Two Beam

Interferometers
Thursday, 11/30/2006
Physics 158
Peter Beyersdorf

Document info 19. 1

 Class Outline
Michelson Interferometer

Sagnac Interferometer

Fizeau Interferometer

19. 2
 Michelson Interferometer

L1 Δφ=4π(n1L1-n2L2)/λ

I0
L2
Iout
Measuring the intensity of the
output allows us to infer the values
of physical parameters n, L or λ 19. 3
Michelson Interferometer
From 1980-1983 the meter was defined as
1579800.299 wavelengths of light from a HeNe
laser. How could you reproduce the standard
meter in a lab?

Scan one mirror as you count off twice this

many fringes. The distance it travels would be
one meter

19. 4
 Scanning Michelson Interferometer

The output field varies depending on wavelength and on the path length
difference

giving an output intensity (for r2=t2=1/2) of

if one of the mirrors moves at constant velocity, such that

The output signal will be modulated at a frequency

5
 Scanning Michelson Interferometer
With the expression

the wavelength of a source can be

measured by comparing the modulation
frequency for that source to the
modulation frequency of a known
reference Schematic of a scanning Michelson interferometer
source: Andrews and Demidov

If N=ΔL/λ is the number of

interference fringes that are counted
the measurement error Δλ/λ is 1/N
giving a resolving power of
Output intensity as a function of time
6
 Michelson Interferometer

L1 Δφ=4π(n1L1-n2L2)/λ

I0 vacuum chamber

L2
Iout
Measuring the intensity of the
output allows us to infer the values
of physical parameters n, L or λ 19. 7
Michelson Interferometer

How can you measure the index of

refraction of air?

L1 Δφ=4π(n1L1-n2L2)/λ

I0 vacuum chamber

L2
Iout
count the fringes as air is let back into a vacuum
chamber of known length in one arm 19. 8
 Interference Fringes
What do we mean by “count the fringes”?
fringe pattern of an
aligned Michelson with
an arm length mismatch
5000
of ΔL

fringe pattern of an
aligned Michelson with
2500
an arm length mismatch
of ΔL+λ/10

-1!104 -7500 -5000 -2500 0 2500 5000 7500 1!104

-2500

-5000

19. 9
Interference Fringes

19.10
 Counting Fringes
How accurately can we “count fringes”?

Shot noise produces noise that causes the intensity to fluctuate by

√ vm
∆I = I/ N Vef f =
vm
where N=PΔt/hν is the number of photons detected in our measurement of
time Δt. This is related to the phase shift on the side of a fringe by
I
dI
=I
dφ 0

So the minimum detectable phase shift is

!
1 hν
∆φmin =√ =
N P ∆t
19. 11
 Counting Fringes
What is the smallest displacement of a Michelson mirror that can be
measured by a 500 mW Nd:YAG laser with a wavelength of λ=1064nm in a
one second measurement? !
1 hν
∆φmin = √ =
N P ∆t
!
hc
=
λP ∆t
"
(6.63 × 10−34 J · s)(3 × 108 m/s)
=
(1064 × 10−9 m)(500 × 10−3 W)(1 s)
= 6 × 10 −10
rad
from Δφ=2π(2ΔL)/λ for a Michelson interferometer
ΔLmin=λΔφmin/4π=5x10-17 m
19. 12
 Fringe Detection
A detector with a finite size aperture wil tend to
average out the fringes that are incident on the
detector. The effective visibility is

vmax − vmin
Vef f =
vmax + vmin
and the actual detectable phase shift is

Δφact=Δφmin/Veff

one could minimize the detector size to avoid this

problem, but that would limit the detected power and
hence decrease Δφmin. Alternatively if the
interferometer is well aligned, the fringes become
courser than the detector 19.13
Michelson Interferometer
What does the output interference
pattern look like when the
interferometer is aligned? When it
is misaligned?

L1 Δφ=4π(n1L1-n2L2)/λ

I0
L2
Iout

19.14
Michelson Interference Pattern

19.15
 Sagnac Interferometer
Two counter-propagating
beams interfere. Since
beams travel the same
path (in opposite
directions) this device
has very good common
mode noise rejection, and
is primarily sensitive to
path length changes at
high frequency

19. 16
 Sagnac Interferometer
Consider the effect of
rotation on a square
Sagnac interferometer
ω

L
transit time is tt=4L/c, additional path length
due to rotation during that time is ΔL≈±ωLtt,
so Δφ=16πωL2/cλ or Δφ=16πAω/λ, and is a
very sensitive measure of rotation

note: to treat this problem properly requires a full relativistic treatment not considered here 19.17
 0-order Fizeau
Interferometer*
An air wedge between two glass ΔL(y)=2d(y/w)
d
plates to generate fringes that have a y=w
spacing proportional to the
wavelength
I(y)
To prevent aliasing on the m-element
y=0
detector array we must have the
number of fringes N=2d/λ less than I(y)=I0/2 [1+cos(4πyd/wλ)]
m/2 giving a limit on d<mλ/4

Wavelength can be determined

unambiguously without calibration

*This is actually a multiple beam interferometer, but our

analysis is simplified as if it were a two beam device
Fizeau Interferometer
18
Source: Andrews and Demidov
 Summary
Many configuration of amplitude splitting
interferometers exist that allow physical
quantities to be measured with extreme
sensitivity

Even if all technical sources of noise can be

eliminated, shot noise will still exist and limit
the sensitivity of any optical measurement

Alignment, power, and measurement time all

affect the sensitivity of measurements made
with an interferometer

19.19