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Theory
• The human body is nothing but a medium that takes place in all the

biochemical reactions that the body benefits from in nutrition and growth. And other
than that, the blood that is in our bodies, the atmospheric air mixed with gases, and
what is available to us are materials.Used in medical services such as nutrients,
medicines, antibiotics, etc., or used in some Industries such as industrial detergents,
perfumes, paints, and alloys of gold and alloys from which structures are made
Airplanes and others, all of the above can be called solutions. It is self-evident that we
attach great importance to chemical solutions for the first year in pharmcy order to
form a base Difficulty for the student to understand the types and specifications of
various solutions and how to prepare them and understand their concentrations and
changing specifications Its physical and chemical. A solution is a homogeneous mixture
of two or more substances that are not bound by a chemical reaction, and it is a system
One-phase or preserved. The solubility of one substance in another to form a
homogeneous solution depends on the nature of the combined substances In the melting
process, the solubility is affected by changes in temperature and by the nature of the
materials composing the solution and the compressor . Although the last effect is
significant for gases only. A substance present in abundance in a solution is a solvent,
while a substance in a lesser proportion is a solvent .That there For questions that the
solvent, note (solute). However, for a solid solution in liquids, it is always indicated.
Other abnormal cases in which steel is present in a larger quantity.

• Solution A solution is defined as a homogeneous group,

solid, liquid or gaseous, consisting of two or more chemical components. These

substances can be of an ionic or molecular nature. The solutions are divided into true
(homogeneous) and colloidal (heterogeneous) solutions. Solutions can be divided into
several sections according to the nature of the substances (phases included in its
composition: - gas solution – gas, and the resulting phase is gaseous, for example, air is
composed of nitrogen, oxygen and argon.A gas-liquid solution, and the resulting phase
is a liquid, for example, a solution of air and other gases in water. A gas-solid solution,
and the resulting phase is a solid, for example the dissolution of gases such as hydrogen
and oxygen in metals. A liquid-liquid solution, and the resulting phase is a liquid, for
example a solution of alcohol with water, and benzene with toluene. Solid solution –
liquid, and the resulting phase is liquid, for example NaCl salt solution in water. Since
the basis for the formation of the solution is the process of dissolution (dissolution).
Therefore, it is necessary to study the factors that affect the solubility, such as
temperature, pressure, etc., and the change in the properties of solutions, such as low
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freezing point, high boiling point, and other properties should be taken into
consideration.

• Types of solutions Types of solutions are divided into three types:

saturated, unsaturated, and supersaturated.

A- Unsaturated solution: It is the solution that can dissolve additional amounts

of solute, for example when dissolving 6 g of sodium chloride in a glass of
water after complete dissolution, we add 2 g of salt, and we find that it has
dissolved, then we say that this solution is not saturated .

B- Saturated solution: It is the homogeneous solution that contains the largest

amount of solute in the two systems conditions. When adding another amount
of solute, we find that it will precipitate at the bottom of the container, then we
say that the solution is saturated and represents a state of equilibrium, and it
is worth noting that we can remove the saturated solution from this state of
equilibrium, by changing the regular conditions of temperature and pressure

C- Supersaturated solution: It is a homogeneous solution that contains an

amount of solute greater than the amount present in the saturated solution
under normal conditions. It is explained by the presence of negative r esistance
in the solution that prevents the formation of crystals, and this phenomenon
can be overcome by rubbing the inner sides of the vessels containing
supersaturated solutions with a glass rod or by adding a few crystals of the
solute.

▪ A vacuum source is necessary for suction filtration (and vacuum distillation).

Although many science buildings come equipped with a house vacuum system, solvents
evaporating from a suction filter flask over time can degrade the oil pumps used in a
house vacuum. Therefore, it is recommended to instead connect a suction flask to a
water aspirator.

A water aspirator is an inexpensive attachment to a water spigot, and the nub on the
aspirator connects with tubing to the vessel to be evacuated. As water flows through the
faucet and the aspirator, suction is created in the flask.

A water aspirator creates suction through the Bernoulli Principle (technically, the
Venturi Effect, for liquids). Water coming from the faucet is constricted inside the
aspirator. As the water flow must be the same going into the aspirator as it is going out,
the water speed must increase in the constricted area in the direction of flow. A similar
phenomenon can be seen in creeks and rivers where the water flows the fastest at the
narrowest portions of streams. When the water increases its velocity in the direction of
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the water flow, conservation of energy dictates that its velocity in perpendicular
directions must decrease. The result is a lowered pressure adjacent to the fast-moving
liquid. In other words, the gain in velocity of the constricted liquid is balanced by a
reduction in pressure on the surrounding material (the gas).

For this reason, the speed at which the water flows through the faucet is correlated
with the amount of suction experienced in the connected flask. A strong flow of water
will have the fastest speeds through the aspirator and the greatest reduction in
pressure.

The supernatant is the clear liquid that lies above the solid residue after centrifugation,
precipitation, crystallization or settling. The liquid is normally free of precipitate and
has a lower density. The process leading to the supernatant formation is used in
separating the several components making up a complex mixture. The supernatant
liquid is used in the preparation of green clay eluate (CE) which is one of the
components in the corrosion inhibitors for steel used in saline waters.Supernatant is
also known as supernate.

• Filtration Definition

Filtration is the separating of substances based on their different physical and chemical
qualities. Typically, we think of it as the removal of solid particles from a mixture
containing both solids and liquids. In this process, we refer to the collected solid
material as the residue and the fluid material as the filtrate. Usually, a tool that
contains some form of pores is used, which allows the fluid portion, but not the solid
portion, to pass through. Different materials are used for the purpose of filtration,
including paper, sand, and cloth. Filtration also occurs naturally in our bodies, for
example in the kidneys, where the blood is filtered in a process called glomerular
filtration.

• Types of Filtration

There are many different ways to filter matter, and below are just a few that we can
use in the separating of substances.

1. Vacuum Filtration

In vacuum filtration, a vacuum pump is used to rapidly draw the fluid through a filter.
Hirsch funnels and Buchner funnels, which are the same kind of funnel in two different
sizes, are used along with filter paper. The funnels have a plate with holes in it, as we
can see below, and they are usually used when the substance to be filtered is small in
volume.
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2. Centrifugal Filtration

This kind of filtration is done by rotating the substance to be filtered at very high
speed. Due to the horizontal rotation, the more dense matter is separated from the less
dense matter.

3. Gravity Filtration

This is where the mixture is poured from a higher point to a lower one. It is commonly
done through simple filtration, using filter paper in a glass funnel, where the insoluble
solid particles are captured by the filter paper and the liquid goes right through by
gravity’s pull. Depending on the volume of the substance at hand, filter cones, fluted
filters, or filtering pipets can be used.

4. Cold Filtration

Cold filtration makes use of very low temperatures, often by using an ice bath. Some
substances, such as fatty acid particles, become suspended in the mixture as they cool
down, which then allows us to filter them out more easily.

5. Hot Filtration

This is often used for crystalline compounds that contain impurities. The way this
filtration is done is by melting down the crystalline compound, removing the impurities
as the substance is still in liquid form, and finally recrystallizing the now pure
substance. Often, it is recommended that the apparatus used in this filtration be heated
up so that the filtered substance doesn’t crystallize in the funnel and block the flow.

6. Multilayer Filtration

This can refer to multiple layers of different material, including sand, gravel, or
charcoal, where the different layers contain different particle sizes of that material. In
this type of filtration, a mixture of liquid and insoluble solid particles is poured over the
layers, and the solid particles are caught throughout, resulting in a filtered liquid.

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 • Vacuum (or Suction) Filtration

Vacuum filtration uses a Buchner (pronounced "book –ner " ) funnel and a water
aspirator assembly. A Buchner funnel is a flat bottomed, porous, circular porcelain
bowl with a short stem. The stem is fitted with a rubber stopper and inserted in the
mouth of a side arm filter flask. Circular filter paper, the same diameter as the bowl, is
placed on the flat bottom and wetted with the appropriate solvent to create a seal
before starting the filtration.

The hose in the above figure is attaches the side arm of the filter flask to a vacuum
aspirator in the hood or at the lab bench. This vacuum aspirator creates the suction
that pulls liquid through the filter and filter paper.

Figure 5 shows the entire set-up consisting of a Buchner funnel, the side arm flask, and
the vacuum aspirator. When the water aspirator is turned on the flow of water creates
suction. The hose is part of the filtration system and should be heavy enough to prevent
pinching or collapse under external atmospheric pressure .To filter a sample, turn on
the aspirator and carry out the filtration in the same manner described for gravity
filtration. (Note: NEVER pry off the funnel if the system is under vacuum! Water can
flash back

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into the collection flask or the filter paper can be damaged resulting in the loss of
filtered solid.) Turn off the water aspirator before carefully removing the wet filter
paper without tearing. Reaction byproducts (either the solid or filtrate) should be
placed

into appropriate labeled containers in the hood.

Material and Tools

1-Benzoic acid .

2- glucose .

3- Thermometer .

4- Spatulal .

5- Graduated Cylinder .

6- Distilled Water .

7- Beaker.

8- Funnel

9- AgCl

10- AgNo3

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 Mothed or procedure

Gravity filtration uses a polyethylene or glass funnel with a stem and filter paper. Filter
paper can have pore sizes ranging from small to large to permit slow to fast filtering.
The paper is folded in half (Figure 1), then folded in quarters, and the tip of one corner
is torn off to allow for a snug fit in the funnel cone. (If the paper has been pre-weighed,
the torn corner piece must be saved to add to the post-filter weighing to avoid any
errors.) The paper cone is fitted to the funnel so three thicknesses of the paper line
one-half of the cone and one thickness lines the opposite half (Figure 1). Now place the
funnel into a beaker and wet the filter paper completely

with the dominate solvent or solvents in the mixture to be filtered. This step adheres the
filter paper to the funnel walls preventing solid from escaping. Then, support the
funnel with a clamp or ring (if necessary) and place a clean beaker beneath the funnel
so the stem rests against the side of the beaker (this prevents splattering).Before
filtering, allow most of the solid in the mixture to settle. Now pour the supernatant
liquid (the liquid standing over the solid in a mixture) through the filter first. This will
allow the initial part of the filtration to proceed faster and may prevent clogging of the
filter by the solid. To prevent splattering pour the liquid down a glass rod as shown in
Figure 2.

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Scrape the solid onto the
filter with a rubber
policeman or spatula.
Rinse the spatula, glass
rod and beaker and pour
the washings into the
filter funnel. If the
remaining solid residue is
to be washed, rinse with
three small portions (a
few milliliters each) of an
appropriate solvent. If the
solid is to be saved,
remove the filter paper
carefully and place it on a
watch glass to dry.
Caution: Wet filter paper
tears easily .Sometimes
the filtrate is tested to
determine if a product or
reactant has or has not
passed

through the filter. The

test depends on what is being separated. For example: All barium ions (Ba2+) should
have removed from solution by the formation of the precipitate BaSO4. To check this a
few drops of Na2SO4 solution can be added to a small portion of the filtrate. If no
BaSO4 precipitate forms, the filtration was successful. If a precipitate forms, additional
precipitating (sulfate ion containing) reagents must be added to the filtrate and the
resulting mixture must be filtered again.

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 Discussion
• Filtration is used to purify fluids. For example, separating dust from the
atmosphere to clean the

surrounding air. The filtration process, as a physical process, is very important in

chemistry to separate substances of different chemical composition in solution (or solids
that can be dissolved) where a reactant is first used to precipitate one of the substances
and then a filter is used to separate the solid from other substances. Filtration is also
an important process and is widely used as a basic process in chemical engineering.

• Factors Affecting Filtration

Filtration is affected by the characteristics of the slurry, including:

1- The properties of the liquid, such as density, viscosity, and corrosiveness.

2- The properties of the solid, for example, particle shape, particle size, particle size
distribution, and the rigidity or compressibility of the solid.

3- The proportion of solids in the slurry.

4-Whether the objective is to collect the solid, the liquid,or both.

5- Whether the solids have to be washed free from the liquid or a solute.

• Mixtures are separated through filtration if the size of the granules to be

separated

is small, or the granules are of different sizes, or if the two materials to be separated
from each other are different in physical condition, by using a filter or filter paper ),
There are many examples of the filtration process in daily life, the coffee maker
contains a filter paper through which the coffee powder passes and the larger coffee
beans remain stuck to the top,and the tea paper can be separated in the tea solution
And water by filtering as well.

Filtration methods are classified into two methods based on the solubility of the
materials to be separated. If the material to be separated is not dissolved in the
solution, it can be separated by gravity filtration, by heating the solution and then
pouring it through a funnel lined with filter paper inside a filter flask ( Filter flask),
the solid substance remains on the filter paper and the filtered solution is poured into
the filter flask. The other method is suction filtration, and the solution is cold. This
method is followed if the materials to be separated contain On dissolved impurities in
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the solution, the solution is poured through a Hirsch or Buchner funnel lined with filter
paper and connected to an air extraction device,[5] and the clear liquid that passes
through the filter paper is called the filter, and the remaining particles on the filter
paper are known sediment

• Advantages of Vacuum Filters:

Vacuum filters or suction filters are much easier, and they are less complicated than
gravity filtration. With the good seals, you can easily filter the solid water mixture
within one minute, and you can vacuum filters are more efficient at removing residual
liquid.

Vacuum filters are important for crystallization because liquid mixtures can contain
soluble impurities and you need to use a filter that can absorb such impurities with its
powerful suction process. In this case, vacuum filters can be used to remove the
impurities from solid liquid mixtures.

But if you do not use proper filter paper in your vacuum pumps then it can absorb
some fine crystals form the pores of the filters. You cannot remove the fine crystals
from the liquid solid mixtures with the vacuum filters, and to prevent this problem you
must use proper vacuum filter papers. However, you can use such vacuum filters for
the large scale industries, and they are the best for removing large crystals.

With the vacuum filters, you can easily separate the solid from its surrounding liquids
and rinsing the solid is important of the liquid does not evaporate. In the case of
crystallization, you can find some impurities in the liquid and you need to remove such
impurities from the solid through vacuum filters. To rinse a suction vacuum filter, you
need to remove the cold solvent from the solid mixtures, and you can use the same
solvent in the time of crystallization. You can use a glass funnel to remove the cold
solvents and the filter cake will help you to pour the cold solvent over the solid
mixtures.

Apart from that, vacuum distillation is a part of vacuum filters and you can use suction
filter flask to remove the solvents from the solid liquid mixture. You can find a water
aspiration in the vacuum pump and this is connected with a suction flask. You can use
this suction flask to filter the oil and it can remove the water solvents from the oil.
Water aspirator is an important part of the vacuum pump and it is an attachment of a
water spigot.

Once the water flows through the faucet, filtration will be created in the flask and you
can use the vacuum filters for further filtration.

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 ▪ filtrate

Filtration is a technique used either to remove solid impurities from an organic solution
or to isolate an organic solid. The two types of filtration commonly used in organic
chemistry laboratories are gravity filtration and vacuum or suction filtration

▪ supernatant liquid

The supernatant is the clear liquid that lies above the solid residue after centrifugation,
precipitation, crystallization or settling. The liquid is normally free of precipitate and
has a lower density. The process leading to the supernatant formation is used in
separating the several components making up a complex mixture. The supernatant
liquid is used in the preparation of green clay eluate (CE) which is one of the
components in the corrosion inhibitors for steel used in saline waters.Supernatant is
also known as supernate

▪ water aspirator

water aspirator is an inexpensive and dependable source of moderate vacuum in the

laboratory. As the water rushes past a side arm aperture, a partial vacuum is formed.
The lowest approximate pressure that be achieved with this device is 10 mm of mercury
or 10 torr.

▪ gravity filtration

Gravity filtration is the method of choice to remove solid impurities from an organic
liquid. The impurity can be a drying agent or an undesired side product or leftover
reactant. Gravity filtration can be used to collect solid product, although generally
vacuum filtration is used for this purpose because it is faster.

▪ vacuum filtration

is the standard technique used for separating a solid-liquid mixture when the goal is to
retain the solid (for example in crystallization).

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 ▪ Why do we wet the filter paper when setting it into the funnel before filtering a
solution?

It is necessary to wet the filter paper to secure it to the bottom of the filter funnel.
Without this step, the filter paper may float when the solid/solvent mixture is poured.
Consequently, solid product is lost as it passes around the filter paper ending up in the
filter flask below

▪ When using gravity filtration, air bubbles in the liquid in the funnel stem
indicates what type of problem? If this problem is not corrected can solids leak
through the funnel into the filtrate?

This indicates a clog in the funnel stem. If this is not corrected solids will not be able to
leak through.

▪ When using gravity filtration, where should the funnel stem be placed? Why?

The stem of the funnel should be placed in a receiving vessel to collect the filtrate.

▪ For best results, should the solid be washed with a single large washing or with
several small washings?

if washing remaining solid residue, rinse with 3 small portions (a few milliliters each) of
an appropriate solvent. If the solid is to be preserved

▪ What type of funnel should be used in gravity filtration? in vacuum filtration?

Buchner funnel is a piece of laboratory equipment used in filtration. It is traditionally

made of porcelain, but glass and plastic funnels are also available. On top of the funnel-
shaped part there is a cylinder with a fritted glass disc/perforated plate separating it
from the funnel.

▪ When using vacuum filtration, why should you never pry off the funnel while the
system is under vacuum?

Never pry off the funnel if the system is under vacuum! Water can flash back into the
collection flask or the filter paper can be damaged resulting in the loss of filtered
solid.) Turn off the water aspirator before carefully removing the wet filter paper
without tearing

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 ▪ List some advantages and disadvantages of using:

a) gravity filtration

b) vacuum filtration

Gravity filtration: The advantage of using gravity filtration is that it is easy to set up
compared to the vacuum filtration and the disadvantage is that it takes long for
filtration. The time saved in the setup is used up in the filtration process.

vacuum filtration

Advantages:

1) Suction filtration is much faster than gravity filtration, often taking less than one
minute with good seals and a good vacuum source.

2) Suction filtration is more efficient at removing residual liquid, leading to a purer

solid. This is especially important in crystallization, as the liquid may contain soluble
impurities which could adsorb back onto the solid surface when the solvent evaporates.

Disadvantages: The force of suction may draw fine crystals through the filter paper
pores, leading to a quantity of material that cannot be recovered from the filter paper,
and possibly an additional quantity that is lost in the filtrate. This method therefore
works best with large crystals. On small scales, the loss of material to the filter paper
and filtrate is significant, and so other methods are recommended for microscale work.

Gravity Filtration is recommended when:

• the mixture is hot (above room temperature)

• the liquid is saturated with one or more reagents

• the solvent is very volatile (chloroform, alcohols, ethers).

Vacuum Filtration is recommended when:

• the conditions where gravity filtration is recommended are NOT present

• a quick separation is required

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 References

-Gilbert J. G., de Jong O., Justi R., Treagust D. F. and van Driel J. H.

-Griffiths A. K. and Preston K. R., (1992), Grade-12 students’

-Gabel DL, Samuel K. V. and Hunn D., (1987), Understanding the particulate nature of
matter, J. Chem. Educ., 64, 695-697.

- article by Lisa Nichols (Butte Community College)

-www.coursehero.com / College of DuPage.

-Fischler H. and Reiners C. S. (eds.)., Die Tparticle structure of matter in the

-Physics and chemistry classes (The microscopic structure of materials in physics and
chemistry lessons), Berlin: Logos Vhe laid

-Barker V. and Millar R., (2000), Students’ reasoning about basic chemical

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