissolldrestsinequilibrium withits
curoed surfacein contactwit h a horizonta! plane, find theanglemadeby OA
with the horizontal.

(U ofL)

8) Prove that the centre of gravity of a uniform tl'Wlgular lamina isthe same u
thatofthrceequalparticles placed atthevcrtice s of the lamina.
A uniform lamina of weight k' isin the shape of a quadrilateral ABCD. The
diagonals AC, BD meet at P, where AP< PC, BP< PD. and 0, R are
points on AC. BO respe ctively such that QC=Al', RD=BP. By replacing
t riangles ABO, BCD by equivalent systemsof panicles, or otherwise, p1m-e
that the "ntre of gravity of the lamina is the same u that ofa panide of weight
! w at Q and a particle ofweight J w at the midpoint of BO.
Deduce tltat the centre of gravity of the whole lamina isthe same asthat of the
t ir angle PQR. (C)

9) Show that the centre of mas.s ofa unif orm right circular solid cone of
height h i s at a distance 3h/4 from the vertex
A uniform solid spinning top has1heshapeofan invcrtcd rigl1 1 ci1cular concof
radius 3, and height 4r surmoumed by a cylinder ofbase radlus 3, and
height 6r. Find thepo sition ofthecentrc ofmassor the1pinnlngtopand
hence show that i f i t i s p!acedwith thecur\"ed suifaceofthecone on a horirontal
pl3ne. thetop will topple. ( U o f L)

10) In a uniform rectangular lamina ABCO the lengths AB and BC are 4a

and Jo respecti'l"dy and E is the point in CD such that CE = M. TI1 e
portion BCE isrcmovcd. Find thcdist anceofthe centroid o f theremalndcr
from (i)AD, (ii)AB.
When thisremainder I s fre ely ,uspcnded from the comer A , the line A M ,
where M i sthe midpoint o f BE. ! svertical. Find the value o f )... (AEB)
l l ) A heavy uniform circular disc ccntrc X and radius R has a circular hole
centre Y and radius r cut from i t . where r<R. If XY=R-r, and the
ct"ntre of gra•ityofthc c1escent-shape d !amina isat a distanct" lr fiom X,
show that R = fr.
The lamina is now suspended from a point oo tu outer rim lying on the
p ependicula
r r to XY through X. Find the angle whlch XY nuknwith the
1·ertical. If the weight ofthe crescent is II', find the unaltest weigl1t which must
N attached to the lamina to maintain XY in a noriwrua! position. (U of L)
12) A triangle ABC with /\B=BC=2a and AC=2a./2 is drawn on a
uniform lamina.A semi-circle is drawn on BC as diameter, on the opposite side
of BC horn A. and thearea endosedbythe triangleandthe scmi-circle lscut
out.The mulling bmina is suspended ficelr fiom 8. Show that AB maim an
angle tan-'(2+ in) with the vertical. A point P is taken on AD and the
triangle APC is cut off. If the ,emaining lamina hangs ,,.-iih BC vertical, find
the distanct" BI'.
[The cenue ofgravitrofa uniformscmi-circular laminaofradiu1 a ill a t a
distance J(a/lf) fromthe cent re.J (C)
13) 1'l'Ovc,by integra1ion. that the distance o(thecen1re o f mass ofa unifonn
so!id ,ight ci1cularcone,of height Ii, fromit, plane baieh h/4.
The cone is fuelyhing e d a t i t s,·cr1ex andis kep1in equilib1iu m by a light rigid
,odof length h joining the �ntre ofthebue t o a point ii,J3 dlrectlyabove
the vertex.Show that the tension in the rod i! W,JJ/4. whcie W is the weight
oFthe cone.
Find t h e n rngnicudeofthe rnction at the hinge. ( U o f L)
14) Findthecoordinatesofthc centroi d o f a uniform lamina bounded by the
curve y 2 "" x1 where y > O, thcx a:tis and the linc x =- 4. This
laminals suspended freely fro111 1he origin 0. Find, 10 1he nu1est deg1ee,the
indinatio n t o the verticalofthe x axis. (U ofL)
15) Show that the dis1anceofthe centroidofa unifonn circularsector AOB
from the centre O is (2a sin0)/30, where 28 is the angle ,\OB and II is
1 h e radius.Find the di.Hance from O of the cent,old of the segment ofwhich
AB isthe chord,given thn 8 = 11/6. Jfa unifo r m !amlna lnthe shapeof thb
1rgrnent h.tngs11 rest freely1uspended from A. show that the tangem ofthe
angle which AB makes,,: iththe do11,•n11,•a rd vertical equals
(I I -l!f,JJ)/(211 -J.,/J). (U of L)
16) PQRS is a uniform MJUare lamina of side 211 and weight w per unit area.
L is the ,nidpoint of RS and M is the point on PS di!talll j11 fiom P. The
triangu br section SLM is removed.
Find the distances of the centre of gravity of the pmtion PQRLM from PQ
and QR. This pmtion is mspended so that PR ill horizontal.by vertical
suings 3nach e d a t I' and R. Find the tensions inthe str!ngs.
17) A uniform lamina of weight Ill is in the shape of a triangle ABC with
AB = AC = 2P and the angle BAC equal to 2or. The side AB is fixed along a
diameterufa uniform solidhemisphere ofradius a , thep!Jneofthe lamina being
pl'rpe:ndicularto the na1 surface ofthe hemi1phere.The body1es1sin equilibrium
with a point ofthe curved surface ofthe hemisphcrcincontact with a horizontal
table and with BC venic�l. Show tllllt 1he weight of the hemisphere is f Wcotor.
A particle of weight W is attached to a point I' of AB where AP .., la and
the body now settles tn equilibriun1 with lhe midpoint or BC venkally above A.
Prove that tan or "' !- (C)
IS) l'ro\'C byintegration tllllt the ctntre or gra\ity o f a uniform solid right
circular cone of verticalheight lz and base radius a i s a t a distance Jh/4 from
thevertexof the cone. Such a cone isjoined 1o a uniform solid right circular
cylinder ofthe same materialandofheight h and base radius a, so that the
p!ane base of1he cone coincldeswi1h a plane face of1he cylindcr.Find the
dbt.ance ofthe centreof gravityofthe solid from the ccntre ofthe ba,e ofthe
cone.
When the solid hang$ in equUibrium from a point A on the clrumference of 1he
base of1he cone,1he line joining A 1olhe ver1ex oflhe cone is horizontal.
.
1'10•,e tllllt 4a•h ,/S andfindthe angle ofinc!inationof1he steepes1
incHnedplaneon which the solid can stand i n equllibriumon its plane face ,the
plane being surficfently roug.h io prevent slidlng. (JMB)
19) Show that lhecemre ofmus ofa unifor m solid ri ght circular cone ofheight
Ii i s a t a distanee ¼lr from itsbase.
From a unifonnwlid right ciJCular cylinder. of radius r and height h, a right
circular cone is borcdout.The basc ofthe conc eoincideswith one endofthe
cylinder andthc vcrtex O i s at thecen11e of the othcr cnd.Show tha1 the eentre
oftn:1$.S oflhe remainde i o f thc cylinder i s a 1 a distance Jh/8 from 0
The bored•out cylinder i s placed with O uppermost oo a horizootal plane which
isroughenoughto prevem s.Jipping ; the plane isthengraduallytilted.Show tlm
the cylinder topples whenthe inclinatlon ofthe plane tothe horiwn tal excteds
tan-1 (8r/Sh). (JMB)
20) l'rove 1ha11hc centroidofa unifom1 s0Udhemisphercof radius a i s a t a
distance 'Ja/8 from 0 , the cenue ofits planc face.
The hemisphere i s suspended bytwo vertical strings, one fastened at O and the
other at a point P on therimof the plane face.Giventhat the tcnsionin ooe
stringisthree1imes1he tcnsion inthe other s11ing, find the two possiblevalues
of the tangent of the angle made by OP with the horizontal. (U ofL)
21) A uniform lamin a i s bounded bythat part of the parabola y 1 = 4ax,
,i > O, which lies in 1hc fim quadrant. b y the axis y =O of the parabola
and by the line x = ,i. Find the coo1dina1es of1he ccnuoid ofthe !amln1.
This !amin.r is suspended freely from the veitex of the parabola. Find the tangent
ofthe ang]e ofinclinationto lheverticalofthe axis ofthe parabola. ( U o f L)
 CHAPTER 1 6

PROBLEMS INVOLVING RIGID

BODIES
EOUILIBRIUM O F RIGID BODIES

The1c are several general considerations which are i mportant when solving
problems concemed wit h a rigi d bodywhi ch i s i n cquilibrium under lhco11:tion
ofa se1 ofcoplanu forc1:s.Thee1e ha,·e all bN'n explained in previous chaptcrs
,md a i;ummary of tl1e main poinu is se1 out bi,Jow.
l) When a body is in equi libriu m undertheac1ionofthree forces, 1he linnof
aclion of !he forces are concurrent. Useful mc1hods for calcu lating unknown
forces are l,ami's Theorem •nd the T,ianglc of Fo"es. When determi ning
angle s t he cotangent rule for a tri angle canbe useful(sup. S46).
2) Whe11a body i s i n cquilibrium 11nder t hc ac1ion ofmore 1han 1 hree forces,
only thrcc i ndepcndent equations can bc found byv:irious combinalionsof
1es0Mng andtaking mumen 1sfor 1he forces actingonthat body.lf more than
three equations a,e needed they mu'.il come from other sources, such as the
mtnsurntionofthc figurc, llookc's law,c1c
3) The choice of axes about which moments are taken, or the direction in which
furces arc rew!ved. Would be made with the following considera1ions in mind
(a) tokeep the numberof unknown<juan1ltie1 inany onec<jW1t!on down 10
a minimum,
(b) toelimin3te asmanyas possibleofthe unknownquan t i ties that are not
required.
4) ln prob cl m1 i nvolvingfrictional forces,whenequi!i brium i1abou1 1obe
broken by slipping, f1iction i s limi1ing a t all pointsof conuc t at whkh
�Upping i s about to occur
S) lfequilibrium i!i about to b e brokcnby toppling thc normal reac1ion force
be1wecn 1heobjects in contactacts through thepoint(orlinc)abou1 which
the body "· i ll topple
C oungen1 Rulo:for , Tri1ngle

Thegcncralcotangcnt rulc U given onp.ix.

l t becornesparticul ulyusefulwhen as is the ea� in O.ABC when D

/h
bisects AC.

Then 2cot8 = coto--cot/J ,\ U C

I) A rod AB of length I has it s centreof gravitya t apoint G where

A G = J/. The rod rests in equilibrium !n a verticalp al neat an angle /J to
thehori1.ontal. with its endsin contac t with two inclincdp!ancswhosclineof
intcrsect!on lspcrpendkulu to the rod.
lf theplanes uesmoothand arecqually indinedatan anglc a to the
horizontalslmw that 2 ta n o tan /J = l.

As the planes arc 1.mooth the fmces acting on therod ue the normal rcaction:i
at A and B and the weight at G. As only three for�s act on the rod, they
must beconcurrcntat thcpoint marked 0 .
°
J n t.OAB. BOG - a , AOG•o, 0GA • 9 0 - j3
Using thc cotangent rulc on this trianglegi•·es
°
)lcot o- - il coto = ( ¾ + ¼ )l co t (90 - J3 )
i c o t o = 1an1J
Therefore 2tano-tan/J = I
2) A ladde r whose centreof gravit yis a t a point oft risection leans in a vertical
p!ancwith oneendon roughhorizontal ground and the other end against a
roughverticalwall such t h a t t h e cenue ofgravityofthe ladder isnearer tothe
wall. lfthe coefficient offriction at each point ofcontact is µ and the ladder is
o n t h c polnt ofsllpplngwhen it ili inclined at an angle 8 to thc vcrtical prove
!hat
3µ
tan8 = -2
2-µ

When the ladder isonthe poi111 of slipping, thc end B will tend to slip away
from the wall so the total reaction R at B makes an angle A. where µ = tan A ,
with the normal reaction at B as shown in the diagram, The end A will tend t o
!Jide down the wall s o t h e total reaction S a t A makes an angle ). with the
nonnal reaction at the wall as shown in the dfagram.
Consi dering the total 1eactions at A and B. the ladder i s i n equilibrium under
theactionof three forcesonlyso theseforce-smust be concurrent, say u 0.
Now in triangle AOB, G divides AB in the ratio I : 2 and we can use the
cotangent rule inthls t rianglegiving
°
(2+1)cot8 = 2co1 A - co1(90 -A)
2
J c o t 0 "" - -µ
µ
3µ
tan0 =
2_/Ji
 Matllemedco -,.....,•nlCl•ncl Ptobabllltv

3) A uniform cylinder of radi� a and weighI W rel\l in equilib,ium between

°
two rough planes which a r e bol h inclined at 30 10 the horizontal.The axis of
the cylinder isp uallel to the linejoining lhe two p bnes and 1he coefncient of
friction at thepoints ofcontactwith bothplanes is !, Find lhepcalest coup!e
that canbeapplicdto thecylinder wi1hout makingit rotateaboutits axls.

tf a torque C is applicdto the cylinder , a n d frictionislimiling,then

° ° °
Rsin30 -)Rcos30 -jScos30 -Ssin30° = 0 [I]
° ° °
!Rsln30 +Rcos30 +Scos30 -jSsin30°- W = o 1 2]
lf thecylinder is 11 0 1 1o rota1eaboul itsaxis then

'Q C-)Sa- \Ra ,,;;;; O ,,. 2C ..; (R + S)a [3]

SlmpUfying [1] and [2] we have
2(R-S)-V3(R +S) = 0
(R-S)+ 2,/3(R +S) = 4 W
Hence (R+S) = fi ll'J3
Thcn in equation !JJ
Thereforethegreate1n possiblecouple is Jl kla,,/3,
 P1obltm1ln••0Mn9 Riglcl8odleo

Nole. ltls alwayswlseto assemble 11/l lht tq11a1fo nswhlch are tobt used before
beginning their solution. The form of equation [3] suggests that (R +S) be
found from equations [I] and (2) r11the1 t han R and S sepamely.In pract ice
this ls a muchshorter procrn.
4) A uniform solidhcmisphereofradius a rests with its curvcd surfacein
contact with a vertical wall.The hcmbphere b wpported by a light inextensible
string of length a, oneendofwhich isfixed t o t h c wall andthe othcrend to tl1e
highest pointofthe planc faceofthc hcmispherc.lfthche misphere \1on the
point of,J.Jpping downthewal\ when itsplanefacei1 inclinedat arctan; to the

'
horizontal find the coefficiern of friction between the hemispher� and the wall.

'

"
Let a bethe inclinatlon ofthcming tothe wall.
From the diagnm ,..-e see thn SA + QO "' PO=a
asino:+acos0 = a
 Mnhem11i01- Mecheni<1end Probebllilv

ln this problem 1he tensi on, T, lnthe string!s notaskcdfor so , if wc ,

a ·oid
int roducing it intoour so!ution ,only twocquations will be neededto dctermlnc
the other two unknownquamitics, µ and R.
T can be avoided if we take moments about axesthrough A and C.

'c' W(a - jasinO)-R(acosa +asinO) = 0 [\[

µRasina-RasinO+ W(acosO-jasinO)= 0 [2[

All trig ratios f or a and O are known so

[ \ ] becomes ,
7W = 2R( J21 +4)

[2] becomes 3W = 2R(4-2µ)

3 4 -2µ
Hence =
7 . /2
, 1+4

16-3./21
µ • - ~ ~
1,

Sllding ,ndOvert uming

Certa!n typesof problems concerning a rigid bodyinvolve a variablequ1ntl!y

(such as a forceorthe indination of a plane) which,as it incrcases,willcventually
reach a point wlme it distu1bs the equilibrium of the body.This equilibrium can
be broken eitherby5lidingor byovert uming.
lnordcrto dctcrmine the manner !nwhich equilibrium i s b rokcn, each of thc5e
possibilitiesls considered separatelyandthe results compared.

EXAMPLE8 16a (contlnu.c!I

5) Aunif ormsolid cubeofside 2a rest s i n rough contact with a horizontal

plane ,the cocfficient offrictlonbeing J. A graduallyincreasingforce, P, is
appliedat the midpointofonctop cdgc,perpcndkularto the vcrtlcalface.
Determine how the equilibrium will be broken .
 Problomo lmol,lntFlitid Bodla

lfthe cubebcgins t o s!ide, i t will beabout to do$0 when ,fromdiilgrarn(l),

P1 "' µR am! R "' W
P1 = i W Ill
(Thelinc ofactionof R i s not known i n this casc.)

-i-i"1
�
Jf,onthc otherhand, thc cubebegins to overtum ,it wll l rotalcabout 1heedgc
through C in diagram (ii).So the nmma l contact force, R, acu th1ough this
edge.
Taking momenls about this edge in diagram (ii) gi>·es
1aP1 "' aW
P1 ,"' f W 121
[ I I a n d [2] show that P1 <P,
So.as P i ncreasr;<s, thevalueof P, i s reachedbefoie thevalueof P1 can be
reached.
Hcnceequi li b1lum i s brokcn by1Hding
6) A uniform so!id cylinder of radius II and height 311 is placed with one plane
faccin contac1 wi1h a rough inclincd p!ane.The incllnation of1he plane is
slowly incrcase<.l.Showthat equiUl:nium willbebrokcnbysliding if µ < }

ln diagram (i),1he inclinalion ofthc planc10 1hchorizo111al i s 61 and equilibrium

is about tobebrokenby sliding.
Rcsolving perpcndiculartothc planegives
R - W cosO, ., 0
rcsol,ing parallcl t o t h e plane gi.-cs
µR - Wsln8, = 0
µ = tan81

ln diagram(ii)thcplancis inclined to theho rizontal at an anglc 01 and

equilibrium is about to bcbrokcnby ovcrtuming.Sothe line ofactionof Ii'
passes th rough A
Therefore
Jfslidlngisto occurbeforeover1urniog, 91 < 8,
 Problemoln•oloin9R'9id 8od1"

!) A uniform rod rests in equilibrium with one end against a smooth ,�rtical
°
wall .indtheothcrendag;iinst a smoothplanc inclined at 30 to the horizontal
Find the lnclina tion ofthe ro d t o the horizonrnl.

2) A uniform ladder rem with one end againu a rough wall and the other end
°
on rough horizontalg1ound. When the ladde1i1lnclinedat 30 m t he vertkal it
ison thepoint of slipping.Thc coefficicnt offriction bctwc-en t h e la dderand
1 h e wall andthe ladderand thc groundi1 µ. Find thtvalueof µ.

3) A smooth hemispherical bowl of radius a is fixed with its rim uppermost and
horizontal. A s mooth unifor m r o d o f length 2/ (l>a) rest1 wi1 honeend
inside the bowland leaningon the rim.Find thc lengthoftherod that overhanp
the bowl

4) A uniform cylinder of weight W rests with its axis horizon ta! and its cu,ved
surfacc in contactwithu rough ,·ertical wallandwitha roughplarie incliricdat
°
45 1 o thc horizontal. The coeffiden1 offrictionhetwcen the cylinderand 1 he
W-dll and1he cylindcran d t heplane is µ. lf thc1adius ofthe cyllnder is <1. find
in terms o f a . µ and II' thegreatestcouple t hat willnot rorn te the cy!inder.

5) A uniform solidcone ofbase radius 4 and height 2a i1placcdwith itsplane

surface incontact witha rough plane whichis initiallyhorizontal.The coefficient
of friction between the cone and theplane ili l Determine how equilibrium
will be broken If:
(a) the plane is gradually tilted loO th�t its indination to the horizontal increases
s!owly,
(b) theplane is kept horiiontal butagraduallyincreasing horizont a l f orce is
applied to thcconc half•wayup iuheight.

6) A unif onnsphereof radius a restsag aimt a•ertical waU suppor1 c d b y a

itrlngoflcngth 2a fixe d toapoin1 ofits surface andtoapointofthc wall.
(a) Jfthc wall is,moothfind the incl!nJtionofthe stringto the vcrtlcal,
(b) Jfthe wall is roughandthe1phcre ison thepoint ofslidingdown thc wall
°
when the mingislndlncda1 30 101he venical, find the coefficient of
friction between the sphere and the wall

7) A uniform la mina in lhc form of a semicircle of radius 4 1es1s in a \'Crtical

plarie with its cu1ved edge in contact with a smooth .-crtical wall and rough
horizonul ground.lfthe cocflicicnt of friction betwecri thc lamina andthe
ground is ! fin d 1 he inclina1 ion of i t s s 1 raight edge t o thehorizontal whe n i t is
on thepoint ofMipping
 Math•motics - M«,h..,ic:,; •nd Proti.bl!lty

EQUILIBRIUM OF BOOIES IN CONTACT

Whc11 two 01 morebodies in contact are in equilibrium under the action of a

M't ofcoplanaiforccs,the complet e system is i n equilibrium undcr 1hcactionof
the externalforces and each scpantebody isin equilibrium under the actionof
the forces actingon thatbody(thesewi\l include contacl forceswith other
bodies). 1fthe system ismadeupof twobodks,cachbodylm th1ee degrees of
freedom w six indcpendent equa1ions maybe derive d for 1hesystem.The
equiliblium eithe1ofthe indMdualbodies orof the system as a whole maybe
comidcrcd when reso1'-ing 01 taking moments to form these six equations.
It mus\be remembered that six is the maxi m um number of independent equations
but that many probkms c anbe so lvedbyusing fewer than six.This occurs when
some uf the unknown quantities are not ,equlred and in this case their
ill!roduction intoanyequation shouldbe avoidcd ifthisis possibk.Carcful
choice of axes when taking moments, and direction when resolving. helps to
keep the number of unknown quantities (and the1efore equations) to a minimum.
l f thereare mo1e than twobodies in contact.the number of indcpendent
equation!i i s t luec times the number ofbodies in the sy$temand 1hese equatlons
tlnbe formedbyconsidering the equilibriumof individualbodiesorof two
bodies orofanynumber ofbodies,but thc gcncral principles mentione d above
are importan1 so 1ha1 the number of cquatiom l!i always kept to a minimum.

1) A uniform rod of length 2a and weight W rem at an angle of 60° to the

horiwnt�l w i t h onc endhinge d t o a horiw111alplane and resting on a cylinde1of
mlius a and weight W which Is itself resting on the horizomal plane.The axis
ofthe cylindcris perpcndicular to 1he vcrtical planecontainingthe rod.The
contactsbetween 1he 10d andthe cylinder andbetween thecylinder and the
ground a1t mugh. Find the ratio of the f ir ctional force to the nonnal reaction
f01ce at each pointofcontac1

Diagram (i),howsthc
fo1ces 1cting onthe
complete system.
 Probi..... 1 mot.ing Rigid 8odln

Diagram (i!) showsseparatelythe forcesactlngontherodand 1he forccsacting

on the cylinder.
(Nole thatthe conuctforcesbetw« n r o d a n d cy!indcr are equa l a n d oppositc )
.

IF C isthcpolntofcontactoftherodwith 1he cylindcr

°
then A C = atan60
= a,/3 = AD

";;:. fo1complctc systcm lt.\i cos60" + Wa,/3-Ra,/3 • 0 111

? f01thc cylindcronly (h'-R)a sin60° +- Fa,/3sln60° = 0 (2]

[ ! ] gives

Then 12) gives

D' for!hccylinder only Saiin60"- F,a../3 1in60° '"' 0 (JJ

TI1erefore F,:S = l : ,/3

Nore. By choosing to take momcnu about axes through A, C and D, we

avoided Introducing X and Y altogether and also kept the num�r of forcn
in each cquation 1 o a mlnimum
2) A uniform 10d AB of length 2/ and weight 2W rests w!th the end A on
Q
10 ugh ground.The rod issupporttd atan angleor 45 tothe hol'Uontal by a
string of length / attached co the end B. A small ring of weight W isauached
to thcother endofthe string and the ring isfree to s!ide on a mugh horizontal
•vire.The rodand t he w ire are bothin the�mevcrtical plane. and the coefficient
offlictlonbetween 1he1o d an d theg10und andbetween the ringand thewire
is !, Thcwire isat a hcight h abovc the ground.Find1he two possib le value s
of h forthe system tobein limiting equilibrium.

This i s an example of a ty� of problem in which there are two pouible

gcometric conflgurations, e ac h leading1o slightly diffcrcntforcc sys1emswhich
must be analysed individually.
Diagr.11ns(i) and(ii ) show t h e t wo pos1ible positlons ofthe 1tring relath·e to the
rod.ln each posi1ion.reso!ving tl1eforcesacting onthe systemho rizontally
shows tha11he frictional fo1ceacting ontheroda1 A is equal to the frictional
forceacting ontheringat C.
First comidcr the positionshownin di:lgram (i)
Forthcsystcmasnwhole,resolvingvertica!ly gives
S,+R,-JW "' 0 (II
Forlhering alone, taking momentsabout B (to avoid introducing T,) gives
Wfsina + F1 /cosa-R,l slna = 0
(R,-W)tana = F, 121
For thcrod alone, takingmoments about B gh·es
° ° °
21t..7cos 45 + 21F1 cos45 -2LS'1 cos45 • 0
W +F, = S, (J]
Solving equations [ I ] , (2] and [3] gives

W(tana+2)
Ri =
t an a + l
k'tana
F, = -­
tan« + l
k'(2 tan« + l )
S1 = -- -
1an « + l
Now fo, equilibrium there must be no slipping either a1 A or at C

This is always true, so slippiug cannot occur at A wha1eve1 the value of a.

N o s lipping111 C

• tana ..: 2

So the system in position (i) is in limiting equilibrium when tan« = 2 and

1hering i s o n thepoint of slipping.
ln this ca!ll' /1 = 2/sin45° + 1 cosa

When weconsider the position shown in diagram (ii) ii is dear that the same
approachshouldbemade, 1esu!!inginsimilarequations.Theseequations are
Si + Ri - 3 W = 0 flaJ

(R1- W)1ana = F, [2aJ

W-F1 = S, [Ja]
So ,for no iJipping at C,

and, for no !.lippingat A,

n
�� !:n a ,;;; j • un a ,;;; i
l
Limiting friction U therefore reached at A before it can be reached at C, w
this time the system is in limiting equilibrium when tan o = l and therod is
about to slip
ln this casc II .. l ,,/2+ 41/,,/17 :c 1',,1( 1 7,,/2+4,,/17)

EXEACISE 16b

1) A uniform rod AB o f kngth J/ i5 freely hinged to level g1ound at A. The

rodrestslncUned al anang!eof 30° to theground renlng •galnsta unlform
solidcubeof cdgc I. Conuct be1wcen 1hc 1od andcubeissmoo1h and contact
between thecubeand theg ioundi1 rnugh. Findthercactionbetwcen therod
andcube ;;mdthe coeffic!ent of frictlon between thecubeandthe ground ifthe
cubc i s o n t h c point of slipping.Thcwcight of thc cubc is twicc thc wcight of
the rod.
2) A unifonn plank AB of length 4! and weight W rem with one end on
lcvcl groundand lcansagalnst a cyllnder of radius / such 1hat 1hepoint of
contact between the plank and cy!indc, is distant JI from A. The cylinder ls
uniform and ofweight W and rests on theground with itsaxis perpendicular
to thever tk:tl planccontaining the plank.Find the frictional forceat eachpoint
of contact and if µ isthc codflcicnt of friction a t each point of contact show
that for equilibriurn t o be pouible µ > /.-
3 ) A u niform sphereof 1adius a and weigh t W has a light ine!a5tic uringof
length a allached to a polnt onitscircumference.Theo1her end ofthestring
has a small ringof wcight W attachcd to it and the ring bfreeto slide on a
roug.h horizontal wire.Thesphcre hangs below thewireanda hori1.ontalforceis
applied to thesphere at a point level with !u ccn1rc.The line of action of the
forcc, !hc stringand thecentreof thesphcrearca!lin thesamevertical planc.lf
the coefflcient of friction between the ring and wire Is \ find the maximum
fo1cethatcanbeapplied t o t hesphcrowithout upsc t t ing cquilibrium.Find also
1heindina1ion of the1tringto 1hc verticalwhen thcringis aboutto slidealong
the wire.
 Ptobllm1lnvohin1Ri11id8odt.

4) Twouniforrn spheres ofr.1dius II and weight W rest on roughhori.iontal

ground with thelrcent rcs distant 2..,/2D apart.A third sphcie ofradius a and
weight IV isbalanced ontop of1he o1her 1 wo spheres such1h1tthc cen11esof
all th1ce sphcret lic in the samc •·ertical p!ane. Jfthe coefficient offriction, J.1,
is the same al all points of contact. find the minimum value of µ if equilibrium
is to be maintained

CONNECTED BODIES

When two bodies are connected by a smooth 1igl11 hinge, which offers no
resistance 10 their relative rotation, thebodie� arc said tobe fre ley jo ni red.
Ifthesystemisin cquilibrium, thc
forccs acting onthe hingc arcin equi­
librium . Unlcss ancxtema l forcc acts
at the hingc. thconly forca affecting
it arcthe reactions which thetwo
join1ed bodies exert on each o1her.
For equi\ib rium these forces are
equaland opposite andso canbe
treated inthe same wayas contact
fo1ces
(if lhereisalsoan external force acting
at the hinge howe,w . l he internal
forccs arc1101 equal and oppo,i1c.)

Because1he directions ofhinge forces areusually unknuwn i1is most convenicnt

to show these forces in component form as shown in the di�gram.
 " l1
'"'
I) Two uniform rods AB and B C ofequal length but ofwcights W and 3W
a re flec\yjointcdtog e t h e r at B. The rodsstand i n a v e rtical plane with the e nds
A and C on rough ho ir iontalg round.lfone rod i s o n t h e point ofslipping
whcn they are inc!incdat 60" t o cach othcr f i n d t h e cocfficicnt offriction µ
bc1wttn the rod s andthe g1ound, µ bcingthc samc at both pointsof conta,t.
Find alw the re a.tion at the hinge B w h e n thc rods;ire ln thlsposition.

�·
"
' " "' '" '
.F f.

lt is clea,,from rcmlving horiiontallyforthc wholc syst em.1hat1hc frictional

forces at A and C a re equal and opposite
Considcringthcwho cl sys1cm
° °
5(4/cos60 )-JW(Jl,os60 )- W(l �os60") "' 0
s= Jw [I[
R(4/cos 60")- W(Jlcos60 )-JW(lcos60 ) = 0
° °
'C'
R .. jW [2[
Comide ringrnd AB atone
° ° °
F(2/sin60 ) + W(l cos60 ) - R(2Jcos60 ) = 0
F .. �Wy'J [ 3[
Forno slipping•1 the e nd A.

Forno slipping it thc cnd C.

W h e n t h e frictional fo1ce re ••he1 the value lµW. slipping isabout to occur

at A but llmi1ingfiictio11hasnot ye t be e n reached at C.
 MoU,...,.tle1 - Mod,.,le1 1nclPrDti.billty

I) Two unif onn rods AB and BC of equalweight II' but oflengths II and
2a are freely jointed together at B . The1odsstand in a vertical plane with their
°
ends A and C on rough horh:ontal ground. such lhal !he angle A B C .,, 90 .
If one of 1he rods Is i n limiting equilib r i um f i n d the minimum value of the
coefficient offrictionbctween therods andthegrnund.i tbeing thcs.ame for
both rods.Find also the react i o n a t thehi nge.
2) Two uniform rods AB and BC each of length I and weight W are f1cdy
jointed together at B. Therods rest !n a verti calplane11,ith A 11gairut a smooth
vntk.il wall and C standing on rough horizontalground.The coeff i c ient of
fri c t i o n lmwccn thecnd C and thegroundls ½- Findthe anglebetwecnthc
rods when lhey are restlng in limilingequilib rium.
3) Three uni form rods each of length 11 and weigh! W are freely jointed
together to form a triangle.The framework is freely suspended from one vertex .
Find thereacti ons at thecnds ofthehod1.ontal1od.
4) Four unif orm rods of equal lengt h I and weight kl a,c freely jointed to form
a framework ABCD. Thejoints A and C arc connec1edby a light elastk
m!ng of natural length a. The framework ls freely suspended from A and
takcsup theshape of a squ!lle.Find themodolus ofclastkity ofthc string
5) Twouniform rods AR and BC oflcngths I and 2J a n d o f wcig.bts W
and 2W arc freely jointed together at B. The rods rest i n a vertical plane with BC
horizontal and resting on a rough peg at a point which is distant fl from B.
The end A oftberod AB 1ests o n a ro11gh horizontalplane1uch that the anglc
°
ABC is 120 . The coeff i c ient of friction between BC ,m d the peg and
bet 1,:een A and the giound is µ. Find theminimum value of µ fm equilibrium
tobe pos.siblc.
6) Three uniform rods AB,BC,CA ofequal length " and weight IV are freely
joi n1ed together to form a triangle ABC. The framework rests in a vertical
plane on smooth supports at A and C so that AC is horiz.ontal and B is
above AC.A mau ofweiglll W is attachtd to a point D on AB where
AD = a/3. F i n d the,eactionbetween therods AB and BC.

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE 16
I ) A uni form ladder of weight W rests with one end on rough horiz.ontal
ground and with the other end against a smooth �rtical wall.The ladder is at
an angle m1-1 2 10 1hegroun d an d is i n a vertical p!aneperpcn diculartothc
wall. Thecoeff d i entoffricti onbetween the la dder and thegroun d is }. Find
how far up the ]ad de, a boy of weight 2W can climb without disturbing
eqt1i libriu111.Findabothc lcasthorizontal f o1cewhich mustbe appli c d t o tbc
font ofthefoddcr to enabfo theboyto climbto tbetopoftheladder without
it slipping. (AEB)
2) A unifonn rod AB of length 2/ and weight W Is in llmhlng equilibrium
°
at �n angleof 45 t o t h e horizontalwithits cnd A on a rough horiwntal
planeand with a polnt C in!Ulengt h against a hortwntal rail.This rall isat
right angle1 t o t h evcrlical planecontalning AD. The coefficient of frtction
betwttn the1od1ndth eplaneis j andbetween the1od and t hc 1ailis· !.
Calculate
(a) the magnitudeand di�etio n o f t h c rcsu!tam rcactionat A,
(b) thelengt h AC. (AEB)

J) A un ifonn cylinder of radiu1 a and weight W rem with its curved surface
°
in contact with two fixed planes,uch of which is inclincd a1 45 t o thc
horizonta\, thelineof inter1ec1ion oftheplanesbeing horizonta!and pa1allel to
thcui1 of thccylinder.A coupleisapplied to the cyllnder in a plancperpcn­
dicufar 10 its axls. l f t h e angleoffrictionbetwccn thc cylindcrandeach p]aneis
!S" show thatthe cylinder wi!l rotateifthernonu. •nt ofthe coupleexcttds
k'a/(2../2). (U ofL)

4 ) Two points, A, B on a horizontal ceiling arc at a distance 1.:r apart. A

uniform rod CD of!ength a and weight W is suspended from A and B by
two light strings AC, OD. A p uticlc of weight j W is attached to Ulc rod al D,
andt hesystcrn hangs i n cquilibriumwith therod horizonlaland ACfnclfoed at
an angle ;uctanj to thehorizontal.Provethat therod isat a di!itance ta
belo"· thecciling.andfindthe inclinatlonof BO. lfboth strings areelasticand
of nalUrallength Ja, find the modu!usof cach strin1: i n t e1msof W. (C)

S) A heavy thin rod AD of length I canbemadc tobalancc across a small

smooth peg C when a weight 2111 is suspended from A. Ahernath·cly,lt can
bemade tobalanceacross thepcgwith a weight 3W suspended from B. l f t h e
distance A C inthc fi!lt caseis thc 53JT!eas thedisunce B C i nt h e second.
show that the di11ance of the centre of gra•ity of the rod from A liesbetween
jl and p. lfthe1wo equal distances abo1·eareeach ¼I andiftheweigh11 2111
and 3111 aresuspended f1om A and B respcctivc]y. find thedistancefiom A
to 1hepeg wben the1odbalances. (Uof L)

6) A uniform block in the form of a cube standi on a plane inclined at an

angle et 1othchorizontal insuchawaythatfourof iuedges areparalle! t o theline
ofgreatcst 1lope.Agradually !ncreasing horizontalforcci1 applicd l o t h c uppermost
edge oftheblockat righ1 ang]es to!t andina vcrtica! plane1hrough the ccmre
of m3$S of theblock. In the direction which would tend to move theblock down
theplane.lf µ (> tano) is thecoefficientof frictionbetween the block and
theplane,s.howtlwt thcblock will tilt without sliding providc d 1 hat
2 tan1 a + tano+l
µ > - tan1 - - . (O)
a + tana+2
 Mothtrnotl<>1 -Med!.,,lcland l'ro-llty

7)

A uniform cube of weight W is placed .ii shown in the figu,c on a rough plane
ofinclination Q (<J). the ccntre ofthemns ofthecubclyingin theplane
ABCD andthccdgcs perpendicular t o t h i s plancbeing horiz.ontal.lfthc
cocfficient of frictionbctweenthe cubean d theplancis µ show that the cube
cannot remain in CQU!llbrium unless µ :> tan a
If tano-" 1/2. µ ,:,, 2/J and a horizontal force P, stcadily incrcuingin
magnitudefrom zcro isapplicdat D (acting from lcft to right and withitslineof
action lying in !lie plane ABCD) show that cquilib1ium will be b10ken by the
cubc rnming abou1 thcedgc through B beforcit slidc1 u p t h c plane. (U ofL)
8) A roughhca,·y unif ormsphcrc of radius a and ccnuc C rests in contact
with a horizontal 11001 at D. A uniform rod AB of length 2b and wtight W
issmoothly hingc d at A to i flxedpointon thefloor an d resu o n t h e sphere,
touching it at E. Therodis indined at an ang]c 28 tothc horil.ontal(with
2b>acot8) a n d i s i n t h e verticalplane ACD. l f thecontacts at D and E
are rough enough t o prevent slipping. pro,·e that the mutua! action andrcaction
at E act i n t h c linc ED andare cach ofmagnitudc Wb sin0(1-tan10)/a.
Thcangleof fric1io11 at both D and E is A.Pro, · e that if A > ll thefriction
isnot l1miting a1cithcr contact but that if A "' ll then thefrictionis !irniting
at E a11d not a1 D. (JMB)
9) A uniformsphcrcofradius a. centre O andm= M rcstso11 a rough
huriiont al p!ane . A uniform ,od AB of lcngth 2a and abo of mu.s M reus
with its end A on the plane and with a polnt C of the 1od in coma,t with the
sphere.The poims C. 0 and A �re in 1hc IM!mc vertical plane and AB makes
G
ananglc of 60 1,,ith thc hodzuntal.
(a) Show that the magnitlldeofthe fri�tional force isthc !>ame at a!l th1ee
poims ofcontact.
(b) Find the normal reaction between the rod and thc spher�.
 Prob.....oln...,lwing RigidBodiH

(c) Thecocfficient o ffric1 i o n µ isthe s.arne at allth,eepo ints o fco ntactand

friction islimiti ngat o ne o f 1hcm. Sho w that it must beat t he p o int o f
c o ntactbctwcen 1 h e ro<l and thesphere and Ond µ.

In the di:igram, AB is a unifo rm ladder o f length 2a and weight W , and

G is the centre o f n1ass o f the ladder. The ladder is resting against a rixtd
cylindrical r o llerwith drcu!arcro ss-sec1io n "·h ose uis ispe1pendicul.ar 101he
vertical plane co ntaining AB. The J3ddc1 isindincd at an angle j11 t o the
h o r i:wntal.Thc po int o fcontact X o fthc !addcr with thero ller i s a t a distance
�a fro m the end A and the co ntact at X is smoo th.Show that, in order that
cqu!!ibriurn � maintaincd in thispo sitio n,the cocfficicnt o f friction µ a t B
mU.Jt no t be le ss than ½-
A man o f-...·ciglit W uandsat X and then starts ""alking i!owly up the ladder.
Sho w that if µ = fl the ladder is o n the point o f slipping when he has moved
•••m � � �

11) A unif orm r o d AB o f weigl1t Ill and length 2a is freely hinged at A t o a

fixed po int o n a ro ughhorilo ntal tablc. A uniform 10ugh sphcre o f radius a and
weight W./3 rests o n 1he 1ablc.Tbc r o d lcansagains1 1hc sphc1c so 1hat thcpoin1
o f co ntact isat a d!stancc a./3 frnm A and so 1 hat the r o d andtheccntre o f
the sphcrc lic in a vcrtical planc.Sh o w that thc frictio nal foice between t h e r o d
and t h e sphere i s !W. lf1he co cfficicnt o f frictlo n at each po int o f co ntact is µ
find 1hc smallen value o f µ which makes equilibrium po ssible (C)

! 2) Two equal uniform planks AB, CD have their lo wer ends B, D o n ro ugh
horizont:ilgro und and thcir uppcr cnds A. C rcs1ingagains1 one another.A
third equ:il plank is n o w insertcdbctwccn A and C and isheld inavertical
po sitio n ,n o 1 1 uuchlng thegro und,by fric1 io n a1 A and C. The c o efficient o f
friction at A and C is µ, that at B and O is µ' , and AB, CD a,e inclined
to the horizontal at an angle 8. Find, in terms o f µ and µ' the limitsbetween
which tan 8 must lie. Deduce that equllib rium in thi1posi t i o n is po ssible o nly
if µµ'� 1/3. (JMII)
13) A uniformrodofweight 411' and length 2a ls mainbincd in a hodzon\:IJ
positionbytwolightinextcnsiblc strings each of lcngth a attached to the.ends
ofihcrod. The oihcr endsofthestringsare .it1achcd to small ri ngs each of
weight W which c:m slide on a f u<cd rough horizontal b u with which the
cocfficicnts offriction arccach ½- Show that in equilibrium thcdistancc
bctwcen thebu andtherodcannotbe less 1han 4a/5. andfind the greatest
and leastpoWblcdistances apart of thcrings. (U ofL)
14) Two unif orm rods, ,\B and BC areofthesame length and weigh JW and
W rcspeclively. They11re smoothlyjointed at B and stand ln .i tertic1I plane
with A and C on a rough horizontal plane. The cocfllclcnt of friction
bc1wecn each 1od andthcplancis J. Equilibriumis about to bc b1oken byone
ofthcrodsslippingon theplane.Find which 1od "'illslip and cak11latethe ang)e
each rod makcswith t heplane.Calculate also thcrcaction a1 1hchingcB in
magnitude and direction. (AEB)
15) Two equ:il uniform rods AB, AC eai;h of weight W and length � and a
thhd 11nifom1rodofweigltt k'i, are freelyhinged together t o f or m a tri anglc
ABC in which the angle BAC is 20. The triangle hangs in a vertical plane f1om
a smoothpivot at B, and a couple is applied t o t he rod AB suasto keepthe
triangle in equilibrium with BC horizontal and A below BC. Find
(a) the moment of the couple, showing in �n1.e in a diagram.
(b) thchorizontal and vcrtkal co mponcnts ofthe forccs exenedon AC by
BC and AB. (1MB)
16) The diagram shows1wo uniform rods AB, BC, each oflengtl1 2a and
weight W which a1csmoothly hinged at B. The end A is unoothly hinged 10
a point on a fixed roug)1 hori1.o ntal bar. the hinges allowing the 1ods to rotate in
lhc verticalplam through the bar.The end C is fastened to a small ring of weight
w which ist hrcadcd on t licbar.

Thcrods are in equ!lib1ium with cach inclined at an angle O to the vertical.

Find t h e force of frktionat C andthccomponenis of1he 1eaction of thchinge
o n the,od AB at A
Show tlm ,whcn W "' 2W andthccocfficicnt offrictionat C is 1/4 the
grcatestpo5Sib\e distance AC i n a n equ!libriurnposltinn oftherodsis 12"/5.
(JMB)
 CHAPTER 1 7

FRAMEWORKS

A framework consists of a number of light rods which are smoothly jointed

10 gc1he1 at thei1 cnds to fo r m a rigid conuruction.

!Sl\
Note th.it the term 'Hght' rods means that the weig
compared to thc loadsthat t hey bear.
huofthe rods a,e negligible

lfa fnmework has external forces acting on it, each rod can perform one of two
functions
dthcr thcyslop thc framcworkfromcollapiing inwards
or theyprcvent thejoints fromnyinsapart.
A rodwhid1 ispreventinga collap$eexerts apush a t eitherend.ltii described
as a stmt a n d i s said t o h e inll1ruu o r i11ronrpreuion.

A rod which ls preveniing the fra mcwo1k fro m coming apart exem a pull at
either end. Jt is desc irbe d a s a tieand i1said 1obe in1emion.

l n both cascsthe forcesexe11e d at the endsoftherod a1cequal and oppos.i1e.

Cornridcr a framework ofth1ee il ght 1ods smoochly jointed as 5hown in che
diagram.
lftheframc"'·ork carrics aloodat B and is supported at A and C, then the
forces actingat B uethe weight W an<l thef01ccs T, and T3 in the rods BC
and BA. The forces acting at A are the supporting force R and forces 72 and
T3 i n 1ods AC and AB. Si milarlyf orces S. Ti, and 72 act at C as s.hoWTI.
lfthewhole1yttem i1in equilibri11 m 1ile/orr:es uctl,riatNC hjointa,ein
eq uilibri um.
A1theforces in therods occur in cqual a n d oppositc pairs t heya1eintern.al
forct3, thcrcfo,c th eexternal fa rceJ act
ing ont
h eframe-:work ruc 11'1 eq uilibrium.
When solving problems it is not always u obvious 15 in the p1obkm above which
10d1arein tcnsian andwhichaieinthrust,ro"'' ewi!l adopt thepolicyof
marking al! ro<ls in thrust so!hat nega1ivcanswcrs indicate1herodswhicha1e
in tension

A framcwork consisu ofthrcclight rodscach oflcngth 2a smoothlyjointed

1ogc1her to form a triangle ABC. The framework is smoothly hinged �t B to a
smooth vertical wall and canifs a weigh! W at A, and rests in equilibrium with
C below B. Find the react ion at B and theforce in each rod.
Thc rcaction "'·i th thcsrnooth wall at
C is pt>rpendicula, tothewall.
w· Thc unknown reaction atthe hinge
B ls madcup ofcomponenu X a11d
y
The.-xternal forccsarcinequilibrium
so re5o l v inggivcs,
y. w
PI
M' ? X=N 121
C
,,•
·'� 131
C)
 Mtthtrnt1ic,,- Mochanies•nd Ptobobillty

Henc e X = W,,/3/2 and Y= W

Thereactionat B is..jxT+"'yl' = �,,/7

1>
ina direction at arctanf to CB, Le.at a!C!an,,/3/2 to CB.

,
Eachjoint is in equilibriurn
Consi tle ringfl,st the fo,ce s ac tingal C,
we have
'
T, cos30° = N
'
T, + T, c os60° = 0

But. f,orn [21. N = W,,/2/2 '

the,efore T1 = W w

'
and
'
r, = - l W
Consideringtheforces actingat A :
°
T, c o s 30 + T1 c os 30° "' 0
But T, = W so T, = - W

Thc1cfore there i s a tension W i n AB, a tension ½ W i n BC and

a thrust W in AC.

I) Two light mds AB and BC of length 2a and a mpectively are smoothly

jointed at B. The ends A and C are smoothly hinged to a vertical wall with A
above C such that BC is horizontal. and a weight W is hung from B. Find the
forc es in the rods and the reaction at C.

2) The light rods AB. BC and CA oflengtm 4a , Ja and Sa r epecti,'Cly

s are
smOQth!y jointed at their ends to fo11n a tri3ngle ABC. A weigln W is hung
f10111 B and the triangle is supported at A and C. with AC ho rizontal and B
.-ertically above ,\C. Find the reactions at A and C and theforce ineach rod.
 A framework consists ofll\'e light rods
asshowninthe diagram.
AC = C B = CD=a, AB=AD =../llz.
The framework ca rr ies a weight IV at B
andis smoothlyhing e d a t A with D
resting against a 111T1ooth support.Find
the reaction at D and show that there
isno forccin AC.

A ffamewmk consisu offour light

rodsas shown inthe diagram.
A B c:e B C = CA=2a. and AD=a.
h is s moothlyhinge d t o a ve!!kal
wall at B and D with BC horizontal,

'"'·
and carries a weight W at C. Find the
reaction al D a n d t h e forcc i n e ach

The method for finding the force in the memben of a framework used in the
p1evious se.::1lon !snot practkalfo1 a largenumberof joints as thc numbcrof
equations involvedis too ]arge to handle easily.There are two altcrnati,·e
methods which simplify the work. one is graphicaland the other involves
calcul.atlon.

GRAPHICAL METHOD {BOW'S NOTATION)

This methodisb uically to draw a force polygon for each groupofforces

1hatarein equilibrium, i.e. thcset offorces acting at cachjoint.A !ipccialiled
not1tion rm1kes 1his proce ss easier byaUowingeach po!ygon 1obe superimposed

'
on the previous one.

Conslde1 a f ar mework of 1hree li&ht rods

as shown inthe diagram.
The framewo:k Is smoothly jointc d , zoo:-
_
rests m a,·emcal plane on smooth
. A
blocks at A and C and carnes a
weight 200N at 8. AB=a. A C
AC = 2a and B C = .,/'Jfi.
As the supports at A and C are smooth
the forces a t A and C are vertical
 Mll"-llcs - M•d,-nlcl •nd l'robabUlty

A boundaryis dm•·n round thc dfagram andthc line ofaction ofcachcxtcroal

forcels d1awn ouuidethe frameworkand c:<.tended to thc boundaryso cre 11tlng
a numberofdosedspaces. Each spaccis numbcred ,so thilt cach forcc line i s
!dcntlflcdbya palr ofnumbe r s , ollt\ on cither sldc ofthc fo1cc.
Thus 1 , 2 identifie s the lo�d at B, 2 , 4 ldcnt!flcs thcforce in the rod BC,
and. so on.
Also each venu of the framework can be idcn tit'led by the s e t of numbers in the
•pacesaroundil.
Thus 1 , 4 ,2 identifies the vertex B. 2.4.3 the vertex C, and I . 3 , 4 the
,·enex A
The force polygon for the external force si sdrawn fi r st . In this case the external
forCl' sa re pa rallcl so their magnitudcs must be found bycalculat!on
R+S - 200 l
therefore S = SO, R "' ISO
fli: Sx'2ll = 200xfa

Asallthe cxtemal forcCJ:;ue vcrti.ill, their force polygon lsa $tr.tight llne.

Thepol ygonis numbered sothat the figures which identffy a

forcc onthe space d!agram a rc usedto represent the fo r c e o n
thepolygon offo1ce1.
Therefore H represenuthc weight 200 N ,
H repre stnuthe force S , and
H 1cprese ntsthe forcc R.
Thenc,i111ugeis to draw 1hcforccpolygon for oncofthevc rtice5 whcrean
extcrnalforce actsand not more than twoforccs a re unknown.
Choosing �e constroct t h e t rlangleoffo1cesfor the force$,1Ct!ng a1A.
The line 3 - 1 , representing R, is already drawn.

Theforcein AB isidemified bythenumbers 1 , 4 in the

space diagram, w stalling at I we draw a line puallel to AB.
Theforc e in AC isidmtified by 3 , 4 , w starting n 3 1 \ine
isdrawn paralle l t o AC
Thepoint ofintcrscction of these 1w0Hnes isthe ve1tex 4.
As thetrlangle J . 3 . 4 1ep1escni. 1hree forces which arein
equilibrlum,the vertkcs ofthis1riangle t akenln o1der
indlcatcthe di,ectionsof theforces.
As H reprcscnts R. H represclllsthe forcein
AB acting at A. This is towards the joint A, theiefore
rod AB is in thrust.
Similarly H represents the force in AC acting at A,
and thus it is away from A. Thcrcfo1c AC isIn tension.
By meuurement from the diagram: the force in AB is a t h rust of 170 N
and thc forcein AC ii a tension of 86N

1 Wehavenow introduccd allfour numbers inthe diagram and

byjoining 4 10 2 the dillgram isclOISl'd.
Thus 4.:..::.: rcprescnls t h e t riangle o f f orce s f o r thejoint C.
Now 2 - 3 represenn the force S,
thc,efore H 1cp1esent5 thcfo1ce in AC at C
. .
4 1 and H the force m BC at C: this JS toward5 C.
Therefore BC isin thrust.

By measurement from the diagram the force in BC isa thnut of JOON

The triangle l ,�1eprescn1sthe fo1ces aclingal B.

Thus the line 4 - 1 rcprcscnu the force in the rod AB acting on the joint B.
Theline H (in t1fangle J . 4 . 3) representsthe force inthesamerodbu1
acting on A.
Sothe linejoining l and -l represcnts a p,air ofequalbut opposite forces.For
1his reason 1hesensc of eachforce along lt1Uneofactionisnof indkalcd inthe
construction.
 MMhtm11ir:1- M.ehanlr:lond l'rabM>ili1y

Summing up, the steps to follow when using Bow's Nou1iou are:
( I ) D,aw a boundary round the diagram and extend each external fmce line
awayfrom thcframework1othe boundary.
(2) Number each space.(Makesurethereisonlyonenumber i n eachsp,ace.)
(3) Draw the polygonofforcesfor 1hetx1crna l forces (thesemayhave1o be
calculated first).
(4) Superimpose thef orcepolygon f o r a jolnt wherean extcrnalforceactsand
no1rno1e than two forcesare unknown.
(5) Superimposethe forcepolygonfo1each 1emaining joint unti1 1hefigureis
comple1e. (When choo,;Jns theorder in which to do this , make sure that
thcrearcnot morcthantwo unknown f orces atanyjoint se\ccted.)
We will now i ll ustrate thismethod on a framewo1k with morejoin t s .

I) A framework cons!m o f se•·en light rods smoothlyjointed together a s shown

in the diagram. Theframework is smoothlyhinged at A and carries a weight
of 400 N at C . It isheld in a verticalplane, with BC horizontal,bya horizontal
forceat B. Find the reaction at A and thef orceineach 1od.
Asthc frarncwork is in equilib1ium unde1 1heaction of1h1ceforces, their lines
ofaction are concurrent: the1efo1ethelineofac1ion of S ii along AC
0
(i.e.at 1S 10 1hehoritontal).

Diag1W11(i)$hows the tdangle offor,es for the e�temal forceJ:

thellne H repres,:nt s S
0
By mea surement the reaction S at A i s lSSON u IS tolhe horizontal.

In diagram (ii) the tTl.:mglc of fo1ces for the forces acting at A is su�rirnpo5ed.
As S acts along H. theforcein AB ( i . 4) actsa!ong H andthe
forcein AE is representedby H.
By musurernent, the force in AB Is a thru.st of SOO N
and t h e forcei n A E i s a thrust o f 800 N .

Su�1imposing thc f orce triang]es for theve1tices E, then D , t h e figure is

completed.By meuurement from the diagram·
the force EB Isa tension of 290 N
t h e force E D Isa thrust of 970N
the f orce DC is a thrust of SOO N
the force DB isa tension of 290 N
the force B C is a tension o f 690N.
 0 °
ID T.1Uin4S -S,J3a sin 15 = o
r. = 980 (ED U l n thrust)
A\ T1asin60° + T4asi n l 5° = 0
TJ = -293 (EB i s i n !ension)
The fo,ce in AE canbt found euilybyconsidering the equilibrium of the f orces
ac!ing at A:
T,+ T1 c0530°-ScoslS = 0
0

7; = 800 (AE is in thrust)

This leaves the forces in BC, BD and DC tobe f ound.If we c u t the framework
thmugh BC, BD •nd DE and consider the section from C to this cut we nn
find lhe f orces in BC and BD.

, ,
; 1 r, T,
.,
,
1 T. D 400N
1
,... - - - - - 1- -
- -
., ,, .,

, - ,'�
· : _-_ - , ,

T, isan intern.alforce ,sothis sectio n i s i n equilibrium underthe1ctionof

T., T1, T, and the weight 400N.
Considering the equilibrium of theseforces
°
D) 400acos30 + T,asin30° "' 0
Therefore T1 = -693 (BC is in tension)
0 °
r.asi n 1 S + 71 uin60 = O
T, = - 293 (BO i s i n t ens!on)
The remaining force, T,. can be f oundby considering the equilib1ium of the
fo1ccs actingat C:
T0 cos60� = 400
r, : 800 {DC (1, in thrn$1)
The forces in the rods AB, AE and BE are internal, so this section is in
equilibrium under the action of the forces Ti, T4• T1, the rcac1ion at A and
the weight at B.
°
S o fo, thne forcn; t T7 cos30 +500-425 "' 0
T1 ..· - g7

r, r,a✓3+ 5 00a-425(2a) "" 0

r, "" 202
Therefore the force in AB is a thrust of 491 N,
the force in BC is a thruu of 202N,
the force in EC is a tension of 87N.

l f a f1amcwor k o f light rods whieh aresmooth)yjointed 1ogether is in

equillbrium theu:
(a) thcextcrnalforces1cting onil are in equilibrium.
{b) thc forces at nchjoint arein equilibrium.
When solviug p1obkms on light fr.uneworks always find 1he external forcH first.
The method of sect!ons will usuallygive the shortest solution unless the
framework consisu of many rods and all the forces are required.

The frameworks in Questions I �4 consist of light rods smoothlyjointed

together and rest in a verticalplane aslhown.The fnmcworks arc either supported
by forces as shown or smoothlyhinged to a fixed support as shown.Find the
extcrnal forc u a n d calculate thefo1ce i n eachrod.
582 ""'d,omatla - Mitcllanla - P,obeblllly

I)

'K1 �
,� ,L__}/ "
;��--�:h�
,oo,

·f---¥-7 �· 6(1(JN
7) ' ') ' ,oo,

.,.
• ,

�
�

,\ ' � ', D A
F.
♦!" D
!!ON

9)

IO)

w,
J I ) The framework Jn the diagram
1ssrnoothly hmged at A and11
held with AE vert ical by a
horlzonta l f o1'eat E. The
rods AB, BC , BD, ED. EA
ueallcqual and ABC i s
horizontal. The framework
carrles a load of SOON al C.
Findihereaction at A and
theforces in the iod s ED. -£): [ J}
BO and BC.
 A
MltMfflllk:I - Mec:nanlcaInd Prob,lbillty

12) Theframework ABCDEF

iS$mOOthly supporte d a1 A and -
. " .
D a11d carne$ weigh1s of 200N
.
and IOON at B and C. Fmd
thc fon:esin theroW FE , BE
and CD.

I\ f t I)

14) Thefr•mewo�k ABCJ?E issmoothJ:M !OON

hinged at A and is held with AD hori• s · c
zontal hya vertlcalforceat D. A force
. .
of 200N m 1he direct1on BE is applied
at B. Find the 111es.sesin the rods BE,
E C and ED.

A � • /)

IS) Thdm,,,wmk ABCDE ;, �

smoothlyhingcdat A and lshcld 8 c
with AED horizontalby a f orceat 60"
8 i� the direction EB. T�e framcwo1k
10•
c-dmes a lo;,d W at D. Fmd the
.
1eac1 i o n a 1 A andthe 5tfe$$Csmthe
rods CE, AB and ED. Jo
A l IJ
"�
\I' II"

" '

.
f
Thefigure rep1csen11 a framework consisting ofnine smoothlyjointed light
l
rods. AD i.! vef!ical, CD= DE and the acute angles in the figure are either
°
30 o r 60�. The framewo,k carries weights 2W at A, W al B and W at F
and rests on smooth supports at C and E. De termine the stresses in the rocb,
sp,:cifyingwhic h a relcnsionsandwhkhare thrusts. (0)
18) The smoothlyjointed fr.m1cwork ABCDEF consisting of eight light rods,
is In tqullibrium in a verlkal phllle, smoothly hinged lo a �rtical wall at A and
B and ea.trying loads 211' and JW al C and D respectiv e l y. The rod AF is
oflength a and allthe other rodsa,coflcngth 2a. The rods AF, FE, BC
and CD ue hoiizontal.Caku]ate ihe force exerted by the framework on the
wall at A. Find grapllically, or otherwise, the forces in the rods CD, CE. CF
and B C , statingwhichrodsarein compression

.
� C I)

�, 2"' )W
(AEB)
 Mith.,,,.,..,, - Mec:h..,la •rid P,,ot,tblllf¥

19) A framewoik comisu ofthree !ight rods AB, B C , CA of lengths a, a..,/3,

and a respectively , smoothlyjointed at A, B, C. The framewo1lr:: is suspended
freely from A and carries weighu 2W at B and W at C. Show that, in the
equilibriumposition with B below A, !he thrust ill the rod BC is 2W and
that the tensions in the rods AB, CA are 2W..,/J, W..,/3 mpecli�ely. (O)

20) A light framework ABCD consi!IS of S

smoothlyjointedrods ofequallength.The
framcwmk car ir es a load W at D and is
smoothly hinged and f xi ed at A. The framework
is kept in equilibrium i n a verticalplane with AC
horizontal by a f orce P applied at B in a direction
parallel to CA. Find the magnitude of P lllld the
magnitu dcand directionofthe reactionat A. Find,
g ar phically or o1herwise , t h e forces in t h e lh·erods
a.n d state which rod1arein comp1cssio11.

21) The light smoothlyjointed framework shown is hinged to a vertical wall at

A and B and c.irrles a load of 400 N at D, AO being horiwntal,
AE = E D = AC = CO ,,, I O m , EC=Sm, B C • ! S m
B y means o f a force diagram find the f orces i n all the members , stating which are
in tension ll!ld which are in comp,eulon.Use the method of sections to check
the magnitude oftheforccin AE.

(AEB)
 CHAPTER 1 8

PROBABILITY

lmaginc th111 youhave bough1fivetickets fo r a raffieand that SOO tickets

al1o�ther have been sold. Assuming that any one o f the SOO tickets ls u likely
:uanyother 1obe dr1wn for first priZe , youwouldnythat>-ouhad S chantes
in SOO , or a chal'ICe of l in lOO, of winnh1g firstprize.
In thls chapter we develop me1hods to deal with problems concerned with chance

Temlinology and nolationa11: in1roduccd1o enable us10 refer to ccrtain

categ01ies ofsituationspreciselyand more brieOy.
Pwbabilitygives us11 measu1e forthe likellhoo d that something will happtn.
lloweverit must be appredate d that probabilitycan never predict the number
of1i.ms that an occurene(' actually hap�ru.8ut beingabkl9 quan1ify1he
likelyoccuirence ofaneven1i1 importambecause most ofthe declsions that
affect our daUyUves arc based on likdlhoods andnoton absoluteccn1inties.
For example , ifit U known 1h11 it U likely 10 rain on two days out offive days
at a p!acc whe,e you ue taking a holiday, it does not mean that it wi l l rain on
four daysoutofaten dayholiday butthatyouwouldbe wiseto take a
raincou wl\h you.

An event i s a defined occurrence or situation.Fo1 eumple·

{a) toHing a coin andthe coinlandinghedup.
{b) ,;,coring asi,,:on thethrow o f a d i e ,
(c) winningthe fi11tpriZe i n a raffie.
(d) being dealt a hand offour cndswhichare a!ldubs.
A particulir event is denotc d b y a capital leuer ,e.g. A,B,
POSSIBILITY SPACE

In each of 1he examplesgiven there i s an implied set of circum stance s from

which 1he1eaie scvcr a l po:11ible outcomes,includingthc event(s) desc ribcd .Thi s
set of possible outcomes is c alled thePQllibi lit
y Jpact.
Com,idering the given eicamplc s. (a) 10 (d).

in (1) the even! isoneofthepo ssiblewaysinwhichthecoincanland, viz.

head up. H. 01tail up, T. i.c.thc posslbilityspacels H, T ;
in (b) thc event i soneof thepossiblewaysof scoringonthethrow ofa die.
i.c.thcposs ibilityspacc is 1 . 2 , 3,4. 5,6 ;
in (c) thc�ibility spac e i s allthc tic kell inthe dniw ;
in (d) the pouibility space I s all the different combinations of f our cardsthat
canbe obtained from fifty•twocard s.
Now coruJdc1the following situation . A bag contain s three white balls and two
b!ack ball s,and onc b1Ui sremoved from thebag.Thepossibllityspace lsthesct

(o,o,o,•, • I
Jfthc cvcn1 dcno1ed by A i s'theremovalofa whitc ball'thc pos:iibililic sfor
A a,e the members of the set ! o, o, o l.
Dcnoting'thepossibilitiesforthc event A' uthc sct JAI we c an write
!Al= 10, 0, 01
and we note that IAI i s a subset of J o,o. o. •,•l.
ln gene,al,if E i san evem then !£1 is a 11uh$et of {pos.sibilityspacc).

PROBABILITY THAT AN EVENTOCCURS

Thep1obability1hatan event A oc curs ls defined a s

The term 'tqually likely· Is important. Foruample. ifa coin is bent so that
whcn tosscd i t is morellkely1oland headup thantai1 1,1p, thenthe c�cnts that
thecoinland shead upar land11ailup a1c no t equallylikcly.
111eprobability of ane>1en1 A ocmrring i sdeno1edby P(A)
Hence
or.whenall membe,sareequallylikely,
Number of members of lA!
P(A)=
Numbe, of members of jpouibility space!
This i s thebuic dcfinition ofprobability.All other devrlopments ofprobabUJty
theoryarederived from thi1definition,and a largc numbcr ofproblems canbe
solved direc tly from it.
As !Al i s a subset of lpossibi licyspacc] the numerator of thisfraeti on is
always !euthan , o, equ.il t o , thedenomi nator so,foranyevent A ,

0 ,;;; P(A) .i;;; I

If P(A)= I theeven t i s an abwlutecertainty.

If P(A)><O thcevent i s a n absolut e i mpossibility.
For example, i f oneball is taken f1oma bagcornai ning onlyrcdbaUs
P(ba l l i s red)= I and P(ballisblue)=O

I) Apackoffel! tipped penscontains fiveredpemand fourbluepens. lfone

pen i s withd1awna1 rando m " h· at is theprobabilitytha1 i 1 isblue?

The term 'at rand.om' means th.at all possibilities are tqUlllly likely.

Thus thepossib ilityspacecontains 9 equally likely events.

If A i s 1he1emoval ofab!uepen, then A canoccur i n 4 equallylikelyways
(i.e. IA! has 4 members).
Thus P{A) = 4/9.
2) If one card is d1awn at random fiom a pack of fifty-two playingcardswhat
is theprobabilitythat it isan �cc?
Thereare52 equallylikelyevents, i .e.thedrawingofanyoneof1hefifty-two
playi ng cards.
Anacecan bedraw n i n 4 equ.illy!ikelyways.
Therefore P(ace) = 4/52 = 1/13.
3) Four cardsare drawn at random ffom apack offif1y-1"·oplayi ngcards.Find
theprobabUity1hat thefour cardsa1ea!l clubs.
let A be 1heeven 1 '1hewi1hdrJwal offour dubs".
Asthereareth.irteen c lubs ln thepack. 1hereare uc. di fferent combinations
of fourclubs.
So A can occur in uc. ways. i .e. /A[ cont�ins '3C• member.;
Anydist inct combination offou1cards from 1hepack is eqll3llylikelyand,as
there aie 51C• of these, the possibilityspace contains 12C• membeu.
llC• I J ! 4 ! 48! ]J
Thus P(A) ., "" - 0.00J t o 3 d.p,
¾ 419! S 2! 4165 -..
4) Four lcttea ue chosen at random from the word DEALING.
Find the p1obabilitythat·
(a) exactlytwovowelsarechosen,
(b) at leau two vowels are chosen.

DEALING has threevoweb and four consonants.

Four leuen (without ,emiction) can be chosen in 1c. ways.
i.e. possibility spa� h u 1C• members,
(a) A �lection containingtwo vowels (out of EA 1) alsocontains t v o
comonants (01.11 o f D L N G).
As the� are independent combinations, the number of ways 'Jf choosing fou,
letters containing exactly two vowels is lc1 x •c1.
Therefore the probabilityof selecting four ]euen. exactly two of which a1e
vowrls, is

(b) lf1he selecti0n containsa1 leas11wo vowe!s,1hen either i1 con1ains two

vowcls andtwo consonan t s o r i t cont ains thrcevowc\s and onc consonant
and these combim1tions are mutually e�clu1ive.Thenumber of combinations
,ontainingjust two l'Owels is
lC1 �•c1 = 18
Thenumber of combina1ions con1aining threevowe!s is
3c �•c = 4
l 1

Thc,cfore thenumberofways ofselectingfour lettcrs containing at least

two vowels is !8+ 4 e: 22.
Hence 1heprobabilityof four le11ers chosen at random containing at least
two vowels is

1c. .. JS
22 22

THE PROBABILITY THAT AN EVENT DOES NOT HAPPEN

lf, in a pos.sibilityspaceof 11 equallylikc!yoccurence1, 1hc number of1imes
an event A occurs is ,, there are 11-r occasions when A does not happen.
'Th eer-em A duesnot h,ippe,r• is d�noted byA (and is read u ·not A').
 Mothe1n11ia -�1niet1nd Problblli,v

On t h e other hand ifin IOOtosses. say. it isfoundthat the coin lands hcad up
80times it is reasonable t o a ssume that the coin i s biarf!C/,i.e.it i s nor equally
likelyto land head up or tailup.
Thu.. if a coin is known to be unbiased the probability of in landing head up on
anyone toss is ½• Similarlyifadie (numbered l to 6) i!ithrown, and it is
known to be unbiased,theprobability ofthrowlng a sixis l.
lfacoinisknown t o b e bia sed. so th:lt it !s twiceulikel y t o land headupthan
tailup, then 1hcnumber ofeq11a/ly likely rc!iult!i o f toning thatcoinare
headup twice and tailup once.
So theprobability oftossing a hcadwith thlscoinis j.

More than One Event

We will now look at somep1oblenu invoking the occurrence of two or more

events.Theycan loosely be divided intotwocuegories:
(a) 'eithcr . ..or· evcnts such as t heprobabillt y oficoring either 5 or 6 with
onethrow ofa die,
(h) 'both ... and' even ts such as theprobability ofsclecting borhan orange
and an apple from a bowl ofmi�ed fruit.
Someevents,1ucha,1he probability of obtainin8 at leut oneheadwhen1w o
coins areto ssed,fall intobothcategories sincethis event involves
t i r/Jer two heads or bur/I onehead arid onetai\.
At thh stage however w e will investigate the two C3tegories sep.irately.

MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE EVENTS

Consider. for example. choo sing numbers at random from the se1
!3, 4 . 5 , 6, 7 . 8 , 9, 10, J l , 12)
A isthe selectionofaprimenumber,
8 is t h e selectionofan odd number,
C isthe sekct ionofan e,·ennumber,

then A and C aremutually cxclusive asnoncofthc numbersin thi!iset i1both

prime �nd e�en.But A �nd B are not 111utua!ly exclushe as some numbers a,e
bothprime andodd (1·iz. 3, 5.7, 1 1) .
 Mtl,,._tlca- Mech•n!co •ndProbo,bllhy

h2 3 2
P(",'1 n R1) .. W = x
5 4
Now P(W,) = j and P(R1IWJ = j
P(\','1 n Ri) = P(W1)xP(R1IW1)
This is C3!led the compound probobiliry of W, and R1 occuning.
In general

if E, and £1 a,e two t\'ents, the compound probability

.
of both F1 and t2 occurring isgh'enby

Nolethat if £, and E, ue independent e\'ents

Summing up we have:
If A and B are tWO C\'CIIIS
A n B meamboth A and B
A U B meam either A or B
AIB meam A given that 8 has already occurred
P(A UB) = P(A)+P(B) when A and B aremutually nclusive
P(A n B) = P(A)x P(BIA) whkhreduces to
P(A nB) = P(A)x P(B)
) when A and B arc independent
.. P(BIA) = P(B)

EXAMPLES18b lcon•inutdl

3) Anunbim: d dle,marked l to 6, is 1ollcd twicc.Find thcprobabi lity of

(a) rollingtwo sixes,
(b) 1hesecond throw being a six, giventhat the fim t hrow is a �x,
(c) get1ing a score oftenfromthc two throws,
(d) throwing at el ast one s i x ,
(e) 1hrowing exactly onc six.
[fthedieis unbiased it is equally hkely to land onany face, so a score of 6 is
just oneofsb: equaUy likely scores, i .e. P(6)= l ­
Also,each rol!of 1 hedie isan indepe11dent evem.
 Probability

(b) A and B roll the die f1rtt so they must both fail at their f1m attempt
(A, and ii,) if C is to win at his fin.1 attempt.These three cvi:nu arc
indcpendent,so theprobabi lity that C wins�t hl1firtl al\emp1i,

(c) If B winsat histhird attempt then A hnhad three failures, B two

failures, and C two failures.Again these arc i ndependent e•enu.Theicfore
the probability that B wins athis thirdanempt is
P(.i1)xP(ff..)xP(C,)MP(.:f,)xP(B:) xP(C,)xP(AJ)xP(Bl) = (!)' M i
( d ) I f A wlns, then
ei ther A wins onhisfiritthrow
A wi11S onhissecondth1ow
A wiMon his third throw
A winson his fourthth1uw
and soon
Now P(A wins) on his
f1rst 1hmw is P(A,) .. ¼
P(A,)xP(if,)xP{C,)xP(A,) = (ifx l
i
third throw i s [NA, nl, nC,)xP(A2 nli2 n(\)I xP(Al) = (!)'x l
fourth th,owls [(!)3 ]1 x P(A4) = (!J9x!
andsoon
These ue mutually e�clusive events, therefore

This i s an infinite GP with first term ! and common ratio (i>3 aml so h u

r=w = 91
1 36
a1umto infinityof

Theref01c the probab!!ity th1t A Wins is iff.

6) ln a gamcof dam, 1he probabi\ity1ha1a par1icula1playerai ms a1 andhiu

the ·treble twenty" with one dart iJ 0.4. Ho"' many throws are necessary so
that thcprobability of hittingthe trehle 1wenty,1 lcalil on,e exceed, 0 9?
.
Th� probability ofhi lting the treble twenty. P(A), is 0.4 on one throw.,o
theprobability of not hitting the treble twenty, P(.4), i5 0.6 on one throw ,
and P(A) in two thro� i1 ( 06) . 1, �tc
 -ca- -Mnk:o -Ptoblblllty

Theprobabllltyof hitting thetreble twenty at leut oncc ln n throws

"' l - (probabilityofnot hitting the trebletwentyon all n throws)
So in n throws P(A at least once) "' 1 - (0.6 )".
For P(A at least once) to exceed 0.9 in n throws, we ha,·e
1 -(0.6)" > 0,9
(0.6)" < 0 . 1
nlog0.6 < log0.J
log0.l
11 > (log0.6 < 0)
log 0 6.
n > 4.5
Thercforc fo·e throws arc neccmry.
7) l n a group ofstudents, 10% are left-handed, 8% are shon.sighted and 2%
arcboth lcft •handcdand sho11-sightcd.
(a) Givcn tha 1 a student is shor1-sighted, find thc p1obability that he is left•
handed.
(b) l'indthe probab!Uty tha1alcft•handcd studcntis alw short.sighted.
]f l'(Lh.) 1cpre&entsthe probabilitythat a s1udentis left•handcd andif P(s.s.)
rcprcscntsthcprobabilitythat a s tudcntis short-sightedthen
l'(l.h.) "' 0.1, l'(u.) "' 0.08 and l'(Lh.n u.) = 0.02
a) No w P(l.h.n s.s.) = P(l .h.lu.) x P(u.)
0.02 = P(!.h.ls.s.) x 0 0.8
P(l.h.ls.s.) = 0.25

b) P(lh.nu.) -= P{s.s.11.h .) xP(l.h .)

0.02 ., P(s.s.11.h.)x 0.I
P(u.11.h.) = 0,2

I ) Two unbiased ,;oins arctossed. Findthe probabillty of'

(a) two heads (b) at !cast onc hcad (c) exactlyone head.
2) Three unbiascd cofnsare tossed. Find theprobabilityof:
(a) three taib (b) u leastone tail
 Probnllity

3) The prababilityofanarcherhittlngthe buU' s-eye with anyoneshot i s !­

Find the probability that:
(a) he hits thebuU's-eyewith hissccond lhot,
(b) he hits the bu!rs-eye ex1ctlyoncein three sh1J1s ,
(c) he hltsthe buJr,-eye alle utonce ln four shot s.

4) lna multip!e choke examination eachqucst ionha sfive possb i le auswen,

onlyoneofwhichis correct.lfa candidatcch=shis answer sat randomfind
the probabi1itythllt, in a test oftensuch ques!ions. he ge1Snone r!ght.

S) Two coinsare tossed.One coin i s faJr and the other lsblasc dsothat throwing
a hcad i sthree times a slikcly u throwinga tail.Findthe prababilitythat:
(a) on onetoss ofboth coins theyboth land head up,
{b) ontwo tosscs ofboth coins ,twotall sare thrownboth times,
(c) ontwo tosscs. at kast oncheadis throWTI

6) Two unbia sed normal dice are thrown.On one throw find the probabilityof:
(•) two l ' s {b) a scoreofJ (c) a sco1e ofatleut4.

7) An unbiaSJ:d die in the �hap,e ofa tetrahedron ha sits fare s nurnb<:red

1.2,3, 4 .
The score is taken frorn thefaceonwhich i t land s.Find the p1obabilitythat:
(a) onone throw 4 lsscored,
{b) on two th101..- sa total o f 2 ! sscored,
(c) onthr�throws a tota!ofat leJst 4 i s scured.

8) Two p,eoplc, A and B. play a game by touing a fair coin. and the fim to
tus s a headv,im. lf A toues first find the probabili ty that
(a) A winson.hi sfir st to ss,
(b) 8 v,•im on h i sfirst tos s,
(c) A w!m onhis sccond to ss.

9) Two p,eop!e . A and B. pla�· a game by rolliug two fair dice: the first to 101!
a double sixwins.[f A goesfir st, find!he probabllltythat:
(a) B wins onhisfirst throw.
(b) A win1 on his second throw

10) Two people , A and B. play a game by tuuing a fair coin and the fir st to
to ss a head wins. If A goes first find the probabilitythat A wins.

I I ) Three peopl,, A, B and C playa gamebyrolling a fair dieandthe first

to roll a slxw!ns. lftheyplayin thc ordcr A 1hcn 8 !hen C, find the
p r obabil!tythat H 11ins.
 MIThelN1k:o -Mechoonla-Probabillly

12) Two pcoplt, A and 8, playa game by drawing a card from a pack of
fifty•two pi.tying ,uds. The first to draw an ace wins.The cards drawn are not
put back i n thepackand theyplayin theorder A. B. Find theprobabi litythat:
(a) A "'insonhisfirst draw ,

J
(b) A wins on his second draw,
(c) A winson his third draw.
13) A boynta rif\e range hasaprobabilityof ofhi ttlnga targctwithany
one shot.Find thepmbabilitythat he first hits a target with his third sl10t.How
rn.:myshots are neces&al)' for theprobabilityof his hilling u least orie target to
begreater than j?
14) A boxof screws conuins 5% defective screws.lfa screw is taken at
random from the box, what is theprobabilitythat It is defective? How many
t!mcJ docs this havetobe repeated before thep1obabUltyofremovingatleut
one defective screw is 0.5?
15) ln a card gamefor fou1playe sr ,apack offif1y,two cu d!is dealt roundso
thateachplayerreceives thirtun ca1ds.Ahand that contalns no ca1d greater than
nlne is cal!cd a y11borough. How manydealsarenecessal)' fortheprobabllity
ofat least onehnd being a yarborough t o b e greate1 than ½? (Aceranks h i g h ).
16) A shelf has fifteenpaperbacked and twelve hardbackcd books on it. A book
i, taken at rundom and not replaced.A sccon d and a thlrdhook arc1imila1ly
removcd. Find thep10babiliy1hat:
{a) the fir1tt h1ee books remo•·c d arepaperbacks.
(b) thcthird book rcmove d l s a hardback.
17) Thrcc baUs are selcctedat randomin ordcr from a box contalning 2 1ed,
3 ycllow and 4 black baUs.Find thep10babUitythat the thildball i s yellow,
givcn·t1urtthc flrst i1red and the 1econ d ls blaclr: if:
(a) thcballsuc notput back i n thebox aftcr sdection,
(b) thc ballsa1ercplaccdin thebox aftcreachsclection.

The number ofways in which an event A occurs and the number of

occuirences ofcqual]ylikelyeventsis not a lwa)'J obviousfromthe statcment of
aproblcm. This isparticularlytruc ofcompoond cvcntswhich c an i nvolve thrce
or more separate events.
Consider, for example, tossing th1ee coin1.There are tl11ee ways in which the
coins can lan d w i t h 2 heads and a ta i l showi�,beca\JSC i f t h c coinsarc
numbercd l , 2, 3 f or i dcntiflcation , thcycanland
H, 11,T, or H , T, �h 0 1 T, H,H,
 -htmatlcl- -..,la•nd l'robobllity

Any of these events i1 fol ol wed by two further likely occurrencu when coin 3
is tosscd. Branching againgh· e sdiagram (iii).

11,r111,t1 1!,

1'1;f.l 1ttn. j
H, £) '1-;-�\t

T,t11J, n T,

T,nT,n11,

Startingfmm the tmnk e see that there uecight differcnt routes which can
b c f ol!owed.i.e. thcrcarc cight likelyc,·cnts. three of which gh·e 1wo headsand
a tail.
Jf the coins a1e all u nbiJJsOO thcn these eigh t e1·entsare tqUlllly likely.

Tims P(2H and T) ., =

8 cqu;y�:;]; events ¾
Note th.at (a) the eight compound cvi:nts onthe rightof diagram (iii)are
mutuallyexc\usi1·e,
(b) the events alonganyoneroutefrom left to rightare independent.

I ) Draw a tree diagram to represent the likely outcomes of touing a coin and
rolling a letrahedral dienumbered l to 4.
2) Draw a tree diagram to rep�sent the likely outcomes of tossing two coins
and rolling a tet rahedral die numbered I to 4. From you, diagram fmd the
probabilllyof obtaining a hudand a tallanda 5<:ore of4, wum\ng thuthe
coins andthe dicare unbWCd.
3) Adlein the fonn of a cu�is numbered 1 , 1 , 2 ,2,3,4. Drawa tree diagram
to illustrate the likdyoutcomes of rolling this dieand tossing a coin.Jfboth a,c
unbiased,what is the pmbab l li t yofrolllng a 2 on thedicand touinga headon
the coln?
Thcnumberofsamptc point sforwhichthe scorc i s a t leas1 7 (lnthcsh.aded
afea) istwcntyonc.
Hence P(atleast7) = ij = J
(The usc of anyothcr mcthod would rcquirc cons.idcra1ion or1hc mutually
cxclusive evenu: either a score of 7 or of 8 orof 9 . . , or of 12.)

I) Two unbiased tctrahedra! diccnumbered I lo 4 arethrown.Set upthe

poMibility space anduse i t t o flnd:
(a) the probablllty thatat lcast one 4 is thrown,
(b) a tota l sco1c of 5 isthrown.
ln e1ch sample poin11he lef1 han d n umber isthe sco1e on one of 1he dice and
the ,ighthand number !sthe score ontheotherdie.
Hcnce the possibility space is
-\
8
(!, I) ( 1 . 2) (I.J)- - (1.1) ,'
(2, 1) (2, 2). - - (2,3)_ - (f, 4) A
(J, 1) - - - f,2 - - ,3 (3,4)
, 1) - - .2 4,3 4,4
(_ :

andwcsccthatthcre are sb:tccn samplcpoints.

(a) The subsc1 ofpoimswi1ha1 lcas1 one 4 , f A \ , comains 7 points.
Hence P(A)=i\,
(b) Thc sub1e1of point sgivinga 1otalsco1eof S, !BI, conlllins 4 points.
Hence P(B) = J\= !.

'Eirh e r . • . Or· Situationslnwolving E:v,nts 111111: are Not Mutu1Hv Exclullv,

Usingtht example 1bo,·e,Je1 us now coosider thcprobabilitythat tithcr at

least one 4 isthrown o,a tota!scmeof 5 isthrown,i.e. P(A UB).
Fromthepos sibllity spacc wc see that
thcsubsct ofi.ample point s in (Al and1hc sub:.ctof sample poi11tsin lBl
arc not mutually cxclusi�c. becau� the sample points (4, I ) and (1,4) are in
both ,ub�u.
Thesituatiou becomes clearcr if we rearrange the samplepoints inthe possibili!y
spa� by placingthe pointsin (Al in cne circle and the pointsin (BI In a
sccon d ove rlapping circ!c sothatthcpoinuinboth IA! and /B!,
i.e. in /A nB) are in t11e :.cction common to both circlc1 and the remaining
points are outside both drcles.
 Mlltll1N11ot - Mec:haniot M>d Probebllh�

Sucha diagram is calltd a Vemi Diagram.

From thi.! diagram weseethat

thenumber ofpoints in either (A)or /BI, i.e. in (AUB!,
is ll()t tqualto
(the number ofpointiin IAl)+(the number ofpointJ in !BJ)
becausethis includes thepoints (1,4) , (4, 1) twice.
Now the points (1,4) and (4, I) are in both IA] and 181, i.e.in [AnBf.
Hence,
(points in (A UB/) = (points in IA))+(pointsin fBl)-(polnts in !A nBI)
= 7+4-2
Astherearel6 samplepoinu in total, wehan
7+4-2
P(AUB) =
- 16-

= ..?.. + � - 3..
16 16 16
= P(A)+P(B)- P(A nB)
Wecan seethat t hi s is a general 1esultby considering a possibili1yspace
containing n points in which,

m
thesubset ofpo ssibilities for an ennt A contains , points,
thesubsetof pouibillties for an event B contains s points
and r polnt s arecommon to /Al and (Bf.
The Vtnn diagram illustratins this informationis given be!ow

�
(b) Usiug P(AUB) = P(A ) +P(B)-P(AnB)

P(A UB) "" ½+¼-¼

. . ,,
number of ways in wh.ic� 8, and 'noc A',
(,) P(BIA) = .
number ofwaysrn wluch 'not A' occurs

from ! I ] , [21 and 14) we have , = ln

I "' � I I

Therefore

P(BIA) = 1-
No t e chat:
t·, and £1 ne independent then P(£1) = P(E,1£,).
* P(A IB)
(i) iftwo events
ln ttilil problem P(A) so A and B a,e not independent.

*0
(ii) iftwo events £1 and £, aremutuallyexdusive then P(£1 n£1) = 0.
In this problem P(A nB) so A and B a1e not mutual!yexclusive.

I) Sct upapo ssibilityspaceforthetoss oftwo fair coins andafair tctrahcdral

dienumbeud I to 4, Frornyour pos.sibili1yspace ftn d theprobabllityof
obtaining:
(a) a head, a tailand a four.
(b)at least o n e headand a four.
2) Two cubical dice a,e tossed. Both dice are unbiued and o n e isnumbered
I to 6, the other isnumbered 1,2,2,3, 3,4. Setup the pos.sibilityspaceand
use it t o ftndthe probabilityofobtaining
(a) ascouof 5,
(b) a scoreofat least 5,
(c) a th1eeon either of1he two dice, butnoton both.
 Mathematlc:t-MlocNnk:oandProblbUlty

3) Twotetrahe draldiee,both numbered I to 4 aretossed.lf one dle i s fair

andthe othe1isbiased sothat a fouris twlce ulikely as anyothe11eo1e ,setup
the pos1ibilityspace a n d u se i t t o fi n d thc probability that:
(a) atleast onefourls thrown,
(b) a total score offour ls obtained,
{c) either at leut one four Is thrown or BI !cut one three is thrown .

4) A footballmatch maybe either won, drawn or lost by the home team, so

there arethrtt ways offorecastlngtheresult ofanyom: match,one correct and
two inconect.If random forecasts arc made of the resulu of five matches, what
isthe probability ofgett!ng atleast three com�ct 1nults1

5) ln a groupof twenty studcnts all ofwhom arestudyingPhysicsor

Mathematicsorboth, tenarestudyins Physicsand fifteen u e s tudying
Mathematics.Find the probability that a student chosen at random b:
(a) studying Physics,
(b) studying Physics and Mathematic s ,
(c) studyingPhyslcsbut not Mathematlts.
lllwtrate your results ona Vcnn diagram.

6) Thrttunbiased dic e , each numbered 1 , 1 , 2, 2 , 3 , 3 arc tossed.Find the

probabi!ityofthrowingeithe1 atleastone 2 or at lean one 3.

7) Two normalfair dice, numbered I to 6, a1e tossed simultaneously. Whal

is1hep1obability ofobtaining a 1ota l s,:01e grca1er 1h.m 7 ifatleast oncofthe
dicc scores S.

8) A and B are two events such that P(A) = l and P(B)=i and
P(A UB)=i- Find P(A r18).

9) A and B a,c two e\·entssuch that P(A)=� and P(A nB)=\.

If A and 8 arc independent find P(B) and P(A UB).

10) A and B aretwoevents such that P(A ) = j, P(A IB)=!,

P(BIA)=½-
Find P(A U B) and state. with reasons, whether A and B are mutually
exclusive,

EXPECTATION

The word 'expcctallon' or 'expccted" i s u.se d t o mean the mostllke\y

outcome of an cxpcrlmentorthe 'average' result i n a scriesofexperiments. The
precise meaning of 'expectation· depcods on the way ii is used. The f ollowiog
ex1mples il11.1Strat e i 1 1 u .se i n different situatiom.
 Mat-l01 - Med,anl01•ndProbabillly

1C,x 1C 4
1
P(JR n 18) = "'
� 7

"' ,c:
'C I
�

*
P(4R) =
7
The,efore i n II trials wewould expecl

two 1ed countersto appear f x11 times • redcounters

T
*
4
three red counters t o appear x n times .. redcounters
7

four ,ed counters t o appe:ar red countcrs

sowewould expec c a totalor (1n+l.jn+�n) 1cdcoun1crs i n n uials,

i.e.an avuageof 'f/ countel'$pertrial.

Exf)Ktlld Geinor Lon

We often encounter a s.ituation i n which the outcome involves either a gain or

Jou of money. I fsuch a situation is repeated many limn the avenge (upected)
gai n or loss can befound usinglhefollowing defi nition.

EXAMPLESl8f (contln1Md)

S) Two people, A and B. roll an unbi ased die. Thefil'$t to 1055 a 6 wins £.10.
Find A's expectcd wi nnings.ifhegoesfirst.
Thep1obability 1hat A Wins, P(AWins).is
either P(A wins on hls fim throw) ,. P(A 1)

·!
P(A winson hlsmond throw) = P(A 1 and B1 andA1)
= {l)1 x �
P(A wim; o n h i sthirdthrow) = P(A 1 nB1 nA1 nBinAJ)

ands.oon
P(A wins)., i +( 3J'(l) + (3>4(l)+ . .
 T h i s i s 1GP withfimtem1 1 and eommon ratio ((l
and hence w!th a s u m t o illfmityof

Hence P(,t wins)=A,

So ,t'5 expected winning s are £!0x i\ = L'i.45
This result is illterpietedas meanillgthatif ,t and B playe d several times,
with A golng fimeach time,then ona\'trage A would expect to win £5.45
pe r game.
6) The probabilily of a candidate passing an examination at any one attempt

i
Is I- He carrieson enlering until h e passes and eachentry cosuhim £1. Find
the expected costofhis passing theexamination.
The probabilityofp3S$ingat thefimattemptis and the cost is £.1.
The probability offailing at the fim attempt but passing at the second attempt
is (j){f) and the eost ofpassing at the secondattcmpt is £2.
The probabilit y of failing at the fim two attempts but passing at the third
attempt is (})1(f) and the cost is £.3,

tci)3 (4)+ · · .J
and so on.
Therefore the expected cost is

£UO )+ i<f )(2) + f (J)1(J) +

= £. f [ l +2{!)+ J(i)' + 4(i)3 + . ..]

- f r,1-x)-1 - 1 1 if lxl < I

I
1
if lxl < 1
( 1 -x)
Thcrefort',repl:icing x by f.

Hcnce thcexpectcd cost ofp.using the cxaminalionis

£.lxf = ti = t1.61
Thi s rcs11lt must bcin1erpretcdas being 1hecostper candidate averaged out for
severa! cand.ldateswlththc�e probabil!ty (f) ofpassing aiany oncattempl.
Ob,io11s\y i1 wWcost anyone candid11ean in1egral multipl e o f £1.
22) A c omminee is ch0$Cn al 1andom from a group of ten people, Find the
expec ted number of men on the c omminee,
(a) The1eare four members of1he comminee.
(b) There a,e six men in the group.
(c) The commince offourare seate d a t a round tabfo,
23) Find thtprobabili t y t h a t a candida1ewho guesses a t random obtains a 1
least 40% i n a mul!ipk choice test.
(a) Tlme are one hundred questions.
(b) Eac h questionhas five altemativeanswers, only oneofwhichis correct.
(c) Eac h corrcc t answerscores oncmark,no ma1ks are gi>'en foran inoorrec t

24) Theprobabili t y oftossing a headwith a blased c olnis ½-

25) The number of way$ of choosing two c u ds fiom ;ipac k of fifty•two
pl;iying cardsis sip:,
26) If A and B arc mutually exdusi>·e, P(A IB) = O.
27) If P(A)= �. P(A ) "' j,
28) If P(A andB) = O then either P(A)= O or P(B) = O .
29) The number of;urangements of1he le11ers ofthe word EVERY i s 24.
30) The number of ways ofchoosing two diffrrent !eners from the set
IA.B,C,DI is 4.

I) An unbiase d die marke d 1,2,2,3,3,3, is rol!ed threetimes.Flnd the

p10bability ofge11ing a toral s.:ureof 4. (UofL)
2) A boy spins a coin three tirnes and a giil spins a c oin twice.l'ind !hc
probability 1ha1 1hegirl �umore heads lhan 1heboy. (UofL)
3) Two cards are to be drawn without ,eplacement f1om apack of playing
c ards. Find thep1obabili1y that
(a) both will be diamond�,
(b) one ca1d wil! be rcdand theother wi!lbe b!ack. (UofL)
4) A boyand agi1\ spi n a coinin 1urn,and the first to geta 'head' is thewlnner.
Thegirl p
s ins first.Find 1heprobability that theboy wirni . (UofL)
S) A train daily makes ijourney which involves stopping at two st�tions.The
p1obabili1iesofbeing de\ayeda1 1heses1at!ons art 0 6. an d O.g respec 1ivclyand
16) (a) Find the probability that the fmnth powu ohnypositi,-e Integer n
ends in the digit 6.
(b) ln a certain tournament in which games cannot result in a draw A plays
B until one of them ltz won a total ofthree games. If p is the
probability that A wins anyindhidualgameheplays against B and if
q = 1-p, find in terms of p and q theprobabllilies that,
(i) ,1 wins thefint threegames,
ii) a dcci.sionis reachc d in thcthirdgamc,
(iii)
( A wins the match in the fourth game,
(iv) a dedslonis reached in ihefourthgame.
If p = J, determine theprobability of ,I winning the match beforethe
sixth game. (AEB)

17) (a) Find how m:mynumbers betwecn 3000 and 4000 can be formed
using onlythe digit& 1 , 2 , 3 and4. no digi1 being repnted.
(b) A bas contains 4 red and 6 black balls.Oneballis drawn a t random;
ifi1i, black it is replaced in the bag.but ifi1i, ,ed it is not replaced.A
secon d ball isthcn drawn. X denotes theevcnt "Thc first bal l is1ed'
and Y denotes theevent'Thesecond ba l l i,;; red". Find the probabi lities
(i) P(X).
(ii) P(Y given .\').
(iii) P(Y),
(iv) P(eilher X or Y but not both). (C)

18) Oncof thrce coins isbi uedso that theprobabilityof obtaining aheadis
twiceas great a s theprob.ibilityofobtaininga tail.Theothcr two coins arcfair.
One of the three coins is chcmn at random and tossed three times, showing a
hea d on each occasion.U1ing a tree diagram, or o1 herwlse. f1ndthc probabWty
thatthe chosen coinis biascd. (U of L)

19) (a) In how manyways can a hand of 13 cards be dealt from J nom1al
pack of S2 cards, a!I ofwhichare diffcren t1 Assuming t hat cach deal
is equally!ikdy. what i s 1 hcprobabilityofhcing dealt 13 cards a l l of
the same suit?
(A11rwen w hml, p.1m 1/iou/d Ix left in factorial form.)
(b) If A and B areindependen t c1·cn1s. 1hc probabiliticsofwhich in n
ccr1aintrialare a and b 1cspecih·cly,wha1arethe p robabilitlesof:
(i) both A and B occuning,
(ii) e1-cn1 A occur ir ng but not B.
(iii) neither A nor B occurring'/
If thesetrials are repeated 11 1imc1withno change in the values of a and b,
whatis theprobabilitythatnei1hc, A 11or B wi!loccur? If a • b a 0.01 ,
f1n d how manytri:tls aic rcqui1c d bcforc this probabili1 y bccomc, lcuthan O.S
(AEB)
 20) Eight trees areplarued in a circle in random orde r . If two or 1he trees are
diseasedand latcr die,whatis theprobabilily thatthetwo dead treesarenext
to each other?
Jffour nfthem are disease d find (a)theprobability1h.u a1 \east twoofthemare
next t o eachother.and (b)thepiob.ibilitythatallfoorarencxtto each other.
(C)

21) When a boy fires an aiMifle the probability that he hits the target h p .
(a) Find theprobabi litythat ,firing 5 shots,he scoresat least 4 hits.
(b) Findthcprobahilityth.it,firing II shots (11 ;.. 2), he scores at least
two hits. (C)p

22) (a) Four men, two women :m d a child $it at a round table. Find the number
ofways ofarrangingthcscven peoplc ifthechil d i s seated (!)between
the two women, (ii) between two men.
(b) A diewith focesnumbered I to 6 is biased so that
P(score isr) a k,, (r= 1, .... 6). Find the value of k.
lf1he diels thrown twice,ca\culate theprobabilltythat the total si.-ore
exceeds JO. (C)

�3) (a) The 1csult.s of elHen football matches (as win, lose or draw) are t o be
forecast.OutofaUpos.sible forecasts,f111 d how manywill ha\ae eight
correctand threc incorrect results.
(b) An unbiaseddieintheshape ora ,esular dodccahedron hastwelve
faces with the numbe sr 2.2.4,4.4,6,6, \O,!O, l0. 1 2 ,12. showing
separately on the faces. The result or a throw is the number showinl! on
the uppcnnost face.E3ch offoorplayers 1hrnw s t h e d i e 1wiceand
scores thesum ofthe two ,esuhs.Wh3i ls the probabilitythat all ofthe
f ourplaycrs in suceession will cach obtain a score greater than six?
(c) An unbiascd diein thesl1ape o f a cube shows l.2,3,4,5,6 onib $iX
sep3rate faces. l t is tossed until it !ands thesamewayup twicc running.
Find thc probabilityth3tthis requires r tosses. (AEB)

24) Theprobabilities that aman 111akesa ce1tain dangerousjoumey bycu,

motor cycle or on foot 3re ½ , l and ½ respccth-ely. lfthc probabilities ofan
accidcnt when hcoscsthcse meansoft111nsportare f, f and Jb respectively,
find!he probabilityofJn accidenl occur ring in a sing!ejoumcy.
lfan acddent isknow n t o ha,·c happcncd. calculate thep10babilitics th.atthe
man was travelling
(a) byca1,
(b) bymntor cyck.
(c) on foo t . (UofL)
 Ptobab�ity

25) Four cardsaredrawn at random from a pack,onc a t a time with

replacemcnt.Find theprobability thac
{a) no heart isdrawn,
(b) fo11r hcarts aredrawn,
{c) twohcartsandtwo diamondsaredra11,n (in any o1der),
(d) one card from each suit isdrawn. (U ofL)

26) (a) Two cardsarc drawn without replacement from ten cards which are
numbered from I to !O. Find thc probabilitythat
(i) the1111mberson both c ardsare e1·en.
(ii) thc n11mber on onc card isoddand thcnumbe1on thcothcrcard
ISC\'Cn,
(iii thesum of thc nomberson ht e two cards exceeds 4.
) A and C arelndependen1, Probabilitiesrela1ing 10events A,
(b) Events
B and C a,easfollows
P(A) • 1/S, P(B) = 1/6, P(A nC) • 1/20, P(BUC)"' J/8.
Evaluate P(Cj and show that events B and C areindependenl.
(U ofL)

27) (a) A boxcontains six dke,one of which isunfairly biased.Jf two dice 11c
ch05Cn at random simultancously from thisbox. whatistheprobabilily
thatoneof them will bebiased?
(b) A uniform unbiased die isconstructedin theshapeofa regula,
tetrahedron with facesnumbered 2.2.J and4, and thc scorelstaken
from the face on which the die lamb.If two such dice arc thrnwn
togcther whattotal scoresarepossibleatnch th10 wandwha1isthe
probability ofcach scorc?What i s expccted tobetheu·eragesco,eov-er
a long scriesofthrows?
Whatis1he probabi!ity of scoring:
(i) exactly 6 on each of thrcesucceMiveth1ows.
(ii) mo1c1han 4 ona1 lean oneof three succeMivc throws? (Al::B)

28) (a) Show that i t i s moreprobable to get at lcas\ onesix w!th a throw of
three dice 1han toge1 1w0 Mxeswith anyoneof fifte-en throws oftwo
dice.
(b) The,e arc th,ee identica! boxcseach coniaini n g a sumof money , n o two
boxes containins the same amount. A man chooses a box asfollows: he
first takesa box at random(call it A) and sees how much isin it, tie
thcn 1akesoneoftheo1hcr 1wo bo:,;cs a1 1andom(callit B) and sees
howmuch isin it.lfbox 8 containsmorethanbo:,; A , then the man
chooses box B: ifbox B containsler.s thanbox A 1hen hc chooscs
thethirdbox(cal! it c:). Find theprobability !hat hewill choose·
(i) thebox con1ainingthe greatcs1 value ofmoney.
(ii) the box con'taining the �mallest value of money. (AEB)
 APPENDIX

Ouotabl� Formulae, U1ing S1andatd Symbol•

s = i(r, + v)t

S "' UI + )111 1
s = vr- ja1 1

v'-u' = 2as

X ,. 0 ,ii = -g
X = Vcorn Y = Vsina-gr

,,'
x = V1coso y .. Vtsina - fgt'

J'
= .rtano - 2V1
co:1? 0

X = -112 .r

::i: = 11�

2,
Period = -
Uniform Body Position ofG onaxi sof syrnme t ry
Soli d hemisphere jafrom plancface

Soli d { �:�
mid
�hfrombase

Ho!!owhemisphere !a from plane section

�lo!low { �:�: (no b�)

mid
ihfrom base
1
Circub r :1rc sub1ending a s no
: from cem,e
ananglc2oat cenuc

Circubr sector sublending

an .111glc2oa1 ccmrc ,.
2a sin o
from centre

Newron'1 Law F "' ma

Momentum
Kinetic Ene1gy = !mv' or !mv.,

j/
Po1entia! Ene1gy = mg!,
>x'
Elastic Energy a

byacu stant force ,,. H ur F.d

( �
bya,·anablcforce = JFds
Impulse ofa comtJntforcc = F1
(
ofa,·ariab!e force "" JFdt
 ANSWERS

Mo•t of the answer, given hor, ue quoted in u, OJ<ac\ fo:im (u<u15 $Ufdl, etc.). Studen11 who
have mcda calcul.o.tor inthrir >0lulion can chtckthtir 1n111,er1b)' COnvor1ingu euct
tt1ult1o declmal fo,m.

Eure... la-p.4 8) li-4J

J) •l 6 m }.JJmin the dircctionAC 9) 1(10,/ll- LO,/lj)
b)l0.Sm,5.4 \ m from Atothe 10) ';'i - ';' J
n,idpoint ofDE
2) J../J m i n chedittctionAC httc<H 2 d - p.29
3) a ) 2 m ,·' o!ong DE l) , ,. 3J + .>,,(2i+ 4Jl
b)lms"1 along AB 2) r = i - J + 5Ai
4) No )) 1 = 5 j + A(l- 5j)
5) Thcll�t,ectionoAB and CD. 4) r • .>,,(Ji+4j+ 2k)
5) o a. -41-J + k + /,,(l + J -k)
E..reiw 2a-p,18
Noro 1htlr1ht Rttr��rr tothtfol/o�,/ng
l) .l,/�1NE - qut1n·on1 cdn /Hp!•�n lnorh�rform1
_ ,. -
2J 1)AC t,)Bll c)AD d)DII 6) r « 2i + 3j + A(i+ IOj)
J) 1: b-1; 2(b-a) 7) r = J i + A(4 i - 9j)
6) b), c), e), !) 8) r = J J + A(l-4j)
9) r = 5i - 7J + k + A(ll -8J+ 3k)
h'""'ise 2b-p.23 10) , ,. l - l k + A(i+j -5k)
I) a)5.64N,2.0SN II) Jl + 7j; <Y.OJ,(0,-f)
b)!O m•·'.17.lm,·' 12) i-5J; (3.-7)
c)6.4N,4,8N 13) i - 7J; (l, -7). (2,-!4) �tc.
2) 2 N,J.5N !4)j; (2, !),(2,4)
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