Lecture 2

English consonants

Presented by Duong Minh Hoang

1. A working definition
 Phonetically speaking, a consonant is a sound that is articulated with some kind of audible
obstruction, such as closure or friction, in the oral cavity (Roach, 2009).

The 24 English consonants

2. Place of articulation
 Place of articulation refers to the position in the vocal tract to which the active articulator moves to
form constriction (a narrowing of the vocal tract which affects the airstream).

Illustration by Collins et al. (2019)

Divisions of the tongue

Illustration by Collins et al. (2019)

 Places of Illustrations
Descriptions Sounds
articulation (Carr, 2013)

Bilabial The lips are brought together [p, b, m, w]

The lower lip is held close to

Labio-dental [f, v]
the upper teeth
 Places of Illustrations
Descriptions Sounds
articulation (Carr, 2013)

The tip of the tongue is raised

against the upper teeth or

Dental [θ, ð]
inserted between the upper and

lower teeth

The tip or blade of the tongue

[t, d, s, z, l, n]
Alveolar is raised against the alveolar
and [r] (post-alveolar)
ridge
 Places of Illustrations
Descriptions Sounds
articulation (Carr, 2013)

The front of the tongue is

raised towards the back of

Palato-alveolar [ʃ, ʒ, ʧ, ʤ]
the alveolar ridge and the

front of the palate

The front of the tongue is

raised towards the hard

Palatal palate, slightly further back [j]

than in a palato-alveolar

sound
 Places of Illustrations
Descriptions Sounds
articulation (Carr, 2013)

The back of the tongue is

Velar raised towards the velum [k, ɡ, ŋ, w]

(soft palate)

The vocal folds are brought

Glottal into a constriction of close [h]

approximation
3. Manner of articulation
 Manner of articulation identifies the kind or degree of constriction that is made:

▪ Complete closure → Oral stops, nasal stops, and affricates;

▪ Close approximation → Fricatives;

▪ Open approximation → Approximants.

 Illustrations by Collins et al. (2019)

3.1. Oral stops

 The airstream is blocked completely in the oral cavity;

 The velum is raised so there’s no escape of air through the nose;

 When the articulators separate, the compressed air is released with explosive force → plosives;

 English oral stops/stops/plosives are /p, b, t, d, k, ɡ/.

[p] and [b] [t] and [d] [k] and [ɡ]

3.2. Nasal stops
 The airstream is blocked completely in the oral cavity;

 The velum is lowered, allowing the airstream to escape through the nose;

 English nasal stops/nasals are /m, n, ŋ/.

[m] [n] [ŋ]

Illustrations by Collins et al. (2019)
3.3. Fricatives
 The articulators are close to each other but don’t make a complete closure;

 The airstream passes through a narrow gap between the articulators, producing audible hiss-like
friction.

 English fricatives are /f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, h/.

[f] and [v] [θ] and [ð] [s] and [z] [ʃ] and [ʒ]
Illustrations by Collins et al. (2019)
3.4. Affricates
 The airstream is blocked completely in the oral cavity;

 The velum is raised so there’s no escape of air through the nose;

 The articulators separate relatively slowly, producing hormoganic friction;

 English fricatives are /tʃ, dʒ/.

Stage 1: palato-alveolar closure Stage 2: Release with homorganic friction

Illustrations by Collins et al. (2019)
 3.5. Approximants
 The space between the articulators is wide enough to allow the airstream through with no audible friction;

 The velum is raised so there’s no escape of air through the nose;

 English approximants are /l, r, w, j/.

3.5.1. Lateral approximant

 The tip and blade of the tongue form a central closure with the alveolar ridge, while the sides of the
tongue remain lowered;

 The air stream escapes over the lowered sides;

 The English lateral approximant/lateral is /l/.

Illustration by Collins et al. (2019) [l]

 3.5.2. Post-alveolar approximant
 The sides of the tongue are raised and in contact with the back teeth;

 The tongue-tip moves towards the rear of the alveolar ridge (post-alveolar) in a stricture of open
approximation;

 The English post-alveolar approximant is /r/

 GA, Canadian, Scottish, Irish accents with /r/ pronounced in all contexts are called rhotic accents,
while non-rhotic accents such as GB, Welsh, Australian, and South African accents have /r/
pronounced only before a vowel.

[ɹ]
Illustration by Collins et al. (2019)
3.5.3. Palatal approximant
 The English palatal approximant is /j/;

 It is a semi-vowel because it is a brief [i]-vowel-like-glide;

 In GB, the sequences /tj, dj/ are typically replaced by palatao-alveolar affricates /tʃ, dʒ/;

 In GA, /j/ is often dropped after /t, d, n/ → yod dropping.

[j] to [æ] in yam Illustrations by Collins et al. (2019)

3.5.4. Labial-velar approximant
 The English labial-velar approximant is /w/;

 It is a semi-vowel because it is a brief [u]-vowel-like-glide with strong lip rounding;

 There are two strictures of open approximation: labial and velar → double articulation;

 Some speakers have /ʍ/ (voiceless labial-velar fricative) for words that begins with wh like when and why.

[w] to [ɒ] in what Illustrations by Collins et al. (2019)

4. Voicing and energy of articulation
4.1. Voicing
 Voiceless: /p, t, k, f, θ, s, ʃ, tʃ, h/
 Potentially voiced: /b, d, ɡ, v, ð, z, ʒ, dʒ, m, n, ŋ, l, r, w, j/

4.2. Energy of articulation

Fortis Lenis
/p, t, k, f, θ, s, ʃ, tʃ, h/ /b, d, ɡ, v, ð, z, ʒ, dʒ/

Articulation is stronger and more energetic. Articulation is weaker.

Voiceless Potentially voiced

Make preceding vowels shorter Not make preceding vowels shorter

beat [bit] bead [biːd]
 Overview of the English consonant system
Place of
articulation Labio- Post- Palato-
Bilabial Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Manner of dental alveolar alveolar
articulation

(Oral) Stop/
p, b t, d k, ɡ
Plosive

Fricative f, v θ, ð s, z ʃ, ʒ h

Affricate tʃ, dʒ

Nasal (stop) m n ŋ

Approximant w l r j w
5. Allophonic variants of English consonants
5.1. Velarization of /l/
Narrow
Phoneme Contexts Realizations Examples
transcription
leak [li:k]
Before a vowel or /j/ Clear [l]
billion [ˈbiljən]
/l/
Before a consonant (except /j/) or milk [mɪɫk]
Dark/Velarized [ɫ]
before silence hill [hɪɫ]

Tongue shapes of
[l] (left) and [ɫ] (right)

Illustrations by Collins et al. (2019)

5.2. Aspiration of voiceless plosives
 Aspiration is a delay in voicing after the release of a voiceless plosive, often described as a brief
‘puff of air’ or [h]-like sound.

Aspiration of /p/ in pea

PA: passive articulators. AA: active articulators. VF: vocal folds
(Collins et al., 2019)
 Narrow
Phonemes Contexts Realizations Examples
transcription

In syllable-initial pot [pʰɒt]

position, strongest if Aspirated [pʰ, tʰ, kʰ] tap [tʰæp]
the syllable is stressed kick [kʰɪk]

spin [spɪn]
/p, t, k/ After /s/ in a syllable-
Unaspirated [p, t, k] steam [stiːm]
initial cluster
school [skuːl]

Aspirated or [pʰ, tʰ, kʰ] or top [tɒpʰ] or [tɒp̚]

Before silence
unreleased [p̚, t̚, k̚ ] hat [hætʰ] or [hæt̚]
 5.3. Unrelease of oral stops
 Oral stops are unreleased in syllable-final position before a consonant.

Narrow
Phonemes Context Realization Examples
transcription

Syllable-final map shop [ˈmæp̚ˌʃɒp]

/p, b, t, d, k, ɡ/ position before a Unreleased [p̚, b̚, t ,̚ d ̚, etc.] pet shop [ˈpɛt̚ˌʃɒp]
consonant midnight [ˈmɪd ̚ˌnaɪt]
 5.4. Glottal reinforcement/ (Pre-) glottalization
 Glottal reinforcement happens when a sound is ‘reinforced’ by closure at the glottis, as is a glottal stop
[ʔ] preceded it.

Narrow
Phonemes Contexts Realization Examples
transcription

Reinforced by map [mæʔpʰ]

Syllable-final position before
/p, t, k/ closure at the [ʔp, ʔt, ʔk] bookshop [bʊʔk̚ ʃɒp]
a consonant or silence
glottis footpath [fʊʔt̚ pɑːθ]
 In the following contexts, both glottalised and non-glottalised forms are to be found:

▪ before silence: short [ʃɔːʔt] or [ʃɔːt];

▪ before /h/: shorthand [ˈ ʃɔːʔthænd] or [ʃɔːthænd];

▪ word-finally preceding a vowel: short of money [ˈʃɔːʔt əv ˈmʌni] or [ˈʃɔːt əv ˈmʌni].

 The most frequently glottalised consonant is /t/, which very commonly affects a small group of high
frequency words, namely: it, bit, get, let, at, that, got, lot, not (and contracted forms: don’t, can’t,
aren’t, etc.), what, put, but, might, right, quite, out, about.
5.5. Glottal replacement/Glottalling
 Glottal replacement is the substitution of a consonant (most commonly /t/) with a glottal stop.

Narrow
Phonemes Context Realization Examples
transcription
shortbread [ˈʃɔːʔbrɛd]
Syllable-final
/t/ shorten [ˈʃɔːʔn]
position
Replaced by a sit down [ˌsɪʔ ˈdaʊn]
[ʔ]
before a glottal stop
stepbrother [ˈstɛʔˌbrʌðə]
/p, k/ homorganic stop
took care [ˈtʊʔ ˈkɛə]
or nasal
5.6. T-voicing/Flapping
 When /t/ stands between two vowels and is not in the initial position of a stressed syllable, it
acquires voicing and is articulated quickly with a quick ‘flap’ of the blade of the tongue against the
teeth ridge.

Narrow
Phoneme Context Realization Examples
transcription

Between vowels
Voiced and better [ˈbɛt̬ə]
and not in the [t̬] or [ɾ]
/t/ articulated quickly matter [ˈmæt̬ə]
initial position of
with a quick ‘flap’ but I [bʌt̬ aɪ]
a stressed syllable
 5.7. Devoicing

Phonemes Contexts Realization Narrow trans. Examples

Voiced plosives, cab – [kʰæb̥]

Before a voiceless
fricatives, & affricate jazz club – [ˈdʒæz̥ ˌkʰl̥ʌ
̥ b̥]
consonant or silence
/b, d, ɡ, v, z, ð, ʒ, dʒ/ mug – [mʌg̊]
[b̥, d̥, g̊ w̥, ɹ̥, j̥̥,
Devoiced twice – [tʰw̥aɪs]
After a voiceless l̥, etc.]
Approximants train – [tʰɹ̥eɪn]
plosive in a stressed
/l, r, j, w/ cute – [kʰj̥uːtʰ]
syllable
plane – [pʰl̥eɪn]

Palatal approximant After voiceless Devoiced and hue – [çuː]

[ç]
/j/ fricative /h/ merged with /h/ huge – [çuːdʒ]
 5.8. Fronting and backing

Narrow
Phonemes Contexts Realizations Examples
transcription

Alveolar plosives, tenth [tɛn̪θ]

nasal, & lateral Before dental Advanced to dental hid them [hɪd̪ ðəm]
[t̪, d̪, n̪, ɫ̪, etc.]
approximant fricatives (Dentalized) anthem [æn̪θəm]
/t, d, n, l/ healthy [hɛɫ̪θi]

Before front vowels key [k̟ʰiː]

Advanced [k̟, g̟]
Velar plosives and /j/ cue [k̟ʰjuː]

/k, ɡ/ corn [kʰɔːn]

Before back vowels Retracted [k, g]
guard [gɑːd]

Non-velar nasals Before labio-dental emphasis – [ˈɛɱfəsɪs]

Labio-dental nasal [ɱ]
/m, n/ fricatives /f, v/ comfort – [ˈkʌɱfət]
 5.9. Rounding/Labialization
Narrow
Phonemes Contexts Realization Examples
transcription
switch [sʷwɪtʃ]
Before /w/ and
All consonants Labialized [sʷ, gʷ, etc.] language [læŋɡʷwɪtʃ]
rounded vowels
soon [sʷuːn]

5.10. Palatalisation
Narrow
Phonemes Context Realization Examples
transcription
pure [pʲjʊə]
Plosives, Fricatives
Before /j/ Palatalised [pʲ, vʲ, mʲ, etc.] view [vʲju:]
and Nasals
mute [mʲju:t]
 References
Carley, P., Mees, M. I., Collins, B. (2018). English Phonetics and Pronunciation Practice. Routledge
Carr, P. (2013). English Phonetics and Phonology: An introduction. Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
Collins, B., Mees, I. M., & Carley, P. (2019). Practical phonetics and phonology: A resource book for
students (4th ed.). Routledge.
Crystal, D. (2019). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language (3rd ed). Cambridge University
Press
Curzan, A., & Adams, M. (2012). How English works - A linguistic introduction (3rd ed.). Pearson
Education Limited.
Giegerich, H. J. (2005). English phonology: An introduction. Cambridge University Press.
Ogden, R. (2009). An Introduction to English Phonetics. Edinburgh University Press.
Katz, W. (2013). Phonetics for dummies. Wiley.
Roach, P. (2009). English Phonetics and Phonology. Cambridge University Press.
Tench, P. (2011). Transcribing the sounds of English. Cambridge University Press.