Dual nature: particle and wave

E = hν − − − − − (1)
h
p= − − − − − ( 2)
λ
The LHS of above relation, E and p represents a particle

The RHS of the above equations, ν and λ is a characteristic of a wave

The connecting link is the Planck's constant h

Everything in the future is a wave and everything in the past

was a particle

A material particle in motion is equivalent to a group of waves

(wave packet)
Superposition of two waves
y1 = a sin (ω1 t − k1 x), y2 = a sin (ω2 t − k 2 x).
 ∆ω ∆k 
y = y1 + y2 = 2 a cos t− x  sin (ω t − k x),
 2 2 
ω + ω2 k + k2
where, ω = 1 , and k= 1 ,
2 2
∆ ω = ω1 − ω2 ; ∆ k = k1 − k 2
The condition for the formation of nodes

h
>
4π
The `wave packet' can be achieved by superposing waves
Hence it is not possible to have either Δx or Δk identically zero

If α is large (small) then it represent a broad (narrow) wave packet.

 Propagation of wave packet
Take the superposition with amplitude g(k) of these simple waves

f(x) has the same shape but shifted from x = 0 to x = c t

The peak of the wave packet travel with vg

Width of the wave packet changes with time

 Group velocity and Particle velocity m0
m0 p = mv = v
E = m c2 = c2 1− v
2

c2
1− v
2

c2
h 1− v
2
E 1 m0 h c2
ω = 2π ν = 2π = 2π c2 λ= =
h h 1 − v2 p m0 v
c2
dω 2π 1 m0
= 2π
1 m0 k= = 2π v
( )
v
dv h 1− v 2 3 / 2 λ h 1 − v2
c2 c2

dω dk 1 m0
dω = 2π
vg =
dk
= dk
dv
= v = particle velocity dv (
h 1 − v2
2
c
) 3/ 2

dv

Thus the wave group associated with the moving particle travels
with the same velocity as the particle.
It proves that a material particle in motion is equivalent to group of
waves or a wave packet.
 OPERATOR ALGEBRA
1. Operator act on wavefunction and convert them into new wavefunction
d
A=
ˆ , and Bˆ = x, ψ =Ne − x2

dx
Aˆ ψ = −2 xψ ; and Bˆ ψ = xψ ;
Aˆ + Bˆ = Bˆ + Aˆ (Commutative)
The multiplication operation of operator is Associative not commutative.
ˆ Bˆ ψ = A
A ˆ ( Bˆ ψ ) = A
ˆ ξ = χ;
ˆ Bˆ ≠ Bˆ A
A ˆ.

This is called `commutator' of the

operator A and B in that order.
If commutator vanishes then the operators are said to commute. If two
observable commute then those two can be measure simultaneously without
any uncertainty. If not, then always uncertainty is involve in the measurements.
If two observable commute then you may have common eigenfunction
for both the observable. For example: Kinetic Energy and momentum.
i
1 px
φ ( x, p ) = e 
;
2π 
Here φ is common eigenfunction for energy and momentum. So, you
can make set of basis vectors using this wavefunction.
∞ i
1 px
ψ ( x, t ) = ∫ a ( p , t ) 
e dp; The Linear momentum
−∞ 2π 
operator commute with the
∞ i
1 − px Hamiltonian, [p, H]=0. So,
a ( p,0) = ∫ψ ( x,0) e  dx;
−∞ 2π  probability is remain same,
constant and independent of
i p2
− t time. So, linear momentum
a ( p, t ) = a ( p,0)e  2m
;
is a constant (many different
a ( p, t ) dp = a ( p,0) dp;
2 2
value) of motion.
Probability is not changing with time.
If any operator does not commute with Hamiltonian, [A,H]≠0,
then the Eigenfunction of that observable changes with time.

If the given wavefunction is not of energy eigenfunction then

wavefunction changes with time and probability of finding will
also change with the time.

The energy operator commute with the Hamiltonian hence the

probability of finding in any energy state will not change with
time.
Scalar product of a
wavefunction with itself is real
number called `Norm'.