Formulas Physical Properties of Particles | Photons: E = cp = ch

λ = νh = h̄ω, ω = ck, vp = ω
k = c, vg = dw
dk =c
2 2 2 2 2
p h̄ k h h̄k ω dw p h
Massive Particles (non-relativistic): E = 2m = 2m = 2mλdb = h̄ω, ω(k) = 2m , vp = k, vg = dk = m. All particles: p = λdb .
2
Massive Particles (relativistic): E = m2 c4 + p2 c2 , E 2 = mc2 (rest energy), E = qmc ,p = q mv |
2 2
1− vc2 1− vc2
h 2π ω
Other: E = h̄ω, p = h̄k | Compton Scattering: λf − λi = λC (1 − cos(θ)), λC = mc |k= λ ,ν = 2π
2
e2 e2 q −q 2 e2
Classical Model | me vr = r2 →r= me v 2 , Potential energy = −q · V (r) = −q · r = r , Classical energy Ecl = 21 me v 2 − r
2
e2 e2 e2
me vr = r2 → 21 me v 2 = 2r → Ecl = − 2r
p2 2
Quantum Approach | E = K + V = 2m + V (r) | Fr = − ∂V v
∂r , Fc = −m r = −mrω
2

2 2
dE
Bhor Quantization Condition: L = mrv = mr2 ω = nh̄ | Larmor’s Formula: dt = − 2e3ca3

Integral Relations
Z ∞ Z ∞ Z ∞ Z ∞
1 1 1 1
ψ(x, 0) = √ dk ϕ(k) eikx = √ dp ϕ(p) eipx/h̄ ϕ(k) = √ dx ψ(x, 0) e−ikx ϕ(p) = √ dx ψ(x, 0) e−ipx/h̄
2π −∞ 2πh̄ −∞ 2π −∞ 2πh̄ −∞

Z ∞ Z ∞ Z ∞ Z ∞
1
δ(x − xo ) = dk eik(x−x0 )
dx f (x) δ(x − x0 ) = dx f (x − x0 ) δ(x) = f (x0 ) dx f (x) δ ′ (x − x0 ) = −f ′ (x)
2π −∞ −∞ −∞ −∞

∞ ∞ ∞ √
β2
Z r Z r Z
2 π 2 π 2 π
exp(−α(x − β) ) dx = exp(−αx − βx) dx = exp( ) exp(−αx ) dx =
−∞ α −∞ α rα −∞ 2α3/2

Operators

[A, B] = −[B, A] [A, A] = 0 [A, B + C] = [A, B] + [A, C] [A + B, C] = [A, C] + [B, C] [A, BC] = [A, B]C + B[A, C]

p̂2 ih̄ ⟨p̂⟩

[AB, C] = A[B, C] + [A, C]B [A, [B, C]] + [B, [C, A]] + [C, [A, B]] = 0 [x̂, p̂] = ih̄ [x̂, Ĥ] = [x̂, ]= [p̂, Ĥ] = −ih̄V ′ (x̂)
2m m
Hermiticity
Z ∞ Z ∞
An operator M̂ is a Hermitian operator if it satisfies the following: dx (M̂ ψ1 ) ψ2 = ∗
dx ψ1∗ (M̂ ψ2 ) | Note: M̂ † otherwise
−∞ −∞

∂ † ∂
Q̂ and R̂ are Hermitian =⇒ [Q̂, R̂]† = −[Q̂, R̂] =⇒ (Q̂P̂ )† = (Q̂P̂ ) † = Conjugate of M T (ÂB̂)† = B̂ † † ( ) =−
∂x ∂x

Expectation of Operators
Z ∞ Z ∞ Z ∞ Z Z
⟨x̂⟩ = dx x |ψ(x)|2 = dx x ψ ∗ (x)ψ(x) ⟨p̂⟩ = h̄ ⟨k⟩ = h̄ dk k |ϕ(k)|2 , SW: ⟨Â⟩ = dx ψ ∗ (x)Âψ(x) = dk ϕ∗ (k)Âϕ(k)
−∞ −∞ −∞

Z ∞ h ∂   
∗ d dQ
⟨p̂⟩ = dx ψ (x) ψ(x) Ehrenfest’s Theorem: ⟨Q̂⟩ = ⟨[Q̂, Ĥ]⟩ + Uncertainty/Variance: (∆Q̂)2 = ⟨Q̂2 ⟩ − ⟨Q̂⟩2
−∞ i ∂x dt dt

h̄ d p̂2 h̄ ∂ 2 2
−iEt/h̄
Schrodinger Equation | x̂ = x, p̂ = i dx , Ĥ = 2m + V (x̂, t) = − 2m ∂x2 + V (x, t) | Eψ(x) = Ĥψ(x) =⇒ ψ(x, t) = ψ(x)e

∂ψ h̄ ∂ h̄2 ∂ 2 ∂ h̄2 k 2 ∂
Schrodinger Equation: ih̄ = Ĥψ Free Particle: ψ(x, t) = 2
ψ(x, t) x̂ = i , p̂ = h̄k k̂ = k → Ĥ = + V (i )
∂t i ∂t 2m ∂x ∂k 2m ∂k

Other Helpful Formulas

[(iαβ ∗ ) + (iαβ ∗ )2 ] = 2 · Im(αβ ∗ )
r b
1 − cos x 1 − cos 2x ∂ψ ∗
Z
x h̄ ∂ψ dPab
sin =± sin2 x = J(x, t) = (ψ ∗ −ψ ), Pab = p(x, t)dx, = J(a, t) − J(b, t)
2 2 2 2im ∂x ∂x a dt
 Notes MZI | In this figure, we see constructive interference into D0 and destructive into D1. Flipping the BS matrices would
invert this result. For a light coming from the top and constructive interference in D0, we have the following matrices:

−1 1 , BS2: 1 1 Remember: Probability is proportional to I 2 (amplitude). ∆ = (δ − δ )/2. Signs flip for δ .

h i h i
BS1: √1 √1 .
2 1 1 2 1 −1 u l u

Elitzur-Vaidman Bombs
1
If bomb is defective, photon goes to D0 (previously constructive). If bomb is operational, probability that bomb explodes is 2,
probability that photon will be at D0 is 14 , and probability that photon will be at D1 is 14 . If proton detected at D1, bomb works.
Photoelectric Effect
When light is shined onto metal, electrons are emitted and if enough electrons are emitted, a photoelectric current is detectable.
- There is a threshold frequency ν0 to produce the photoelectric current
- The magnitude of the photoelectric current is proportional to the intensity of the light source
- The energy of the photons is independent of the intensity of the light source
- Ee = 12 me v 2 = Eγ − W = hν − W , where Eγ is the photon energy.
Compton Scattering
Photon hits at electron, can’t be absorbed due to Conservation of p and E. Photon must lose energy, so it ends with higher λ. We
may see a light amplitude vs wavelength plot where there are two peaks, at λi and λf . Some light hits the photon, others miss and
scatter in all directions after hitting the atom (same initial λ). UV Light: Photoelectric. Gamma and X-Ray: Compton.
Derived from: pe = pf − pi → |pe |2 = |pf |2 −|pi |2 −2|pf ||pi | cos(θ)
Infinite Potential2 Well 2 2 2
TISE takes form: ddxψ2 = −2mE
h̄2
ψ. E must be positive, define k such that k 2 = 2mE
h̄2
→ E = h̄2m k
. ddx2ψ
= −k 2 ψ
nπ nπx
→ ψ(x) = c1 cos(kx) + c2 sin(kx). From boundary conds, c1 = 0, k = a . Thus, ψn (x) = Nn sin( a ), where Nn is a normalization
q q
Ra h̄2 kn
2
h̄2 π 2 n2
constant. 1 = Nn2 0 sin2 ( nπx 21
a ) dx = Nn 2 a → Nn =
2
a | ψn =
2 nπx
a sin( a ) | En = 2m = 2ma2 , n = 1, 2, . . . | ψ(x, t) =
P −iEn t
n Cn ψn (x)e .
h̄

Double Slit Experiment

Constructive Interference: d sin(θ) = nλ| y = L tan(θ)| → θ = nλ Dλn
d → y = d → ∆y = d = pd
Lλ Lh

Suppose a glass medium of thickness a and refraction index m is placed in front of the bottom of one of the two slits. This will
result in the bottom slit being phase shifted. Also the light has a seed of v through the medium. We can derive the new peak
position:
a a a a a
∆t = tglass − tair = − = − = (m − 1) → c∆t = a(m − 1)
b c c/n c c
nλ a(m − 1) L
nλ = d sin(θ′ ) + c∆t = d sin(θ′ ) + a(m − 1) → θ =
− → y = (nλ − a(m − 1))
d d d
Note that here, the distance between the peaks remains the same, but the peaks are all shifted down.
#DoF
Heat Capacity For diatomic gasses: C = dE dt = kB · T · 2
At T = 0, 3 translational DoF. At
PT = kb200K, 2 rotational DoF. At T = 103 − 104 K, 2 vibrational DoF.
Each EM mode is a DoF. ⟨E⟩ = n≥1 2T = ∞.
According to QM, En = hνn . Thus, if kB T << En , the model breaks down.
Boltzmann Law: he probability that a randomly-sampled particle will be found to be in state n with energy En is given by:
−En /(kb T )
P (En ) = e N .
⟨E⟩ = n En P (EN ) = A n En e−En /kb T
P P