ENGLISH PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY

Lecture 2
English consonants

Prepared by Duong Minh Hoang

1. Definitions
 Consonants can be defined phonetically (based on how they are produced) or phonologically (based on their
patterns and distributions).

 Phonetic definitions:

▪ “Phonetically, consonants are sounds formed by modifying the airstream moving in or out of the mouth at
some point in the larynx, throat or mouth” (Brown & Miller, 2013, p. 100);

▪ “Phonetically, they are sounds made by a closure or narrowing in the vocal tract so that the airflow is either
completely blocked, or so restricted that audible friction is produced” (Crystal, 2008, p. 103);

▪ “In order to form consonants, the airstream through the vocal tract must be obstructed in some way”
(Ladefoged & Johnson, p. 12);

▪ “[What consonants] have in common is that they obstruct the flow of air through the vocal tract. Some do
this a lot, some not very much: those which make the maximum obstruction are the most consonantal”
(Roach, 2011, p. 18).
2. Phases of articulation
 A phonetic segment typically goes through three
phases of articulation:

▪ The onset phase: an active articulator moves

toward a passive articulator to form
constriction;

▪ The medial phase: the target degree of

constriction is reached (and sometimes held for
a moment);

▪ The offset phase: the active articulator moves

away from the medial-phase position, being the Phases of segmental performance (Laver, 1994)
onset phase for the next segment.
3. The description of consonants
 Abercrombie (1967) lists seven questions one should ask when analyzing consonants:
1. What is the airstream mechanism?
2. Is the airstream ingressive or egressive?
3. What is the state of the glottis?
4. What is the position of the velum?
5. What is the active articulator?
6. What is the passive articulator?
7. What is the degree and nature of the stricture? (p. 42)
→ This approach is known as classification by place and manner of articulation.

→ Questions (1) and (2) can be grouped into the category of airstream mechanism; question (3) deals with the
glottal setting; question (4) is about the routing of the airflow channel; questions (5) and (6) identify the
place of articulation; question (7) targets the manner of articulation.
4. English consonants
4.1. Airstream mechanism
 All English consonants are produced with a pulmonic egressive airstream.

 Other airstream mechanisms (non-pulmonic and ingressive) are possible but are used paralinguistically and
extralinguistically only.

4.2. Glottal setting

 Only voiceless and voiced phonations are used for contrastive purposes.

▪ Voiceless consonants: [p, t, k, f, θ, s, ʃ, tʃ, h]

▪ Voiced consonants: [b, d, ɡ, v, ð, z, ʒ, dʒ, m, n, ŋ, l, ɹ, w, j]

 The glottal stop [ʔ] is very common in casual speech, but its phonemic status is debatable.

 Whispery, creaky, and breathy phonations are used paralinguistically and extralinguistically only.
4.3. Airflow channel
 If the velum is raised, making a closure against the wall of the pharynx (velic closure), the airstream flows out
through the mouth.

→ Oral consonants: [p, b, t, d, k, g, f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, h, tʃ, dʒ, l, ɹ, j, w]

 If the velum is lowered (velic opening), the airstream flows out through the nose.

→ Nasal consonants: [m, n, ŋ]

Left: alveolar and velic closures for [d]. Right: alveolar closure and velic opening for [n]
(Laver, 1994)
4.4. Place of articulation
 Place of articulation identifies the position in the
vocal tract to which the active articulator moves to
form constriction (the zone where the active
articulator is closest to the passive articulator
during the medial phase of a segment).

 For most consonants, the active articulator is the

tongue, and the passive articulator is the roof of the
mouth.

Left: divisions of the tongue. Right: places of articulation for English consonants
(Collins et al., 2019)
Place of articulation Description Consonants Illustration (Carr, 2013)

Bilabial The lips are brought together [p, b, m, w]

The lower lip is held close to the

Labio-dental [f, v]
upper teeth
Place of articulation Description Consonants Illustration (Carr, 2013)

The tip of the tongue is raised

against the upper teeth or

Dental [θ, ð]
inserted between the upper and

lower teeth

The tip or blade of the tongue is [t, d, s, z, l, n]

Alveolar
raised against the alveolar ridge and [ɹ] (post-alveolar)
Place of articulation Description Consonants Illustration (Carr, 2013)

The front of the tongue is raised

Palato-alveolar towards the back of the alveolar [ʃ, ʒ, ʧ, ʤ]

ridge and the front of the palate

The front of the tongue is raised

towards the hard palate, slightly

Palatal [j]
further back than in a palato-

alveolar sound
Place of articulation Description Consonants Illustration (Carr, 2013)

The back of the tongue is raised

Velar [k, g, ŋ, w]
towards the velum (soft palate)

The vocal folds are brought into

Glottal a constriction of close [h]

approximation
 If the active articulator is opposite the passive articulator, the articulation of neutral; otherwise, displaced
articulation is involved.

→ [f, v] are produced with displaced articulation.

 Where there are two strictures of equal degree made at two places of articulation, the term is double
articulation.

→ [w] is labial-velar.
4.5. Manner of articulation
 Manner of articulation identifies the kind or degree of constriction that is made, i.e. how narrow the gap
between the active and passive articulators in the medial phase of the segment is.

 There are three degrees of stricture during the medial phase:

Degree of stricture Description Sounds

Oral stops [p, b, t, d, k, g]
The airstream is blocked for a brief
Complete closure Stops Nasal stops [m, n, ŋ]
period of time.
Affricates [ʧ, ʤ]

There is a small aperture wide enough to

Fricatives
Close approximation allow the airstream to go through Fricatives
[f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, h]
continuously but with a turbulent flow.

The aperture is wide enough to allow the

Approximants [l, ɹ, j, w]
Open approximation airstream to go through continuously Resonants
(and vowels)
without turbulent flow.
4.5.1. Oral stops (stops/plosives)
Sounds [p, b] [t, d] [k, g]

Illustrations
(Collins et al., 2019)

Place of articulation Bilabial Alveolar Velar

Airflow channel Oral

- Onset phase: The active articulator moves to form stricture.
- Medial phase: The airstream is completely blocked for a brief moment, resulting in
an increase in air pressure inside the mouth.
Phases of articulation
- Offset phase: The active articulator moves away from the passive articulator; the
compressed air suddenly and audibly released, resulting in a small but audible
explosion.
4.5.2. Nasal stops (nasals)
Sounds [m] [n] [ŋ]

Illustrations
(Collins et al., 2019)

Place of articulation Bilabial Alveolar Velar

Airflow channel Nasal

- Onset phase: The active articulator moves to form stricture; the velum is lowered.
- Medial phase: The airstream is completely blocked in the oral cavity but is able to
Phases of articulation
flow out through the nasal cavity.
- Offset phase: The active articulator moves away from the passive articulator.
 4.5.3. Fricatives
Sounds [f, v] [θ, ð] [s, z] [ʃ, ʒ] [h]

Illustrations
(Collins et al.,
2019)

Place of
Labio-dental Dental Alveolar Palato-alveolar Glottal
articulation
Airflow
Oral
channel

- Onset phase: The active articulator moves to form stricture.

Phases of - Medial phase: The articulators are close to each other but don’t make a complete closure; The
articulation airstream passes through a narrow gap between the articulators, producing audible hiss-like friction.
- Offset phase: The active articulator moves away from the passive articulator.
4.5.4. Affricates
Sounds [ʧ, ʤ]

Illustrations
(Collins et al., 2019)

Medial phase: palato-alveolar closure Offset phase: release with homorganic friction

Place of articulation Palato-alveolar

Airflow channel Oral

- Onset phase: The active articulator moves to form stricture.
- Medial phase: The airstream is completely blocked for a brief moment, resulting in
Phases of articulation an increase in air pressure inside the mouth.
- Offset phase: The articulators separate relatively slowly, producing homorganic
friction.
4.5.5. Approximants
4.5.5.1. Lateral approximant

Sound [l]

Illustrations
(Collins et al., 2019)

Transverse cross-section of mouth viewed from front

Place of articulation Alveolar

Airflow channel Oral
- Onset phase: The tip and blade of the tongue form a central closure with the
alveolar ridge, while the sides of the tongue remain lowered.
Phases of articulation
- Medial phase: The airstream escapes over the lowered sides of the tongue.
- Offset phase: The tongue moves away from the alveolar ridge.
4.5.5.2. Post-alveolar approximant

Sound [ɹ]

Illustrations
(Collins et al., 2019)

Place of articulation Post-alveolar

Airflow channel Oral

- Onset phase: The sides of the tongue are raised and in contact with the back teeth;
The tongue tip moves towards the rear of the alveolar ridge with open
Phases of articulation approximation.
- Medial phase: The airstream escapes over the central section the tongue.
- Offset phase: The tongue moves away from the alveolar ridge.
 In GA and some British accents, [ɹ] is usually  [ɹ] can occur before a consonant or silence in
pronounced with the tongue tip slightly raised and rhotic accents such as GA and Scottish accents,
curled backwards, hence the term ‘retroflex’. but cannot in non-rhotic accents such as GB and
Australian accents.

Retroflexion (Laver, 1994) Rhoticity in England (dark: rhotic; white: non-rhotic)

(Chambers & Trudgill, 1998)
4.5.5.3. Palatal approximant

Sound [j]

Illustrations
(Collins et al., 2019)

sequence /jæ/ in ‘yam’

Place of articulation Palatal

Airflow channel Oral

- Onset phase: The tongue body is raised towards the hard palate with open
approximation.
Phases of articulation - Medial phase: The target location of the tongue is reached: the [i]-like position.
- Offset phase: The tongue moves quickly from the [i]-like position to the position
for the following vowel.
 [j] only invariably occurs after labials, e.g. few, view, pure, beauty and velars, e.g. cute, argue because of:

▪ Yod-coalescence: [tj, dj] are increasingly replaced by [tʃ, dʒ], respectively.

E.g.

1. nature [ˈneɪtʃə], question [ˈkwɛstʃən], soldier [ˈsəʊdʒə], procedure [prəˈsiːdʒə] (historically).

2. Tuesday [ˈtjuːzdeɪ] → [ˈtʃuːz.deɪ], tune [tjuːn] → [tʃuːn], due [djuː] → [dʒuː], induce [ɪnˈdjuːs] → [ɪnˈdʒuːs];

▪ Yod-dropping: [j] is increasingly dropped after some dental and alveolar consonants.

E.g.

1. chute [ʃuːt], chew [ʧuː], juice [ʤuːs], rude [ruːd], blue [bluː], flew [fluː] (historically).

2. lute [ljuːt] → [luːt], suit [sjuːt] → [suːt], assume [əˈsjuːm] → [əˈsuːm], presume [pɹɪˈzjuːm] → [pɹɪˈzuːm],
enthusiasm [ɪnˈθjuːziæzm] → [ɪnˈθuːziæzm].
4.5.5.4. Labial-velar approximant

Sound [w]

Illustrations
(Collins et al., 2019)

sequence /wɒ/ in ‘what’

Places of articulation Labial and velar

Airflow channel Oral

- Onset phase: The lower lip moves towards the upper lip; the back of the tongue
moves towards the velum; both with open approximation.
Phases of articulation - Medial phase: The target [u]-like configuration is reached. .
- Offset phase: The tongue moves quickly from the [u]-like position to the position
for the following vowel; the lower lip moves away from the upper lip.
 All Scottish, most Irish, some American, and a
limited number of British speakers have [ʍ]
(voiceless labial-velar fricative) for words that
begins with wh like when and why.

E.g.

[ʍ] in ‘when’
Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2_q9b9YqGRY&t=117s

[ʍ] in ‘why’
Source: Spycraft (Netflix)
[w] and [ʍ] of two American speakers
Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RyCXAYBi9HU&t=34s
 Overview of English consonants
Place of
articulation Labio- Post- Palato-
Bilabial Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Manner of dental alveolar alveolar
articulation

Stops/
Oral stops/ p, b t, d k, g [ʔ]
Plosives

Fricatives f, v θ, ð s, z ʃ, ʒ h

Affricates tʃ, dʒ

Nasals/
m n ŋ
Nasal stops

Approximants (w) l ɹ j w
5.4. Allophonic variants of the English consonants
5.4.1. Aspiration
 Aspiration is a delay in voicing after the release of a voiceless oral stop, characterized as a brief puff of air or
[h]-like sound.

Consonants Context Articulation Narrow transcription Examples

pot [pʰɒt]
Voiceless oral stops Syllable initial, strongest tap [tʰæp]
Aspirated [pʰ, tʰ, kʰ]
/p, t, k/ if the syllable is stressed attain [əˈtʰeɪn]
spin [spɪn] (unaspirated)

The waveforms
Aspiration of /p/ in ‘pea’ (Collins et al., 2019) of ‘tie’ and ‘die’
PA: passive articulators. AA: active articulators. VF: vocal folds (Ladefoged &
Johnson, 2014)
5.4.2. Types of stop release

 An oral stop is often produced without an audible release when it stands after a vowel and before silence.

Consonants Context Articulation Narrow transcription Examples

top [tɒp̚ ]
No audible release pot [pɒt̚ ]
[p̚ , b̚ , t ̚ , d ̚, k̚ , g̚ ]
(common) job [dʒɒb̚ ]
After a vowel and good [gʊd ̚ ]
Oral stops before silence top [tɒp] (or [tɒpʰ])
/p, b, t, d, k, g/ Audible release No diacritic = the stop is pot [pɒt] (or [pɒtʰ]
(careful speech) either released or the job [dʒɒb] (or [dʒɒbᵊ])
release/non-release good [gʊd] (or [gʊdᵊ])
After a consonant Audible release distinction is irrelevant fast [fɑːst] (or [fɑːstʰ])
and before silence (common) mask [mɑːsk] (or [mɑːskʰ]
 An oral stop is produced without an audible release when it precedes another oral stop or affricate.

Consonants Context Articulation Narrow transcription Examples

hugged [hʌg̚ d]
hopped [hɒp̚ t]
Oral stops Before an oral stop
No audible release [p̚ , b̚ , t ̚ , d ̚, k̚ , g̚ ] back door [ˌbæk̚ ˈdɔː]
/p, b, t, d, k, g/ or affricate
bad guys [ˈbæd̚ ˈgaɪz]
big chin [ˈbɪg̚ ˈtʃɪn]

 When an oral stop is followed by a homorganic nasal stop, the stop has a nasal release.

Consonants Context Articulation Narrow transcription Examples

submit [ˈsʌbⁿmɪt]
Oral stops Before a homorganic partner [ˈpɑːtⁿnə]
Nasal release [pⁿ, bⁿ, tⁿ, dⁿ, kⁿ, gⁿ]
/p, b, t, d, k, g/ nasal stop shorten [ˈʃɔːtⁿn]
sudden [ˈsʌdⁿn]
 When an alveolar oral stop is followed by a lateral approximant, the stop normally has a lateral release.

Consonants Context Articulation Narrow transcription Examples

cattle [ˈkætˡl]
medal [ˈmɛdˡl]
Alveolar oral stops atlas [ˈætˡləs]
Before /l/ Lateral release [tˡ, dˡ]
/t, d/ at last [ətˡˌlɑːst]
regardless [rɪˈgɑːdˡləs]
bad light [ˈbædˡˈlaɪt]
5.4.3. Devoicing
 Approximants following an aspirated oral stop are partially devoiced.

Consonants Context Articulation Narrow transcription Examples

plane [pl̥eɪn]
Approximants train [tɹ̥eɪn]
After an aspirated oral stop Partially devoiced [l̥, ɹ̥, j̊,w̥]
/l, ɹ, j, w/ cute [kj̊uːt]
twice [tw̥aɪs]

 In the sequence /hj/ the palatal approximant /j/ typically takes on the voicelessness of the voiceless glottal
fricative /h/ and the two sounds merge into a voiceless palatal fricative [ç].

Consonants Context Articulation Narrow transcription Examples

Voiceless glottal
fricative + Voiced hue – [çuː]
Word-initial position Voiceless palatal fricative [ç]
palatal approximant huge – [çuːdʒ]
/hj/
 Voiced obstruents (oral stops, fricatives, and affricates) are partially devoiced when they are adjacent to a
voiceless consonant or silence.

Consonants Context Articulation Narrow transcription Examples

zip [z̥ɪp]
Voiced obstruents Next to a voiceless love [lʌv̥]
Partially devoiced [b̥, d̥, g̊, v̥, z̥, ð̥, ʒ̊, dʒ̊]
/b, d, g, v, z, ð, ʒ, dʒ/ consonant or silence this book [ˈðɪsˈb̥ʊk]
with Tom [wɪð̥ˈtɒm]
→ Another way to distinguish voiceless obstruents from their voiced counterparts is to use the terms fortis and lenis.

Fortis consonants Lenis consonants

[p, t, k, f, θ, s, ʃ, tʃ] [b, d, g, v, ð, z, ʒ, dʒ]

Articulation is stronger and more energetic. Articulation is weaker.

Voiceless Potentially voiced

Make preceding vowels shorter Not make preceding vowels shorter

beat [bit] bead [biːd]
5.4.4. Labialization

 If the pronunciation of a segment involves two simultaneous strictures of different degrees (primary stricture
and secondary stricture), the segment is said to be made with secondary articulation.

 Labialization is a secondary articulation that involves an addition of lip rounding.

 All consonants are subject to labialization when they next to a rounded vowel or before /w/.

Consonants Context Articulation Narrow transcription Examples

poor [pʷɔː]
soon [sʷuːnʷ]
Next to a rounded
All consonants Labialized [pʷ, tʷ, dʷ, kʷ, etc.] horse [hʷɔːsʷ]
vowel or before /w/
switch [sʷwɪtʃ]
language [ˈlæŋɡʷwɪdʒ]
5.4.5. Palatalization

 Palatalization is a secondary articulation that involves the raising of the tongue front toward the hard palate.

 All consonants are subject to palatalization when they stand before /j/.

Consonants Context Articulation Narrow transcription Examples

pure [pʲjʊə]
All consonants Before /j/ Palatalized [pʲ, bʲ, tʲ, dʲ, sʲ, nʲ, etc.] view [vʲju:]
mute [mʲju:t]
5.4.6. Velarization

 Velarization is a secondary articulation that involves the raising of the tongue back toward the velum.

 The velarized /l/ is known as the dark /l/, while its non-velarized counterpart is known as the clear /l/.

Consonant Context Articulation Narrow transcription Examples

Lateral approximant Before a consonant or milk [mɪɫk]

Velarized [ɫ]
/l/ silence hill [hɪɫ]

Tongue shapes of
[l] (left) and [ɫ] (right)
(Collins et al., 2019)
5.4.7. Glottalization

 Glottalization (pre-glottalization, glottal reinforcement, or laryngealization) is a secondary articulation that

involves the addition of a glottal closure before the oral closure for /p, t, k, tʃ/.

Sounds Context Articulation Narrow transcription Examples

map [mæʔp]
Voiceless stops
Syllable-final position before bookshop [ˈbʊʔkʃɒp]
and affricate Glottalized [ʔp, ʔt, ʔk, ˀtʃ]
a consonant or silence footpath [ˈfʊʔtpɑːθ]
/p, t, k, tʃ/
watchdog [ˈwɒʔtʃdɒg]

Glottalization of /p/ in ‘laptop’ (Collins et al., 2019)

PA: passive articulators. AA: active articulators. VF: vocal folds
5.4.8. Fronting and backing

 The place of articulation of a segment may be adjusted in anticipation of the place of articulation of a segment.

 The alveolar sounds /t, d, n, l/ are dentalized before a dental fricative.

Consonants Context Articulation Narrow transcription Examples

anthem [ˈæn̪θəm]
Alveolar sounds tenth [tɛn̪θ]
Before dental fricatives Dentalized [t̪, d̪, n̪, l̪ ]
/t, d, n, l/ hid them [ˈhɪd̪ ðəm]
hot things [ˈhɒt̪ ˈθɪŋz]

 A non-velar nasal is realized as a labio-dental nasal before a labio-dental fricative.

Narrow
Consonants Context Articulation Examples
transcription
emphasis [ˈɛɱfəsɪs]
Non-velar nasals Realized as a labio-
Before a labio-dental fricative [ɱ] comfort [ˈkʌɱfət]
/m, n/ dental nasal
confront [ˈkəɱfɹʌnt]
 The tongue position for a velar oral stop is advanced (fronted) toward the hard palate before a front vowel or /j/
and retracted before a back vowel or /w/.

Consonants Context Articulation Narrow transcription Examples

Before a front vowel key [k̟iː]
Advanced [k̟, g̟]
Velar oral stops or /j/ cue [k̟juː]
/k, g/ Before a back vowel corn [kɔːn]
Retracted [k, g]
or /w/ guard [gɑːd]

Articulation of /k/ showing advanced [k̟] as in

‘key’ compared with retracted [k] as in ‘corn’
(Collins et al., 2019)
5.4.9. Glottal replacement

 Most British and American speakers realize /t/ as [ʔ] before an alveolar nasal in the same word in casual speech.

Consonant Context Articulation Narrow transcription Examples

Before an alveolar kitten [ˈkɪʔn]
Voiceless alveolar
nasal in the same word Replaced by a glottal stop [ʔ] beaten [ˈbiːʔn]
oral stop /t/
(colloquial) button [ˈbʌʔn]

 Many young British speakers pronounce [ʔ] for /t/ standing between two vowels and before an unstressed
syllable. This feature is very common in broad accents such as Cockney and is often stigmatized by conservative
speakers.

Consonant Context Articulation Narrow transcription Examples

Intervocalic position water [ˈwɔːʔə]
Voiceless alveolar
before an unstressed Replaced by a glottal stop [ʔ] later [ˈleɪʔə]
oral stop /t/
syllable (colloquial) better [ˈbɛʔə]
  Word-final /t/ can also be realized as [ʔ] in colloquial speech of GB and GA speakers.

Consonant Context Articulation Narrow transcription Examples

what [wɒʔ]
Voiceless alveolar Word-final position
Replaced by a glottal stop [ʔ] cat [kæʔ]
oral stop /t/ (colloquial)
let me go [ˈlɛʔ mi ˈgəʊ]

Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W3ifATV6kS0&t=43s Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=50Zj-1l9_pU

5.4.10. Tapping

 In GA an alveolar oral stop is realized as a voiced alveolar tap [ɾ] (the tongue tip is thrown against the alveolar
ridge very rapidly) between two vowels and before an unstressed syllable.

Consonants Context Articulation Narrow transcription Examples

better [ˈbɛɾə]
Alveolar oral stops Between two vowels and matter [ˈmæɾə]
Voiced alveolar tap [ɾ]
/t, d/ before an unstressed syllable latter [ˈlæɾə]
ladder [ˈlæɾə]

 The realization of /t/ as [ɾ] (also known as t-voicing) is increasingly heard among young speakers of GB.
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