Subiecte LEC- partial

2. Why are modal verbs also called defective?

They are defective verbs in the sense that they do not have all basic forms and thus
they cannot be conjugated in certain compound tenses and moods. Consequently, some
of their missing tenses are supplied by the so-called modal equivalents: to be to , to
have to, to be able to; or by such verbs as: to be allowed to, to be permitted to.

3. Mention at least four grammatical means which express modality.

In English, modality is rendered by various linguistic means:
phonetic
lexical
grammatical
stylistic
1. Of the phonetic means of expressing modality, intonation (that is the
rising or lowering of voice) is the most important. A very simple word as
the interjection Oh! can be sounded as to express excitement, surprise,
anger, reproach, disappointment, irony, perplexity, tiredness, protest,
emphasis, etc.
2. Among the lexical means of modality mention can be made of:
a. certain finite verbs expressing modal force: to like, to intend, to
decide, to order, to command, to hate, to dislike, etc.
b. other parts of speech with modal force: the noun intention, the
adjective sure, the adverb firmly, etc.
It is possible that George will arrive late.
There is a possibility that George will arrive late.
Maybe she is in love.
c. the so-called parenthetical words – adverbs and adverbial phrases
which lend a colouring of modality to whole sentences, e.g. likely,
probably, possibly, naturally, surely, to be sure, there is no doubt about it,
definitely, positively, maybe, perhaps, etc.
3. Grammatical modality is rendered by means of various moods: the
imperative, the subjunctive, the conditional, etc.
I wish Mary were here with me.
4. Stylistic modality can be expressed by means of inversion.
Had she deserved it, I would have intervened.
Might/Could I but see my native land, I would die a happy man.
Among all the above mentioned means, the so-called modal-defective
verbs are perhaps the most important. They are verbs of incomplete
predication and conjugation which connote a wide variety of attitudes on
the part of the speaker.
 4. Comment on the modal auxiliaries should and would in conditional clauses.

Should: “Should” is used to express an opinion on the best course of action.

When describing cause and effect, it is also used to suggest that one cause is very
likely to happen in the future, or was very likely to happen in the past.

First conditional example: If it continues to rain this hard for another hour, it
should start flooding. Start preparing for the flood right now.

Third conditional examples (suggestion; event that was likely in the past): If you
were going to the football game yesterday, you should have invited me to go
with you. You should have known I had the day off, because I emailed you to tell
you I was free.
Would: “Would” is used to describe something that is unlikely or impossible,
but definitely will happen if circumstances change in a specific way. In addition,
it can describe a past event that didn’t happen, but only because the
circumstances were not right.

Second conditional example: If you had lunch with your favorite actress, you
would ask her for her autograph and you would ask her to make a movie with
you. You wouldn’t feel like you needed to choose just one of those.

Third conditional example: If I had known you had the day off yesterday, I
would have asked you to join me. I wanted you to join me, but I didn’t know you
were free.

5. Comment on the modal connotation expressed by will in the following

sentence:
Boys will be boys. They will never change.—showing a rutine, they will always do the
same thing.

7. Comment on the modal auxiliary would to express the idea of past habit. Give
suitable examples.
A habitual action in the past, by an unemphasized would in all persons:
When we were younger, we would go out a lot.

8. Comment upon the modal verb might in combination with the adverbial expression
as well.
A very emphatic intention in the first person, in combination with as well + short
indefinite infinitive:
I might as well start at once. – as an alternative

9. Types of infinitives and their use with modal verbs.

SHORT INFINITIVES : V
LONG INFINITIVES: to + V
After special verbs: to want, to pretend, to advise, to
want, to promise, to threaten, to afford.
Write down three sentences with the previous verbs, followed by long infinitives.
2. After nouns: determination, willingness, decision, desire, pleasure, talent.
Write down three sentences with the previous nouns, followed by long infinitives.
3. After adjectives: easy, difficult, pleasant, fantastic, delighted
4. To be to + V + formal official schedule/event that will happen in the future

10. Comment upon the modal connotations expressed by shall in the first persons.
• SHALL
1. In the first person, shall I? or shall we? express:
a. asking for advice: Where shall we put it?
b. an offer: Shall I help you?
c. a suggestion: Shall we try another method?

11. May/might – various uses – the ones we have emphasized during lectures:
As a MOOD AUXILIARY may/might is used to form the Analytical Subjunctive in
independent or subordinate sentences, expressing an idea of hope, desire, fear,
purpose, good wishes, curse, etc.
May you be happy!
May he rest in peace!
He hurried so that he might arrive in time.
May you live to repent your attitude!
May you live to regret the day you were born!
With few exceptions, the analytical subjunctive with may is mostly used in
contemporary English in official style.

May as a MODAL AUXILIARY is used to express;

a. The existence of permission in the first person:
We may go now. (We have permission to go.)
b. The granting of permission for the second or third persons as an expression of
the speaker’s authority:
You/he/she/they may go now. (I allow you/him/her/them to go now.)
c. Polite request, denial, refusal or official interdiction and approval:
May I use your phone?
Of course you can. (rarely may) or
Sorry! You cannot/may not! I’m expecting an urgent trunk call .
Observation: A categorical refusal is expressed with must not/mustn’t.
The castle grounds may not be visited by the public.
Dogs may be taken into the park only on leash.
Note:
if I may
if I may say so are polite set phrases used in well/mannered formal speech:
I’ll let you know my answer in twenty-four hours, if I may.
If I may say so, you were completely wrong. (Dacă îmi este permis să spun, …)
d. Possibility or probability in the affirmative or negative only:
Why don’t you ring her up? She may not know that you are here. (Perhaps she doesn’t
know.)
In the interrogative the idea of probability is to be expressed with such phrases as
do you think + present/future tense or
am I/are you/is he etc .+ likely + an infinitive:
Are we likely to meet any snakes in the woods?
Do you think she has any idea where we are?
e. Supposition about past actions with may + perfect infinitive:
You should stop ringing him up. He may have gone away already.
Might as a CONDITIONAL MODAL AUXILIARY expresses (with a higher degree
of certainty):
a. Possibility, probability:
He might come by a night train.
b. Supposition about past actions + perfect infinitive:
Let’s not go to his place. He might have fallen asleep already.
c. The speaker’s
reproach for,
disapproval of,
or irritation at the non-performance or non-occurrence of an action in the
past in combination with a perfect infinitive:
You shouldn’t have let him go there: he might have got lost. (But he didn’t)
You might have warned us that the dog was not on leash. (We think that you should
have warned us, but you didn’t.)
d. A very emphatic intention in the first person, in combination with as well + short
indefinite infinitive:
I might as well start at once.
e. A recommended action in the second or third persons:
You might as well try again. One never knows, you may be lucky this time.
Tom: I’ll go on Monday by the slow train.
Ann: You might just as well wait till Tuesday and take the fast one.
f. A very casual command used between close persons:
You might post this letter for me. (Post this letter for me, will you.)
g. Might can also be used for persuasive requests, or requests that indicate that the
speaker is annoyed that the action in question has not been performed already:
You might tell me what he said. (I am annoyed you haven’t told me/You should have
told me/Please tell me/Do tell me.)
He might pay us more money. (We are annoyed he doesn’t/he hasn’t paid us)

12. I wish + subjunctive

STRUCTURES – unreal past (the subjunctive mood) – reference to the past: wishes,
regrets hypotheses, impossible situations in the PAST
WISH + UNREAL PAST
PAST PERFECT SIMPLE IN
FORM
Had + V3 I wish/If only I were/was offered a pay
HAD BEEN + V3 rise/moved/could move. – current wish - S1 – I.
Had been + V+ing S2 – I – unreal past _subjunctive – PAST
Could have +V3 TENSE (v2) S1= S2
= AS FI FOST/AS FI FACUT
SA FII FOST/ SA FII FACUT al subjunctive = would + v1
I WISH THEY STOPPED/WOULD STOP
MAKING NOISE. = SA FACA ZGOMOT
I WISH MY SISTER GOT MARRIED/ WOULD GET MARRIED. = SA SE
MARITE
I WISH MY STUDENTS STUDIED/WOULD STUDY MORE.

I wish I stopped smoking.

I wish I could be organized.
I wish they could have saved her.
I wish they would have been honest.
I wish I could have been born in Portugal.

13. Would vs. used to

Would+ action verbs
Used to + stative verbs or action verbs
Would nu se foloseste in propozitii negative – (would= past habbit which can be used
only in affirmative sentences)
Eg. I used to like carols.
I used to play/ would play basketball in the schoolyard.

14. Phrasal verbs – from the seminar + video Fast Phrasals

To get through= sa reusesti sa vorbesti cu cineva la telefon
To get cut off= s-a interrupt
To put somebody through= a-i face legatura la telefon
To take something up= sa te apuci de o activitate noua
Run out= a ramane fara
Charge up= a incarca
Put somebody/ something down= sa pui ceva jos
Put somebody down= sa critici pe cineva/ sa-l fac isa see simta prost
Take something on= a incepe sa aiba o calitate noua

15. Stative + non-stative verbs – use and misuse

Would cannot be used with stative verbs.
English grammar differentiates between stative verbs (also called state verbs),
inchoative verbs, and dynamic verbs (also action verbs). This difference becomes
particularly apparent with the continuous tenses (progressive forms) because many
state verbs cannot appear in these due to their static nature. In spite of that, the
majority of English verbs consists of inchoative and dynamic verbs and can be used in
continuous tenses accordingly. Some of the state verbs are:
to be, feel, like, know, hate, love, remember, agree, need.
urthermore, a typical source of error is the particularity that some of the stative verbs
can also be utilised as action or dynamic verbs in the ing-form. However, if such a
progressive use happens, the verbs change their meaning. Some examples are:

see:
“I see what you’re saying.”
Incorrect: “I’m seeing what you’re saying.”