Term-1

Quick Revision Notes

Physics

Electric Charges and Fields

1. Charge is the property associated with matter due It is also denoted by K, which is called dielectric
to which it produces/experiences electric and constant of the medium. It has no units.
magnetic effects. There are two types of charges e Fvacuum
namely positive charge and negative charge . \ K or e r = =
e 0 Fmedium
2. Conservation of Electric Charge During any
6. Principle of Superposition of Electrostatic
process, the net electric charge of an isolated
Forces It states that, the net force experienced by a
system remains constant, i.e. conserved. In simple
given charge particle q 0 due to a system of charged
words, charge can neither be created nor be
particles is equal to the vector sum of the forces
destroyed.
exerted on it due to all the other charged particles
3. Quantisation of Charge Charge on an object can of the system.
only be integer multiple of a smallest charge (e ), i.e.
i.e. F0 = F01 + F02 + F03 + K + F0n
charge on an object, q = ± ne , where n is an
integer and e is the electronic charge. q0 é n qi ù
-19
or F0 = êiS ri 0 ú
where, e = - 16
. ´ 10 C. 4pe 0 êë = 1| r i 0| ûú
3

4. Coulomb’s Law It states that, the electrostatic

7. Electrostatic Force due to Continuous Charge
force of attraction or repulsion acting between two
Distribution The region in which charges are
stationary point charges q1 and q 2 separated in
closely spaced is said to have continuous charge
vacuum by a distance r is given by
distribution.
1 q q
F= × 1 2 ● Electrostatic force at a point due to a linear

4p e 0 r 2 charge distribution is given by

q ldl
1 F = 0 ò 2 r$0
Also, = 9 ´ 10 9 N-m 2/C 2 4pe 0 L r0
4pe 0
● Electrostatic force at a point due to a surface
where, e 0 = permittivity of free space charge distribution is given by
= 8.85419 ´ 10 -12 C 2/N-m 2 q sdS
F = 0 ò 2 r$0
1 q1 q 2 4pe 0 S r0
In vector form, F = × r
4pe 0 | r |3 ● Electrostatic force at a point due to volume
charge distribution is given by
1 q1 q 2
or F= r$ q0 rdV
4pe 0 r 2 F=
4pe 0 ò
V
r02
r$0
5. Relative Permittivity It is given by the ratio
8. Electric field is the region surrounding an electric
e (absolute permittivity of the medium) charge or a group of charges, in which another
er =
e0 charge experiences a force.

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 9. Electric field intensity at any point is given by 17. Torque on an electric dipole placed in uniform
F electric field is given by
E = lim
q0 ® 0 q
0 t = p ´ E or t = pE sin q
where, q 0 is a small positive test charge which Torque experienced by the dipole is
experiences a force F at given point. (i) minimum, when q = 0° or p; t = tmin = 0
10. Electric field intensity due to a point charge q at (ii) maximum, when q = p /2; t = tmax = pE
a distance r is given as
1 q 18. Work done in rotating the electric dipole from
E= r$ q1 to q2, W = pE (cos q1 - cos q2 )
4pe 0 r 2
19. Potential energy of electric dipole, when it makes
11. Electric field due to system of charges is given an angle q with the direction of electric field,
as
U = - pE cos q = - p × E
1 n qi
E= S r$ 20. Electric flux over an area is equal to the total
4pe 0 i = 1 ri 2 i
number of electric field lines crossing this area. It is
12. Electric lines of force are the imaginary curves given as
drawn in electric field along which an unit positive fE = E × d S
test charge tends to move.
21. Gauss’s Law The total electric flux linked with
The tangent to a electric line of force at any point closed surface S,
gives the direction of electric field at that point. q
f E = oò E × d S =
13. Electric Dipole Moment Magnitude of electric e0
dipole moment is equal to product of magnitude where, q is the total charge enclosed by the closed
of any charge q and separation between two gaussian (imaginary) surface.
charges (2l ).
22. Electric field intensity due to an infinitely long
p = q (2 l ) thin straight charged wire at a distance r,
Direction of electric dipole moment is taken from l
is given as E =
negative charge (- q ) to positive charge (+ q ). 2 pe 0r
14. Electric field at any point on the axial line of where, l is the uniform linear charge density.
electric dipole is given by 23. Electric field due to a thin infinite plane sheet of
1 2 pr charge with uniform surface charge density s at
Eaxial =
4pe 0 (r - l 2 )3/ 2
2
any nearby point is
1 2p s
When l << r, Eaxial = E= (for thin non-conducting plate)
4pe 0 r 3 2e0
s
15. Electric field at any point on equatorial line of and E= (for conducting plates)
electric dipole is given by e0
1 p 24. Electric field due to two equally and oppositely
Eequatorial =
4pe 0 (r 2 + l 2 )3/ 2 charged parallel plane sheets of charge at any
point, is given as
1 p s
If l << r, Eequatorial = E= (between the two plates)
4pe 0 r 3 e0

16. When l << r,

Eaxial
=2 and E=0 (outside the plates)
Eequatorial

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Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance
1. Electric potential or electrostatic potential at any 10. Relationship between electric field and potential
point in the region of electric field is equal to the gradient,
amount of work done in bringing the unit positive test dV
charge from infinity to that point, against electrostatic E=-
dr
forces without acceleration.
11. Electrostatic potential energy of a system of two
Work done ( W )
Electric potential ( V ) = point charges,
Charge ( q )
1 q1 q 2
Its SI unit is volt (V) and 1V = 1 J/C. U=
4pe 0 r
2. Electric Potential Difference The difference of
Electrostatic potential energy of a system of n
potential between two points A and B in an electric
point charges,
field is defined as, the amount of work done in
1 n n q j qi
moving an unit positive test charge from point B to
the A against electrostatic force without any
U= åå
4pe 0 j = 1 i = 1 r ji
acceleration, i.e. the difference of electric potentials
Here, j ¹ i and ij = ji .
of two points (i.e. VA and VB ) in the electric field.
12. Potential energy of a single charge in external
3. Electric potential due to a point charge q at any
field is q × V (r ), where V (r ) is the potential at the
point lying at a distance r from it, is given by
1 q point due to external electric field E.
V= 13. Potential energy of a system of two charges in
4pe 0 r
an external field,
4. The potential at a point due to a positive charge is q q
positive, while due to negative charge is negative. U = q1 × V (r1 ) + q 2 × V (r2 ) + 1 2
4pe 0 r12
5. Electric potential at any point due to a system of
n-point charges q1, q 2, ¼, q n, whose position where, q1, q 2 = two point charges at position vectors
vectors are r1, r 2, K , r n, respectively is given by r1 and r 2 respectively,
1 n qi V (r1 ) = potential at r1 due to the external field
V= S
4pe 0 i = 1 |r - ri | and V (r2 ) = potential at r2 due to the external field.
where, r is the position vector of point P w.r.t. the 14. Potential energy of the dipole placed in external
origin. field E, so that it rotates from angle q1 to q2 with
respect to E,
6. The electric potential on the perpendicular bisector,
i.e. in equatorial plane due to an electric dipole is zero. U (q) = pE(cos q1 - cos q2 )
7. Electric potential due to an electric dipole at any 15. Capacitance of a conductor is given as C = q / V .
point P, whose position vector is r with respect to 16. The capacitance of air filled parallel plate
mid-point of dipole is given by capacitor is given by
1 p cos q 1 p × r$ e A
V= or V = C0 = 0
4pe 0 r2 4pe 0 |r|2 d
where, q is the angle between r and p. When a dielectric medium of dielectric constant K is
filled fully between the plates of the capacitor, then
8. Electric potential due to a thin charged spherical KA e 0
shell carrying charge q and radius R, respectively capacitance, C =
d
at any point lying
1 q 17. The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor
● inside the shell is V = , for r < R
4pe 0 R partially filled with a dielectric medium of dielectric
constant K is given by
● on the surface of shell is V =
1 q
, for r = R e0 A
4pe 0 R C=
(d - t + t / K )
● outside the shell is V =
1 q
, for r > R
4pe 0 r where, t = thickness of dielectric medium.
where, r is the distance of the point from the centre 18. Series Combination of Capacitors
● The equivalent capacitance is given by
of the shell.
9. Equipotential surface is a surface which has same 1 1 1 1
= + +
electrostatic potential at every point on it. Ceq C1 C2 C3

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 ● If n-identical capacitors are connected in series 20. Electrostatic energy stored in a capacitor
combination, then equivalent capacitance, (parallel plate) is given by
C 1 1 q2
C s = eq U = CV 2 = qV =
n 2 2 2C
19. Parallel Combination of Capacitors
21. Energy Density The energy stored per unit volume
● The equivalent capacitance is given by
of space in a capacitor is known as energy density.
Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 1
It is given by U E = e 0 E 2, where E is the electric
● The equivalent capacitance of n-identical 2
capacitors connected in parallel combination, field intensity between two plates of capacitor.
Cp = nCeq

Current Electricity
1. Electric current is the rate of flow of charge. If DQ V 2t
E = VI t = I 2R t =
charge flows in time Dt, then current at any time t, R
DQ dQ Its SI unit is joule (J).
I = lim =
Dt ® 0 D t dt 11. Electrical power is defined as, the rate of electrical
2. Electric current in terms of drift velocity, I = neA vd . energy supplied per unit time to maintain flow of
3. Current density at any point of conductor, electric current through a conductor.
J = I / A = ne vd V2
P = VI = I 2R =
It is a vector quantity. R
4. Mobility of a charge carrier is given as Its SI unit is watt (W).
Drift velocity vd et 12. Electromotive Force (EMF) of Cell
m= = =
Electric field E m The maximum potential difference between the two
poles or terminals of the cell in an open circuit is
where, m is mass of electron and t is relaxation
called the electromotive force (emf) of the cell. It is
time.
denoted by E and its SI unit is volt (V ).
5. Ohm’s Law At constant temperature and other
13. Internal resistance is the resistance offered by the
physical conditions, the potential difference V
electrolyte of the cell due to the motion of charge
across the ends of a given metallic wire (conductor)
through it and is denoted by r.
in a circuit is directly proportional to the current
flowing through it. 14. The relationship between r, R , E and V, is
i.e. V = IR æE ö
r = R ç - 1÷
where, R = resistance of conductor. èV ø
6. Resistance The opposition offered by the 15. Combination of Cells
conductor in the flow of current, is called ● Series Combination The equivalent emf of
l
resistance, it is given as R = r series combination is given by
A
E = E1 + E2
where, r is the resistivity.
Equivalent resistance, r = r1 + r2.
7. Resistivity of a material is equal to resistance per ● Parallel Combination The equivalent emf of
unit length per unit area. parallel combination is given by
m
Resistivity of material is given as r = . E r + E2 r1
ne 2t Eeq = 1 2
r1 + r2
8. Relationship between current density (J ) , and internal resistance of combination,
electric field (E ) and conductivity (s ), r r
req = 1 2
J =s E r1 + r2
9. Temperature coefficient of resistance is given by 16. Kirchhoff’s First Law or Junction Law The
R2 - R1 algebraic sum of electric currents at any junction of
a=
R1 (T2 - T1 ) electric circuit is equal to zero,
10. Electrical energy is defined as the total work done i.e. SI = 0
by the source of emf (E) in maintaining the electric Junction law supports the law of conservation of
current (I ) in the given circuit for a specified time t. charge.

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17. Kirchhoff’s Second Law or Loop Law In any resistance of material of given wire/conductor. It is
closed mesh of electrical circuit, the algebraic sum based on the principle of balanced Wheatstone
of emfs of cells and the product of currents and bridge.
resistances is always equal to zero. At balanced situation of bridge,
i.e. S E + S I R = 0 R l æ 100 - l ö
= Þ S =ç ÷´R
Kirchhoff’s second law supports the law of S (100 - l ) è l ø
conservation of energy.
where, l is the balancing length.
18. Wheatstone bridge is an arrangement of four
resistances connected to form the arms of 20. The potentiometer works on the principle that,
quadrilateral ABCD as shown below potential difference across any two points of
B uniform current carrying conductor is directly
proportional to the length between the two points.
P Q i.e. V µ l.
A C 21. ● The emfs of two primary cells can be compared
G E l
using potentiometer as 1 = 1
R S
E2 l2
where, l1 and l2 are the balancing lengths
E D corresponding to cells of emfs E1 and E2,
respectively.
● Internal resistance of primary cell of emfs is
Wheatstone bridge is said to be balanced, when given by
P R æl ö
= r = R ç 1 - 1÷
Q S è l2 ø
19. Meter bridge is an electrical device used to where, R = external resistance.
determine the resistance and hence, specific

Moving Charges and Magnetism

1. Biot-Savart’s Law According to this law, the 5. Magnetic field due to straight current carrying
magnetic field due to small current carrying solenoid,
element at any nearby point is given by ● at any point inside it is B = m 0nI,
m Idl ´ r m Id l sin q where n = number of turns per unit length.
dB = 0 or dB = 0
4p r 3 4p r2 1
● at the ends is B = m 0nI.
m 2
Here, 0 = 10 -7 T -m / A (or Wb/A-m)
4p 6. Magnetic Field due to Toroidal Solenoid
where, m 0 = permeability of free space. If a toroid has core of relative permeability m r , then
The SI unit of magnetic field is tesla (T). magnetic field
● inside the toroidal solenoid, B = m nI .
0
Its direction is given by Ampere’s swimming rule or
● in the open space, interior or exterior of toroidal
right hand thumb rule.
solenoid, B = 0.
2. Magnetic field due to infinitely straight current
carrying conductor at any point which lies near the 7. Magnetic force experienced by a single charge
middle of conductor at a distance r from the wire is particle q moving with speed v in uniform magnetic
m I field at an angle q with it, is given by
given by B = 0 .
2 pr F = q (v ´ B ) or F = qvB sin q
3. Magnetic field at the centre of a circular current 8. The trajectory/path traversed by the charged
m I
carrying conductor/coil, B = 0 particle in magnetic field is
2r ● straight line, when angle between v and B is 0°
m 0NI
For N-turns of coil, B = or 180°.
2r
● circle, when angle between v and B is 90°.

4. Ampere’s Circuital Law The line integral of the ● helical, when angle between v and B is an

magnetic field B around any closed loop in vacuum acute angle.

is equal to m 0 times the total current threading
9. When charged particle enters in magnetic field
through the loop or enclosed by the curve.
perpendicularly, then
i.e. oò B × d l = m 0 I mv
● Radius, r =
qB

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 2pm 15. Moving coil galvanometer is a device used to
● Time period, T =
qB detect the small electrical current in the circuit.
q 2B 2r 2 Its working is based on the principle that, a
● Kinetic energy = current carrying loop placed in uniform magnetic
2m
field experiences a torque.
10. When angle between v and B, q < 90°, then
mv sin q q NBA
radius of helical path, r =
16. ● Current sensitivity, IS = =
qB I k
2p m v cos q where, q = twist produced due to rotation of
Pitch = = v|| ´ T the coil.
qB
q NBA
11. Lorentz force is the total force experienced by a
● Voltage sensitivity, VS =
V kR
moving charge inside the electric and magnetic fields.
It is given by 17. In equilibrium position,

F = q (E + v ´ B) deflecting torque = restoring torque

k
12. The magnetic force experienced by a current carrying Þ I= q
conductor placed in a uniform magnetic field is given by NBA

F = I (l ´ B) or F = IBl sin q 18. A galvanometer can be converted into an

ammeter by connecting a very low resistance
where, q is the angle between current and magnetic (shunt S) in parallel with galvanometer, which is
field. given by
13. Magnetic force per unit length between two straight I G
parallel current carrying conductors is given by S = g
I - Ig
F m 0 2 I1I2
= 19. A galvanometer can be converted into
L 4p r
voltmeter by connecting a very high resistance
14. Torque experienced by a current carrying loop placed R in series with galvanometer, which is given by
in uniform magnetic field B is given by
V
t = NIAB sin q or t = M ´ B R= -G
Ig
where, M = NIA .

Magnetism and Matter

1. Magnetic lines of forces are used to represent The direction of dipole moment can be obtained by
magnetic field in a region. right hand thumb rule.
● They are closed continuous curves.
4. Magnetic dipole moment of a revolving electron,
● Tangent drawn at any point gives the direction of evr
M=
magnetic field. 2
● They cannot intersect each other.
where, v = speed of electron on a circular path of
● Outside a magnet, they are directed from
radius r.
north-pole to south-pole and inside a magnet, e
they are directed from south-pole to north-pole. or M= L
2 me
2. Magnetic dipole moment of a magnetic dipole is
given by M = m(2 l ) where, L = angular momentum and given as
L = me vr and me = mass of electron.
where, m is pole strength and 2l is dipole length
(magnetic length). 5. Earth’s Magnetic Field Earth behaves like a
magnet, whose magnetic north-pole is somewhere
The SI unit of magnetic dipole moment is
close to the geographical south-pole and the
A-m 2 or J/T.
magnetic south-pole is closed to the geographical
It is a vector quantity and its direction is from north-pole.
south-pole towards north-pole.
6. There are three elements of earth’s magnetic
3. Current Loop as a Magnetic Dipole Current loop field namely
behaves like a magnetic dipole, whose dipole ● Angle of declination (a ),
moment is given by ● Angle of dip (d)

M = IA

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 ● and horizontal component of earth’s magnetic 9. Relationship between horizontal & vertical
field (He ). components of the earth’s magnetic field and
7. The angle between geographical meridian angle of dip is given by
and magnetic meridian is known as angle He = Be cos d and Ve = Be sin d
of declination (a ). Ve
8. In magnetic meridian, the angle made by resultant So, = tan d
He
earth’s magnetic field (Be ) with the horizontal is
known as angle of dip (d). and Be = Ve2 + He2

Electromagnetic Induction
1. Magnetic flux linked with any surface is equal to 7. Self-induction is the phenomenon of production of
the total number of magnetic lines of force passing induced emf in a coil itself, when a current passing
through it. It is a scalar quantity. through it changes continuously.
It is given as, f = B × dS dI
In this case, induced emf, e = - L
2. Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction dt
Whenever magnetic flux linked with the closed loop where, L is the coefficient of self-induction.
or circuit changes, an emf is induced in the loop or The SI unit of inductance is henry (H).
circuit.
Mathematically, the induced emf is given as 8. Equivalent inductance of two inductors in parallel
df 1 1 1
e =-N combination is = +
dt L L1 L2
where, N = number of turns in loop. 9. Equivalent inductance of two inductors in series
|e| N df B combination is L = L1 + L 2
Induced current in the loop, I = = ×
R R dt 10. Self-inductance of a long solenoid,
where, R is the resistance of the loop. m N2 A
L=
3. Lenz’s Law The direction of induced emf or l
induced current is such that it always opposes the 11. Mutual induction is the phenomenon of generation
cause that produced it, i.e. change in magnetic flux of induced emf in secondary coil, when current
linked with the circuit. linked with primary coil changes.
dI
Lenz’s law is a consequence of the law of Here, e =-M
conservation of energy. dt
4. Motional EMF The emf e induced in a conductor where, M is coefficient of mutual inductance.
of length l moving with velocity v in a direction 12. Mutual inductance of closely wound solenoids,
perpendicular to magnetic field B is given by e = vBl m NN A
M= 0 1 2
l
5. The induced emf developed between two ends of
conductor of length l rotating with angular velocity w 13. The capacity of an inductor to store energy in a
about one end in a direction perpendicular to magnetic field is the magnetic energy stored in
magnetic field B, is given by an inductor.
Bwl 2 1
e= U = LI 2
2 2
6. Eddy Currents These are loops of electric current 14. The energy stored per unit volume (V ) in a
induced within bulk pieces of conductors by a magnetic field (B ) is known as energy density.
changing magnetic field in the conductor, U 1 B2
according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic \Energy density = =
V 2 m0
induction. It causes the heating of conductor.

Alternating Current
1. Alternating Current (AC) is the current whose I = I0 sin wt
magnitude changes continuously with time I0
between zero & a maximum value and whose rms value of current, Irms = = 0.707 I0
2
direction reverses periodically. 2 I0
Average value of AC, Iav = = 0.637 I0
The instantaneous alternating current is given by p

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2. Alternating EMF or Voltage The instantaneous ● If XL > X C, then V leads the current by phase
alternating emf is given by angle f and if XL < X C, then V lags behind I by
V = V0 sin wt phase angle f, where
X - XC
V0 tan f = L
Hence, Vrms = = 0 .707 V0 R
2
8. In a resonant L- C- R series AC circuit,
2V ● X = X
Vav = 0 = 0.637 V0 L C
p ● Impedance, Z = Z
min = R
3. Power in an AC Circuit, Pav = Vrms Irms cos f ● The phase difference between V and I is 0°.

4. In an AC circuit containing resistance only, ● Resonant angular frequency, w =

1
0
● Voltage and current are in same phase. LC
● Maximum current, I = 0
V ● Average power consumption Pav becomes
0
R maximum.
V V
rms = Current becomes maximum and Imax = rms .
● rms current, I rms ●
R R
● If V = V sin wt , then I = I sin wt .
0 0 9. Quality Factor It indicates the sharpness of
● Average power in R is maximum, so Pav = Vrms Irms . resonance in L-C-R series AC circuit.
5. In an AC circuit containing capacitor only, Voltage across L or C 1 L
Q-factor = =
1 1 Voltage across R R C
C = =
● Capacitive reactance, X
wC 2 pfC
10. AC Generator It is an electrical machine which
● Capacitor offers infinite reactance in DC circuit,
produces electrical energy from mechanical work.
as f = 0 or acts as open circuit.
Principle It is based on the phenomenon of
● I =
V0 V0
0 = = V0 wC electromagnetic induction.
X C (1 / wC )
A magnetic flux linked with a coil of the generator,
● Voltage lags behind the current by phase p /2.
f = BA cos wt
æ pö
● If V = V0 sin wt , then I = I0 sin ç wt + ÷ . EMF induced in the coil will be
è 2ø
d
● Average power consumption (during a complete e = - N BA cos wt = NBAw sin w t
dt
cycle),
æ pö 11. Transformer It is an electrical device which
Pav = Vrms Irms cos f = 0 çQ f = ÷ converts low alternating voltage to high alternating
è 2ø
voltage and vice-versa without changing frequency
6. In an AC circuit containing inductor only, of AC and power. Its working is based on the
● Inductive reactance, X = wL = 2 pfL
L principle of mutual induction.
● Peak current, I =
V0 V0
0 = 12. Types of Transformer There are two types of
XL wL transformers
Vrms Vrms ● Step-up Transformer It converts low alternating
rms = =
● rms current, I
XL wL voltage into high alternating voltage.
● Voltage leads the current by phase
p ● Step-down Transformer It converts high
.
2 alternating voltage into low alternating voltage.
● If V = V sin wt , then I = I sin
æ pö 13. For an ideal transformer,
ç wt - ÷ .
0 0
è 2ø Input power = Output power
● Average power consumption, V1 I2 N1
æ pö or = =
Pav = Vrms Irms cos f = 0 çQ f = ÷ V2 I1 N2
è 2ø
where, N1 = number of turns in primary coil of the
7. In an L- C- R series AC circuit, transformer
Vrms and N2 = number of turns in secondary coil of the
● Impedance, Z = R 2 + ( XL - X C )2 =
Irms transformer.

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