ELECTROSTATICS


1 Q N dV 1 Q J
Electric Field Intensity:- E = vector unit:- E=− Electric Potential V = scalar unit:- V = − E.dr
40 r 2 C dr 40 r C

Electric Dipole:- Equal and Opposite charge separated by small distance, Dipole moment P = 2ql vector(direction from negative to positive charge unit:- C m
E & V on Equitorial line:- Torque on Dipole:- Net force = +qE – qE = 0
E & V on Axial Line:- E at pt. P on axial line Torque = Force × ⊥ distance
E = EA cos  + EB cos 
= qE × BC [BC = 2l × sin θ
since = qE 2l sin θ
= E (2ql) sin θ
is E = E B + ( −E A ) EA = EB
τ = PE sin θ = P  E
1 q 1 q E = 2EA cos  τmax = PE for θ = 90o
E= −
40 ( r − l )2 40 ( r + l )2 work done in Rotating Dipole
1 q l l
E=
q  1
 −
1 

40  ( r − l )2 ( r + l )2 
E = 2

2ql
 
40 x2  x 
P
cos  =
x W=
  d = (1 − cos ) PE
  E= = Energy of Dipole: U = –PE cos θ
40x3 ( )
3 Stable equilibrium θ = 0, U= –PE
2  2qrl 2pr 40 x2 + l2
E= = Unstable equilibrium
40 ( r2 − l2 ) 40 ( r2 − l  )
2 2
P Θ = 180o ⇒ U = PE.
E=
3
40 ( r2 + l2 ) 2
2P Gauss Theorem:- Total electric flux (total no. of lines
E= For short dipole r >> l (direction (-)
3
40r of forces) emerges from closed surface is
1
times the
P 0
to (+)) E= For short dipole r >> l
40 ( r3 )
 E.dS = 
qin
1 −q 1 q Direction (+) to (-) charge enclosed
V = VA + VB = +
40 ( r + l ) 40 ( r − l ) 1 ( −q )
0
1 q
V = VA + VB = + =0
P 40 x 40 x
1 P
= V=
40 ( r2 − l2 ) 4 r2 0

E due to long charged wire: E due to charged plane sheet: E due to charged Hallow Sphere:
q q q
Linear charge density  = Surface charge density  = Volume charge density  =
l A V

 E.dS = 
qin For non conducting plate charge is on both side
 E.dS = 
qin


q
0 2 E.dS = 0
0
E.dS +  E.dS +  E.dS = 
qin

q
1 2 3 E dS =
q 0
0 2EA =
For dS2 and dS3 θ = 90 o 0
E( 4r2 ) =
q
For curved surface dS1 θ = 0 q 
E= E= 0


q q
E dS = ⇒ E ( 2rl ) = 20 A 20
0 0 E=
1 q
On surface
 40 R 2
2q For conducting sheet E =
0
q 1 2 1 q
E= = l ⇒E= * E is independent of distance from the sheet. E= Outside & E = 0 as q = 0 inside
2rl0 40r 40 r 40 r2

Capacitor:- Q = CV unit:- Farad, * C depends on dimensions

Capacitance for parallel plate Surface charge Density Energy of Capacitor
capacitor Q
 = Q = A
Energy = work done in bringing charge
Consider || plate capacitor with A at potential V
area of plate A, capacitance C and Electric field q
dW = V  dq = .dq
dist. b/w plates d E = Eair + Edielectric C
Q Q Q
C=
Q
=
Q   1  q2  1 Q2
= +
 
1
V Ed 0 k0 U = dW = q  dq =   =
C C  2 0 2 C
 0 0
E= for charged sheet Potential V = E × d
0 1Q 1 2
1
(  U= = CV 2 = QV
V = a + b) + t 2 C 2 2
=
Q
for surface charge density 0 k0
A Energy Density (energy per unit volume)
 t
A  A V= a + b +  1 2 1 0 A (
E  d)
2
C= = 0 0  k CV
 1
d
d = 2 =2 d = 0E2
0  t volume Ad 2
V= d − t + 
0  k Unit of energy density:- J/m3
If dielectric with dielectric
Q A
constant k is filled b/w the plates. Now C= =
V  t
C’ = kC d − t + 
0  k
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY
q A – Area
Electric Current: i = , unit - Ampere n – number of free electrons in unit volume
t
nAle RA m
* Scalar quantity i =q/t = resistivity ρ = ρ =
Drift velocity:- v = u + a t l ne2
if u = 0  − relaxation time (10
–14
s) Also J =  E
Vd = a Current I = neAVd J=
I
= current density (vector)
eE eV I ne 2 A A
Also ma = eE = f  a = I = neA =
m ml V ml
V = IR
eE
Vd = (10–5 m/s) as V = Exl V ml
m R= =
I ne2 A
eV
Vd = V
ml Mobility  = d (m2/sV)
E

Temperature dependence of resistivity Electric Energy & power Colour Coding of Resistor
with increase in temperature Power = Energy / Time = Work done / Time
conductors :  decrease.   inc. It is a scalar quantity
 V2
semiconductors; n increase   dec E = V.I.t = I 2 Rt = t
R
V2
P = V.I = I 2 R =
R
1 unit = 1 KWh

Series combination of resistance:- R = R1 + R2. Current same E = V + ir charging KIRCHOFF’S LAW

Parallel combination of resistance:- 1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 Voltage same E = V – ir discharging i. i = 0 Junction law
ii. iR = E = 0 Voltage law
Cell in series I = nE /nr + R Meter Bridge:
nE Let Unknown Resistance = X
Cell in parallel i=
r + nR R l
=
Wheatstone Bridge: X 100 − l
Balance condition P/Q=R/S R(100 − R)
X=
Potential at A & B same at null pt. l
RA
Position of Galvanometer & Resistivity  =
L
battery can be interchanged at null pt.
Meter bridge in most sensitive when null pt. in middle.
Potentiometer:
Principle:- If constant current flows through wire of uniform cross section, then drop in directly proportional to length of that portion
E Advantage of Potentiometer over voltmeter:-
K = = Potential gradient 1. Preferred over voltmeter as it give exact reading draw no
L current
When K1 inserted then E1 = K × L1 2. Sensitivity increase with increase in length
When K2 inserted then E2 = K × L2 3. A small P. D can be measured accurately with the help of
E1 L1 potentiometer. The resistance of voltmeter is high but not
=
E 2 L2 infinity to work as an ideal voltmeter.
4. The internal resistance of a cell can be measured with the
help of potentiometer.

When only K1 is inserted then E = K × L1

When K1 and K2 both are inserted then
V = K × L2 = E – r
l 
r = R  1 − 1
 l2 
 MOVING CHARGES & MAGNETISM
Magnetic Field:- Produced by magnet, moving charge, Vector quantity. Unit:- Tesla (weber/m2), gauss (maxwell/cm2) IT = 104 G
Oested Experiment:- Current carrying conductor produces magnetic field.


Bio Savart Law:- It gives M.F. at a point around
Ampere’s Circuital Law:- B.dl = 0i The line integral of magnetic field B for
current carrying conductor.
 idl sin  any closed circuit is equal to μ0 times current i threading through this closed loop
dB = 0
4 r 2 and this closed loop is called Amperian loop.
0 B. Due to Infinitely Long Wire:-
= 10−7 TmA−1 Magnetic field at P due to wire
4
μ0 – Permeability of free space
Direction of B:- Perpendicular to dl and r. 
B.dl = 0i


B = 0 if sin θ = 0 B dl = 0i
B = max sin θ = 1 θ = 90o
 idl  r B(2πr) = μ0i
Vector Form dB = 0
4 r 3  2l
B= 0
4 r
Mag. Field At Centre of Coil:-
Direction:- Right Hand Thumb Rule curly finger gives field direction if thumb of
 idl sin 90o right hand points current outside
dB = 0
4 r2 B. due to Solenoid:-
B =   i
dB = 0 2
4 r 
dl

Bdl = B.dl cos 

 i N – Total Turns
= 0 2 (2r ) d
4 r
 i
B = 0 or B = 0
 Ni
a

B.dl = 0i

2r 2r
b c d a
Direction:- Right Hand Thumb Rule.
On Axis of Coil:-
0 idl sin 90o

a

b

c

B.dl + B.dl + B.dl + B.dl = 0 ( Ni )
d
dB =
4 x2 b

B =  dB sin   B.dl + 0 + 0 + 0 =  ( Ni )
a
0

0i ( 2a ) a
= . b
4x2

x N
B. dl = 0 Ni B.L = 0 ni ⇒ ∴ B = μ0ni n= (Turns per unit Length)
2 L
0 Nia
B= a

2 ( a2 + r 2 )
3/ 2
Force on charge in Electric field:- Magnetic Field:-
B. Due to Toroid:- (Closed solenoid) F = qE (both for rest & motion) F = qV Bsin θ (only for moving charge)

 B.dl =  Ni0

B (2r ) = 0 Ni
0 Ni  N 
B= n = 
2 r  2r 
B = 0 ni [at P]
Lorentz Force:- F = qE + qvB sin θ = q (E + vB sin θ)
Cyclotron:- Used to accelerate charge Particles. Force b/w 2 parallel current carrying wire:- Force acting on a due to b.
Principle:- The repeated motion of charged particles under mag. & ele.   2i 
field accelerates it. E.F. provides energy while M.F. changes direction. F =  0 1  i2l sin 90o
 4 r 
Construction:- Dees, Sources, M.F., R.F. Oscillator
1 2    2i i
Working:- Max KE = mvmax F =  0  1 2 (For unit Length)
2  4  r
2 By Flemings LHR force is of attraction for same
1  qBr 
= m  direction of current and force of repulsion for opposite
2  m  direction of current.
2 2 2
1q B r if i1 = i2 = 1 A, r = 1m.
K .E. =
2 m then F = 2 × 10–7 N.
Current Sensitivity:- Deflection per unit current
Moving Coil Galvanometer:- Device Torque Experienced By a  BAN Radian
Is = =
to detect & measure electric current. Current loop in uniform i C Ampere
Principle:- Current loop experience Magnetic Field:- Voltage Sensitivity:- Deflection per unit voltage
torque in uniform M.F. τ = F × ⊥ distance
I   BAN  Radian 
Construction:- Light Coil, concave = Bil × bsin θ Vs = s = = =  
magnetic Poles → radial field. τ = Bi A sin θ R V iR CR  Volt 
Theory:- Deflecting torque For N Turns:-
Limitation:- Only charged particles can be acceleration Application:-
= Restring force (torque) τ = BiNa sin θ
For circular path:- For nuclear
B × i × N × A × sin θ = CØ
mv2 mv reaction & other
(θ = 90o) as field is radial = qvB ⇒ r = ⇒r∝v research purpose.
C r qB
∴ B AiN = CØ ⇒ i =
ABN 1 q 2 B2r 2
K .E. =
2 m
Time period = Distance / Velocity = 2πr / v ⇒ T = 2πm / qB
Frequency of Revolution:- f = 1/T = qB/2πm
Conversion of Galvanometer into Ammeter:- Conversion Into Voltmeter:- By connecting high resistance in series
(i – ig)S = ig.G {For Ideal voltmeter, R = ∞}
ig .G V = ig ( R + G )
S =
i − ig V (
= R + G)
{For Ideal Ammeter R = 0} ig

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION (E.M.I)

The phenomena of producing induced current due to change in magnetic flux is called electromagnetic induction.
Faraday Law:- (i) Change in magnetic flux induces current which last till there is change.
−d 
(ii) e =
dt
Lenz’s Law:- Induce current opposes the factor due to which it is produced. Method of producing emf:-
acc. to law of conservation of energy. − d  − dBAcos 
e= =
dt dt
Induced current / charge:-
−d  e −d  dq −d 
e= ,i = = , =
dt R Rdt dt Rdt
−d 
dq =
R
Motional emf:- The emf induced due to motion of a conductor in M. field.

−d  −d  Eddy Current:- The circulating induced

Motional emf:- e = Rotating rod:- e = current in a oscillating metallic block kept in
dt dt
magnetic field. In can be reduced by using
− dB.A − dBA
= e= laminated core, or cutting slots in block.
dt dt Application:-
− BdA − Bldx BdA (i) Magnetic brakes
= = e= (ii) Induction furnace
dt dt dt
(iii) Dead beat galvanometer
e = − Bvl BL2
e=
Direction = Anticlockwise 2
Force:- i =
Bvl 
R 1 1
e = BL2 or e = BR2
 Bvl  2 2
F = Bil = − B  l
 R  No. of spokes is increased emf remain same.
− B2vl 2
F=
R
Power:- P = Fv
− B2v2l 2
P=
R
Self – Induction:- Change in current in a coil, induced Mutual – Induction:- when the change in current *No. of turns is double than inductance
current is produced which opposes the change in same coil. in primary coil induces current in secondary coil. become four times ( L ∝ n2).
Electrical Resonance:-
Unit:- L = 1 Henry (H) ϕ∝i 1 1
Dimension Formula:- [ML2T–2A–2] ϕ = Mi F=
2 LC
Solenoid:- Unit – Henry
ϕ = Li ∈0 = Farad/m Power in A.C. circuit:-
ϕ = BAN = (μ0niA) × N μ0 = Henry/m 1
P = V0i0 cos 
Li = μ0n2 × i × A × l (n = N/l) Solenoid:- B2 = μ0n2i2 2
L = μ0n2Al ϕ = B2AN1 V i
ϕ = (μ0n2i2)AN1 P = 0 0 cos 
ϕ = Mi2 2 2
Mi2 = μ0n1n2Ali2  P = VRMS iRMS Cos 
M = μ0n1n2Al
 R
Cos  = Z 
 MAGNETISM & MATTER
Properties of Magnet: Permanent Magnets are made up of steel: Magnetic Material:
1. Magnets have north pole and south pole. Hysteresis Loop / curve: The graph plotted b/w
2. Likes poles repel & unlike attract each other. external field (H) & mag. induction (B) is called “BH Paramagnetic Diamagnetic Ferromagnetic
3. Freely suspended magnet rests in N – S direction. curve ‘or hysteresis Loop. 1. odd no of e– 1. Even no of 1.
4. Monopole do not exist. Energy Loss: Work done (energy loss) in in outer most e– and Ferromagnetic
5. Mag. Length is eq to 0.84 times of their geometric magnetization and demagnetization is eq. to area of orbit & possess net materials
length. BH curve. possess net dipole have some
Elements of Earth’s magnetic field: dipole moment is 0. unpaired
Magnetic Dipole Moment: N  2l → S
1. Angle of Dip: Angle b/w horizontal line & mag. moment. electrons so
M = m2l unit: Am2 their atoms
meridian as a freely suspended magnet.
m → pole Strength. have a net
2. Angle of Declination: Angle b/w geographical
M → Magnetic Dipole Moment magnetic
meridian & mag. meridian is called Angle of
Declination moment. They
M. Due to Current Loop: When current is passed get their strong
3. Horizontal Intensity of Earth Mag.
through a loop it, behaves like a magnet. (M = iA) = magnetic
The horizontal component of to. Earth’s field at any
current × Area, M = NiA properties due
point is called horizontal intensity
q evr to the presence
⸫ M= ( r) 2 = {for e-, v = 2r/t} BV Bsin 
= tan  , B2 = (BH ) 2 + ( BV )
2
t 2 = of magnetic
BH Bcos  domains.
Magnetic Dipole Moment of a revolving: B = BH 2 + BV 2
M = iA = ( r 2 ) =
q evr 2. Aligns || to 2. Align ⊥ 2. When
{for e-, v = 2r/t} field & get a magnetizing
t 2 to ext. field.
weakly force
magnetized is applied, the
Magnetic Field of Earth:
along ext. domains
Magnetic Field Intensity due to magnetic Dipole: field. become aligned
0 2M to produce a
1. On Axial line: B =
4 r 3 strong magnetic
 M field
2. On Equatorial line: B = 0 3 within the part.
4 r
Torque Acting on dipole in Mag. field: 3. Mag. field 3. Mag. field 3. Temp. at
 = f  dis. = mB2 l sin = m2 lBsin pass through repelled by which
substance substance. ferromagnetic
= MBsin
substance
⸫  = MBsin  becomes
→Torque is ⊥ to mag. field and mag. dipole paramagnetic
moment (M) called curie
Temperature.
→  max = MB (sin = 1),  = 90° {Due to torque
4. Increase
rotation motion or liner. } 4.Increase with increase
→  min = 0 = (sin = 0) ,  = 0 with decrease in temp
in temp.
Work done in Rotating the Dipole:
W = MB [cos1 – cos2] Electromagnets: Are prepended by passing electric
current in a solenoid. The magnet lasts till the current
is passed.
It can be increased by:
1. Increasing number of turns.
2. Increasing current.
3. using soft iron core.
 ALTERNATING CURRENT (A.C)
TRANSFORMER: - It is a device use the A.C. Generator :- It is a device which convert mechanical Alternating Current: -
change AC voltage. energy into electrical energy. D.C – Direction & magnitude are fixed.
Principle: It is based on principle of mutual Principle: It is based on principle of electromagnetic A.C – Change in both magnitude and direction.
induction. induction.
Construction: two coil primary & secondary Construciton: 
V
Step up: Increase voltage (k>1) and decrease (i) Arumature coil. HALF– CYCLE: Vavg. = 
current. (ii) Field magnet 0
Step down: decrease voltage (k < 1) and (iii) Slip ring 1
increase current. (iv) Brushes . Vavg . =
  V sin  d
0

V N ip  − d 0

Theory:  s = S = = K  e= 1
 −V0 cos 0

Vp N p is  dt Vav =
– dBA cos t 
 output  e= −V0
 =  100%  dt Vav = cos  − cos 0
 input  e = BA(–ωsinωt) 
e = BAN ωsin ωt
emax = e0 = BANω 2V0 2I0
Vav = or Iav =
e = e0sinωt  
2
1
Full Cycle: Vav =
2  V d
0
2
1
Vavg =
2  V sin  d
0
0

V0
( − cos )0
2
Vavg =
2
A.C. Circuit: - V V
Pure Resistive Circuit: (Circuit containing Pure capacitor circuit (circuit containing capacitor only) Vavg = 0 ( − cos 2 + cos ) = 0 ( −1 + 1)
2 2
resistance) Q = CV
Vavg =0 or Iavg = 0
d dV d d
V V0 =C , i=C (V0 sinωt) i = CV0 sin  t Root mean Square:
= sin  t dt dt dt dt
2
R R 1
VRMS = V
2

2
i = i0 sin t  V = V0 sin t 
0
2 2
1 1
V 2 RMS = V = V sin 2  d
2 2

2 2
0
V 0 0
I ωCV0 cosωt
V0 V02 V2  2 1 − cos 2 
Resistance is independent frequency of A.C.
i= sin( t +  / 2) V 2 RMS = ( ) = 0 sin  = 
1 2 2  2 
C V0 I0
VRMS = or IRMS =
V
i= 0 2 2
1
C

Pure inductive circuit: Series LCR circuit: -

V = V0 sin ωt
Ldi v2 = VR2 + (Vc − Vc)2
V=
dt (IZ)2 = (IR) 2 + (IX L − IXC ) 2
+Vdt
di = Z = R 2 + (XL − XC )2
L
V0 sin  tdt 2
di =  1 
L Z = R 2 +  L − 
 C 
V0 V
 di = L  sin t dt = L0 ( − cos t ) 
L −
1 
 C  ⇒  tan  = XL − XC 
 tan  =  
 R   R 
 