Contents

1.1 International agreements

Ulrich Smoltczyk and Christophe Bauduin
1 Classification of geotechnical literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3 International rules for foundation engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4 Basic terms by E N 1990 and E N 1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.1 Classification of assessments in Eurocodes (EN 1990, 1.4; E N 1997-1, 1.3) 6
4.2 Limit states (EN 1990) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.3 Design situations (EN 1990, 3.5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.4 Geotechnical categories (EN 1997-1, 2.1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.5 Observational method (EN 1997, 2.7) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.6 Partial safety factor method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
5 Geotechnical report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
5.1 G r o u n d investigation report (EN 1997-1, 3.4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
5.2 G r o u n d design report (EN 1997-1, 2.8) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

1.2 Determination of characteristic values

Christophe Bauduin
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2 From derived value to design value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.1 Sequential steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2 Points of view when analyzing test results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3 Points of view when determining characteristic values of ground
parameters (EN 1997-1, 2.4.5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.4 Use of statistical methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.1 Local sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.2 Local sampling with V well-known . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.3 Soil property increasing linearily with depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.4 Analysis of shear tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.5 Example: Boulder clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
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1.3 Geotechnical field investigations

Klaus-Jiirgen Melzer and Ulf Bergdahl
1 Basics ................................................... 51
1.1 Standards ................................................ 51
1.2 Preliminary investigations .................................... 52
1.3 Design investigations ........................................ 53
2 Ground investigation by excavation, drilling and sampling ............. 53
2.1 General .................................................. 53
2.2 I n v e s t i g a t i o n o f soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.3 Investigation of rocks ........................................ 62
2.4 Obtaining special samples .................................... 67
2.5 Investigation of groundwater conditions .......................... 68
3 Ground investigation by penetration testing ....................... 71
3.1 General .................................................. 71
3.2 Dynamic probing ........................................... 73
3.3 Standard penetration test ..................................... 77
3.4 Cone penetration test ........................................ 82
3.5 Field vane test ............................................. 90
3.6 Weight sounding test ........................................ 93
4 L a t e r a l p r e s s u r e t e s t s in b o r e h o l e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.1 Equipment and test procedures ................................ 96
4.2 Evaluation ................................................ 102
5 Determination of density ..................................... 106
5.1 Sampling methods .......................................... 106
5.2 Radiometric methods ........................................ 107
6 Geophysical methods ........................................ 109
6.1 General .................................................. 109
6.2 Brief descriptions of some methods .............................. 110
7 References ............................................... 111
8 Standards ................................................ 116

1.4 Properties of soils and rocks and their laboratory determination

Paul yon Soos and Jan Boh66
1 Soils a n d r o c k s - o r i g i n s a n d b a s i c t e r m s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
2 P r o p e r t i e s o f soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
2.1 Soil l a y e r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
2.2 Soil s a m p l e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
2.3 Laboratory investigation - performing and evaluating ................ 120
2.4 Soil p r o p e r t i e s a n d l a b o r a t o r y t e s t i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
3 Properties of rocks .......................................... 126
4 C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a n d p r o p e r t i e s o f solid soil p a r t i c l e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.1 P a r t i c l e size d i s t r i b u t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.2 D e n s i t y o f solid p a r t i c l e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
4.3 M i n e r a l o g i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n o f soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
4.4 Shape and roughness of particles ............................... 132
4.5 Specific s u r f a c e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
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4.6 Organic content ............................................ 133

4.7 Carbonate content .......................................... 134
5 C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a n d p r o p e r t i e s o f soil a g g r e g a t e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5.1 F a b r i c o f soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5.2 Porosity and voids ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
5.3 Density .................................................. 138
5.4 Relative density ............................................ 138
5.5 Water content ............................................. 140
5.6 L i m i t s o f c o n s i s t e n c y - A t t e r b e r g limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
5.7 Water adsorption ........................................... 144
5.8 Compaction; moisture - density relations ......................... 145
5.9 Size o f voids; filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5.10 Capillarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5.11 Water permeability ......................................... 150
5.12 Air permeability ........................................... 152
6 Stress-strain behaviour ....................................... 153
6.1 General considerations ....................................... 153
6.2 One-dimensional compression and consolidation (oedometer) test ....... 157
6.3 Triaxial c o m p r e s s i o n t e s t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
6.4 U n c o n f i n e d compression test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
6.5 Tests w i t h t h e g e n e r a l s t a t e o f stress - t r u e triaxial t e s t a n d biaxial t e s t . . . . 168
6.6 Measurement of time dependent deformation ...................... 169
7 Determination of shear strength parameters ....................... 171
7.1 General aspects of strength testing .............................. 171
7.2 Triaxial c o m p r e s s i o n t e s t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
7.3 D e t e r m i n a t i o n of unconfined compressive strength and sensitivity . . . . . . . 179
7.4 Shear box test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
8 D e t e r m i n a t i o n of tensile strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
9 D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f slake d u r a b i l i t y o f r o c k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
10 Correlations .............................................. 183
10.1 P r o c t o r d e n s i t y a n d o p t i m u m w a t e r c o n t e n t o f f i n e - g r a i n e d soils . . . . . . . . 183
10.2 Water permeability ......................................... 184
10.3 S t r e s s - s t r a i n r e l a t i o n s for soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
10.4 P a r a m e t e r s of shear strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
11 Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
11.1 Soil classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
11.2 R o c k classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
12 References ............................................... 200

1.5 Constitutive laws for soils from a physical viewpoint

Gerd Gudehus
1 Introduction .............................................. 207
1.1 Motive and objective ........................................ 207
1.2 Contents ................................................. 208
2 States and changes of state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
2.1 States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
2.2 Changes of state ............................................ 220
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2.3 Special sequences of state and stability ........................... 227

3 Stress-strain relations ........................................ 237
3.1 F i n i t e c o n s t i t u t i v e laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
3.2 Elastoplasticity ............................................ 241
3.3 Hypoplasticity ............................................. 248
4 F u r t h e r c o n s t i t u t i v e laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
4.1 Physico-chemical and granulometric changes ....................... 253
4.2 T r a n s p o r t laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
4.3 Granular interfaces ......................................... 254
5 References ............................................... 256

1.6 Calculation of stress and settlement in soil masses

Harry Poulos
1 Introduction .............................................. 259
2 Basic relationships from the theory of elasticity ..................... 260
2.1 D e f i n i t i o n s a n d sign c o n v e n t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
2.2 Principal stresses ........................................... 260
2.3 Maximum shear stress ....................................... 261
2.4 Octahedral stresses ......................................... 261
2.5 T w o - d i m e n s i o n a l stress s y s t e m s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
2.6 Analysis of strain ........................................... 263
2.7 Elastic stress-strain relationships for an isotropic material ............. 265
2.8 S u m m a r y of r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n elastic p a r a m e t e r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
3 P r i n c i p l e s of s e t t l e m e n t a n a l y s i s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
3.1 Components of settlement .................................... 267
3.2 A p p l i c a t i o n o f elastic t h e o r y t o s e t t l e m e n t c a l c u l a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
3.3 A l l o w a n c e for effects o f l o c a l soil yield o n i m m e d i a t e s e t t l e m e n t . . . . . . . . 269
3.4 Estimation of creep settlement ................................. 269
3.5 M e t h o d s o f a s s e s s i n g soil p a r a m e t e r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
4 S o l u t i o n s f o r s t r e s s e s in a n elastic m a s s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
4.1 Introduction .............................................. 272
4.2 Kelvin problem ............................................ 272
4.3 Boussinesq problem ......................................... 273
4.4 Cerruti's problem ........................................... 273
4.5 M i n d l i n ' s p r o b l e m no. 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
4.6 M i n d l i n ' s p r o b l e m no. 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
4.7 P o i n t l o a d o n finite l a y e r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
4.8 F i n i t e l i n e l o a d a c t i n g w i t h i n a n i n f i n i t e solid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
4.9 F i n i t e v e r t i c a l line l o a d o n t h e s u r f a c e o f a s e m i - i n f i n i t e m a s s . . . . . . . . . . . 279
4.10 H o r i z o n t a l l i n e l o a d a c t i n g o n t h e s u r f a c e of a s e m i - i n f i n i t e m a s s . . . . . . . . 279
4.11 Melan's problem I .......................................... 280
4.12 M e l a n ' s p r o b l e m II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
4.13 Uniform vertical loading on a strip .............................. 281
4.14 Vertical loading increasing linearly .............................. 281
4.15 Symmetrical vertical triangular loading ........................... 282
4.16 Uniform vertical loading on circular area ......................... 283
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4.17 Uniform vertical loading on a rectangular area ..................... 284

4.18 O t h e r cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
5 Solutions for the settlement of shallow footings ..................... 285
5.1 U n i f o r m l y l o a d e d s t r i p f o o t i n g o n a h o m o g e n e o u s elastic l a y e r . . . . . . . . . 285
5.2 Uniformly loaded circular footing on a layer ....................... 285
5.3 Uniformly loaded rectangular footing on a layer .................... 287
6 Rate of settlement of shallow footings ............................ 289
6.1 One dimensional analysis ..................................... 289
6.2 Effect of non-linear consolidation ............................... 291
6.3 Consolidation with vertical drains ............................... 291
6.4 Two- a n d t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l c o n s o l i d a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
6.5 Simplified analysis using an equivalent coefficient of consolidation ....... 293
7 S o l u t i o n s for t h e s e t t l e m e n t of s t r i p a n d r a f t f o u n d a t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
7.1 Point load on a strip foundation ................................ 297
7.2 Uniform loading on a strip foundation ........................... 297
7.3 Uniform loading on a circular raft ............................... 299
7.4 Uniform loading on a rectangular raft ............................ 301
7.5 Concentrated loading on a semi-infinite raft ....................... 303
8 S o l u t i o n s for t h e s e t t l e m e n t of pile f o u n d a t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
8.1 Single piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
8.2 Pile g r o u p s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
9 References ............................................... 310

1.7 Treatment of geotechnical ultimate limit states by the theory of plasticity

Roberto Nova
1 F u n d a m e n t a l s of u l t i m a t e l i m i t s t a t e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
1.1 Introduction .............................................. 313
1.2 Definitions ................................................ 314
1.3 F u n d a m e n t a l t h e o r e m s for s t a n d a r d m a t e r i a l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
2 L i m i t a n a l y s i s o f s h a l l o w f o u n d a t i o n s o n a p u r e l y c o h e s i v e soil . . . . . . . . . . 319
2.1 Introduction .............................................. 319
2.2 Lower bound analysis ........................................ 320
2.3 Upper bound analysis ........................................ 321
2.4 R e f i n e d l o w e r b o u n d analysis: m e t h o d o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
2.5 R e f i n e d u p p e r b o u n d : slip l i n e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
2.6 Strip footing .............................................. 326
2.7 Circular footings ........................................... 328
3 Limit analysis for non-standard materials ......................... 329
3.1 Introduction .............................................. 329
3.2 F u n d a m e n t a l t h e o r e m s for n o n - s t a n d a r d m a t e r i a l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
4 F u r t h e r l i m i t a t i o n s o f limit a n a l y s i s - s l o p e s t a b i l i t y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
4.1 Introduction .............................................. 332
4.2 Simple lower bound analysis ................................... 333
4.3 Simple upper bound analysis .................................. 333
4.4 Improvement of bound estimates ............................... 334
4.5 A c t u a l critical h e i g h t of a v e r t i c a l cut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
5 E l a s t o p l a s t i c a n a l y s i s of s h a l l o w f o u n d a t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
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5.1 Introduction .............................................. 336

5.2 Fundamental experimental findings ............................. 337
5.3 B e h a v i o u r in u n l o a d i n g - r e l o a d i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
5.4 Permanent displacements and rotations .......................... 339
5.5 Parameter determination ..................................... 341
5.6 Comparison with experimental data ............................. 342
5.7 A n a p p l i c a t i o n t o t h e s e t t l e m e n t of t h e Pisa b e l l - t o w e r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
6 References ............................................... 351

1.8 Soil dynamics and earthquakes

Giinter Klein and Frank Sperling
1 Introduction .............................................. 353
2 Basic mechanical considerations ................................ 354
2.1 Time dependent processes .................................... 354
2.2 Basics of technical vibration systems ............................. 357
3 Dynamics of foundation structures .............................. 363
3.1 Vibration excitation ......................................... 363
3.2 Model systems for foundation structures .......................... 368
3.3 Fundamentals of the half-space theory ........................... 375
4 Dynamics of subsoil ......................................... 378
4.1 D y n a m i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
4.2 C h a r a c t e r i s t i c p a r a m e t e r s o f d y n a m i c soil p r o p e r t i e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
4.3 D e s i g n p a r a m e t e r s f o r rigid f o u n d a t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
4.4 Shock protection and vibration isolation .......................... 384
5 Dynamics of earthquakes ..................................... 388
5.1 Basic seismological concepts ................................... 388
5.2 Design methods for buildings .................................. 393
5.3 Effect of earthquakes on foundation engineering .................... 398
6 Literature ................................................ 403
7 References ............................................... 404

1.9 Earth pressure determination

Gerd Gudehus
1 Introduction .............................................. 407
1.1 Objectives ................................................ 407
1.2 S e l e c t i o n a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n o f m a t e r i a l in t h e p a p e r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
2 Limit states without pore water ................................ 408
2.1 P l a n e slip s u r f a c e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
2.2 C u r v e d slip s u r f a c e s a n d c o m b i n e d m e c h a n i s m s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
2.3 T h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
3 Limit states with pore water ................................... 421
3.1 A i r - i m p e r v i o u s soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
3.2 A i r - p e r v i o u s soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
4 Deformation-dependent earth pressures .......................... 428
4.1 G r a n u l a r soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
4.2 C l a y e y a n d o r g a n i c soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
5 References ............................................... 435
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1.10 Numerical methods

Peter Gussmann, Hermann Schad, Ian Smith
1 General methods ........................................... 437
1.1 Difference procedures ....................................... 437
1.2 I n t e g r a l e q u a t i o n s and the b o u n d a r y e l e m e n t m e t h o d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
2 Basics of the finite e l e m e n t m e t h o d ( F E M ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
2.1 M a t r i c e s of e l e m e n t s and structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
2.2 C a l c u l a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s for n o n - l i n e a r p r o b l e m s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
3 T h e a p p l i c a t i o n of F E M in g e o t e c h n i c s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
3.1 Static p r o b l e m s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
3.2 Time dependent problems .................................... 455
4 T h e k i n e m a t i c a l e l e m e n t m e t h o d ( K E M ) and o t h e r limit l o a d m e t h o d s . . . 460
4.1 Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
4.2 A static a p p r o a c h : the m e t h o d of characteristics f r o m Sokolovski . . . . . . . . 461
4.3 Kinematical methods: KEM ................................... 462
4.4 Slice m e t h o d s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
4.5 A p p l i c a t i o n to b e a r i n g capacity of footings: c o m p a r i s o n investigations . . . . 474
4.6 D e s i g n f o r m u l a s and design tables or charts for s t a n d a r d slopes . . . . . . . . . 477
5 References ............................................... 477

1.11 Metrological monitoring of slopes, embankments and retaining walls

Klaus L i n k w i t z and Willfried Schwarz
1 Task and o b j e c t i v e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
2 A b o u t the practical o r g a n i s a t i o n , s o l u t i o n and carrying o u t of the task . . . . 482
2.1 C o n c e p t u a l design and e x p l o r a t i o n of t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
2.2 S e l e c t i o n of the points and m o n u m e n t a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
2.3 Observations .............................................. 484
2.4 Evaluations ............................................... 484
2.5 Interpretation ............................................. 484
3 G e o d e t i c m e t h o d s of m o n i t o r i n g m e a s u r e m e n t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
3.1 Alignments ............................................... 486
3.2 P o l y g o n a l traverses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
3.3 T r i g o n o m e t r i c a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l points; nets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
3.4 Automated methods ......................................... 512
3.5 Inclination measurements ..................................... 519
4 P h o t o g r a m m e t r i c a l m e t h o d s of m o n i t o r i n g m e a s u r e m e n t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
4.1 M e t h o d o l o g y and p r o c e d u r e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
4.2 Aerial photogrammetry ...................................... 527
4.3 Terrestrial p h o t o g r a m m e t r y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
4.4 Digital photogrammetry ...................................... 533
5 Satellite s u p p o r t e d m e t h o d s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
5.1 S y s t e m structure of G P S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
5.2 P r o c e d u r e s for a b s o l u t e p o s i t i o n i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
5.3 P r o c e d u r e s for r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
5.4 M o n i t o r i n g m e a s u r e m e n t s with satellite s u p p o r t e d p r o c e d u r e s . . . . . . . . . . 545
XVI Contents

6 Evaluation and analysis of the measurements ...................... 546

6.1 Geodetic analysis and interpretation ............................. 546
6.2 Structural-physical analysis and interpretation ...................... 548
6.3 Integral analysis and interpretation .............................. 549
7 References ............................................... 551

L12 Geotechnical measurement procedures

A r n o Thut
1 Introduction .............................................. 561
2 Objectives of geotechnical measurements ......................... 561
3 Measured parameters ........................................ 563
3.1 P a r a m e t e r s in t h e f o u n d a t i o n soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
3.2 Parameters during construction ................................ 564
3.3 P a r a m e t e r s in t h e s u p p o r t i n g s t r u c t u r e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
3.4 P a r a m e t e r s at a d j a c e n t s t r u c t u r e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
3.5 Parameters for permanent structures ............................ 565
3.6 P a r a m e t e r s f o r t h e r e h a b i l i t a t i o n of b u i l d i n g s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
4 M e a s u r i n g i n s t r u m e n t s , i n s t a l l a t i o n a n d costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
4.1 Geodetical measurements .................................... 566
4.2 Geotechnical measurements ................................... 567
5 Execution of the measurements, reporting ......................... 587
5.1 Manual measurements ....................................... 589
5.2 Automatic measuring systems .................................. 589
5.3 Data visualisation software .................................... 590
6 Case histories ............................................. 590
6.1 Deep excavations, adjacent structures ............................ 590
6.2 Test e m b a n k m e n t l o a d , o b s e r v a t i o n a l m e t h o d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
6.3 Adler Tunnel - readjustment of a structure ........................ 603
6.4 Monitoring of unstable slopes .................................. 607
6.5 Test l o a d i n g o f s u p p o r t i n g s t r u c t u r e , pile tests,
d i s p l a c e m e n t m e a s u r e m e n t s in pile f o u n d a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
7 References ............................................... 615

L13 Phenomenology ¢f natural slopes and their mass movement

E d m u n d Krauter
1 Definitions ................................................ 617
2 Introduction .............................................. 617
3 Slope shapes .............................................. 618
4 Mass movement of slopes ..................................... 621
4.1 Causes, factors ............................................. 626
4.2 Classification, t y p e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638
4.3 S h a p e s o f sliding s u r f a c e s a n d f a i l u r e m e c h a n i s m s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651
4.4 Sequences of movements and hazard assessment .................... 654
4.5 Identification and investigation ................................. 662
5 References ............................................... 664
Contents XVII

1.14 Ice loading actions

Martin Hager
1 Preliminary remarks ......................................... 669
2 T y p e s o f ice l o a d s a n d i c e - s t r u c t u r e i n t e r a c t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
3 P r o p e r t i e s o f ice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670
3.1 M a s s d e n s i t y of ice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670
3.2 E l a s t i c i t y of ice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671
3.3 T h e r m a l e x p a n s i o n o f ice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671
3.4 S t r e n g t h o f ice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672
4 D e f i n i t i v e v a l u e s o f t h e ice s t r e n g t h f o r c a l c u l a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674
5 T h i c k n e s s of ice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676
6 C a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e ice l o a d s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677
6.1 Ice l o a d s o n w i d e s t r u c t u r e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677
6.2 Ice l o a d s o n n a r r o w s l e n d e r s t r u c t u r e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678
6.3 T h e r m a l ice p r e s s u r e l o a d s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682
6.4 A d d i t i o n a l v e r t i c a l ice l o a d s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683
6.5 Ice l o a d s o n g r o u p s o f s t r u c t u r e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683
6.6 Ice l o a d s u n d e r special c l i m a t i c a n d ice c o n d i t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684
7 References ............................................... 685

1.15 Stability of rock slopes

Walter Wittke and Claus Erichsen
1 Introduction .............................................. 687
2 Structural models of rock mass ................................. 688
3 M e c h a n i s m s of f a i l u r e o f r o c k s l o p e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693
4 Model for the stress-strain behaviour of rock ....................... 696
4.1 General .................................................. 696
4.2 Intact rock ................................................ 698
4.3 Discontinuities ............................................. 698
4.4 Rock mass ................................................ 701
4.5 Model for the mechanical behaviour of a rock mass with respect to a refined
s t r e s s d i s p l a c e m e n t b e h a v i o u r o f p e r s i s t e n t d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s w i t h n o fillings . 705
5 M o d e l for s e e p a g e flow t h r o u g h a r o c k m a s s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707
6 S t a b i l i t y i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a c c o r d i n g to t h e finite e l e m e n t m e t h o d . . . . . . . . . . 712
6.1 General .................................................. 712
6.2 C o m p u t a t i o n of s t r e s s e s a n d d i s p l a c e m e n t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 712
6.3 C o m p u t a t i o n o f a s e e p a g e flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716
6.4 P r e s e n t a t i o n a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e c o m p u t e d r e s u l t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 718
6.5 I n f l u e n c e of s h e a r p a r a m e t e r s o f d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s o n t h e s t a b i l i t y o f a s l o p e . 720
6.6 S u p p o r t of a s l o p e w i t h p r e s t r e s s e d a n c h o r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723
6.7 I n f l u e n c e of h i g h h o r i z o n t a l i n - s i t u s t r e s s e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725
6.8 S t a b i l i t y i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o n t h e wall o f a c o n s t r u c t i o n p i t u s i n g a r e f i n e d
conceptual model of the mechanical behaviour of a rock mass .......... 731
7 S t a b i l i t y a n a l y s i s o n t h e b a s i s of r i g i d - b o d y m e c h a n i c s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735
7.1 General .................................................. 735
7.2 Possibilities of t r a n s l a t i o n a n d r o t a t i o n o f r o c k m a s s w e d g e s . . . . . . . . . . . . 735
XVIII Contents

7.3 Stability analysis of planar rock mass wedges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 740

7.4 Stability analysis of three-dimensional rock mass wedges supported
by two discontinuities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 748
7.5 Stability analysis of three-dimensional rock mass wedges supported
by three discontinuities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757
8 Buckling problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 758
9 E x a m p l e for the stabilization of a slope failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 759
9.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 759
9.2 Landslide and i m m e d i a t e action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 759
9.3 Results of the m e a s u r e m e n t s and explorations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 764
9.4 Concepts for stabilization of the slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 766
9.5 Chosen m eas u r e for stabilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 769
9.6 D r a i n a g e measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 770
10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 771

Subject index .................................................. 775

Contents

2.1 Ground improvement

Klaus Kitsch and Wolfgang Sondermann
1 Introduction / overview ....................................... 1
2 G r o u n d i m p r o v e m e n t by c o m p a c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1 Static m e t h o d s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2 Dynamic methods .......................................... 14
3 G r o u n d i m p r o v e m e n t by r e i n f o r c e m e n t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.1 M e t h o d s without a displacing effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.2 M e t h o d s with a displacing effect . . . . . . . . . . . . ~................... 39
4 Conclusion ............................................... 50
5 References ............................................... 50

2.2 Grouting in geotechnical engineering

Stephan Semprich and Gert Smdler
1 Introduction .............................................. 57
2 Aims of grouting ........................................... 57
3 G r o u t a b i l i t y o f soil a n d r o c k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.1 General .................................................. 58
3.2 G e o m e t r y o f p o r e s in soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.3 Void v o l u m e o f a r o c k m a s s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.4 W a t e r in soil a n d r o c k m a s s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4 G r o u t i n g materials and their basic constituents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5 Methods of grouting ......................................... 67
5.1 Flow regimes of grouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.2 Classification o f g r o u t i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5.3 Grouting parameters ........................................ 74
6 Design of grouting works ..................................... 77
6.1 E x p l o r a t i o n of the subsoil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
6.2 Choice of grouting material ................................... 78
6.3 Contract and compensation ................................... 78
7 E x a m p l e s of application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
7.1 G r o u t i n g l e s t in w e a t h e i e d r o c k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
7.2 K61nbrein dam ............................................. 85
7.3 D e b i s e x c a v a t i o n pit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
8 References ............................................... 89
X Contents

2.3 Underpinning, undercutting

Karl J. Witt and Ulrich Smoltczyk
1 Terms ................................................... 91
2 General aspects ............................................ 91
3 U n d e r p i n n i n g a n d its a d a p t a t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.1 Traditional technique ........................................ 92
3.2 Grouting and jetting technique ................................. 96
3.3 Micropiling ............................................... 100
4 Undercutting .............................................. 105
4.1 Cut-and-cover methods ...................................... 105
4.2 Underground excavation methods .............................. 110
5 Final r e m a r k s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
6 References ............................................... 113
7 Standards and recommendations ............................... 115

2.4 Ground freezing

Hans-Ludwig Jessberger*, Regine Jagow-Klaff and Bernd Braun
1 Introduction .............................................. 117
2 E x p l o r a t i o n of subsurface conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
3 Ground freezing techniques ................................... 120
3.1 Brine freezing ............................................. 120
3.2 L i q u i d n i t r o g e n (LN2) f r e e z i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4 C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f f r e e z i n g a n d f r o z e n soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.1 Thermal properties ......................................... 122
4.2 Strength and deformation properties ............................. 126
5 F r e e z e wall d e s i g n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
5.1 Structural design ........................................... 141
5.2 Thermal design ............................................ 146
6 G r o u n d m o v e m e n t s due to freezing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
7 G r o u n d f r e e z i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s a n d r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s for its use ......... 152
8 References ............................................... 164

2.5 Ground anchors

Helmut Ostermayer and Tony Barley
1 General .................................................. 169
2 Standards, recommendations, technical approvals ................... 169
3 Function and structural elements of anchor systems .................. 171
3.1 General requirements ....................................... 171
3.2 Steel t e n d o n and anchor h e a d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
3.3 Grout body ............................................... 174
3.4 Corrosion protection ........................................ 175
4 Execution ................................................ 177
4.1 Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
4.2 Installation, grouting and postgrouting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
4.3 I n s t a l l a t i o n o f a n c h o r s a g a i n s t high h y d r o s t a t i c h e a d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
4.4 C o r r o s i o n p r o t e c t i o n m e a s u r e s o n site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
4.5 Removable anchors ......................................... 184
Contents XI

5 Testing, stressing and m o n i t o r i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

5.1 Stressing e q u i p m e n t and p r o c e d u r e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
5.2 S y s t e m test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
5.3 I n v e s t i g a t i o n and suitability test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
5.4 A c c e p t a n c e test and l o c k - o f f load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
5.5 Monitoring ............................................... 188
6 Fixed a n c h o r design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
6.1 General .................................................. 189
6.2 U l t i m a t e l o a d capacity in n o n - c o h e s i v e soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
6.3 U l t i m a t e l o a d capacity in c o h e s i v e soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
6.4 W o r k i n g loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
6.5 C r e e p d i s p l a c e m e n t s and l o a d losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
6.6 P e r f o r m a n c e u n d e r a l t e r n a t i n g actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
6.7 P e r f o r m a n c e u n d e r d y n a m i c actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
6.8 I n f l u e n c e of spacing ( g r o u p effect) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
7 D e s i g n of a n c h o r e d structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
7.1 Design requirements ........................................ 206
7.2 P r e r e q u i s i t e s for applying g r o u n d a n c h o r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
7.3 D e s i g n of the individual a n c h o r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
7.4 D e s i g n of anchors in a g r o u p . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
7.5 C h o i c e of a p p r o p r i a t e a n c h o r systems and m e t h o d s of e x e c u t i o n . . . . . . . . 214
8 References ............................................... 215

2.6 Drilling technology

Georg Ulrich
1 Methods ................................................. 221
1.1 D r y drilling system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
1.2 D r i l l i n g with w a t e r flushing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
1.3 Raise boring .............................................. 237
1.4 Full d i a m e t e r drilling of smaller d i a m e t e r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
1.5 Soil i n v e s t i g a t i o n drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
2 C r a n e s and rigs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
2.1 P e r c u s s i o n drill c r a n e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
2.2 U n i v e r s a l rotary drilling rig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
2.3 Excavator attachments ....................................... 245
2.4 L a r g e d i a m e t e r and d e e p drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
2.5 S l i m h o l e drilling e q u i p m e n t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
2.6 Casing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
3 D r i l l i n g tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
4 N a t u r a l drilling o b s t r u c t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
5 D i r e c t i o n a l drilling with flushing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
6 References ............................................... 254

2.7 Driving and extraction

Abraham E Van Weele
1 A p p l i c a t i o n of driving t e c h n i q u e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
2 Principle of impact driving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
3 Piling h a m m e r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
XII Contents

3.1 F r e e fall h a m m e r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

3.2 Diesel hammers ............................................ 258
3.3 H a m m e r s f o r c a s t - i n - s i t u piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
3.4 Driving with a mandrel ....................................... 261
4 A l t e r n a t i v e i n s t a l l a t i o n m e t h o d s f o r d i s p l a c e m e n t piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
4.1 Pile j a c k i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
4.2 Pile s c r e w i n g w i t h s i m u l t a n e o u s p u s h i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
4.3 G r o u t e d s t e e l piles, M V - p i l e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
4.4 C o u p l e d piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
5 Jetting assistance ........................................... 266
6 Driving cap ............................................... 267
7 Piling machines ............................................ 269
8 Stresses during impact driving ................................. 273
8.1 Maximum compressive stresses ................................. 273
8.2 R e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n w a v e l e n g t h a n d pile l e n g t h f o r c o n c r e t e piles ..... 274
8.3 D r i v i n g t i m b e r piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
8.4 D r i v i n g s t e e l piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
9 S h e e t piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
9.1 Profiles .................................................. 277
9.2 S h e e t pile l o c k s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
9.3 Lock cleaning and lubrication .................................. 278
10 I m p a c t d r i v i n g o f piles - g e n e r a l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
11 I m p a c t d r i v i n g o f s h e e t piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
11.1 Successive installation ....................................... 279
11.2 Intermittent installation ...................................... 280
11.3 Concrete and timber sheet piling ............................... 281
11.4 C o m b i n e d s h e e t pile walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
12 Vibratory driving and extraction ................................ 283
12.1 Principle of vibratory driving .................................. 283
12.2 A d d i t i o n a l static pull d o w n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
12.3 Vibratory extraction ......................................... 285
12.4 Piling vibrators ............................................ 285
12.5 High frequency vibration ..................................... 286
12.6 Working procedure ......................................... 287
12.7 V i b r a t o r y d r i v i n g o f s h e e t piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
12.8 Influence on bearing capacity .................................. 288
13 A c c e s s i b i l i t y o f t h e w o r k i n g site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
14 Stone layers and underground obstacles .......................... 289
15 Foot sensors ............................................... 290
16 D r i v i n g a n d e x t r a c t i o n close t o a d j a c e n t s t r u c t u r e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
16.1 Consequences of driving ...................................... 290
16.2 Consequences of extraction ................................... 291
17 Driving under special circumstances ............................. 292
17.1 D r i v i n g in c a l c a r e o u s soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
17.2 D r i v i n g in, o r n e a r s l o p e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
17.3 Driving behind earth retaining structures ......................... 294
18 D y n a m i c q u a l i t y t e s t s o n piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
18.1 Integrity testing ............................................ 294
18.2 Dynamic load testing ........................................ 296
18.3 "Soft" dynamic load testing ................................... 297
19 Admissibility of vibration emission .............................. 299
Contents XIII

2.8 Foundations in open water

Jacob Gerrit de Gijt
1 General .................................................. 301
1.1 Appropriate planning documents ............................... 302
1.2 Load assumptions .......................................... 303
1.3 D e s i g n and c o n s t r u c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
2 E q u i p m e n t for c o n s t r u c t i o n w o r k at sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
2.1 The m o s t i m p o r t a n t pieces o f e q u i p m e n t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
2.2 Lifting island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
2.3 Dredgers ................................................. 309
2.4 P r o c e d u r e s for b r e a k i n g d o w n r o c k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
2.5 C a b l e - and pipe-layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
2.6 B l o c k layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
3 F o u n d a t i o n s in an o p e n e x c a v a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
4 F l o a t i n g structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
4.1 P r e p a r a t i o n of the b e d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
4.2 C o n s t r u c t i o n of the floating structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
4.3 Towage .................................................. 328
4.4 Setting d o w n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
4.5 Caissons as q u a y wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
4.6 Caissons for m o l e s and b r e a k w a t e r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
4.7 F l o a t i n g structures for lighthouses, o f f s h o r e p l a t f o r m s and s t o r a g e . . . . . . . 336
4.8 F l o a t i n g structures for tunnels u n d e r w a t e r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
5 Caisson f o u n d a t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
5.1 " A l t e W e s e r " l i g h t h o u s e (1960/63) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
5.2 " G r o B e r V o g e l s a n d " l i g h t h o u s e (1973/74) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
6 Piled f o u n d a t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
6.1 K t i h l b r a n d viaduct, H a m b u r g (1971-75) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
6.2 G o e r 6 e L i g h t h o u s e , T h e N e t h e r l a n d s (1971) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
6.3 D r i l l i n g p l a t f o r m , Cognac, U S A (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
6.4 Suction pile t e c h n o l o g y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
7 References ............................................... 362

2.9 Ground dewatering

Ulrich Smoltczyk
1 General code requirements ................................... 365
2 Basic a s s u m p t i o n s and solutions for d e w a t e r i n g s c h e m e analyses . . . . . . . . 366
3 M e t h o d s of d e w a t e r i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
3.1 D e w a t e r i n g by b o r e d wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
3.2 D e w a t e r i n g by o p e n d r a i n a g e or slit p u m p i n g (line s o u r c e ) . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
3.3 D e w a t e r i n g by e l e c t r o - o s m o s i s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
4 Field tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
4.1 General .................................................. 391
4.2 Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
5 Groundwater recharge ....................................... 396
5.1 S t e a d y state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
5.2 Initial t i m e - d e p e n d a n t state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
5.3 C a p a c i t y of a r e c h a r g e well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
5.4 I n t e r a c t i o n of r e c h a r g e wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
XIV Contents

5.5 I n t e r a c t i o n o f s u c t i o n a n d r e c h a r g e wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398

6 References ............................................... 398

2.10 Construction methods for cuttings and slopes in rock

Axel C. Toepfer
1 Introduction .............................................. 399
2 C u t t i n g s in r o c k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
2.1 M e c h a n i c a l l o o s e n i n g by r i p p i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
2.2 L o o s e n i n g by b l a s t i n g m e t h o d s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
3 C o n s t r u c t i o n m e t h o d for rock s l o p e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
3.1 M e c h a n i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n m e t h o d for t h e p r o d u c t i o n of r o c k s l o p e s . . . . . . . 418
3.2 Smooth blasting methods ..................................... 418
4 References ............................................... 427

2.11 Microtunnelling
Axel C Toepfer
1 Introduction .............................................. 429
2 T h e m i c r o t u n n e l l i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n m e t h o d for n o n - m a n - s i z e d e n t r y p i p e s . . 430
2.1 T h e c o m p o n e n t s of t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n m e t h o d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
2.2 D e s c r i p t i o n of soil a n d r o c k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
2.3 Pipe m a t e r i a l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
2.4 Microtunnelling system ...................................... 432
2.5 Driving and reception shaft ................................... 437
2.6 Construction sequence ....................................... 438
2.7 Further development ........................................ 440
3 References ............................................... 440

2.12 Earthworks
Hans-Henning Schmidt and Thomas Rumpelt
1 Introduction .............................................. 441
2 Standards, environmental legislation ............................. 441
3 Terms and definitions ........................................ 443
4 C o n s t r u c t i o n m a t e r i a l s , classifications a n d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v a l u e s . . . . . . . . . 444
4.1 Gerneral introduction ....................................... 444
4.2 Characteristic parameters ..................................... 445
5 Design of earthwork structures ................................. 448
5.1 Site i n v e s t i t g a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
5.2 Design calculations ......................................... 448
5.3 Standardised slope angles ..................................... 450
5.4 A s s e s s m e n t o f t h e stability of s l o p e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
5.5 D r a i n a g e m e a s u r e s for e a r t h w o r k s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
5.6 Landscape planning ......................................... 455
6 Earthwork processes/earthworks equipment ....................... 455
6.1 M a c h i n e s for digging, t r a n s p o r t i n g a n d p l a c i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
6.2 Loading with hydraulic excavators .............................. 458
6.3 I Iauling equipment ......................................... 461
6.4 E q u i p m e n t for p l a c i n g a n d s p r e a d i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
Contents XV

6.5 Compaction ............................................... 461

6.6 Special e q u i p m e n t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
7 P l a n n i n g a n d o r g a n i s a t i o n o f e a r t h w o r k s sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
7.1 Site s u r v e y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
7.2 Mass distribution ........................................... 465
7.3 Determination of performance ................................. 465
7.4 Methods excavating or borrowing of material ...................... 473
7.5 Methods of placement and compaction ........................... 475
7.6 Compaction techniques ...................................... 477
7.7 C o m p a c t i o n criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
8 Q u a l i t y a s s u r a n c e : tests, s p e c i f i c a t i o n s a n d o b s e r v a t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
8.1 General remarks ........................................... 479
8.2 Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
8.3 C o m p a c t i o n requirements for road construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
8.4 Testing m e t h o d s in r o a d c o n s t r u c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
8.5 C o m p a c t i o n c o n t r o l in rockfills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
8.6 Observational methods ...................................... 488
9 Soil t r e a t m e n t : soil i m p r o v e m e n t , s t a b i l i s a t i o n a n d c e m e n t a t i o n . . . . . . . . . 489
10 E x c a v a t i o n o f cuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
11 Dams and embankments ..................................... 490
12 Excavations and trenches ..................................... 492
12.1 Excavations ............................................... 492
12.2 Trenches ................................................. 493
12.3 Narrow trenches ........................................... 494
13 Backfills a n d fills c o v e r i n g s t r u c t u r e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
14 Sound protection embankments ................................ 495
15 S y n t h e t i c a n d clay liners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
16 Recultivation .............................................. 497
17 E m b a n k m e n t c o n s t r u c t i o n by m e a n s o f h y d r a u l i c fills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
17.1 General .................................................. 498
17.2 Hydraulic transport of sand-water mixtures (slurries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
17.3 Equipment ............................................... 500
17.4 S o m e operational details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
17.5 Sedimentation impoundment .................................. 501
17.6 Economical aspects ......................................... 502
18 References ............................................... 503

2.13 Geosynthetics in geotechnical and hydraulic engineering

Fokke Saathoff
1 General .................................................. 507
2 Basic p a r a m e t e r s and terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
2.1 Classification of geosynthetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
2.2 Geotextiles ............................................... 509
2.3 Geotextile-related products ................................... 512
2.4 Geomembranes ............................................ 513
2.5 Geomembrane-related products ................................ 514
2.6 Raw materials ............................................. 515
2.7 Functions ................................................ 515
2.8 R e f e r e n c e s to t h e e x e c u t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
XVI Contents

2.9 Test m e t h o d s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522

3 Fields of a p p l i c a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
3.1 Coastal protection .......................................... 523
3.2 Waterways engineering ...................................... 540
3.3 Small-scale h y d r a u l i c e n g i n e e r i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
3.4 Dam construction .......................................... 552
3.5 Landfill c o n s t r u c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
3.6 R o a d c o n s t r u c t i o n , railway Irack c o n s t r u c t i o n and t u n n e l l i n g . . . . . . . . . . . 569
4 N o t e s on t h e f o r m of c o n t r a c t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
4.1 Defivery terms ............................................. 592
4.2 Quality management ........................................ 592
4.3 A d v i c e on c o n l r a c t t e n d e r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
4.4 I n v o i c i n g and w a r r a n t i e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594
5 Summary ................................................. 594
6 References ............................................... 594

2.14 Slope protection by bioengineering techniques

Hugo Meinhard Schiechtl t
1 Inlroduction .............................................. 599
2 B i o e n g i n e e r i n g slope p r o t e c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
2.1 P r e l i m i n a r y w o r k s using inert m a t e r i a l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
2.2 Combined methods ......................................... 607
2.3 G r o u n d stabilizing t e c h n i q u e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627
2.4 Soil p r o t e c t i o n t e c h n i q u e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641
2.5 Supplementary construction techniques .......................... 654
3 R e q u i r e m e n t s for b i o e n g i n e e r i n g m a t e r i a l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662
3.1 General .................................................. 662
3.2 B i o t e c h n i c a l suitability of plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
3.3 M a t e r i a l s for g r o u n d stabilizing t e c h n i q u e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664
3.4 S e e d mixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665
4 E f f e c t i v e n e s s of b i o e n g i n e e r i n g s l o p e p r o t e c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665
4.1 Technical requirements ...................................... 665
4.2 Ecological requirements ...................................... 665
4.3 Effects in t e r m s of l a n d s c a p e a r c h i t e c t u r e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666
4.4 Economic requirements ...................................... 666
5 D e s i g n and e x e c u t i o n of b i o e n g i n e e r i n g w o r k s for slope p r o t e c t i o n . . . . . . 666
6 M a i n t e n a n c e of b i o e n g i n e e r i n g structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 668
7 References ............................................... 670

Subject index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671

Contents

3.1 Spread foundations

Ulrich Smoltczyk, Dieter Netzel, and Manfred Kany
1 Definitions ............................................ 1
2 Basis of design ......................................... 1
3 Footings .............................................. 3
3.1 General aspects of design .................................. 3
3.2 Geotechnical design ...................................... 13
3.3 Structural design ........................................ 39
4. Slab foundations ........................................ 46
4.1 General ............................................... 46
4.2 Vertical i n t e r a c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.3 Horizontal interaction, restraints .............................. 61
5 Mat foundations (tank foundations) ........................... 71
5.1 General ............................................... 71
5.2 Geotechnical verifications .................................. 72
5.3 Groundwater protection .................................... 75
6 Tension foundations ...................................... 76
7 References, standards and software ............................ 77
7.1 References ............................................. 77
7.2 Programmes and guidebooks ................................ 80
7.3 European codes (Status 2002) ............................... 81
7.4 G e r m a n s t a n d a r d s r e f e r e n c e d in this c h a p t e r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

3.2 Pile foundations

Hans-Georg Kempfert, Kurt Dieter Eigenbrod, and
Ulrich Smoltczyk (Section 8)
1 Introduction ............................................ 83
1.1 Applications ............................... ............ 83
1.2 Governing codes and safety concepts .......................... 83
1.3 P r e l i m i n a r y i n v e s t i g a t i o n s f o r pile f o u n d a t i o n s ................... 84
1.4 Terminology ........................................... 85
2 Pile t y p e s a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n m e t h o d s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
2.1 S e l e c t i o n o f a p p r o p r i a t e pile t y p e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
2.2 Quality assurance and control ............................... 88
2.3 Displacement piles ....................................... 89
2.4 Bored piles ............................................ 104
2.5 Micropiles ............................................. 109
2.6 M e a s u r e s to i n c r e a s e pile r e s i s t a n c e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
X Contents

3 A x i a l pile r e s i s t a n c e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
3.1 S i n g l e piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
3.2 C o m p r e s s i o n pile groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
3.3 Pile-raft f o u n d a t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
3.4 T e n s i o n pile g r o u p s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
4 Lateral pile r e s i s t a n c e and m o m e n t actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
4.1 S i n g l e piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
4.2 Lateral r e s i s t a n c e o f pile g r o u p s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
5 Soil action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
5.1 N e g a t i v e skin f r i c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
5.2 Lateral p r e s s u r e and b e n d i n g due to s e t t l e m e n t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
6 B e a r i n g c a p a c i t y and s e r v i c e a b i l i t y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
6.1 General ............................................... 173
6.2 Bearing capacity (ULS) ................................... 174
6.3 Calculation of serviceability ................................ 181
7 Testing o f piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
7.1 General ............................................... 184
7.2 Static axial l o a d tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
7.3 Static h o r i z o n t a l pile load tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
7.4 D y n a m i c pile testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
8 A n a l y s i s o f pile structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
8.1 General ............................................... 202
8.2 Piling s y s t e m s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
8.3 A n a l y s i s o f axially l o a d e d pile s y s t e m s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
8.4 S p e c i a l s i m p l e cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
8.5 D e v i a t i o n s f r o m initial a s s u m p t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
8.6 D e s i g n o f n o n - a x i a l l y l o a d e d pile f o u n d a t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
8.7 C h e c k for b u c k l i n g . . . . . . . . . . . ............................ 218
8.8 S h e e t pile w a l l as part o f a p i l e d f o u n d a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
8.9 E i g e n f r e q u e n c i e s o f a spatial p i l i n g s y s t e m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
8.10 Example .............................................. 220
9 References ............................................. 223

3.3 Caissons
Hans Lingenfelser
1 General ............................................... 229
1.1 Terms ................................................ 229
1.2 Typical features o f p n e u m a t i c c a i s s o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
1.3 T y p i c a l features o f o p e n c a i s s o n s (wells) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
1.4 Fields o f a p p l i c a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
2 Structural c o n c e p t and e q u i p m e n t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
2.1 General ............................................... 234
2.2 Construction materials .................................... 234
2.3 Caisson edges .......................................... 235
2.4 C a i s s o n w o r k i n g c h a m b e r and w o r k i n g c h a m b e r c e i l i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
2.5 O p e n caisson b o t t o m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
2.6 Caissons walls .......................................... 240
3 Construction of caissons ................................... 241
3.1 M a n u f a c t u r e on land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Contents X|

3.2 Construction in open water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242

3.3 Construction in a dock and floating in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
4 Sinking the caissons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
4.1 Soil excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
4.2 Control of sinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
4.3 Sinking tolerances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
4.4 Ballasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
5 Pneumatic installation and works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
5.1 Regulations g o v e r n in g pneumatic works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
5.2 Essential pneumatic equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
6 Caisson calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
6.2 Calculation of the lowering diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
6.3 Loads working on the caisson cutters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
6.4 Dimensioning for the lowering phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
7 Construction examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271

3.4 Stability of excavations

Anton Weissenbach, Achim Hettler, and Brian Simpson
l Construction measures for the stability of excavations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
1.1 Unlined excavations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
1.2 Timbered trenches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
1.3 Sheet pile walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
1.4 Soldier pile walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
1.5 Solid walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
1.6 Support by bracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
2 Basic design assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
2.1 Soil properties, loads and general rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
2.2 A c t i v e earth pressure for cantilever walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
2.3 Active earth pressure for walls supported by props and anchors . . . . . . . . 293
2.4 Active earth pressure from surcharges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
2.5 Earth pressure under backfill conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
2.6 Passive earth pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
3 Calculation procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
3.1 Walls with fixed earth support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
3.2 Walls with free earth support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
3.3 Multiple supported walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
3.4 Calculation using subgrade reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
3.5 Numerical analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
3.6 Equilibrium of vertical forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
3.7 Determination of the vertical c o m p o n e n t o f the earth resistance . . . . . . . . 333
3.8 Equilibrium of horizontal forces in soldier pile walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
3.9 H eav e of the excavation bottom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
4 Safety concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
4.1 British design approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
4.2 G e r m a n design approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
4.3 General regulations in EC 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
4.4 Design Approach 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
XII Contents

4.5 Design Approach 2 ....................................... 357

5 Special constructions ..................................... 361
5.1 Anchored walls ......................................... 361
5.2 Excavation walls supported by raking props ..................... 364
5.3 Large excavations ....................................... 365
5.4 S o m e f e a t u r e s r e l a t e d to s p e c i f i c s h a p e s o f e x c a v a t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
5.5 Excavation with asymmetric cross sections ...................... 374
5.6 E x c a v a t i o n w a l l s a d j a c e n t to e x i s t i n g b u i l d i n g s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
5.7 Excavations under water ................................... 382
5.8 E x c a v a t i o n s in j o i n t e d , u n s t a b l e r o c k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
5.9 E x c a v a t i o n s in soft soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
6 Calculation examples ..................................... 397
6.1 Problem .............................................. 397
6.2 German design approach ................................... 398
6.3 E u r o c o d e 7: D e s i g n A p p r o a c h 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
7 References ............................................. 404

3.5 Bored pile walls, diaphragm walls, cut-off walls

Manfred Stocker and Bernhard Walz
1 B o r e d pile w a l l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
1.1 Field of application ...................................... 409
1.2 Advantages ............................................ 410
1.3 Disadvantages .......................................... 411
1.4 Standards and references ................................... 411
1.5 Purpose and wall types .................................... 411
1.6 Construction ........................................... 412
1.7 Quality assurance ........................................ 414
2 Diaphragm walls ........................................ 414
2.1 Field of application ...................................... 414
2.2 Advantages ............................................ 415
2.3 Disadvantages .......................................... 415
2.4 Standards and references ................................... 416
2.5 Purpose ............................................... 416
2.6 Wall types ............................................. 416
2.7 Construction ........................................... 421
2.8 Construction materials .................................... 425
2.9 Characteristics .......................................... 426
2.10 Quality assurance ........................................ 427
3 Thin cut-off walls ........................................ 428
3.1 Field of application ...................................... 428
3.2 Advantages ............................................ 429
3.3 Disadvantages .......................................... 429
3.4 Standards and references ................................... 429
3.5 Purpose and types of wall .................................. 429
3.6 Construction of a vibrated thin cut-off wall or vibwall .............. 430
3.7 Construction materials .................................... 433
3.8 Characteristics .......................................... 434
3.9 Quality assurance ........................................ 434
4 Stabilizing of earth walls using fluids .......................... 435
Contents XIII

4.1 Supporting fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435

4.2 Fluid supporting force and stability determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
4.3 Mechanisms for transferring the fluid pressure difference
onto the grain skeleton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
4.4 Proof of the ,,internal" stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
4.5 Proof of the ,,external" stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
4.6 Structural facilities close to suspension stabilized earth walls . . . . . . . . . 446
5 Standards and recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
5.1 Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
5.2 Recommendations ....................................... 448
6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448

3.6 Sheet pile walls for harbours and waterways

Boleslav Mazurkiewicz
1 Sheet pile wall structures, their performance and field o f application . . . . 451
1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
1.2 Application purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
1.3 Usability of different construction materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
2 Regulations concerning sheet pile walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
2.1 Sheet pile wall structures, EN 12063/1999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
2.2 R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s o f the C o m m i t t e e for Waterfront Structures,
Harbours and Waterways, E A U 1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
2.3 Eurocode 3: Design o f steel structures - Part 5: Piling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
2.4 Other recommendations and handbooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
3 Sheet pile types, profiles and anchoring parts, quality and steel grades . . . 454
3.1 Steel sheet pile walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
4 Basic design of sheet pile walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
4.1 Safety concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
4.2 Actions and resistances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
4.3 L o a d cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
4.4 Ultimate limit state design of sheet pile wall structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
5 Calculation methods for sheet pile walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
5.1 Calculation o f a single-anchored sheet pile wall according to B l u m . . . . . 461
5.2 Special cases o f sheet pile wall calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
5.3 Calculation principles for c o m b i n e d steel sheet pile walls . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
5.4 Calculation principles o f sheet pile cofferdams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
6 Calculation o f a sheet pile wall anchorage and its fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
6.1 Verification o f stability o f an anchorage at a lower failure plane
and of safety against failure o f the anchoring soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
6.2 Calculation and sizing of anchor walls and anchor plates . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
6.3 Calculation and sizing of anchors and hinges, walings and capping
beams m a d e o f steel and reinforced concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
6.4 Calculation and sizing of anchor piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
6.5 Calculation and sizing of hinged and fixed supports for a quay wall
superstructure on steel sheet pile walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
7 Further structural remarks and r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
7.1 Estimation o f sheet pile wall driving depth and selection o f its profile
and material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
7.2 Steel sheet pile walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
XIV Contents

8 C o n s t r u c t i o n o f w a t e r f r o n t s t r u c t u r e s m a d e o f steel s h e e t p i l e s . . . . . . . . 494
8.1 General ............................................... 494
8.2 Construction of new waterfront structures ....................... 494
8.3 Protection and deepening of existing waterfront structures ........... 501
9 Corrosion and corrosion protection ............................ 506
9.1 General considerations .................................... 506
9.2 E x p e c t e d c o r r o s i o n o f steel s h e e t p i l e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
9.3 C o r r o s i o n p r o t e c t i o n o f steel s h e e t p i l e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
10 References ............................................. 509
10.1 Books and papers ........................................ 509
10.2 Standards ............................................. 510

3.7 Gravity retaining walls

Ulrich Smoltczyk
1 Introduction ............................................ 511
2 General design considerations ............................... 513
3 Gravity wall ........................................... 514
4 Cantilever wall ......................................... 515
5 Drainage .............................................. 516
References ............................................. 518

3.8 Machine foundations

Giinter Klein and Dietrich Klein
1 Overview ............................................. 519
1.1 Classification of machine foundations .......................... 519
1.2 Requirements for machine foundations ......................... 519
2 Loads on machine foundations ............................... 521
2.1 Static loads ............................................ 521
2.2 Periodic loads .......................................... 522
2.3 Transient loads .......................................... 525
2.4 Random loads .......................................... 530
3 Analysis and design of machine foundations ..................... 532
3.1 Types of supports ........................................ 532
3.2 Rigid foundations ........................................ 536
3.3 Elastic foundations ....................................... 539
3.4 Spring foundations ....................................... 545
3.5 Design recommendations ................................... 546
4 Examples ............................................. 547
4.1 Hammer foundation ...................................... 547
4.2 R e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e b o x f o u n d a t i o n f o r a 100 M W s t e a m
t u r b i n e - g e n e r a t o r set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
5 References ............................................. 557
5.1 Standards ............................................. 557
5.2 Books and Papers ........................................ 557
Contents XV

3.9 Foundations in mining regions

Dietmar Placzek
1 General remarks on mining-induced effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
2 Ground m o v e m e n t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
2.1 Ground m o v e m e n t s above deep mine workings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
2.2 Ground m o v e m e n t s above shallow and near-surface mine workings . . . . . 563
3 Influence of ground m o v e m e n t s on the foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
3.1 Influence of equal vertical subsidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
3.2 Influence o f tilt - differential vertical subsidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
3.3 Influence of curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
3.4 Influence o f strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
3.5 Influence o f ground m o v e m e n t s above near-surface m i n e workings . . . . . 567
3.6 Influence o f discontinuous ground m o v e m e n t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
4 Preventive measures in areas with deep mine workings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
4.1 Types o f preventive measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
4.2 Basic considerations on layout and design of surface structures . . . . . . . . 569
4.3 Bearing capacity and functionality o f a structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
4.4 Provisions for tilt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
4.5 Provisions for curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
4.6 Provisions for extensional strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
4.7 Provisions for compressive strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
4.8 Provisions for discontinuous ground m o v e m e n t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
5 Preventive measures in areas with near-surface mine workings . . . . . . . . 579
5.1 Types of preventive measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
5.2 Preventive measures for structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580
5.3 Stabilisation o f the ground by injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
6 Preventive measures for tunnels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
6.1 General remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
6.2 Options for preventive measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
7 Upgrading of existing structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
7.1 Preliminary remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
7.2 Provisions for equal vertical subsidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
7.3 Provisions for differential vertical subsidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
7.4 Provisions for horizontal ground m o v e m e n t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589

3.10 Watertight buildings and structures

Alfred Haack and Karl-Friedrich Emig
1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
2 General aspects of design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
2.1 Geotechnical and structural influences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
2.2 Serviceability provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
3 Selection and applicability of materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
4 Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
4.1 Bonded layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
4.2 P o l y m e r e modified bitumen c o m p o u n d for bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
4.3 Loose plastic sheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
4.4 Steel board sealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
XVI Contents

4.5 Watertight concrete structures (,,white tub") . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508

4.6 Special design considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
5 Design provisions codified in DIN 18195 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
6 Structural factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
6.1 Watertight systems according to German Code 18 195 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
6.2 Joint seals in watertight concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
7 Supervision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
8.2 German recommendations and guidelines (examples) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
8.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546

Subject index .............................................. 639