ENGLISH PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY

Lecture 3
English vowels

Prepared by Duong Minh Hoang

1. Definitions
 Vowels can be defined phonetically (based on how they are produced) or phonologically (based on their patterns
and distributions).

 Phonetic definitions:

▪ Vowels are sounds that are made with open approximation of the articulators, involving ‘little contact and
sometimes none at all’ (Abercrombie, 1967, p. 55);

▪ ‘The primary articulation of a vowel is a sound produced with open approximation, that is, with no constriction
of the airstream within the vocal tract, which would produce audible friction’ (Brown & Miller, 2013, p. 468);

▪ ‘Phonetically, [vowels] are sounds articulated without a complete closure in the mouth or a degree of
narrowing which would produce audible friction; the air escapes evenly over the centre of the tongue’ (Crystal,
2008, p. 517);

▪ ‘Vowels are the class of sound which makes the least obstruction to the flow of air’ (Roach, 2011, p. 100).
2. The description of vowels
2.1. Articulation
 Airstream mechanism:

▪ All vowels are produced with a pulmonic egressive airstream.

▪ Other mechanisms are possible are used for paralinguistic and extralinguistic purposes only.

 Glottal setting:

▪ Voiced, voiceless, and whispery phonations can be used for contrastive purposes, with voiced phonation
dominating across world languages;

▪ Whispery, creaky, and breathy phonations are used paralinguistically and extralinguistically in all languages.

 Airflow channel:

▪ Not all languages use nasality contrastively, but all languages have allophonic nasal vowels;

▪ The airflow is central rather than lateral.

 Configuration of the mouth: All vowels involve double
articulation (equal strictures of open approximation)
made by the lips and the tongue.

▪ The lips can be spread, neutral, or rounded;

▪ The tongue has a regularly curved convex surface

with different parts raised for different vowels
within the vowel space.

→ The auditory quality of a vowel depends on the overall

configuration of the supra-laryngeal vocal tract.

The tilted oval space of the vowel space, within

which the highest point of the tongue body is placed
in the production of vowels (Laver, 1994)
 Illustrations from Collins et al. (2019)

2.2. The vowel chart and cardinal vowels

 Four extreme points within the vowel space can be identified, corresponding to the four vowels [i u a ɑ].

 The oval used to represent the vowel space is stylized for convenience, giving a two-dimensional vowel chart.

Tongue arch for [i] Tongue arch for [u]

Tongue arch for [a] Tongue arch for [ɑ]

 In 1917, Daniel Jones proposed the system of cardinal vowels that
can be used as reference points to locate vowels on the chart.

▪ Cardinal vowel 1 [i] is produced with the lips spread and the
Daniel Jones
tongue as high and as far forward as possible without creating (1881 – 1967)
friction; Source: Google Image

▪ Cardinal vowel 5 [ɑ] is produced with the lips in a neutral

configuration and the tongue is as low and as far back as
possible without creating friction;

▪ Cardinal vowels 2 [e], 3 [ɛ], and 4 [a] form a series of

equidistant steps at the front;

▪ Cardinal vowels 6 [ɔ], 7 [o], and 8 [u] form a series of

equidistant steps at the back, with an increase in lip-rounding.

Primary cardinal vowels (Roach, 2009)

 The cardinal vowels 1 – 8 are known as the primary cardinal vowels.

 Each cardinal vowel is labelled based on the vertical dimension (close, close-mid, open-mid, and open), the
horizontal dimension (front, central, and back), and lip shape (rounded and unrounded).

▪ CV1 [i]: front close unrounded;

▪ CV2 [e] front close-mid unrounded;

▪ CV3 [ɛ]: front open-mid unrounded;

▪ CV4 [a]: front open unrounded;

▪ CV5 [ɑ]: back open unrounded;

▪ CV6 [ɔ]: back open-mid rounded;

▪ CV7 [o]: back close-mid rounded;

▪ CV8 [u]: back close rounded.

Primary cardinal vowels (Roach, 2009)
Recording by Peter Ladefoged (1925-2006)
 Secondary cardinal vowels have opposite roundedness and include those in the central area.

→ All the cardinal vowels provide a comprehensive co-ordinate system for locating vowels in all languages.

The cardinal vowel chart proposed by Daniel Jones (Laver, 1994) The modern cardinal vowel chart (IPA, 2020)
  Vowel positions in the vowel chart only correspond
roughly to tonge positions; they are more related to their
relative auditory qualities.

→ The vowel chart is an auditory and articulatory

representation of vowel characteristics.

F1 and F2
formant
values and
the vowel
chart for 10
American
vowels
(Small,
MRI images of tongue positions in the vowels of British English
2020)
(Coleman, n.d. as cited in Ladefoged & Johnson, 2014)
2.3. Vowel length
 Vowel sounds may differ not only in perceptual quality but also in duration.

 Distinctions of length at the phonemic level and allophonic level are both very common.

E.g.

/uː/ and /u/ in Finnish

Phonemic /a/ and /ă/ in Vietnamese
/iː/ and /ɪ/ in English (?) (always go along with differences in phonetic quality)
Allophonic Durations of /iː/ in English: bee >> bead >> beat
2.4. Monophthongs, diphthongs, and triphthongs
 During the medial phase of a vowel articulation, if the active articulators

▪ remain in one position, a monophthong is produced;

E.g. [ɛ] in bet, [ʊ] in put, [ɔː] in four, etc.

▪ change from one position to another, a diphthong is produced;

E.g. [aɪ] in try, [eɪ] in stay, [əʊ] in no, etc.

▪ change from one position to another and then another, a triphthong is produced.

E.g. [ʊɑʊ] in Brazilian Portuguese, [aɪə] in fire in English (?), etc.

3. Transcribing vowels
3.1. IPA symbols
 Different authors use different set of symbols to represent vowels.

Publications Symbols for British English vowels

Jones et al. (2011), Ogden (2009),
iː ɪ e æ ɜː ə ʌ uː ʊ ɔː ɒ ɑː ɪə eə ʊə aɪ eɪ ɔɪ əʊ aʊ
Roach (2009), and Wells (2008)
Crystal (2019) iː ɪ e æ ɜː ə ʌ uː ʊ ɔː ɒ ɑː ɪə ɛə ʊə aɪ eɪ ɔɪ əʊ aʊ

Collins et al. (2019) iː ɪ e æ ɜː ə ʌ uː ʊ ɔː ɒ ɑː ɪə ɛː ʊə aɪ eɪ ɔɪ əʊ aʊ

Crutteden (2014) iː ɪ e a ɜː ə ʌ uː ʊ ɔː ɒ ɑː ɪə ɛː ʊə aɪ eɪ ɔɪ əʊ aʊ
Carr (2013), Ladefoged & Johnson
iː ɪ ɛ æ ɜː ə ʌ uː ʊ ɔː ɒ ɑː ɪə ɛə ʊə aɪ eɪ ɔɪ əʊ aʊ
(2014), and Tench (2011)
Giegerich (1992) i ɪ ɛ a ɜ ə ʌ u ʊ ɔ ɒ ɑ ɪə ɛə ʊə aɪ e ɔɪ o aʊ
3.2. Lexical sets
 The lexical sets to describe English vowels were proposed in Wells (1982).

Lexical set Members of the set Lexical set Members of the set
FLEECE eat, meet, see, teach, etc. NEAR near, beer, deer, fear, etc.
KIT it, sit, hit, bit, etc. SQUARE bear, pear, dare, fair, etc.
DRESS met, let, strength, ten, etc. CURE sure, tour, poor, etc.
TRAP cat, hat, clap, hand, etc. FACE name, hate, tape, made, etc.
NURSE hurt, heard, girl, bird, etc. PRICE cry, hide, mice, fight, etc.
STRUT love, hut, mud, son, etc. CHOICE boy, noise, coin, toy, etc.
GOOSE school, fool, shoe, true, etc. GOAT no, dose, cope, boat, etc.
FOOT good, full, put, look, etc. MOUTH now, round, bounce, loud, etc.
THOUGHT four, more, lord, door, etc.
LOT not, pot, cot, hop, etc.
PALM star, guard, yard, part, etc.
4. English vowels
4.1. Monophthongs
Front Central Back
 Lip shape: Close iː uː
▪ Rounded: [uː, ʊ, ɔː, ɒ]; ɪ ʊ
▪ Unrounded: the others. Close-mid
ɔː
ə/ɜː
 Vertical dimension (Tongue height):
Ɛ
▪ Close: [iː ɪ ʊ uː]; Open-mid
ʌ ɒ
▪ Close-mid: [ɔː]; æ
ɑː
Open
▪ Open-mid: [ɛ ə ɜː];
The vowel chart for GB monophthongs
▪ Open: [æ ʌ ɑː ɒ].
 Horizontal dimension (Frontness):

▪ Front: [iː ɪ ɛ æ];

Front Central Back
▪ Central: [ə ɜː ʌ]; Close iː uː
▪ Back: [uː ʊ ɔː ɒ ɑː]. ɪ ʊ
 Length: Close-mid
ɔː
ə/ɜː
▪ Long: [iː uː ɜː ɔː ɑː];
Ɛ
▪ Short: [ɪ ʊ ɛ ə æ ʌ ɒ]. Open-mid
ʌ ɒ
→ Length alone is non-contrastive in English, and the length of æ
ɑː
a vowel is subject to adjustments in certain phonetic contexts. Open
The vowel chart for GB monophthongs
→ Alternative terms: tense vowels and lax vowels.
4.2. Diphthongs
4.2.1. Centring diphthongs

[ɪə] [ɛə] [ʊə]

Glide begins in position Glide begins in position

Glide begins in front
for [ɪ], moves backwards and in [ʊ], moves forwards and
open-mid position, move
Description downwards towards [ə]; lips downwards towards [ə]; lips
backwards towards [ə]; lips
neutral, with slight movement weakly rounded becoming
neutrally open throughout.
from spread to open. neutrally spread.

Illustration
black: GB
red: variants
(Crystal, 2019)

Monophthongized to [ɔː] for

Monophthongized to [ɪː] for Monophthongized to [ɛː] for
Notes most speakers, especially in
some young speakers most speakers
sure, poor, & tour
4.2.2. Closing diphthongs
4.2.2.1. Ending in [ɪ]

[eɪ] [aɪ] [ɔɪ]

Glide begins slightly behind front
Glide begins from slightly Glide begins between back
open position, moves upwards and
below front close-mid close-mid and open-mid
towards [ɪ]; lips change from
Description position moves upwards and positions, moves upwards and
neutral to loosely spread; obvious
slightly backwards towards forwards towards [ɪ]; lips open
closing movement of the lower
[ɪ] ; lips spread. rounded changing to neutral.
jaw.

Illustration
black: GB
red: variants
(Crystal, 2019)

A more open starting point A backer starting point among A closer starting point among
Notes
among young speakers young speakers young speakers
4.2.2.2. Ending in [ʊ]

[əʊ] [aʊ]

Glide begins in central position Glide begins between back and front open
between close-mid and open-mid, moves positions, moves upwards and slightly backwards
Description
upwards and back towards [ʊ]; lips neutral towards [ʊ]; lips changing from neutrally open to
changing to slightly rounded. slightly rounded; jaw movement quite extensive.

Illustration
black: GB
red: variants
(Crystal, 2019)

Notes Transcribed as [oʊ] for the GA accent Can be transcribed as [ɑʊ]

 4.3. Distribution
4.3.1. Vowels in stressed and unstressed syllables
 Vowels that can occur in stressed syllables: all except the schwa [ə].

 Vowels that can occur in unstressed syllables: all, but predominantly five weak vowels:

Weak vowel Name Examples Notes

[ə] schwa banana, computer, bonus the most common sound in English
▪ used to be very common in the suffixes -less and -
ness, now increasingly replaced by [ə]
[ɪ] weak KIT ignore, damage, wanted
▪ still common in words like pocket, cabbage & -es/-
ed distinctions (centered vs. scented; losers vs. loses)
now becoming increasingly rare and can be replaced
[ʊ] weak FOOT accurate, regular
by weak GOOSE or schwa
used to be identical to weak KIT but now more like
[i] weak FLEECE happy, lazy, money, glorious
weak FLEECE (HappY tensing)
used to be identical to weak FOOT, but now more like
[u] weak GOOSE strenuous, continuous
weak GOOSE
4.3.2. Vowels in open and closed syllables

 In a closed syllable (a syllable ending with a consonant), any vowel can occur.

 In an open syllable:

▪ If the syllable is stressed, only long monophthongs and diphthongs can occur.

E.g. decree [dɪˈkriː], deny [dɪˈnaɪ], *[bɪ, bɛ, bæ, bʌ, bʊ, bɒ].

▪ If the syllable is unstressed, only long monophthongs, diphthongs, and the five weak vowels can occur.

E.g. causality [kɔːˈzæləti], direct [daɪˈrekt], away [əˈweɪ], believe [bɪˈliːv], happy [ˈhæpi].
5. Allophonic variants of the English vowels
5.1. Pre-fortis clipping
 A vowel is shortened before a voiceless (fortis) consonant.

Vowels Context Articulation Narrow transcription Examples

beat [bit]
Long vowels: [i, u, etc.]
Before a voiceless course [kɔs]
Any vowel Shortened
(fortis) consonant hit [hɪ̆t]
Short vowels: [ɒ̆, ɛ̆, etc.]
cot [kɒ̆t]
5.2. Nasalization
 A vowel is nasalized (the velum is lowered during the offset phase) before a nasal.

Vowels Context Articulation Narrow transcription Examples

tenth [tɛñ θ]
Any vowel Before a nasal Nasalized [ʌ̃, ɛ,̃ etc.]
tomb [tũːm]

5.3. Pre-/l/ breaking

 A transitional sound similar to [ə] is ‘inserted’ between a vowel and a dark /l/.

Vowels Context Articulation Narrow transcription Examples

feel [fiːᵊɫ]
Any vowel Before [ɫ] Accompanied by [ə] [ᵊɫ] fool [fuːᵊɫ]
fail [feɪᵊɫ]
6. The Great Vowel Shift and recent developments
6.1. The Great Vowel Shift
 The GVS was a chain shift that happened between
1400 and 1800, separating Middle English from
Modern English.

 The GVS affected long vowels, moving them in a

circular pattern: The Great Vowel Shift
(Zsiga, 2013)
▪ The open vowel [aː] and [ɛː eː ɔː oː] were raised
(moving up a step from their original positions). name [aː] → [ɛː] → [eː] name
feet [eː] ------------- → [iː] feet
▪ The close vowels [iː] and [uː] were greet [ɛː] → [e] → [iː] greet
ride [iː] → [əɪ] → [aɪ] ride
diphthongized;
boote [oː] ------------- → [uː] boot
boot [ɔː] ------------- → [o] boat
hous [u:] → [əʊ] → [aʊ] house
Some words after the GVS (Algeo, 2010)
6.2. Recent developments
6.2.1. The anticlockwise vowel shift
uː
ʊ
 For young GB speakers:
ɛ
▪ [uː] and [ʊ] are central (GOOSE-fronting);
ɔː
▪ [ɛ] is near CV3; æ
ɒ
▪ [æ] is near CV4, becoming [a] (TRAP-lowering); 20th century pronunciation

▪ [ɒ] is between CV6 and CV7; uː

▪ [ɔː] is near CV7 (THOUGHT-raising). ʊ

ɔː
ɛ
ɒ
a
21st century pronunciation
(Carley et al., 2018)
6.2.2. Monophthonging of centring diphthongs
 Centring diphthongs are ‘destined to be lost from the GB accent’ (Carley et al., 2018, p. 144):

▪ [ɛə] has become [ɛː];

▪ [ɪə] has become [ɪː] for some speakers;

▪ [ʊə] has been increasingly replaced by [ɔː].

6.2.3. HappY tensing

 In certain phonetic environments, [i] (weak FLEECE) has replaced [ɪ] (weak KIT):

▪ in word-final position (happy, lazy, money);

▪ in morpheme-final position (anti-, multi-, semi-);

▪ before vowels (react, alien, piano, area);

▪ in word-initial be- (before), de- (delete), e- (elect), pre- (predict) and re- (repeat).
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