AVIATION SAFETY MANAGEMENT SOCIETY OF INDIA

Question Paper Special VFR

Name-………Vikram T Prakash…………………

License Number………CHPL 1204…………..

Company……Thumby Aviation Pvt Ltd…….

Date……………Jul 2020……………

Duration-01:00 Hrs.

Total Marks 100-Pass Marks 80.

Total Questions 20. Each question carries 5 Marks.

Please attempt all Questions.

Answers are not to be Copy Paste and have to be given in your own words.

Q 1. Expand the following abbreviations:-

(a) FIR : Flight Information Region

(b) ATZ : Aerodrome traffic zone
(c) CTZ : Control Zone
(d) ADIZ : Air defence Identification Zone
(e) CTA : Control Area

Q 2. Name the Objectives of ATC.

Objectives of the ATC are as follows

To maintain expeditious and orderly flow of air traffic.
To prevent collision between aircraft & obstructions in the air and on ground
To maintain radio contact and provide useful information to the aircraft such as
weather, serviceability of airfield and navigation equipment required for aircraft
operations during the flight
To initiate and coordinate search and rescue operations with the IAF or coast guard

Q 3. Define Control Zone.

Control Zone is the zone adjoining the ATZ (Aerodrome Traffic Zone) and is a block of Controlled
Airspace extending from the surface of the earth to a specified upper limit that is also the lower
limit of the control area. It is

As small as possible
Established around aerodromes from lower level of CTA
Includes flight paths of controlled IFR flights to aerodrome
Size also depend on special VFR operation needs.

Q 4. Name the controlled Airspace and Uncontrolled airspaces in India. Does Controlled Airspace permits
only IFR flights.
Controlled Air space : Class D T TMA’s , CTA’s , CTZ’s , and ATZ’ s
Class E T Designated ATS Routes outside TMA’s and CTA’s, CTZ’s , and ATZ ‘s

Uncontrolled Airspace : Class F ATS Route segments outside TMA’s ,CTA’s , CTZ’s , and ATZ ‘s
Class G All airspaces other than above mentioned airspaces

No. In India controlled airspaces i.e Class D and Class E permit all types of flights ( VFR, IFR & SVFR) but
provide separation only between IFR flights.

Q 5. What do you understand by Special VFR? Write a short note on Special VFR including the criteria a
pilot should meet for the approval of Special VFR Flights by ATC, and minimum visibility for Class 1,Class 2
and Class 3 Helicopters.

SVFR flights are VFR flights thet are permitted to be operated when ground visibility < 5 Km, but not less
than 1500M to enter Control Zone for landing, take off to leave control zone or transit/operate locally
within the control zone. During SVFR we follow visual flight rules, undertake own navigation clear of
clouds and terrain and the pilot must be skilled to fly IFR in case of sudden requirement. Also, SVFR is
approved by Approach control unit and the request is handled on individual basis. During SVFR, IFR
separation minima is applied between special VFR flights and between special VFR and IFR flight. Two
way communication essential during SVFR flights and Performance class I/ class II helicopters may
operate - when ground visibility not < 1000 m. The Pilot is responsible for meeting the criteria and needs
to place an exquisite request for SVFR to be approved by the controlling authority.

Class 1/ Class 2 1000m

Class 3 1500 m

Q6. Name the minimum instruments required for Special VFR Flights.

In addition to the instruments required for undertaking a VFR flight, helicopters must have the following
equipment to undertake SVFR operations.

Artificial horizon
Heading indicator (direction gyro)
Rate of climb indicator (VSI)
VOR or ADF
GPS ( recommended)

Q 7. Enumerate your actions in case of communication failure.

If unable to communicate or hear, Check:-

(a) Correct Channel selected on VHF set.

(b) Volume of VHF, ICS.
(c) Chord Connecter.
(d) Serviceability of your head set.
(e) It may be possible that ATC can hear you but you can’t hear ATC.Continue to transmit your
position at intervals.
(f) Transmit on HF to appropriate area control within range.
(g) Select Squawk Code 7600 on your Transponder.
 (h) In extreme urgency, if signal available, Mobile can be used to talk or SMS to Duty Watch Officer,
your company or your colleagues.
(i) Helicopters approaching airports like Delhi may consider to land at a suitable helipad enroute and
inform ATC and their Company after landing since Delhi is very busy airport.
(j) All the Pilots should be aware of the Communication Failure SOP of the concerned Airport and
their Company.

If on an IFR Flight Plan, follow timings as per flight plan after taking above actions and feed in for
instrument landing as per ATIS / last known R/W. If on VFR flight plan, climb/ descend to U/S RT Sterile
height and land on green from ATC.

Q 8. Name the errors of Radio Compass.

Navigation using an ADF to track NDBs is subject to several common effects:

Night effect
Radio waves reflected back by the ionosphere can cause signal strength fluctuations 30 to 60
nautical miles (54 to 108 km) from the transmitter, especially just before sunrise and just after
sunset. This is more common on frequencies above 350 kHz. Because the returning sky waves
travel over a different path, they have a different phase from the ground wave. This has the
effect of suppressing the aerial signal in a fairly random manner. The needle on the indicator will
start wandering. The indication will be most erratic during twilight at dusk and dawn.
Terrain effect
High terrain like mountains and cliffs can reflect radio waves, giving erroneous readings.
Magnetic deposits can also cause erroneous readings
Thunderstorm effect
Water droplets and ice crystals circulating within a storm cloud, generate wideband noise. This
high power noise may affect the accuracy of the ADF bearing. Lightning, due to the high power
output will cause the needle of the RMI/RBI to point for a moment to the bearing of the
lightning.
Shoreline effect
Radio waves speed up over water, causing the wave front to bend away from its normal path and
pull it towards the coast Refraction is negligible perpendicular (90°) to the coast, but increases as
the angle of incidence decreases. The effect can be minimised by flying higher or by using NDBs
situated nearer the coast.
Station interference
Due to congestion of stations in the LF and MF bands, there is the possibility of interference from
stations on or near the same frequency. This will cause bearing errors. By day, the use of an NDB
within the DOC will normally afford protection from interference. However, at night one can
expect interference even within the DOC because of skywave contamination from stations out of
range by day. Therefore, positive identification of the NDB at night should always be carried out.
Dip (bank) angle
During banking turns in an aircraft, the horizontal part of the loop aerial will no longer be
horizontal and detect a signal. This causes displacement of the null in a way similar to the night
effect giving an erroneous reading on the indicator which means that the pilot should not obtain
a bearing unless the aircraft is wings-level.
Q 9. Name the Electronic Flight Instruments in your Aircraft. What is full form of EHSI, EADI, AFCS, AHRS,
and FMS?

ALH Dhruv : EHSI, EADI, AFCS, AHRS, GPS,

EHSI : Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator

EADI : Electronic Attitude and Direction Indicator

AFCS : Automatic Flight Control System

AHRS : Attitude and heading Reference System

FMS : Flight Management System

Q 10. Name the errors of VOR. What do you understand by cone of confusion?

Ground station Error : This is a systematic error associated with the transmitter, aerial and earth systems
and power supply that is with the actual ground equipment. Error on a particular bearing is very small,
and is plotted accurately on commissioning. It is similar to quadrantal error in an airborne ADF system.
Ground station error, in practice, is usually less than ± 2°.

Site Effect Error : There are, superimposed on the ground station error, site effects which are due to
topographical features near the ground station. These site effects modify the ground station errors. The
combined effect of these errors are determined at various altitudes at the time of commissioning and the
overall error must be less than ± 3°.

Airborne Equipment Error : Airborne equipment error is the error attributable to the various components
of the VOR equipment in the aircraft. In well designed and built equipment it is generally less than ± 2°.

Vertical Polarisation : If vertical polarisation effects are presented they are detected in manoeuvres which
tilt the aircraft aerial, that is in a turn by an aircraft. When in a banked attitude, the receiving antenna on
the aircraft, instead of sampling only the horizontally polarised VOR signals, may pick up large sloping
obstructions.

Q 11. What do you understand by Class 1,2 and 3 Helicopters.

Class 1
A helicopter with performance such that, in case of critical powerunit failure, it is able to land on the
rejected takeoff area or safely continue flight to an appropriate landing area, depending on when the 
failure occurs (ICAO).

Class 2
A helicopter with performance such that, in case of critical powerunit failure, it is able to safely continue
flight, except when the failure occurs prior to a defined point after takeoff or after a defined point before 
landing, in which case a forced landing may be required (ICAO).

Class 3
A helicopter with performance such that, in case of powerunit failure at any point in the flight profile, a 
forced landing must be performed (ICAO).
Q 12. Name the factors affecting the performance of Helicopter. Explain the effect of Density Altitude on
the performance of Helicopter.

Factors affecting helicopter Performance:

1. Pressure Altitude
2. Elevation
3. OAT
4. Winds
5. AUW
6. Moisture
7. Power Available

Effect Of Density Altitude on Helicopter Performance

Density Altitude: Density Altitude represents the combined effect of pressure altitude and temperature.
DA is defined as the height in the standard atmosphere that has a density corresponding to the density at
the particular location (on the ground or in the air) at which the density altitude is being measured.

In practical terms for the pilot, an increase in density altitude has a number of effects on helicopter
performance: Reduced hover ceiling – means the choice of take-off and landing sites available to the pilot
becomes limited. Reduced operating margins – means reduced payloads. Reduced rate-of-climb
performance – means obstacle clearance can be adversely affected.

Q 13. Expand the abbreviations:-

(a) EGPWS Enhanced Ground Proximity Warning System

(b) GAGAN GPS-Aided GEO Augmented Navigation
(c) ADSB Automatic Dependent Surveillance Broadcast
(d) PINS Approach Point IN Space Approach
(e) ELT Emergency Location Transmitter

Q 14. Write a short note on GPS. What are the errors and limitations of GPS? Can GPS signals be jammed
or degraded.

GPS is a space-based positioning, velocity and time system, developed and operated by the U.S.
Department of Defense and composed of space, control and user segments. The space segment is
composed of 21 satellites (plus three operational spares) in six orbital planes. The control segment
consists of five monitor stations, three ground antennas and a master control station. The user segment
consists of antennas and receiver-processors that provide positioning, velocity, and precise timing to the
user. The satellites broadcast two forms of clock information, the Coarse/Acquisition code, or C/A is
freely available to the public, while the restricted Precise code, or P-code is usually reserved for military
applications.

GALILEO is a similar satellite navigation system under development by the European Commission.

Global Orbiting Navigation System (GLONASS) is a similar radio-based satellite navigation system,
developed by the former Soviet Union and now operated for the Russian government by the Russian
Space Forces. It is the Russian counterpart of GPS.

Errors and Factors that can affect GPS signal and accuracy include the following:
  Ionosphere and troposphere delays: Satellite signals slow as they pass through the atmosphere.
The GPS system uses a built-in model to partially correct for this type of error.
 Signal multipath: The GPS signal may reflect off objects such as tall buildings or large rock
surfaces before it reaches the receiver, which will increase the travel time of the signal and cause
errors.
 Receiver clock errors: A receiver's built-in clock may have slight timing errors because it is less
accurate than the atomic clocks on GPS satellites.
 Orbital errors: The satellite's reported location may not be accurate.
 Number of satellites visible: The more satellites a GPS receiver can "see," the better the
accuracy. When a signal is blocked, you may get position errors or possibly no position reading at
all. GPS units typically will not work underwater or underground, but new high-sensitivity
receivers are able to track some signals when inside buildings or under tree-cover.
 Satellite geometry/shading: Satellite signals are more effective when satellites are located at
wide angles relative to each other, rather than in a line or tight grouping.
 Selective availability: The U.S. Department of Defense once applied Selective Availability (SA) to
satellites, making signals less accurate in order to keep 'enemies' from using highly accurate GPS
signals. The government turned off SA in May of 2000, which improved the accuracy of civilian
GPS receivers.

Yes GPS Signals can be jammed and degraded by relatively inexpensive electronic equipment and
similarly the accuracy can be improved by ground transmitters using AGPS stations.

Q 15. What is Spatial Disorientation? How can you prevent special Disorientation?

Spatial disorientation is the mistaken perception of one’s position and motion relative to the Earth. Any
condition that deprives a pilot of natural, visual references to maintain orientation can rapidly cause
spatial disorientation. It occurs when pilots' sensory systems, such as their vestibular or balance system,
cause them to misinterpret their position in flight relative to Earth or other aircraft. Often, pilots do not
know they are disoriented until it is too late. 

Preventive strategies start with the selection of healthy candidates with normal vestibular function for
aviation duties. The trained aircrew should make conscious and concerted efforts to be physically and
mentally healthy, and if unwell or under medication – prescribed or self-medicated, must avoid flying
under any circumstances for their safety and that of the passengers. In addition, pilots must
be indoctrinated about physiological limitations, which may result in different types of illusions. Such an
indoctrination is advocated using both didactic lectures and demonstration and training in a SD simulator,
if available.

The emphasis of regulators on instrument flying and rating is well justified as a proven preventive tool
against SD. Thus pilots should be proficient in instrument flying, so that they can fly in bad weathers
effectively. Besides each pilot striving to hone his/her instrument flying skills, this is the responsibility of
the operators and supervisors as well, to ensure that pilots are proficient in instrument flying. In addition,
particularly for single cockpit pilots, it is advisable that in case of a break in flying, the pilots must fly the
first sortie under supervision and care, preferably a day or clear weather sortie.

In addition, aircraft manufacturers, particularly that of military and the small aircraft, must consciously
bring in modifications in the aircraft design and display to decrease the incidence of SD in flight. The
broad principles for the designers and manufacturers to consider are:-

 Ergonomically sound cockpit layout.

 Provision of Head up display.

  Use of inside-out vs outside-in ADI display

 Fail-safe autopilot.

Q 16. Define CFIT. How can you prevent CFIT?

Controlled Flight into Terrain (CFIT) occurs when an airworthy aircraft under the complete control of the
pilot is inadvertently flown into terrain, water, or an obstacle. The pilots are generally unaware of the
danger until it is too late. Most CFIT accidents occur in the approach and landing phase of flight and are
often associated with non-precision approaches.

Many CFIT accidents occur because of loss of situational awareness, particularly in the vertical plane, and
many crash sites are on the centreline of an approach to an airfield.

Before the installation of the first electronic warning systems, the only defenses against CFIT were pilot
simulator training, traditional procedures, crew resource management (CRM) and radar surveillance
by air traffic services. While those factors reduced the incidence of such accidents, they did not eliminate
them. To further assist in preventing CFIT accidents, manufacturers developed terrain awareness and
warning systems (TAWS). The first generation of those systems was known as a ground proximity warning
system (GPWS), which used a radar altimeter to assist in calculating terrain closure rates. That system
was further improved with the addition of a GPS terrain database and is now known as an enhanced
ground proximity warning system (EGPWS). When combined with mandatory pilot simulator training,
which emphasizes proper responses to any caution or warning event, the system has proved very
effective in preventing further CFIT accidents.

Smaller aircraft often use a GPS database of terrain to provide terrain warning. The GPS database
contains a database of nearby terrain and will present terrain that is near the aircraft in red or yellow
depending on its distance from the aircraft.

Statistics show that if TAWS or EGPWS are properly handled aircraft fitted with a second-generation
EGPWS have not suffered a CFIT accident.

Q 17. What is Situational awareness? How can you improve your Situational awareness?

Situation Awareness (SA) is "knowing what is going on around you“ and is fundamental to correct
decision making and action. Situation awareness is a description of an individual's, or team's,
understanding of the aircraft state and environment, based on perceived and processed information.
Decision making is based on situation awareness, therefore if you have poor SA, you are likely to make
poor decisions.

"Situation awareness relates to one’s ability to accurately perceive what is in the cockpit and outside the
aircraft. It is also one’s ability to comprehend the meaning of different elements in the environment and
the projection of their status in the near future". It further extends to the planning of several solutions
for any emergency situation which could occur in the immediate future.

Situational awareness is essential for flight safety and its influence and impact are pervasive Situational
awareness is gained by using the senses to scan the environment and compare the results with mental
models. Planning, communication and coordination for upcoming flight phases, goal setting and feedback
are essential ingredients of Situational Awareness and decision making. Inattention, distraction and high
workload threatens situational awareness. To prevent the loss of situational awareness : Implement
proven best practices: sterile flight deck, standard calls, CRM, Golden Rules for Pilots, instrument scan, …
Follow strictly company SOPs and Flight Manual. Maintaining good situational awareness requires a pilot
to be attentive, mindful and perceptive, even when things are going well. Pilots can do multiple things to
improve their situational awareness: thorough preflight planning, improving stick and rudder skills,
becoming familiar with aircraft systems and performance in advance, being comfortable with the
aircraft's avionics, using ATC services when available and many more. All of these items can help a pilot
maintain positive situational awareness during a flight. 

Q 17. Write a short note on PINS approaches.

The Point-in-space approach is based on GNSS and is an approach procedure designed for helicopters
only. It is aligned with a reference point located to permit subsequent flight manoeuvring or approach
and landing using visual manoeuvring in adequate visual conditions to see and avoid obstacles.

An approach procedure designed for helicopters only that includes both a visual and an instrument
segment.

PINS is identified through WGS84 coordinate, navigated with GNSS sensor.

Pins approach is a non precision approach.

This approach is an RNAV approach for Helicopter, only with basic GNSS receiver approved by the
national authority for the operator. (DGCA India)

All approaches will be upto a point in space. After that the pilot should have visual reference to
continue to the intended landing site or initiate a missed approach.

This visual segment connects the point‐in‐space (PinS) to the landing location.

The flexibility that offers the free positioning of the MAPT is the main advantage of this concept

Q 18. Write a short note on ADSB.

ADS-B is a means by which aircraft, aerodrome vehicles and other objects can automatically transmit
and/or receive data such as identification, position and additional data, as appropriate, in a broadcast
mode via a data link.

ADS-B is a Surveillance technique that relies on aircraft or airport vehicles broadcasting their identity,
position and other information derived from on board systems (GNSS etc.). This signal (ADS-B Out) can be
captured for surveillance purposes on the ground (ADS-B Out) or on board other aircraft in order to
facilitate airborne traffic situational awareness, spacing, separation and self-separation (ADS-B In)

ADS-B is automatic because no external stimulus is required; it is dependent because it relies on on-

board systems to provide surveillance information to other parties. Finally, the data is broadcast, the
originating source has no knowledge of who receives the data and there is no interrogation or two-way
contract.

ADS-B advantages

 Increase capacity and efficiency of airspace

 Expand ATC surveillance into more areas

Q 19. Write a short note on GAGAN.

The GPS-aided GEO augmented navigation (GAGAN) is an implementation of a regional satellite-based

augmentation system (SBAS) by the Government of India. It is a system to improve the accuracy of
a GNSS receiver by providing reference signals. The AAI's efforts towards implementation of operational
SBAS can be viewed as the first step towards introduction of modern Communication, navigation and
surveillance/Air Traffic Management system over Indian airspace.

The project has established 15 Indian reference stations, 3 Indian navigation land uplink stations, 3 Indian
mission control centers, and installation of all associated software and communication links. It will be
able to help pilots to navigate in the Indian airspace by an accuracy of 3 m. This will be helpful for landing
aircraft in marginal weather and difficult approaches across the varied terrain in the country.

A flight-management system based on GAGAN will then be poised to save operators time and money by
managing climb, descent and engine performance profiles. The FMS will improve the efficiency and
flexibility by increasing the use of operator-preferred trajectories. It will improve airport and airspace
access in all weather conditions, and the ability to meet the environmental and obstacle clearance
constraints. It will also enhance reliability and reduce delays by defining more precise terminal area
procedures that feature parallel routes and environmentally optimised airspace corridors.

 GAGAN will increase safety by using a three-dimensional approach operation with course
guidance to the runway, which will reduce the risk of controlled flight into terrain i.e., an accident
whereby an airworthy aircraft, under pilot control, inadvertently flies into terrain, an obstacle, or
water.

 GAGAN will also offer high position accuracies over a wide geographical area like the Indian
airspace. These positions accuracies will be simultaneously available to 80 civilian and more than
200 non-civilian airports and airfields and will facilitate an increase in the number of airports to
500 as planned. These position accuracies can be further enhanced with ground-based,
augmentation system.

Q 20. Please visit www.aviationsafety india.com. Under the Heading Accident Analysis, you will find the
analysis of a Helicopter accident dated 04 Nov 2015. Kindly go through the Accident Analysis and write
what lessons you can learn from that accident.

The main cause of the accident ( Dauphin 04 Nov 15) was Spatial Disorientation, loss of Situational
Awareness and consequent Controlled Flight Into Terrain.

The helicopter impacted into the sea at high velocity, as  

 The pilot on controls, who had a long break in night offshore flying, got into complete spatial
disorientation, as a result of black hole phenomenon, while approaching a helideck at high speed
in tail winds on a dark night, and

 The PIC did not take over controls when the helicopter descended below critical height.

Malfunctioning of a particular channel of autopilot (HDG in the case of this Dauphin) does not preclude
use of other channels and modes. Flying hands-on or use of SAS mode in IMC conditions comes with its
own perils as described in another article this author wrote for Vertical Magazine last year. The deadly
phenomenon of SD, exacerbated by the tendency to fly hands-on in a debilitating situation, sent the
helicopter spiralling all the way down from 3000 feet into the sea below.

Lessons Learnt:
1. Beyond having adequate experience in undertaking the mission, the Pilots need to properly Plan,
Prepare for the Flight, conduct extensive Pre Flight, Descent and Approach briefing, carry out risk
assessment, have good knowledge about helicopter, its systems, Emergencies, Procedures,
enroute and approach charts, remain alert vigilant particularly during critical phases of the Flight
and not be complacent at any stage, particularly during high risk operations, like night flying
offshore.

2. More the experience, more the chances of complacency setting in and this aspect must be kept in
mind by experienced pilots.

3. The Instructor or the Co Pilot should be fully alert and involved during the flight particularly when
the flight operations are demanding and they should take over controls in time since any delay
can be dangerous.

4. Spatial Disorientation (SD) is one of the most important factor while flying offshore since chances
of SD are quite high while flying over sea even during day time and the probability factor of SD
multiplies with bad weather and night offshore operations. This aspect must be adequately
emphasized during Pre Flight briefing.

5. It is essential to keep in mind the long gap between the night currency and any other currency
and the Instructor must take the training more seriously rather than going through the motions.

6. Experience of the Instructor and the Pilot under Training should not influence the mind of the
Supervisors and the Pilots, to take the training in a casual manner.

7. Pre Flight briefing, Pre Descent and Approach Briefing are essential requirement for better
Situational Awareness (SA) and the Instructor/Captain should conduct the same with seriousness
it deserves.

8. The Operator must take adequate steps to improve its Safety Culture through Proactive Hazard
Identification, sincere implementation of SMS,proper development and periodic review of SOP’s,
Manuals, involvement of Top Management including Head Training,Operations,Flight and
Maintenance Safety.

9. Adequate emphasis must be given on Simulator and Ground training. The objective should be on
quality of training rather than tick the box syndrome which prevails among most of the Operators
and Pilots. Remember the purpose of any training is to promote safety and efficiency of the
Operations and as such, the training must be taken seriously.